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Declaration of Principles on Tolerance
Proclaimed and signed by the Member States of UNESCO on 16 November
1995.

The Member States of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization, meeting in Paris at the twenty-eighth session of the General
Conference, from 25 October to 16 November 1995,

Preamble
Bearing in mind that the United Nations Charter states: 'We, the peoples of the
United Nations determined to save succeeding generations from the scourge of
war, ... to reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of
the human person, ... and for these ends to practise tolerance and live together
in peace with one another as good neighbours',
Recalling that the Preamble to the Constitution of UNESCO, adopted on 16
November 1945, states that 'peace, if it is not to fail, must be founded on the
intellectual and moral solidarity of mankind',
Recalling also that the Universal Declaration of Human Rights affirms that
'Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion' (Article
18), 'of opinion and expression' (Article 19), and that education 'should promote
understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious
groups' (Article 26),

Noting relevant international instruments including:
•

the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights,

•

the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights,

•

the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination,

.

the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide,

•

the Convention on the Rights of the Child.

•

the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967
Protocol and regional instruments.

•

the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against
Women,

•

the Convention against Torture and other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading
Treatment or Punishment,

.

the Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance Based on
Religion or Belief,

•

the Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic,
Religious and Linguistic Minorities,

•

the Declaration on Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism,

•

the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action of the World Conference
on Human Rights,

•

the Copenhagen Declaration and Programme of Action adopted by the
World Summit for Social Development,

•

the UNESCO Declaration on Race and Racial Prejudice,

•

the UNESCO Convention and Recommendation against Discrimination in
Education,

Bearing in mind the objectives of the Third Decade to Combat Racism and Racial
Discrimination, the World Decade for Human Rights Education, and the
International Decade of the World's Indigenous People,
Taking into consideration the recommendations of regional conferences
organized in the framework of the United Nations Year for Tolerance in
accordance with UNESCO General Conference 27 C/Resolution 5.14, as well as
the conclusions and recommendations of other conferences and meetings
organized by Member States within the programme of the United Nations Year
for Tolerance,
Alarmed by the current rise in acts of intolerance, violence, terrorism,
xenophobia,
aggressive nationalism, racism, anti-Semitism, exclusion,
marginalization and discrimination directed against national, ethnic, religious and
linguistic minorities, refugees, migrant workers, immigrants and vulnerable
groups within societies, as well as acts of violence and intimidation committed
against individuals exercising their freedom of opinion and expression - all of
which threaten the consolidation of peace and democracy, both nationally and
internationally, and are obstacles to development.
Emphasizing the responsibilities of Member States to develop and encourage
'respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms for all. without distinction as
to race, gender, language, national origin, religion or disability, and to combat
intolerance.
Adopt and solemnly proclaim this Declaration of Principles on Tolerance

Resolving to take all positive measures necessary to promote tolerance in our
societies, because tolerance is not only a cherished principle, but also a
necessity for peace and for the economic and socia; advancement of all peoples.

We declare the following:

Article 1

- Meaning of tolerance

1.1
Tolerance is respect, acceptance and appreciation of the rich diversity of our
world’s cultures, our forms of expression and ways of being human. It is fostered
by knowledge, openness, communication, and freedom of thought, conscience
and belief. Tolerance is harmony in difference. It is not only a moral duty, it is
also a political and legal requirement. Tolerance, the virtue that makes peace
possible, contributes to the replacement of the culture of war by a culture of
peace.
1.2
Tolerance is not concession, condescension or indulgence. Tolerance is,
above all, an active attitude prompted by recognition of the universal human
rights and fundamental freedoms of others. In no circumstance can it be used to
justify infringements of these fundamental values. Tolerance is to be exercised
by individuals, groups and States.
1.3
Tolerance is the responsibility that upholds human rights, pluralism (including
cultural pluralism), democracy and the rule of law. It involves the rejection of
dogmatism and absolutism and affirms the standards set out in international
human rights instruments.
1.4
Consistent with respect for human rights, the practice of tolerance does not
mean toleration of social injustice or the abandonment or weakening of one's
convictions. It means that one is free to adhere to one’s own convictions and
accepts that others adhere to theirs. It means accepting the fact that human
beings, naturally diverse in their appearance, situation, speech, behaviour and
values, have the right to live in peace and to be as they are. It also means that
one's views are not to be imposed on others.

Article 2

- State level

2.1
Tolerance at the State level requires just and impartial legislation, law
enforcement and judicial and administrative process. It also requires that
economic and social opportunities be made available to each person without any
discrimination. Exclusion and marginalization can lead to frustration, hostility and
fanaticism.
2.2
In order to achieve a more tolerant society, States should ratify existing
international human rights conventions, and draft new legislation where
necessary to ensure equality of treatment and of opportunity for all groups and
individuals in society.
2.3
It is essential for international harmony that individuals, communities and
nations accept and respect the multicultural character of the human family.
Without tolerance there can be no peace, and without peace there can be no
development or democracy.
2.4
Intolerance may take the form of marginalization of vulnerable groups and
their exclusion from social and political participation, as well as violence and

discrimination against them. As confirmed in the Declaration on Race and Racial
Prejudice, ‘All individuals and groups have the right to be different' (Article 1.2).

Article 3

- Social dimensions

3.1
In the modern world, tolerance is more essential than ever before. It is an age
marked by the globalization of the economy and by rapidly increasing mobility,
communication, integration and interdependence, large-scale migrations and
displacement of populations, urbanization and changing social patterns. Since
every part of the world is characterized by diversity, escalating intolerance and
strife potentially menaces every region. It is not confined to any country, but is a
global threat.
3.2
Tolerance is necessary between individuals and at the family and community
levels. Tolerance promotion and the shaping of attitudes of openness, mutual
listening and solidarity should take place in schools and universities and through
non-formal education, at home and in the workplace. The communication media
are in a position to play a constructive role in facilitating free and open dialogue
and discussion, disseminating the values of tolerance, and highlighting the
dangers of indifference towards the rise in intolerant groups and ideologies.
3.3
As affirmed by the UNESCO Declaration on Race and Racial Prejudice,
measures must be taken to ensure equality in dignity and rights for individuals
and groups wherever necessary. In this respect, particular attention should be
paid to vulnerable groups which are socially or economically disadvantaged so
as to afford them the protection of the laws and social measures in force, in
particular with regard to housing, employment and health, to respect the
authenticity of their culture and values, and to facilitate their social and
occupational advancement and integration, especially through education.
3.4
Appropriate scientific studies and networking should be undertaken to co
ordinate the international community's response to this global challenge,
including analysis by the social sciences of root causes and effective
countermeasures, as well as research and monitoring in support of policy-making
and standard-setting action by Member States.

Article 4

- Education

4.1 Education is the most effective means of preventing intolerance. The first
step in tolerance education is to teach people what their shared rights and
freedoms are, so that they may be respected, and to promote the will to protect
those of others.
4.2
Education for tolerance should be considered an urgent imperative; that is
why it is necessary to promote systematic and rational tolerance teaching
methods that will address the cultural, social, economic, political and religious
sources of intolerance - major roots of violence and exclusion. Education policies
and programmes should contribute to development of understanding, solidarity
and tolerance among individuals as well as among ethnic, social, cultural,
religious and linguistic groups and nations.

4.3
Education for tolerance should aim at countering influences that lead to fear
and exclusion of others, and should help young people to develop capacities for
independent judgement, critical thinking and ethical reasoning.
4.4
We pledge to support and implement programmes of social science research
and education for tolerance, human fights and non-violence. This means
devoting special attention to improving teacher training, curricula, the content of
textbooks and lessons, and other educational materials including new
educational technologies, with a view to educating caring and responsible
citizens open to other cultures, able to appreciate the value of freedom,
respectful of human dignity and differences, and able to prevent conflicts or
resolve them by non-violent means.

Article 5

- Commitment to action

We commit ourselvei to promoting tolerance and non-violence through
programmes and institutions in the fields of education, science, culture and
communication.

Article 6

- International Day for Tolerance

In order to generate public awareness, emphasize the dangers of intolerance and
react with renewed commitment and action in support of tolerance promotion and
education, we solemnly proclaim 16 November the annual International Day for
Tolerance

International Decade for a Culture of Peace and Npn-viblerice
for the Children of the World (2001-2010)
.
J

Today more than ever...

We need to reinforce our efforts to build collectively and at all.levels a
Culture of Peace, one of the greatest challenges being to better
dialogue, understand and share between and among cultures and
L.
civilizations.
.
' •

1 ^7 7/’ />■'[. ’

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. -7. /.
. ”

...a global movement for a culture of peace

, . -

Year. 2000 was a starting point for a major mobilization as it was the
International Year for the Culture of Peace. On this special occasion, a
global movement for a culture of peace was initiated by the United
•Nations to create a• •' grand alliance" of existing movements that
’/ unites all [those already working for a culture of peace in fits:eight
•domains Hof action. This movement is now growing with-the
International Decade for a Culture of Peace and Non-violence for the
Children of the World (2001-2010)
As Focal Point for the International Year for the Culture of Peace and
lead agency for the Decade, UNESCO developed an interactive website
(www.unesco.org/cp) allowing the actors of the movement to promote
their initiatives and to exchange information and resources between
each other for a better interaction. More than 75 million individuals
and thousands of local, national and international organizations
representing more than 160 countries are already part of it

HOW CAN INTOLERANCE BE COUNTERED?

1.

Fighting intolerance requires law:

Each Government is responsible for enforcing human rights laws, for banning
and punishing hate crimes and discrimination against minorities, whether these
are committed by State officials, private organizations or individuals. The State
must also ensure equal access to courts, human rights commissioners or
ombudsmen, so that people do not take justice into their own hands and resort
to violence to settle their disputes.

2.

Fighting intolerance requires education:

Laws are necessary but not sufficient for countering intolerance in individual
attitudes. Intolerance is very often rooted in ignorance and fear: fear of the
unknown, of the other, other cultures, nations, religions. Intolerance is also
closely linked to an exaggerated sense of self-worth and pride, whether personal,
national or religious. These notions are taught and learned at an early age.
Therefore, greater emphasis needs to be placed on educating more and better.
Greater efforts need to be made to teach children about tolerance and human
rights, about other ways of life. Children should be encouraged at home and in
school to be open-minded and curious.
Education is a life-long experience and does not begin or end in school.
Endeavours to build tolerance through education will not succeed unless they
reach all age groups, and take place everywhere: at home, in schools, in the
workplace, in law-enforcement and legal training, and not least in entertainment
and on the information highways.
3.

Fighting intolerance requires access to information:

Intolerance is most dangerous when it is exploited to fulfil the political and
territorial ambitions of an individual or groups of individuals. Hatemongers often
begin by identifying the public’s tolerance threshold. They then develop fallacious
arguments, lie with statistics and manipulate public opinion with misinformation
and prejudice. The most efficient way to limit the influence of hatemongers is to
develop policies that generate and promote press freedom and press pluralism,
in order to allow the public to differentiate between facts and opinions.

4.

Fighting intolerance requires individual awareness:

Intolerance in a society is the sum-total of the intolerance of its individual
members. Bigotry, stereotyping, stigmatizing, insults and racial jokes are
examples of individual expressions of intolerance to which some people are
subjected daily. Intolerance breeds intolerance. It leaves its victims in pursuit of
revenge. In order to fight intolerance individuals should become aware of the
link between their behavior and the vicious cycle of mistrust and violence in
society. Each one of us should begin by asking: am I a tolerant person? Do I
stereotype people? Do I reject those who are different from me? Do I blame my
problems on'them'?
.
- •

5.

Fighting intolerance requires local solutions:

Many people know that tomorrow's problems will be increasingly global but few
realize that solutions to global problems are mainly local, even.individual. When
confronted with an escalation of intolerance around us, we must not wait for
governments and institutions to act alone. We are all part of the solution. We
should not feel powerless for we actually posses an enormous capacity to wield
power. Nonviolent action is a way of using that power-the power of people. The
tools of nonviolent action-putting a group together to confront a problem, to
organize a grassroots network, to demonstrate solidarity with victims of
intolerance, to discredit hateful propaganda-are available to all those who want
to put an end to intolerance, violence and hatred.

Q

mosaic
Movement of South Actors for Intercultural Coexistence
Mosaic Charter Trust India Secretariat, A/64. Gulmohar Park, New Delhi 110 049
Telefax: -f-91-11-24326025; Telephone: +91-11-24310959; +91-11-26516276
E-Mail: info@justpax.org

Membership Form
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and mandate, to work for respect for diversity and people-centred development, the equal worth of all
cultures, the principle of sovereignty and internationalism above globalism, the right of all peoples and
nations to honourable co-existence, interfaith and intercultural dialogue, and the integrity of Creation
- and to build solidarity and unified action for this cause.

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| The Mosaic Charter Trust

|

Mosaic: an inlaid work composed of bits of stone, glass, gems, wood, forming a

whole.

The Mosaic concept is not new. Like the ancient art, reality does consist of a host

of diverse elements or pieces coexisting. There may be a conscious design to

the way they hold together, and this is sometimes visible, but not always. This
depends on the artists ' and on those who see. Many old mosaics tell a story,
just as paintings and tapestries do, some merely give expression to a creative

vision. All mosaics need all their little pieces, and none is complete if even a

single piece is displaced. The best mosaics are those in which a diversity of
pieces have been laid together, each distinct and bringing its own character to

the whole, every one adding its own unique colour and shape. The pieces are not

necessarily of a uniform size and shape; it is all the more marvelous that they fit
together.

And for all the difference and variety of its constituent parts, the

mosaic in its entirety hangs together as one composite entity.
The most compelling mosaics are the ones that have no obvious pictorial design

and no central motif, the ones which look as if the pieces coalesced of their own
accord, each finding its true space and establishing itself in it. In such a mosaic, no

piece dominates another, no piece disturbs another. There is cohesion in such a
layout of internal coexisting, a logical connecting. There is no encroachment
there is no need of it. There is room for every piece; and the pieces together are
the shared common space.

So too, is our world. A shared space, a common ground. A place with room for
every one of us ' nations, communities, races, cultures, ages, big and small, strong
and frail, female and male. An apparently abstract mosaic. At its best, a wonderful

creation. At its worst, a collection of fragments, relationships broken, coherence

lost, disintegrated.

A broken mosaic can be put together again, a missing piece can be replaced. Of

course there is a difference between the mosaic of ‘before,’ lovingly created to form

an integrated whole, and the mosaic of 'after,’ recreated, reintegrated, de

segregated. But if the reintegration is also effected with love, and with a conviction

that the pieces do belong together, the restoration can indeed rediscover what was
lost in the breaking, and again express wholeness.
Out of contemplation of the Mosaic emerges an image of the makers of mosaics.

A Mosaic is made with the understanding that reality is not all blue, or all flat, or

all triangular, or all the same everywhere. It call for a conscious seeking out of
variety, diversity, difference, because the total picture needs just that. The means
discarding the second blue piece in favour of a green one, the second square bit
in favour of an octagonal one.

In the making of a mosaic of stones, it is the artist who ensures the cohesion and
the completeness, in the making of a world, and in sustaining its wholeness, it is
nations and peoples who must take this responsibility.
As with the mosaic, this can only be done if it is based on respect for diversity '

and more than that, on choosing diversity. In one sense, ttiis choosing is no more
than recognising that the enormous diversity of our world, our planet, is not an

accident but intrinsic to its very character. Therefore diversity is not something to
be ‘corrected;’ it is to be honoured and upheld.

An element of the mosaic concept is inter-relation, even inter-dependence. A
mosaic world cannot conform to the dictates of uniformity, it cannot be globalised
what it is, is international, inter-cultural, inter-racial, inter-faith, inter-

generational, gender balanced.

A critical characteristic of the abstract mosaic is the equal worth of all its pieces
or parts.

The principles of constancy and consistency operate in a mosaic. If a piece
mysteriously begins to grow beyond its space, or if an attempt is made to force a

piece of immoderate size into a moderate space ' it can only be accommodated

if other pieces are cut down to a smaller size, or even removed. But is this what

should be done? It would militate against the basic concept of the created whole.
The gigantism threatens the mosaic. It can shatter the whole entity.
The question arises; which piece is the misfit? Who should give way?

If we subscribe to the concept of the world, or world society, as a mosaic whose
richness lies in its inter-dependent, cohesive diversity, we have to recognise the

value of having a 'mosaic mindset’ with which to address our problems and
concerns. Recognising this, we can derive guidance for the way we operate in

the world, and for engaging with the forces presently pushing towards a

monotone monoculture.
What is clear is that if the world mosaic deserves to retain its essential noncentric, plural and diverse character, it must be defended.

The world may be the big Planet Earth, or the little one of the neighbourhood; no
matter what the level, scope and radius one assigns the term, it is fragmenting

today because it is beset by cases of gigantism.
To be on Tolstoy’s question: what then must we do? Moving forward from these

insights, the idea of a charter takes shape.

The charter
The Mosaic Charter Initiative seeks to bring together those who subscribe

to the inter-national, inter-anything principle rather than the global one,
those who do not accept that we must all fall into a melting pot and be

transmuted in such a way that differences are burnt away and only a
clone can survive the heat and be fished out to live on. The charter does

not' cannot' tolerate intolerance. It upholds the right to be different and
the celebrates diversity. It rests on a belief in love and an aspiration to
reverence

The Charter must find active expression in thought, word and deed:

♦

Don’t tolerate intolerance

«

Actively engage in working for respect and love promote and uphold

the principle of dialogue between and among nations communities,
ideologies, seek alternative models to the formula of globalization.

o

Constructive choosing consciously to work for different and diverse

♦

Set an example through our own conduct and expression

«

Respect the earth conserve and protect natural resources and uphold

points of view to be heard.

the people’s right to manage and control their own resources
♦

Practice non violence

♦

Speak out against Intolerance

«

Uphold and celebrate respect for diversity in work and died.

Uphold the human rights of children every where and accord them
respect as citizens.

Understand and respect other cultures, ideologies, learn about them.
Actively seek to engage with situations of intolerance, do not be a

bystander.
Spread respect land lore for diversity, human dignity and the equal

worth of all people.
In situations of dispute. Aim at genuine reconciliation rather than
compromise

Work for justice as the foundation for peace and development

Oppose military imperialism and the use of military force to settle
differences
Work for conflict resolution through dialogue, not war

Promote, develop and provide ethics education to establish respect
for diversity.

Seek alternative models to the formula of globalisation.

In Search of a Plural Ethic
A citizens' dialogue on respect for diversity
Saturday, 16th November 2002

WORKING TEXT FOR DISCUSSION
Once a year, a day is marked for tolerance. The date falls about two months
after the annual international day dedicated to peace.
The two days stand as an irony in today’s world. At home in India, hostility and
polarisation threaten the national fabric, and suspicion stalks our borders with
neighbours. Our visions are losing ground to squabbling. Abroad, in the uneasy
interregnum between the Day for Peace and the Day for Tolerance, the UN
Security Council is being pressured to approve of a punitive war. Where are
peace and tolerance?
Diversity is not an accident; it is the natural order of being. Why do we keep
trying to ‘correct’ if, to fit everything into a single mould?
The concepts of diversity and difference and variety relate to many things:
individual characteristics and personal choices, cultures, ideologies, issues of
development and justice. Where are the sites of intolerance? It is there that we
need to seek the potential for sites of respect. If we seek a Plural Ethic - to
rediscover a code for our times - whal is the way forward, personally, locally,
nationally, internationally?
Aims of the Day:

UNESCO documents on the issue of tolerance ask and answer the question
‘how can intolerance be countered?’ : stating that it requires law, education,
access to information, individual awareness, local solutions. The news channels
of the day tell us that it also requires collective action and constructive public
protest. In the setting of the UN - the only valid world forum for
intergovernmental discourse, debate and decision-making, however faulty -- it
requires the restoration of genuine democracy among nations. At home - in
country, province and community, and in the settings of local culture -we are
similarly challenged to accord to others the same kind of space and status as

we desire for ourselves. How con any of these requirements be met?

A Baha'i text speaks of development as a process of learning to apply
I principles to our lives, and refers
to what the 'outcome' of education should be: individuals with a new vision
| and a new heart - and
I new skills to apply right principles to their daily life.

What kind of principles - grounded in what kind of insights and what
understanding of human worth and social justice?
If we recognise the essential plurality of our world and world society as good.
our principles must uphold plurality and diversity, and be capable of guiding us
to celebrate the technicolour character of the world. What is the ethic of this
pluralist perception?
This dialogue meeting seeks to raise these questions and to explore the
potential for positive .thought, egalitarian belief, and constructive action.
In examining the UNESCO resolution on respect for cultural diversity, and in
introducing the Mosaic Charter, the Global Network of Religions for Children
and its initiative for Global Ethics Education, the mandate of the Alliance for a
Responsible, Plural and United World, and the opportunity of the World Social
Forum process, the convenors of this meeting offer some doors that could lead
to collective action.
Will a few hours discussion change the world ? It has been known to happen.
Every invitation to talk together holds the seed of a possibility of thinking
together, by learning both to listen and to share. This day's meeting is such an
invitation. We know there is much to change in this world. We cannot hope to
change all of if. But we can hope to be positive agents, however small our
reach. If dispute and distance are born in the minds of people, it is in those very
minds that the bridges of unity and reconciliation are built.
It is not only between and among people and nations that the need for bridges I
is manifest: it is equally between human beings and the planet. Where do we
find respect for life, for all living things? Where do we find the wisdom to
conserve and coexist, and to correct and control mindless exploitation of
Nature’s riches?
The only thing we cannot afford to do is nothing.
The UNESCO Resolution on respect for cultural diversity is notable nol only for its

substance but for its timing. It was adopted after the 11lh September 2001
attacks that were to polarise world opinion. The statement of UNESCO's
director-general on the adoption reflects this reality.
How effective, how influential, has the resolution been in the year since its
passage?

Current Climate and Concerns:
The world is caught in a chapter of insecurity, tension, suspicion, hostility and
outright strife. It is no use simply saying we are in ‘Kai Yug,' and throwing up our
hands in helplessness. We have to survive this chapter, and we cannot do that
by closing our eyes.
What are the sites of intolerance, of disrespect, of division? What must we learn
to respect?

The list extends well beyond race, politics, overt culture. Are the livelihoods of
the poor secure? They are not. Are the resources and marvelous balances of
the natural world safe ? They are not. Is the hole in the ozone layer our business
? It is. Do we have too many double standards ? We do. Has the time come
to stop compromising, and feeling powerless, and ‘letting things happen ? '

What could be a plural ethic? In posing this question, the international Alliance
for a Responsible, Plural and United World brings ordinary people like ourselves
to the exploration of its very name. If 'the world, at any level and scale, can
hope to be united, must we not first have the courage to take responsibility,
and must we not first discover and spell out who! we mean by plural ?
The World Social Forum vision and process questions a uniform,
unaccommodating, disrespectful single world order as not only undesirable,
but also not inevitable. The process seeks alternative models. Pluralism - and its
attendant respect and tolerance - demands the search for such other models.
Tolerance cannot be only on the terms of the tolerators: it must acknowledge
the equal worth of the ‘other.’ This applies to people; it could also apply to
systems, ideologies, ways of life.

The Mosaic Charter upholds this argument, and calls for conscious action to
build and support a world shared on the principle of equal worth and the
celebration of diversity. It works for conscious engagement with the challenges
of intolerance.The Charter will gain currency as people decide to join in
supporting and building its mandate.
| The Global Ethics Education initiative of me Globe! Network of Religions for

Children proposes on effort to bring the cultivation of right thought and action
consciously into the education of children. This obviously makes us mindful of
the need for adults as educators to examine what kind of role models they are,
i and what code of ethics - how narrow, how morally sound - will be
i propagated. The ethics education initiative invites our attention and
I involvement. Equally, it invites honest enquiry into the ethos it will
i communicate.

The SAARC nations have not chalked up a very impressive chronicle of
achievement to date. Presently, there is an effort and an opportunity for
citizens, thinkers, scholars, NGOs and institutions to formulate a SAARC Citizens'
Social Charter for the seven countries of the body. Can this be an expression of
a plural ethic for the region?
Problems and risks abound - but so do opportunities.

The only thing we cannot afford to do is nothing.

Ten Ideas for Observing the International Day for
Tolerance
16 November

These guidelines are intended to stimulate creative thinking in municipalities and
parliaments, schools and universities, clubs and associations, work places, non
governmental organisations, and the media in Member States of every region,
toward the observance of the annual International Day for Tolerance on 16
November.
At the initiative of UNESCO, 1995 was declared the United Nations Year for
Tolerance, and it saw the launching of a world-wide campaign for tolerance and.
non-violence. The International Day for Tolerance grew out of the momentum of
that Year.

Building tolerance and trust in diverse communities is not done overnight, but
takes time and commitment. Building tolerance requires access to education.
Intolerance is often rooted in ignorance and fear: fear of the unknown, of the
"other", other cultures, religions and nations. Intolerance is also closely linked to
an exaggerated sense of self-worth and pride: notions taught and learned at an
early age. Therefore in coming years, we need to place greater emphasis on
educating children about tolerance, human rights and fundamental freedoms.
But we should not forget that education does not end jn school, that adults firstly as individuals capable of committing acts of intolerance but more
importantly in their capacity as parents, law-makers and law-enforcement officials
- also need to be considered a priority target of our educational efforts.

An International Day for Tolerance can serve as an annual occasion for tolerance
education as well as for wider social and political reflection and debate on local
and global problems of intolerance. It is a moment to take stock of the progress
made during the year and to propose fresh policies to close remaining gaps.
While the problem of intolerance is global, in the sense that it is on the increase
in many parts of the world, the manifestations of intolerance usually take on local
or national forms. Thus, in order to be effective, global norms against intolerance
need to be combined with local, national and not least individual measures.

The ten ideas below are a starting point for thinking about how the observance of
an International Day for Tolerance could help to boost the promotion of tolerance
in individual countries and in the world. These proposals seek to involve mainly,
but not exclusively, students and teachers from all countries in our collective
quest for an intolerance-free world.

1.

Diversity in Your Community

Wherever you live, the wide diversity of your community will probably surprise
you. It has been said that a culture is the sum total of all the influences that a
region has undergone. Undertake an investigative project on cultural diversity in
your town or community. Who lives there? How do they live? Articles, interviews,
posters or displays can be designed to highlight the range of identities and
cultures. How is this diversity demonstrated in music? Reflect on the number of
traditions of music and dance you've come across, and the mutual influences
they show. Organise a concert or cultural festival that brings together a range of
cultural traditions.

2.

Human Rights

How are the rights of persons belonging to national, ethnic, religious, linguistic or
other minorities guaranteed in your community, nation, region? How about
indigenous people, migrant workers, asylum-seekers and refugees, disabled
people? Are their rights promoted and protected? Do you find that your lawenforcement officials are adequately educated about human rights? What can
you do to improve attitudes or behaviour toward minorities?

3.

Do-It-Yourself Tolerance Program

Write your own tolerance curriculum or program. This means deciding what are
the component parts of tolerance, ant} how you think tolerant values can best be
transmitted. Scrutinise your text books and televisions, newspapers and
magazines for stereotyping, including gender typing, and assumptions about
nationalities and ethnic groups. What are the tolerance priorities for your town,
country or region?
4.

No to Violence

How does violence come into a community, school or home, and how can it be
stopped? Act out the dynamics of tolerance and intolerance through role playing,
dialogue, dilemma solving. Organise public debates, take sides in a debate, and
then switch sides and speak for the opposite position. How do you imagine
peaceful co-existence of diverse individuals and groups? What makes it work,
and what undermines it?
5.

Ecological Diversity and Human Diversity

Every community is based on interdependence. Like the plants and animals, we
couldn't survive if we were all the same. What are some examples of this truth
drawn from daily life in your town? What are concrete examples of how a culture

of peace and tolerance can promote environmental preservation? Start a project
in your school or neighbourhood.
6.

Religious Tolerance

Organise an event, with the participation of different religious and non-religious
groups in your community, to discuss how tolerance is taught by these
communities. How is tolerance taught by the different religions of the world,
including the traditions of indigenous peoples? Each of them, in its own way, is
founded on love and justice, and cannot be used to justify violence or war.
.Dialogue and discussion between representatives of many religious groups is a
tradition that goes back centuries, and is still valuable today.
7.

Current Events

Organise discussions about current events in relation to tolerance and
intolerance. Analyse actual conflicts of the past and presL nt. How might they
have been resolved or avoided? How is the issue of human rights in the news
today? What are the fundamental rights and freedoms recognised by the
international community? How do multi-cultural, multi-linguistic countries work?
What are the common interests that diverse peoples share?

8.

Sports and Tolerance

What are the international sporting events, and what is their purpose? What are
the possible links between sports and intolerance (such as exclusion of those
unable to compete, competitive chauvinism and violence) and how may these be
remedied? Organise an athletic event around the theme of diversity and
tolerance.
9.

Creativity at Work

Art speaks volumes. Examine the work of an artist from another region of the
world. What does it communicate to you? Create short stories, plays, poems,
songs, articles, paintings, posters, photographs, or videos elucidating the themes
of tolerance, and publish or distribute them. Write letters to prominent people,
asking questions and communicating your views on the subject of tolerance.

10.

International Link-ups

Start an international conversation or school-pairing project, by mail or computer.
Write to others in another country about issues and problems you face in your
lives. Exchange audio cassettes or pictures. Explore the possibilities of
participating in international summer camps or student exchanges. Ask your
school to join UNESCO's Associated Schools Project.

GENERAL CONFERENCE ADOPTS UNIVERSAL DECLARATION ON
CULTURAL DIVERSITY
Paris, November 2 (No.2001-120) - UNESCO's governing body - the
General Conference - today adopted the UNESCO Universal Declaration on Cultural
Diversity, a text about which Director-General Koichiro Matsuura expressed hope
that it can "one day acquire as much force as the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights".
Mr Matsuura declared: "At a time when some might see a dash of cultures in
the current international situation, UNESCO's Member States, convening for the
Organization's 31st General Conference, adopted by acclamation today the Universal
Declaration on Cultural Diversity, reaffirming their conviction that intercultural
dialogue is the best guarantee of peace, thus categorically rejecting the idea that
conflicts between cultures and civilisations are inevitable.

"This is the first time the international community has endowed itself with
such a comprehensive standard-setting instrument, elevating cultural diversity to the
rank of 'common heritage of humanity - as necessary for the human race as bio
diversity in the natural realm' - and makes 'us protection an ethical imperative,
inseparable from respect for human dignity.

"UNESCO's Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity, along with the main
lines of an Action Plan, is a determining instrument to humanise globalisation.
UNESCO is honoured to be at the forefront of a movement that involves all of
humanity.
"This Declaration now counts among the basic texts of new ethics UNESCO is
advocating at the beginning of the 21st century. I hope that it will one day acquire
as much force as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights."

UNESCO Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity
Adopted by UNESCO Governing Body on 2nd November 2001
"The General Conference,

Committed to the full implementation of the human rights and fundamental
freedoms proclaimed in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and other
universally recognized legal instruments, such as the two International Covenants of
1966 relating respectively to civil and political rights and to economic, social and
cultural rights,
Recalling that the Preamble to the Constitution of UNESCO affirms "that the wide
diffusion of culture, and the education of humanity for justice and liberty and peace
are indispensable to the dignity of man and constitute a sacred duty which all the
nations must fulfil in a spirit of mutual assistance and concern",

Further recalling Article I of the Constitution, which assigns to UNESCO among other
purposes that of recommending "such international agreements as may be
necessary to promote the free flow of ideas by word and image",

Referring to the provisions relating to cultural diversity and the exercise of cultural
rights in the international instruments enacted by UNESCO,1

Reaffirming that culture should be regarded as the set of distinctive spiritual,
material, intellectual and emotional features of society or a social group, and that it
encompasses, in addition to art and literature, lifestyles, ways of living together,
value systems, traditions and beliefs,2

Noting that culture is at the heart of contemporary debates about.identity, social
cohesion, and the development of a knowledge-based economy,

Affirming that respect for the diversity of cultures, tolerance, dialogue and
cooperation, in a climate of mutual trust and understanding are among the best
guarantees of international peace and security,
Aspiring to greater solidarity on the basis of recognition of cultural diversity, of
awareness of the unity of humankind, and of the development of intercultural
exchanges,
Considering that the process of globalization, facilitated by the rapid development of
new information and communication technologies, though representing a challenge
for cultural diversity, creates the conditions for renewed dialogue among cultures
and civilizations,

Aware of the specific mandate which has been entrusted to UNESCO, within the
United Nations system, to ensure the preservation and promotion of the fruitful
diversity of cultures,
Proclaims the following principles and adopts the present Declaration:

IDENTITY, DIVERSITY AND PLURALISM
Article 1

— Cultural diversity: the common heritage of humanity

Culture takes diverse forms across time and space. This diversity is embodied in the
uniqueness and plurality of the identities of the groups and societies making up
humankind. As a source of exchange, innovation and creativity, cultural diversity is
as necessary for humankind as biodiversity is for nature. In this sense, it is the
common heritage of humanity and should be recognized and affirmed for the benefit
of present and future generations.
Article 2

- From cultural diversity to cultural pluralism

In our increasingly diverse societies, it is essential to ensure harmonious interaction
among people and groups with plural, varied and dynamic cultural identities as well
as their willingness to live together. Policies for the inclusion and participation of all
citizens are guarantees of social cohesion, the vitality of civil society and peace.
Thus defined, cultural pluralism gives policy expression to the reality of cultural
diversity. Indissociable from a democratic framework, cultural pluralism is
conducive to cultural exchange and to the flourishing of creative capacities that
sustain public life.

Article 3

- Cultural diversity as a factor in development

Cultural diversity widens the range of options open to everyone; it is one of the
roots of development, understood not simply in terms of economic growth, but also
as a means to achieve a more satisfactory intellectual, emotional, moral and
spiritual existence.

CULTURAL DIVERSITY AND HUMAN RIGHTS
Article 4

- Human rights as guarantees of cultural diversity

The defence of cultural diversity is an ethical imperative, inseparable from respect
for human dignity. It implies a commitment to human rights and fundamental
freedoms, in particular the rights of persons belonging to minorities and those of
indigenous peoples. No one may invoke cultural diversity to infringe upon human
rights guaranteed by international law, nor to limit their scope.
Article 5

- Cultural rights as an enabling environment for cultural diversity

Cultural rights are an integral part of human rights, which are universal, indivisible
and interdependent. The flourishing of creative diversity requires the full
implementation of cultural rights as defined in Article 27 of the Universal Declaration
of Human Rights and in Articles 13 and 15 of the International Covenant on
Economic, Social and cultural Rights. All persons should therefore be able to express
themselves and to create and disseminate their work in the language of their choice,
and particularly in their mother tongue; all persons should be entitled to quality.
education and training that fully respect their cultural identity; and all persons should
be able to participate in the cultural life of their choice and conduct their own cultural
practices, subject to respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms.
Article 6

— Towards access for all to cultural diversity

While ensuring the free flow of ideas by word and image care should be exercised
that all cultures can express themselves and make themselves known. Freedom of
expression, media pluralism, multilingualism, equal access to art and to scientific
and technological knowledge, including in digital form, and the possibility for all
cultures to have access to the means of expression and dissemination are the
guarantees of cultural diversity.

CULTURAL DIVERSITY AND CREATIVITY
Article 7

- Cultural heritage as the wellspring of creativity

Creation draws on the roots of cultural tradition, but flourishes in contact with other
cultures. For this reason, heritage in all its forms must be preserved, enhanced and
handed on to future generations as a record of human experience and aspirations,
so as to foster creativity in all its diversity and to inspire genuine dialogue among
cultures.
Article 8

- Cultural goods and services: commodities of a unique kind

In the face of present-day economic and technological change, opening up vast
prospects for creation and innovation, particular attention must be paid to the
diversity of the supply of creative work, to due recognition of the rights of authors
and artists and to the specificity of cultural goods and services which, as vectors of
identity, values and meaning, must not be treated as mere commodities or consumer
goods.
Article 9
- Cultural policies as catalysts of creativity
While ensuring the free circulation of ideas and works, cultural policies must create
conditions conducive to the production and dissemination of diversified cultural goods
and services through cultural industries that have the means to assert themselves at
the local and global level. It is for each State, with due regard to its international
obligations, to define its cultural policy and to implement it through the means it
considers fit, whether by operational support or appropriate regulations.

CULTURAL DIVERSITY AND INTERNATIONAL SOLIDARITY
Article 10
worldwide

- Strengthening capacities for creation and dissemination

In the face of current imbalances in flows and exchanges of cultural goods and
services at the global level, it is necessary to reinforce international cooperation and
solidarity aimed at enabling all countries, especially developing countries and
countries in transition, to establish cultural industries that are viable and competitive
at national and international level.
Article 11
- Building partnerships between the public sector, the private
sector and civil society
Market forces alone cannot guarantee the preservation and promotion of cultural
diversity, which is the key to sustainable human development. From this perspective,
the pre-eminence of public policy, in partnership with the private sector and civil
society, must be reaffirmed.

Article 12

- The role of UNESCO

UNESCO, by virtue of its mandate and functions, has the responsibility to:
(a)

Promote the incorporation of the principles set out in the present Declaration into
the development strategies drawn up within the various intergovernmental
bodies;

(b)

Serve as a reference point and a forum where States, international governmental
and non-governmental organizations, civil society and the private sector may
join together in elaborating concepts, objectives and policies in favour of cultural
diversity;

(c)

Pursue its activities in standard-setting, awareness-raising and capacity-building
in the areas related to the present Declaration within its fields of competence;

(d)
Facilitate the implementation of the Action Plan, the main lines of which are
appended to the present Declaration.

MAIN LINES OF AN ACTION PLAN FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE UNESCO
UNIVERSAL DECLARATION ON CULTURAL DIVERSITY
The Member States commit themselves to taking appropriate steps to disseminate
widely the "UNESCO Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity", in particular by
cooperating with a view to achieving the following objectives:

1.
Deepening the international debate on questions relating to cultural diversity,
particularly in respect of its links with development and its impact on policy-making,
at both national and international level; taking forward notably consideration of the
opportunity of an international legal instrument on cultural diversity.

2.
Advancing in the definition of principles, standards and practices, on both the
national and the international levels, as well as of awareness-raising modalities and
patterns of cooperation, that are most conducive to the safeguarding and promotion
of cultural diversity.
3.
Fostering the exchange of knowledge and best practices in regard to cultural
pluralism with a view to facilitating, in diversified societies, the inclusion and
participation of persons and groups from varied cultural backgrounds.

4.
Making further headway in understanding and clarifying the content of
cultural rights as an integral part of human rights.
5.
Safeguarding the linguistic heritage of humanity and giving support to
expression, creation and dissemination in the greatest possible number of languages.

6.
Encouraging linguistic diversity — while respecting the mother tongue - at all
levels of education, wherever possible, and fostering the learning of several
languages from the youngest age.
7.
Promoting through education an awareness of the positive value of cultural
diversity and improving to this end both curriculum design and teacher education.

8.
Incorporating, where appropriate, traditional pedagogies into the education
process with a view to preserving and making full use of culturally appropriate
methods of communication and transmission of knowledge.
9.
Encouraging "digital literacy" and ensuring greater mastery of the new
information and communication technologies, which should be seen both as
educational discipline and as pedagogical tools capable of enhancing the
effectiveness of educational services.
10.
Promoting linguistic diversity in cyberspace and encouraging universal access
through the global network to all information in the public domain.

11.
Countering the digital divide, in close cooperation in relevant United Nations
system organizations, by fostering access by the developing countries to the new
technologies, by helping them to master information technologies and by facilitating
the digital dissemination of endogenous cultural products and access by those
countries to the educational, cultural and scientific digital resources available
worldwide.
12.
Encouraging the production, safeguarding and dissemination of diversified
contents in the media and global information networks and, to that end, promoting
the role of public radio and television services in the development of audiovisual
productions of good quality, in particular by fostering the establishment of
cooperative mechanisms to facilitate their distribution.
13.
Formulating policies and strategies for the preservation and enhancement of
the cultural and natural heritage, notably the oral and intangible cultural heritage,
and combating illicit traffic in cultural goods and services.
14.
Respecting and protecting traditional knowledge, in particular that of
indigenous peoples; recognizing the contribution of traditional knowledge,
particularly with regard to environmental protection and the management of natural
resources, and fostering synergies between modern science and local knowledge.

15.
Fostering the mobility of creators, artists, researchers, scientists and
intellectuals and the development of international research programmes and
partnerships, while striving to preserve and enhance the creative capacity of
developing countries and countries in transition.

16.
Ensuring protection of copyright and related rights in the interest of the
development of contemporary creativity and fair remuneration for creative work,
while at the same time upholding a public right of access to culture, in accordance
with Article 27 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
17.
Assisting in the emergence or consolidation of cultural industries in the
developing countries and countries in transition and, to this end, cooperating in the
development of the necessary infrastructures and skills, fostering the emergence of
viable local markets, and facilitating access for the cultural products of those
countries to the global market and international distribution networks.
18.
Developing cultural policies, including operational support arrangements
and/or appropriate regulatory frameworks, designed to promote the principles

enshrined in this Declaration, in accordance with the international obligations
incumbent upon each State.

19.
Involving civil society closely in framing of public policies aimed
safeguarding and promoting cultural diversity.

at

20.
Recognizing and encouraging the contribution that the private sector can
make to enhancing cultural diversity and facilitating to that end the establishment of
forums for dialogue between the public sector and the private sector.
The Member States recommend that the Director-General take the objectives set
forth in this Action Plan into account in the implementation of UNESCO's programmes
and communicate the latter to institutions of the United Nations system and to other
intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations concerned with a view to
enhancing the synergy of actions in favour of cultural diversity.

****
Among which, in particular, the Florence Agreement of 1950 and its Nairobi
l.
Protocol of 1976, the Universal Copyright Convention of 1952, the Declaration of
Principles on International Cultural Cooperation of 1966, the Convention on the
Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of
Ownership of Cultural Property (1970), the Convention for the Protection of World
Cultural and Natural Heritage of 1972, the UNESCO Declaration on Race and Racial
Prejudice of 1978, the Recommendation concerning the Status of the Artist of 1980,
and the Recommendation on Safeguarding Traditional and Popular Culture of 1989.
2.
This definition is in line with the conclusions of the World Conference on Cultural
Policies (MONDIACULT, Mexico City, 1982), of the World Commission on Culture and
Development (Our Creative Diversity, 1995), and of the Intergovernmental
Conference on Cultural Policies for Development (Stockholm, 1998).

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juzt erzm

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aft

1950 nit ui& f?ztfawT n?z

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$arre arzt 11 ?z to 6 uror f?ztftwr faro tr alz az totut nun | utz frornarrzt grawt % feanar nu nri!
znt arr naraa fear mm 11

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hhr

Resist The Fascist Conspiracy
The current situation in the country signifies nothing
less than the blatant attempt by right wing communal
elements to blackmail the government and state and
alter the basic structure of the Consitution.

Goverment of India statements in 1948 and Sardar
Patel's own letters of the same period refer explicitly
to the 'terrorist', ‘anti national', and 'conspiratorial' nature
of the RSS and the fact of their involvement in and jubila
tion after Gandhiji's murder. The RSS has, then and
now, attempted to destroy any popular leader of national
stature who stands for tolerant, humanistic and secular
values. Its campaign to destroy a historical monument
and instigate communal violence has already brought
state and society to a dangerous turn. Any change
in the leadership of the Janta Dal at this crucial juncture
will fulfil this nefarious scheme of the communalisis.
We therefore appeal to all Indian patriots members
of all secular democratic parties and groups,and those
who still believe in the greatness of the Mahatma, that
theysteadfastly resist thepolitics of communalism andthe
fascist glorification of violence, expose the RSS/BJP/
VHP conspiracy to communalise India and overthrow
the Constitution, and support the correct stand taken
by the Prime Minister and Government of India in
defence of the Indian Constitution.

Shabana Azmi
(2) Javed Akhtar
(Actress)
(Writer)
Sumit Sarkar
(4) Sumit Chakravarty
(Mainstream)
(Prof. Delhi University)
(6) Puroshottam Agrawal
(5) Dilip Simeon
(Leet Ramjas College)
(J.N.U.)
(8) Tani Sandhu
(7) Rajiv Bhargava
(J.N.U.)
(10) Anuradha Chenoy
(9) Namwar Singh
(J.N.U.)
(J.N.U.)
Kamal
Mitra
Chenoy
(12) Bhagwan Josh
(11)
(J.N.U)
(J.N.U.)

(1)

(3)

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The

Political Abuse

of History

Babri Masjid-Rama Janmabhumi Dispute

Issued By

Sarvapalli Gopal,
Romila Thapar,
Bipan Chandra,
Sabyasachi
Bhattacharya,
Suvira Jaiswal, Harbans Mukhia,
K.N. Panikkar,
R. Champakalakshmi,
Satish Saberwal,
B. D. Chattopadhyaya,
R.N. Verma, K. Meenakshi, Muzaffar Alam, Dilbagh Singh, Mridula
Mukherjee,
Madhavan Palat,
Aditya Mukherjee,
S.F. Ratnagar,
Neeladri Bhattacharya,
K.K. Trivedi,
Yogesh Sharma,
Kunal
Chakravarti, Bhagwan Josh, Rajan Gurukkal and Himanshu Ray.

Centre for Historical Studies
Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi-67

Behind the present Babrimasjid-Rama jantna-bhumi controversy
lie issues of faith, power and politics. Each individual has a right to
his or her belief and faith. But when beliefs claim the legitimacy of
history, then the historian has to attempt a demarcation between the
limits of belief and historical evidence. When communal forces make
claims to “historical evidence” for the purposes of communal politics,
then the historian has to intervene.

Historical evidence is presented here not as a polemic or as a solu
tion to the Rama janmabhumi-Babri masjid conflict, for this conflict is
not a matter of historical records alone. The conflict emerges from the
widespread communalization of Indian politics. Nevertheless it is
necessary to review the historical evidence to the extent it is brought
into play in the communalization of society.

I
Is Ayodhya the birth place of Rama? This question raises a rela
ted one: Is present day Ayodhya the Ayodhya of Ramayana?
The events of the story of Rama, originally told in the Rama-Katha
which is no longer available to us, were rewritten in the form of a long
epic poem, the Ramayana, by Valmiki. Since this is a poem and much
of it could have been fictional, including characters and places, historians
cannot accept the personalities, the events or the locations as histori
cally authentic Uiless there is other supporting evidence from sources
regarded as more reliable by historians. Very often historical evidence
contradicts popular beliefs.
According to Valmiki Ramayana, Rama, the King of Ayodhya,
was born in the Treta Yuga, that is thousands of years before the Kali
Yuga which is supposed to begin in 3102 BC.
i)
There is no archaeological evidence to show that at this early
time the region around present day Ayodhya was inhabited. The ear
liest possible date for settlements at the site are of about the eighth cen
tury BC. The archaeological remains indicate a fairly simple material
life more primitive than what is described in the Valmiki Ramayana.
ii)
In the Ramayana, there are frequent references to palaces and
buildings on a large scale in an urban setting. Such descriptions of an
urban complex are not sustained by the archaeological evidence of the

eighth century B.C.

iii)
There is also a controversy over the location of Ayodhya.
Early Buddhist texts refer to Shravasti and Saketa, not Ayodhya, as the
major cities of Koshala Jaina texts also refer to Saketa as the capital
of Koshala. There are very few references to an Ayodhya, but this is
said to be located on the Ganges, not on river Saryu which is the site of
present day Ayodhya.
iv)
The town of Saketa was renamed Ayodha by a Gupta king.
Skanda Gupta in the late fifth century A.D. moved his residence to
Saketa and called it Ayodhya. He assumed the title Vikramaditya,
which he used on his gold coins Thus what may have been the fictio
nal Ayodhya of the epic poem was identified with Saketa quite late.
This does not necessarily suggest that the Gupta king was a bhakta of
Rama. In bestowing the name of Ayodhya on Saket he was trying to
gain prestige for himself by drawing on the tradition of the Suryavamsi
kings, a line to which Rama is said to have belonged.
v)
After the seventh century, textual references to Ayodhya are
categorical The Puranas, dating to the first millennium A.D and the
early second millennium A.D. follow the Ramayana and refer to
Ayodhya as the capital of Koshala. (Vishnudharmottara Mahapurna,
1.240.2)

vi)
In a way, the local tradition of Ayodhya recognizes the ambi
guous history of its origin. The story is that Ayodhya was lost after
the Treta yuga and was rediscovered by Vikramaditya. While search
ing for the lost Ayodhya,Vikramaditya met Prayaga, the king of tirthas,
who knew about Ayodhya and showed him where it was. Vikramaditya
marked the place but could not find it later. Then he met a yogi who
told him that he should let a cow and a calf roam. When the calf came
across the janmabhumi milk would flow from its udder. The king
followed the yogi’s advice. When at a certain point the calf’s udders
began to flow the king decided that this was the site of the ancient
Ayodhya.
This myth of “re-discovery” of Ayodhya, this claim to an ancient
sacred lineage, is an effort to impart to a city a specific religious sanc
tity which it lacked. But even in the myths the process of identification
of the sites appears uncertain and arbitrary.
If present day Ayodhya was known as Saket before the fifth century
then the Ayodhya of Valmiki’s Ramayana was fictional. If so the
identification of Rama janmabhumi in Ayodhya today becomes a matter
of faith, not of historical evidence.

The historical uncertainty regarding the possible location of the
Rama-janmabhumi contrasts with the historical certainty of the birth
place of the Buddha.Two centuries after the death of the Buddha, Asoka
Maurya put up an inscription at the village of Lumbini to commemo
rate it as the Buddha’s birth-place. However, even in this case, the
inscription merely refers to the village near which he was born and
does not even attempt to indicate the precise birth place.
II
Ayodhya has been a sacred centre of many religions, not of the
Rama cult alone. Its rise as a major centre of Rama worship is, in fact,
relatively recent.
i)
Inscriptions from the fifth to the eighth centuries A.D. and even
later refer to people from Ayodhya but none of them refer to its being
a place associated with the worship of Rama. (Epigraphica Indica, 10.
p.72; 15. p.143;. 1. p.14)
ii)
Hsuan Tsang writes of Ayodhya as a major centre of Buddhism
with many monasteries and stupas and few non-Buddhists. For Budd
hists Ayodhya is a sacred place where Buddha is believed to. have stayed
for some time.
iii)
Ayodhya has been an important centre of Jain pilgrimage. To
the Jains it is the birth place of the first and fourth Jaina Tirthankaras.
An interesting archaeological find of the 4th—3rd century B.C. is a
Jaina figure in grey terracotta, being amongst the earliest Jaina figures
found so far.
iv)
The texts of the eleventh century A.D. refer to the Gopataru
tirtha at Ayodhya, but not to any links with the janmabhumi of Rama.
v)
The cult of Rama seems to have become popular from the thir
teenth century. It gains ground with the gradual rise of the Ramanandi
sect and the composition of the Rama story in Hindi.
Even in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries Ramanandis had not
settled in Ayodhya on a significant scale. Shaivism was more important
than the cult of Rama. Only from the eighteenth century do we find
the Ramanandi sadhus settling on a large scale. It was in the subse
quent centuries that they built most of their temples in Ayodhya.

Ill
So far no historical evidence has been unearthed to support the
claim that the Babri mosque has been constructed on the land that had
been earlier occupied by a temple.
.
. ,
,
.,
,
i)
Except for the verses in Persian inscribed on the two sides of
the mosque door, there is no other primary evidence to suggest that a

mosque had been erected there on Babur’s behalf. Mrs Beveridge, who
was the first to translate Babur Naina, gives the text and the translation
of these above verses in an appendix to the memoirs. The crucial pass
age reads as follows: “By the command of the Emperor Babur, whose
justice is an edifice reaching up to the very height of the heavens, the
good hearted Mir Baqi built the alighting place of angels. Bawad
[Buwad] khair baqi (may this goodness last for ever)”. (Babur Nama,
translated by A.F. Beveridge, 1922, II, pp. LXXVH ff)

The inscription only claims that one Mir Baqi, a noble of Babur,
had erected the mosque. Nowhere does either of the inscriptions men
tion that the mosque had been erected on the site of a temple. Nor is
there any reference in Babur’s memoirs to the destruction of any temple
in Ayodhya.

ii)
The Ain-i-Akbari refers to Ayodhya as “the residence of Ramachandra who in the Treta age combined in his own person both
spiritual supremacy and kingly office”. But nowhere is there any men
tion of the erection of the mosque by the grandfather of the author’s
patron on the site of the temple of Rama.
iii)
It is interesting that Tulsidas, the great devotee of Rama, a
contemporary of Akbar and an inhabitant of the region, is upset at the
rise of the mleccha but makes no mention of the demolition of a temple
at the site of Rama janmabhumi.

iv)
It is in the nineteenth century that the story circulates and
enters official records. These records were then cited by others as valid
historical evidence on the issue.
This story of the destruction of the temple is narrated, without any
investigation into its historical veracity, in British records of the region.
(See P. Carnegy, Historical sketch of Tehsil Fyzabad, Zillah Fyzabad,
Lucknow, 1870; H.R. Nevill, Faizabad District Gazetteer, Allahabad,
1905).
Mrs Beveridge in a footnote to the translated passage quoted above
affirms her faith in the story. She suggests that Babar being a Muslim
and “impressed by the dignity and sanctity of the ancient Hindu shrine”
would have displaced “at least in part” the temple to erect the mosque
Her logic is simple: “ . like the obedient follower of Muhammad he
was in intolerance of another Faith, (thus he) would regard the substitu
tion of a temple by a mosque as dutiful and worthy”. This is a very
questionable inference deduced from a generalized presumption about

the nature and inevitable behaviour of a oerson professing a particular
faith. Mrs Beveridge produces no historical evidence to support her
assertion that the mosque was built at the site of a temple Indeed the
general tenor of Babur’s state policy towards places of worship of other
religions hardly justifies Mrs Beveridge’s inference.

To British officials who saw India as a land of mutually hostile
religious communities, such stories may appear self-validating. Histo
rians, however, have to carefully consider the authenticity of each his
torical statement and the records on which they are based.
While there is no evidence about the Babri mosque having been
built on the site of a temple, the mosque according to the medieval
sources, was not of much religious and cultural significance for the
Muslims.

The assumption that Muslim rulers were invariably and naturally
opposed to the sacred places of Hindus is not always borne out by his
torical evidence.
i) The patronage of the Muslim . Nawabs was crucial for the ex
pansion of Ayodhya as a Hindu pilgrimage centre. Recent researches
have shown that Nawabi rule depended on the collaboration of Kayasthas and their military force was dominated by Shivaite Nagas. Gifts
to temples and patronage of Hindu sacred centres was an integral part
of the Nawabi mode of exercise of power. The dewan of Nawab
Safdarjung built and repaired several temples in Ayodhya, Safdarjung
gave land to the Nirwana akhara to build a temple on Hanuman hill in
Ayodhya. Asaf-ud-Daulah’s dewan contributed to the building of the
temple fortress in Hanuman hill in the city. Panda records show that
Muslim officials of the nawabi court gave several gifts for rituals perfor
med by Hindu priests.

ii) In moments of conflict between Hindus and Muslims, the
Muslim rulers did not invariably support Muslims. When a dispute
between the Sunni Muslims and the Naga Sadhus over a Hanumangarni
temple in Ayodhya broke out in 1855, Wajid Ali Shah took firm and
decisive action. He appointed a tripartite investigative committee con
sisting of the district official Agha Ali Khan, the leading Hindu land
holder, Raja Mansingh, and the British officers in charge of the Com
pany’s forces. When the negotiated settlement failed to control the
build up of communal forces, Wajid Ali Shah mobilized the support of

Muslim leaders to bring the situation under control, confiscated the
property of Maulavi Amir Ali, the leader of the Muslim communal for
ces, and finally called upon the army to crush the Sunni Muslim group
led by Arnir All. An estimated three to four hundred Muslims were
killed.

This is not to suggest that there were no conflicts between Hindus
and Muslims, but in neither case were they homogeneous communities.
There was hostility between factions and groups within a community, as
there was amity across communities

The above review, of historical evidence suggests that the claims
made by Hindu and Muslim communal groups can find no sanction
from history. As a sacred centre the character of Ayodhya has been
changing over the centuries. It has been linked to the history of many
religions. Different communities have vested if with their own sacred
meaning, The city cannot be claimed by any one community as its ex
clusive sacred preserve.
The appropriation of history is a continual process in any society.
But in a multi-religious society like ours, appropriations which draw
exclusively on communal identities engender endless communal conflicts.
And attempts to undo the past can only have dangerous consequences.
It is appropriate, therefore, that a political solution is urgently
found: “Rama janmabhumi-Babri Masjid” area be demarcated and
declared a national monument.

hot

311^(561

1990

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