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ActionAW
IDDIR
impact
evaluation
A PRACTICAL APPROACH
COMMUNITY HEALTH r-
VANAJA RAMPRASAD
ActionAid India
10/1 Bride Street
Bangalore
■ f
I nd ia
"Cheshire-Puss", Alice began,
rather timidly
"would you tell me, please,
which way I ought to go from here?
"That depends a good deal on where
you want to get to" - said the cat.
I don't much care where"-said Alice
Then it doesn't matter which way you go"
said the cat.
ft
... so long as I get somewhere H
Alice added as an explanation
’
"Oh,
you’re sure to do that" said
the cat "if you only walk long
enough"
Alice in Wonderland
¥
CONTENTS
FOREWORD
RAVI NARAYANAN, EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR
PREFACE
VANAJA RAMPRASAD,DIRECTOR FOR
EVALUATION,MONITORING & RESEARCH
INTRODUCTION
Why the concern for evaluation?
What does the source book contain?
1
VALUE PREMISES OF ORGANISATIONS
2
UNDERSTANDING EVALUATION
3
EVALUATION AS AN INTEGRAL PART OF PLANNING
4
INDICATORS
5
IMPACT EVALUATION
Design
Baseline and impact indicators
6
QUALITATIVE APPROACHES
7
CONCLUSIONS
CASE STUDY METHOD
ANNEXURES
Formats for data collection
National level indicators
Further reading
FOREWORD
This Source book on Impact Evaluation is an attempt to
offer a practical approach to the problems of measuring
the effectiveness of our work in the field.
It follows several workshops on Evaluation in which we
have involved our field staff and our project holders.
As a result of these deliberations and our own field
tests we have arrived at certain definite poverty
indicators, methods and frequencies of data collection,
some standard formats and methods of analysis.
This is by no means the last word on the subject of
evaluation but an attempt to introduce standard method
of impact evaluation across all our major project iniWe are sure that there are several
tiatives in India.
approaches to this subject and many different methods
We believe that what follows in the
that can be tried.
Source Book is one such approach.
Ravi Narayanan
I
PREFACE
As a result of the last one year’s exploratory effort
book
through various levels of interaction,this source
exper ience
was conceptualised.
While putting this
together
I
have
consciously tried to combine some
academic rigour with what is relevant to the field and
yet made a concerted effort to keep the text very
simple, in the interest of the field persons.
In this
attempt I have been fortunate to have the co-operation
RDO,
of the projects, particularly CODE, SAMUHA, REDS,
their
PRIDE,
to name a few.
I gratefully acknowledge
co-operation.
for
This Source book would have never taken shape but
the
from
the encouragement and constant pressure
NeedExecutive Director and I thank him for the same.
have
Aid
less
to say that the field staff of Action
I particularly wish to
contributed to this process.
in
Sathya, Suresh and Adarsh, who took a keen
thank
Monitor ing
terest and gave shape to the section on the
I am grateand Evaluation of the literacy programmes,
to the Accounts and Administrative staff who came
ful
the
To break
to my rescue whenever I needed help.
illustramonotony of the text we have used a lot of
and
I
thank
Dr.
Uma
for
her
painstaking
work
t ions
I think has added value to this effort.
It has
which
taken a lot of patience and perseverance on the part of
to
Amarnath Bhat and Shoba Mathai of Oriental Software
I wish to record
attempt analysis of field level data,
my appreciation for the same. I am grateful to Prof,
Vinod Vyasulu and
Prof. Vijay Padki for their valuable
comments on the text.
of
In taking leave of Action Aid, I wish to add a word
this
caution to the field staff who will hopefully put
to use. It would have been ideal to field test the
together.
before attempting to put it
concepts
However, due to pressure of time we couldn’t postpone
bringing this out. Therefore,
Therefore, it is imperative that in
transferring this knowledge to various project staff,we
have to involve ourselves in rigorous training efforts
and discussions on the implications of the processes
attempted. Secondly, we have to use caution in inter
preting the analysis of the data.
In acknowledging the numerous sources of help,I wish to
add that only I am responsible for any shortcomings in
this attempt.
Vanaja Ramprasad
INTRODUCTION
Why the Concern about Evaluation?
Evaluation is a term defined in almost a hundred dif fnarrates
erent ways. It brings to memory the poem that
the tale of the 6 blind man who described an elephant.
Each formed his own idea about
The
what
elephants are like.
in desituation is
similar
the
scribing Evaluation.
Yet,
whole
idea of
evaluation re
volves around questions like:
Why ? What? Who?
* Focus
How?
* Des ign
How Accurate ?
How Useful ?
*Data Collection
What meaning
* Data Analysis
How simple ?
* Reporting
Evaluation is a term used
reservat ion
with great
because
of the
punitive
overtones attached to its
usage in programme assessment.
It is also the
experience of many,bewil
dered by the mystificat
ion of the concept, to be
threatened by the
ver y
word .
on
this Source book is an attempt to focus
Therefore,
why we need evaluation, what do we need to evaluate and
who will do the evaluation?
2
After
working many years in India with an
overr id i ng
emphas is
on education, Action Aid
is
moving
towards
support
of multi-sectoral
integrated
development
strategies
in an attempt to tackle the major causes of
poverty.
Action Aid
Aid’’s
realisation that
it
is simultaneously
accountable to the people it serves and to the sponsors
makes
it important to produce comprehens ive
evidence
that
children and
families are benefitting.
Hence
ActionAid's concern about Evaluation. This takes us
on
to the question: what do we need to Evaluate?
Is
the
impact anticipated ”a better" quality of life?
In
the
long run can we say more children can read and write?
Are
fewer children dying in infancy? Do more
fami lies
have access to basic needs through
improved
economic
conditions?
3
The question
Evaluation?
that arises next is:
Who
will
do
the
The answer obviously is - Evaluation is an
integral
part of planning and hence a natural and
legitimate
responsibility of the implementors of the programme as
on on-going process.
If we agree that evaluation is an
inbuilt process, what is the design envisaged?
This is
what the source book is all about.
What does the Source Book contain?
In Chapter 1, there is an attempt to recognise that the
value premises of the implementing agencies are
impor
tant considerations in arriving at the methodology for
evaluation, in identifying the indicators for measuring
impact
and
in going beyond mere
quantification.
Evaluation is a term covering a broad spectrum of activities and gives rise to mystification on the one
end
and confusion of terms on the other.
The different
dimensions of Evaluation are dealt with in chapter
2.
Chapter
3 discusses the place of Evaluation
in the
planning process.
to measure social development and
phys ical
I nd icators
life have evolved over
time.
quali ty of
Chapter
4
and
attempts to briefly describe the use o £ ind icators
of
list some of the impact indicators.
The main focus
5
the source book is impact evaluation and chapter
deals
with this aspect in great detail. The scope
of
frame
discussion broadly limits itself to Action'Aid’s
of reference to identify indicators and baselines.
4
Some of the important indicators and their operational
isation are also discussed.
Finally,
chapter
6 describes qualitative methods
Evaluation without which process outcomes would
eclipsed.
of
be
The baseline provided for assessment of
literacy and
numeracy skills of children follow as a separate
section.
This is envisaged both as Monitoring and
Evalnation tool.
The sample formats for data collection provided in
the
annexure are spelt out in broad terms and should
be
adapted to local conditions.
As for example , in
land
ownership and incomes, conditions vary from place
to
place. Therefore it is necessary to field test and make
the required changes.
As information of interest some indicators at
level are provided.
National
I
5
In no way does the source book claim to cover the
entire range of topics under impact evaluation.
It is
not the intention to make this a "how to” guide book
and that is precisely the reason why we have consciously avoided the word "hand book” or "guide book”.
The real
reasons
for writing
this
source book is by
way of suggestions
about howr we might
proceed sometimes,
within the
given
frame of reference
of the agency.
Before proceeding.
•11
■■F • 1
it must again be emphasised
F-ORWULft
it
■= 6EUEL0PMENT
The
Source
book
offers
NEITHER
ready-made
solut ions to development,
NOR
a magic formula for
easy evaluation.
6
VALUE PREMISES OF NGO1S & PEOPLE'S SELF REVIEW
When programme goals are multiple, diffused and
intangible, can conventional methods capture the
complexities?
Even before going on to adop
ting a conventional approach
to impact measurement, the
fact that different social
development programmes cannot
be contained within a common
design and analysis cannot be
ignored.
does
ActionAid
recognise that social programme goals are multiple,
d i ffused, sometimes intangible and are very much borne
out of the
value
premises of organi
sations.
Sometimes
NGO’s intervene on
that
the
premise
"people are respon
sible for their own
development
The situation envisaged by them is that change
not
something to be imposed by external change agents but
it is the prerogative of those who live in the community.
7
Lasting development
is • that
process
through which people
grow in their abil
ity to take control
over their own Lives
and
initiate
the
changes to improve
the conditions
of
life.
Any
effective
change
can
take
place only if the
intervention
is
community based.
Change
is poss ible
through a catalytic
role
of the change
agent.
^/l
I
8
These are some commonly held views, governing in turn.
the approaches to development by many NGO’s.
The
underlying values are as important to the NGO’s as the
content of developmental activity.
While none of the above values can be disputed,
such
and
goals
value premises assume that the purpose of
development activity is not only to generate measurable
changes according to some socio-economic indicators,
but to increase the ability of people to take greater
control over their lives.
Some NGO’s also consider any raise in economic levels
as only a means to the larger objectives of strengthen
ing the position of the class of poor.
Therefore,
evaluation of such a value-based goal cannot be con
fused with inventorisation or intermediary changes in
some of the socio-economic indicators.
This is precisely the reason why this aspect has been
dealt with before introducing the concept of indicators
and
measurement of these indicators
to
monitor
’’intermediary” levels of impact.
9
Therefore as perspective for NGO performance,evaluation
is
envisaged to be
broader
than a
few
specific
indicators. For example measurement of overall
organi
sational
effectiveness as compared to measurement of
intangible
process variables such as morale,
partici
pation and
leadership.
Other parameters such
as
values, goal conflict, power equations,
organisational
hierarchy,
organisational
capabilities
vis-a-vis
community needs, are some of the interesting aspects of
evaluation.
One very important aspect of "development as if
people
mattered"
is the people’s own self-review, which
subscribes to the principles that people will
not
only
take collective action to control their lives but
will
collectively reflect upon their ongoing experience
of
action.
t-1
10
Some broad
lines on which such a reflective
would be undertaken are:
to
analyse
both
the
economic
social
and
people
situation before
get organised
exercise
0
examine the oppressive/
exploitative
socio
economic processes,
the objectives in organising
people could be varied
economic ?
access to resources ?
fight against oppression ?
achieve certain rights ?
understand the successes and
failures
in the attempt to
effect changes ?
Finally the intervening agency would benefit greatly by
documenting the
people’s self review and reflecting
upon their own activities and by using the feedback for
for formulating future strategies in organising people.
11
UNDERSTANDING EVALUATION
How do we distinguish between Evaluation as a
generic term and Evaluation as one act at the end?
A review of the current Evaluation practices highlights
the method3 commonly talked about as project appraisal
and evaluation. The term
project appraisal refers
to the analytic procedures
visualising the outcomes
of a project before the
I
project is undertaken.
J
•f
LT
J
On the other hand
project
evaluation
refers
to
the
analysis
of
outcomes
and
experiences from a
project
either during or after the
project’s life span.
12
A project appraisal
is used to guide the decision
whether or not to proceed with an investment proposal.
Appraisal procedures provide criteria by which to
accept or reject a single project proposal and to
decide between alternative investment proposals whereas
evaluation is related to accountability and in addition
provides valuable feedback for planning and decision
making requirements.
What is project Appraisal ?
Project Identification
Formulation
Appraisal
Decision to
fund
Post project
evaluation
Monitor
ing
Implemen
tation
13
Why Appraisal?
Implications of
time span
Funds are Limited
Other Alternatives
Exist
To understand Social
Costs and Benefits
Cr iter ia for Appraisal
In the appraisal of any project there are two important
aspects that should be examined. One is the span of
time within which the project was to yield results, The
second is with respect to alternatives available,
The
two aspects are interlinked. For example, the choice of
alternatives could be between three or four types of
income generation programmes like - poultry, dairying,
sericulture or basket making. The returns from each of
these propositions could vary depending on the time
taken to yield returns and other factors such as avail
ability of raw material, marketing infrastructure and
the skills required.
14
The basic question about when to evaluate and what to
evaluate put the understanding of evaluation in its
proper perspective.
The time span within
which evaluation is
undertaken
determines the type of
outcome whether it
is immediate,
first
order,
2nd
order,
3rd order or spinoff effects.
The
case
of a
small
scale
irrigation
scheme will illustS S
rate
this
point.
Tube wells and other
facilities necessary
for their operation
might be provided as
inputs.
The
immediate
outcome
expected may be in
terms of a larger
area
under
irrigation.
The first order effect is observed as in, increase
in
the productivity of the land.
R
15
The second order effect would be in the increased
incomes of the farmers as a result of crop output.
As
a third
order effect it would be hoped that beneficlaries enjoy higher levels of consumption.
There
consumption.
would also be spin-off benefits at the various levels.
The same impact could
be measured at various
system levels such as
the individual child,
the family, the community
and the
block
leve1.
fjvV
CMILPREN
The integration of the
two "dimensions” above
gives rise to different
methods of
measur ing
the
impact o f
programmes.
ccnncNiT'i
16
Choice of unit for Evaluation could be:
a
an individual
b
a household
c
co-operative or
operational group
d
village or social group
e
a plot of land
f
a farm
qiD
l{
g
a mapped area
h
a place where group
activity occurs
©
■
17
Process Outcome Vs. Product Outcome
Yet another
"Development is a process, not an event".
dimension of evaluation may be spelt out in terms
of the nature of the outcome, ie. Process Outcome
(by qualitative assessment) or product outcome (by
quantitative assessment).
If development is a
process and not an
encapsulated event
that occurs sporad
ically, evaluations
should
aim
at
elucidating
the
dynamics of
this
process.
Process
evaluations
focus
on the how and why
of
product
outcomes.
Frocesj
five NT
Knowing "why” a particular impact was observed or
not observed is more important than just measuring
the impact.
18
Evaluations done
dur ing
the
life span of
a
programme are termed as
ongoing evaluation
or
formative
evaluation
while
evaluations
done
after the life span of a
programme
are
called
expost or summative.
®&
—
19
EVALUATION AS AN INTEGRAL PART OF PLANNING
How does Evaluation become a part of the planning
process ?
Three dimensions of EVALUATION
PROGRAMME
PROCESS
IMPACT
The purpose of evaluation is twofold.
1
2
Evaluation may be required to
indicate whether or
not objectives
set by the
project are
being
achieved, and
For
purposes
relating to
planning
& decision
making, feedback from the evaluation may be
util
ised to modify the project.
Either way,Evaluation becomes an important component of
planning.
If a
proper
evaluation system is
to
be
installed,
it
goes
back to the
formulation
of objectives &
identi
fying the indicators.
20
Monitoring refers to the continuous gathering of inforsub-set
mation of project activities. Monitoring is a
check
of evaluation.
The aim of monitoring
is
to
plan
whether everything proceeds according to original
or are they deviating?
To put the concept in a nutshell:
Project Monitoring & Evaluation
Planning
Formulate project objectives
Identify indicators
Plan management information
systems
:
Monitoring
Monitoring data flow
Information processing
Evaluation
Review for internal evaluation
Case Studies
}
Special Surveys
}
Research Studies }
Impact Evaluation
Project Assessment
21
At the monitoring stage, a proper information system is
crucial to monitor the data flow. The data processed
at this level forms the basis for reviewing the
internal evaluation.
This exercise becomes part of an
ongoing programme while an evaluation examines the
impact of the programme in a more inclusive form in
multi-dimensional terms.
The impact Evaluation may, in addition, be tied up with
certain special surveys which complete the loop in the
feedback to the planning process, The findings of the
monitoring system ideally lend themselves to answer
many questions raised within the programme.
Evaluation is an inclusive concept, accommodating both
effect and impact. For example, use of inputs will
result in certain output in terms of crop, live stock
production, skill acquis ition,larger school attendance,
greater use of health facilities, etc.
0 11%
22
The
'effect’
of
these outputs will be
felt
on
the
change in income, expenditure level, patterns of health
other social, health consequences.
These
effects
and
economic
in turn create an impact on the social and
life
in the community.
Effects and
impact tend
to
reinforce
each other.
The difference is
largely
in
terms of scale and system-wide generalisation,
Effects
appear sooner, apply to the direct
beneficiaries and
relate
to
specific aspects of the activity.
Impact
measures
the final total result, taking
into account
direct and indirect effects that produce changes in the
community as a whole.
house
i
(
J*
1
I
23
INDICATORS
How useful are indicators ? Don’t we
find
ourselves trapped in the fallacy of judgement on a
flux of events by just observing one phenomenon ?
"Every set of phenomena can be interpreted in various
ways, in fact in infinitely many ways. It is our privito choose among the possible interpretations
the
lege
may
ones that appear to us most satisfactory, whatever
be the reason for our choice" FR Moulton*.
The
social phenomenon that one attempts to understand
is like a prism that disseminates various shades from a
common rubric.
The attempt
comprehend
this
social
to
process and quantify the
provides
only a
concepts
partial picture and as a
is inadequate as a
result
tool of analysis and as an
input for policy making.
* Kundu,
Amitabh: Measurement of Urban Processes
Popular Prakashan
24
Therefore, we
find
ourselves
trapped
in the
fallacy
of
judgements on a flux of events
and a web of
several
inter
related activities
by
just
observing
one aspect
of
the
phenomenon.
Several criticisms have also been levelled against
the
relevance and use of social indicators in the
present
limited understanding of ’’social theories”.
The
issues related to the limitations of
using
ind icators are
still unresolved.
Yet the
use
of
these
indicators
worthwhile, since
is considered worthwhile.
the
ind i cators do capture the occurrence of a given phenomenon,
as long as it is interpreted in the context in which it
occurs.
)
25
Some
are:
of
the commonly used
Socio-Economic
Indicators
population
of
demographic
factors,
like rate
increase, internal migration;
national product,
economic
factors,
like gross
gross domestic product, income distribution;
employment
factors, like level of employment/un
employment;
literacy rate,
educational
factors z
factors,
like adult
number of pupils per teacher;
basic needs factors, like housing, food and water
availability;
f ive
health factors, like life expectancy, under
mortality rate and infant mortality
In the various attempts to measure development, over a
hundred indicators have been used.
Morris and Morr is,
(Morris David Morris and Michelle B. McAlpin Measuring
the Condition of India’s Poor, The Physical Quality of
Life Index) have advocated the use of three
indicators
- infant mortality, life expectancy and basic
literacy
and formed the composite index called PQLI - Physical
Quality of Life Index.
PQLI was designed primarily to
measure the performance of the world’s poor countries
in meeting the most basic needs of people.
26
Indicators provide a yardstick whereby progress can
be
compared.
Some
indicators are used
for
monitor ing
programmes,
like, how far targets are
being achieved.
There are other indicators that describe the impact
of
programmes.
It is necessary not to confuse the
indicators
for
the'y describe different aspects
of
the
programmes. When programme
objectives are not
clear,
it
is difficult
to have
clear
indicators. One
of
the more important uses of
health
indicators
is
to
monitor
the
progress
of
overall
socio-economic
development of a
country,
)\
level
of
The
health and
nutrition
itself
is
a
direct
indicator
of
the
quality of
life and an
indicator of overall socio-economic development. Increa
singly, development planners and economists are looking
for
social
indicators
such
as
health
status
measurement.
27
Indicators can broadly be classified as: (Marie Theresa
Feurestin ’’Partners in Evaluation” McMillan Publishers)
indicator of accessibility
indicator of utility
indicator of coverage
indicator of availability
indicator of effort
indicator of efficiency
indicator of quality etc. and
indicator of impact
One area for which it is extremely difficult to
identify indicators is that of Social Development/
Community Organisation.
Organisation. This exercise was part of a
workshop with project partners.
28
The outcome is shared as an example of indicators
observing activities of community organisation.
Indicator of availability
(No. of Sanghams-, types)
for
7 etuB,
MfcHluA
Indicator of accessibility
(Membership - composition,
periodicity of
meeting,
rules of the Sangham)
Indicator of utilisation
(No. of members attending
the meetings,
using the
Sangha facilities).
29
Indicator
(Guidance,
training
offered)
-SuPfLY
of
effort
seminars,
fac i1ities
impact
Indicator
of
(Awareness created of the
socio-political
situation,
issues
taken
group
up for action, the
dynamics,
the
changing
patterns
of
interaction
the
within the group,
ability of the group to
funct i on
independently,
participation
group
in
power
decis ion making,
the
equations
within
the
group are some
of
be
impacts
that
can
than
measured using more
one method.)
30
IMPACT EVALUATION
Impact Evaluation on a micro-level. Does it
of
the
not
have
limitations because
distinction we have to make between changes
that occur due to interventions vis-a-vis
changes that occur due to other external
factors ?
Betterment of the material situation of the rural poor
and to assess whether,how & to what extent their inter
vention has improved the economic conditions of the
community in which they are working is an important
concern for the NGO’s. While doing this,it is important
to make a distinction between changes which occur as a
result of their intervention and changes which occur
because
of other factors like
industrialisation,
breaking up of the feudal system,land reforms, other
governmental programmes, etc.
31
Some of the areas for Evaluation are:
employment and wages
access to resources
and uses
access to' forest and
fodder
access to credit
terms of trade and
relationship
with
markets
analysis of consump
tion patterns
food intake
health conditions
clothing and shelter
The
1st step towards a systematic
approach
to
Evaluation requires a baseline data. A baseline survey
is done prior to commencement of a project. The most
common
method of formal rural research
is
the
questionnaire
survey.
Conventional
questionnaire
surveys have many drawbacks if the aimi is to gain
insight into the lives and conditions of the rural
poor,
for the ’’pathology of rural surveys follows
common paths”.
32
The temptation to increase the scope for more data
lingers. The outcome is excessive data to collect and
therefore less likelihood that the data will be well
collected or that they will be checked, coded or
Hence any large scale survey designed can
analysed.
It is important to
give rise to misleading results,
underscore the fact that
questionnaire surveys are
but
not to be abandoned,
to realise that the limit
ations
of
the
survey
results sometimes outweigh
benefits.
Yet,
useful
surveys have been inter
disciplinary in
nature,
well thought out and done
'"Ci
with
utmost care.
For
example interrelationships
of disease, nutrition, social conditions and poverty is
an interdisciplinary approach, requiring high quality,
well planned longitudinal surveys.
It is beyond the
scope of this source book to go into details of survey
Therefore the
techniques or sampling methodologies,
source book very briefly touches upon these aspects
within its limited frame of reference.
a
fZS -loo
33
Baseline:
A very simple baseline is suggested to give the profile
of the population with bare minimum details of the age,
sex profiles of the families, their
occupations,
castes,
land holding patterns, incomes from various
sources, migration patterns and educational status.
(Annexure Format No: 1) .
Basically in drawing the profile of the population, the
underlying objective is to highlight the poverty status
and the caste-class compositions, so that it provides a
database for an analytical approach to planning and
comparisons at a later stage.
¥
SEX.
OcCu/’47iON
Lanb IMJl
IfVCQ/ie
34
The kind of analysis suggested are of 4 types:
frequency distributions of populations by diverse
variables such as age, sex, caste,
incomes,
literacy, nutritional status, land ownership, etc.
’OBLATION
rYAMMIf
JJ
■ *'• ■
rr
r* Sr
Ij 5o»j ooo
JO
*r
4.0
O^ *. CoujJcr-y
secondly, to relate the different variables, eg.
the nutritional status of children of families
with different land ownership and draw inferences.
35
thirdly, to arrive at
poverty scores based on
as many indicators as
possible
for
each
household.
A
simple
method is to score each
variable
on a + or
scale and to arrive at
a composite score,
On
the composite scoring,
families emerge as verypoor,
poor, less
poor
and not so poor.
How
does this scoring help
us? Families are iden
tified as poor not by
just one indicator such
as income alone.
+
+ +
+ + +
+ + + +
+ + + + +
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + +
Eg. of a Gutman Scale,
where
each of the
8
indicators was assign
ed either as + or -
i-
I
—
,H‘h'
rtiNUi
I
L
r
£
l
-L
T?
^5
^3.
7
^HUHAyflcT.oN Atp
.
36
that
The
other indicators
. describe poverty like, poor
housing,
malnutrition,
that need no
occupations
are
skill
or resources,
by
also
considered and
cut
using an appropriate
of f, the fact that a family
is
is poor by many factors
the
reinforced.
These are
with.
that projects precisely intend to work
families
important.
Therefore identifying such families becomes
so that benefits do not get syphoned by the better off.
The concept of
poverty line as described by the
government gives a head count of the millions
of
people,
which really does not describe the
inequality
in
incomes,
and
the gap between the
person who
is
group.
earning the highest and the lowest within the
gives
The analysis of the income level of the families
This
insight into the concentration of poverty levels,
per iod,
will be a powerful indicator to observe over a
the movement
of
the target group of people and to
the
observe the
changes
in
income
levels
within
Sen’s*
conditions
of normal rainfall or otherwise.
Poverty measure describes the weighted measure of
the
poor .
shortfalls
of all people who are judged to be
poor,
Poverty measure is the function of the number of
income
inequality of
aggregate
poverty gap and the
distribution. below the poverty line.
* Sen,
Amartya; Poverty & Famines
An Essay on Entitlement & Deprivation, Clarendon Press> Oxford
37
Impact
I nd icators :
What do these specific indicators portray?
What are the socio-political implications
of using these indicators?
Specific indicators suggested for purposes of
ing the impact are:
monitor-
per consumption unit of
calories from non-cereal
food
OIL
chilj)
5L
fVoN-CeREAL FOO-fc
child mortality
child literacy
Literacy
and
child mortality
38
Food Consumpt i on as a Bas ic Need:
Why measurement of calories from
non-cereal food?
It is common knowledge that data on incomes of nonsalaried
classes, especially the rural folk,
is
extremely difficult to compute. One of the several
approaches suggested in defining poverty levels is the
income approach where poverty is measured in terms of
the most basic need, ie. food described in terms of
minimum required caloric consumption.
The physiological implications of a continuous
vation in energy intake can result in:
reduction in energy
expenditure in work
depr i-
KtDUCTloni (N cn/£ftC.T
39
a reduction in body
weight leading to a
new
equi1ibr ium
which has its own
costs
doJi'f vJei(iHT
a
reduction
in
nutrients available
in /udcr'ient
These costs in energy intake are likely to be even
greater for the poor, since they are engaged in higher
energy activity in a poor sanitary environment with
greater morbidity, mortality & related nutrient losses.
40
It has been argued time and again that the importance
of caloric intake not withstanding, there are severe
limitations in the use of this as a single indicator.
Some variations of this
direct measurement of per
consumption unit'of calo
ric intake are per capita
expenditure
on
food,
percentage of
calories
nonderived from the
cereal food and average
daily consumption of milk
per household, etc.
CAPiTfl
ONFoqj)
Nation-wide surveys have established that 80% or more
of the calories of the poor come from the cereals consumed. This is rather acceptable from the knowledge of
the kinds of foods consumed by the rural people.
Secondly, this is reinforced by the fact that state
governments are distributing grains either as food for
work or at subsidised rates. Under such circumstances
cons ider ing the absolute caloric consumption can be
If consumption of other foods like oil,
misleading.
milk or pulses is reported, it is reflective of the
better consumption levels. .
41
Also at the request of FAO, the NSSO (National Sample
Survey Organisation) took up in 1976, a tabulation
programme for obtaining the caloric values of the
energy yielding components of food consumed in the
country.
It was observed that in rural households
82.4% of the total per day per consumption unit of
calories was derived from starchy foods. Pulses, nuts,
seeds contributed 7.3% and the rest from other foods.
The analysis also indicated that the percentage of
calories contributed from the starchy foods differed
with the expenditure class; the lowest class being as
high as 89,4% and this gradually dropped down to 66.4%
in the higher expenditure class. Therefore the percent
calories consumed by a family from non-cereal food
is considered as a proxy for incomes.
fflOXY JNJlCAToff
42
Samplinq
Various aspects such as seasonal implications and vali
dity of collecting the consumption data only for a day
have been considered in the design.
It is suggested
that a sample of 10% of the families from each of the
villages using random numbers are chosen and data on
consumption of all foods over a period of 7 days in two
seasons is collected.
(Format C Annexure).
The data should provide information on
per consumption caloric intake for the family
percent of calories from non-cereal foods
quantity of proteins consumed
quantity of oil consumed and similar relevant data
(Random Numbers Annexure)
fE3
43
Nutrition Levels as Socio-economic Indicators
We have come a long way in understanding that malnutrition and illhealth are correlates of poverty,
The
problems of poverty will be overcome as and when
problems of malnutrition, deprivation and disease are
overcome. Therefore, indicators of nutritional status
of especially the vulnerable groups such as children
and women are considered as indicators of development.
7
of
Development /
44
Compos ite Index Using Height and Weight of Children
Under Five
There is little- agreement as to which anthropometric
use .
The most common combinations of
measure to use
measure are
weight for age
height for age
Htlrt
CM
,o.
ro7064
ro
S
3o
A*
10
in KG
Tkc Hujj TiXtVhX/.4 CkaTvt'
Ml RaJi
EZ3
arm circumference
weight for height
45
Each measures different aspect of growth and therefore
offers a different picture of the child's nutritional
status. With all these indicators to choose from,
one
must understand that each does not provide the same
diagnosis.
Each measures different aspects of growth
and therefore offers a different picture of the child’s
nutritional
status.
Though there is no
perfect
indicator to assess the programme impact, evaluating
children with current acute malnutrition as indicated
by weight for height seems a reasonable approach.
In
order that the stunted children are not missed, height
for age is combined with weight for height and formed
into an index.
Taking
the 50th
reference points,
suggested:
percentile of the standards
the following composite index
we i g h t
>80%
>90%
Height
Normal
Stunted
< 80%
Wasted
Stunted
wasted
and
as
is
46
Implications of wasting, stunting or wasting
and
stunting in children are far reaching in indicating the
developmental status of the communities.
Wasting
occurs under poor conditions of hygiene and environment
and poor nutritional intakes.
On the other hand
stunting is a result of long term deprivation of food
to which the body adapts and the worst is reflected
when there is a combination of stunting and wasting.
Recent
studies from India and
other
developing
countries have shown that well to-do children brought
up in good environment have heights and weights similar
to any developed country.
Mortality Levels
The major contributory factor to high mortality levels,
especially
infant mortality,
is poverty.
Infant
mortality rates can be computed from large populations
and data at the district level is available only from
the civil registration system.
47
UFMR
Under-five mortality has been suggested as an indicator
in the
place
of infant mortality rate due
to the
inherent problems in arriving at reliable estimates
of
IMR
for
small populations.
Assuming there are
no
errors in reporting of births and deaths in order to be
able
to say that out of 100 times, at least 95 times
the
estimate given is reliable, the
different sample
size to be covered for the survey, the number of births
and
infant deaths
observed to compute
IMR and
the
standard error of the estimation have been arrived at.
Refer Table 1:
TABLE 1.
Infant Mortality Rate:
Confidence Interval
Sample
Size
and
Sample size:
number of
persons
No. of
births
observed
No . of
infant
deaths
observed
95% confidence in
terval for the in
fant mortality rate
1000
50 0 0
10 0 0 0
50000
100000
250000
500000
40
200
400
2000
4000
10 000
20000
4
20
40
200
400
1000
2000
4
58
70
87
91
94
96
Source
196
142
130
113
109
106
104
WHO - Development of Indicators for Monitoring
Progress Towards Health for All by the Year
2000;
Geneva 1981
48
Under five mortality rate is calculated by
No. of deaths under 5 yrs.
of age in the given year
\/
/\
1000
Total no. of children under
5 years of age at the midd
le of the year
The source of data for
estimation of underfive
mortality
is
MALAfl'
through collection of
data
on
pregnancy
histor ies which done
^Tto\
very
meticulously
should throw light on
various aspects such
as pregnancy losses,
still births,neo-natal deaths, infant deaths & child
deaths. The information elicited also gives adequate
support to understanding causes of mortality. Underfive mortality information is not only an indicator but
also provides the platform for planning
specific
programmes. For eg. high levels of maternal mortality,
pregnancy losses, indicate poor health status of women.
High neo-natal death could indicate poor delivery
practices.
Causes
of death
like
malnutrition,
diarrhoea, give indicators of programme aspects.
49
Sampling
To select a sample of villages from the total number of
villages, covered by the programme, the villages are
arranged in an ascending order according to the size of
the population. -A sample size of 10 or 20% is decided
depending on the number of villages the programme
covers, by choosing every 5th or 6th village.
After
the village is selected, every women ever married in
the age group of 15 - 40 is covered for the pregnancy
history.
The updating of births and deaths is to be
done every year which give^ an account of the most
recent occurrence of the vital events.
50
Such data have to be interpreted taking into cons ideration the socio-political implications. To explain
this further, there is a widespread erroneous inl
pression that just because infant mortality rates and
child mortality rate in Kerala are much lower than in
other parts of the country including Punjab, the nutritional status or consumption of food of people in
Kerala is also vastly superior. On the other hand t
poverty is widespread in Kerala as in UP and other
(except in Punjab) and the actual diets of the
States
poor segments of population in all these States are
nearly similar and deficient. At the same time, it is
misleading to argue that just because mortality rates
in Kerala are low despite poverty and poor diets, those
diets are in fact ’’adequate” and that the rest of the
country need only to combat infection and ill health to
reduce mortality.
The lesson drawn indicates that
there is no state in India which can boast of the
degree of economic development achieved by Punjab plus
the degree of social development achieved by Kerala.
I
51
QUALITATIVE APPROACHES
Case Study
How good is a case study method in Evaluations?
How can you generalise from a single case?
of a
A case study describes in detail the analysis
programme
single event,
situation, person, group or
within a given
The
limitation of direct
qiven context.
methods of data collection have been highlighted in the
earlier
sections.
Sometimes the findings of a
large
scale
survey do not throw enough light on the quali
tative details.
A case study method of inquiry lends
detailed supportive evidence
to the
findings
and
answers many of the questions raised.
The main task of
designing a monitoring and evaluation system would be
to combine different methods that will use
resources
most effectively. The insights from using a repertoire
of methods will identify key relationships and con
straints and will generate hypothesis.
Rs-ioo
11 'I 6
52
The hesitation to use case study methods stem from the
lack of rigour and practice.
Secondly the question
frequently posed is "HOW CAN YOU GENERALISE FROM A
SINGLE CASE?"
A third element is that they are too
long and result in massive unreadable records.
v
a
1
u
e
o
f
from the particular to the general
Theory
from the general to the particular
Illustra
tion
from fragmented to holistic
Systern
patterns
a
--
c
a
s
e
The 3rd is what make it especially valuable
development angle.
for
the
53
A basic list of commonly required skills in
a case study are:
conducting
should be able to ask
the right questions
A. -Hv ui
\ c- k: I 4. rCh
be a good listener
be adaptive and flexible
Apart
from these skills, the person must have a
firm
grasp of the issues being studied and should be able to
proceed without any pre-conceived notions.
54
The data collected for case study should be from multi
ple sources. This should be followed by organising the
data to form a good data base. The data flow should
maintain a chain of evidence from the initial research
question to the ultimate conclusion.
55
CONCLUSION
suggested,
In the kind of analysis and interpretations
is the danger of treating the small unit as an
there
The smaller units that the projects
isolate situation,
larger
work with are intrinsically linked up with the
Village level studies
provide
systems of the society,
But to genea firm grasp of the empirical situation,
inherent
ralise
on the basis of the study also has
macro-studies
one
limitations.
At the same time, in
has to reckon with the problem of a multi-sectoral,
over-genesocio-economic formations which may lead to
Therefore,
in
ralisation and over-simplification,
is suggested
studying the phenomenon of poverty, it
extremes
that caution is exercised to avoid claims of
drawn from the methodology.
To conclude it is emphasised here that the intention of
this approach to impact evaluation is not one
of a
punitive measure and is delinked from funding polices.
56
In interpretation of the kind of analysis and indi
cators suggested, the NGO’s have to do so with a clear
understanding of the socio-political reality of the
area.
The underlying assumption in the design of
impact evaluation is that the programme inputs would be
intense enough to create the anticipated impact.
It is
also possible that there could be a wide range of rea
sons why the anticipated impact did not take place.
The interest is to know why or what factors contributed
and the outcome of such an exercise to have no negative
implications on the funding of the programmes.
ANNEXURE
57
INSTRUCTIONS
The formats include :
Baseline
Pregnancy histories
Non~C£~^£tfX OxCc/Vii? consumption
*
The formats are labelled as A, Al, B,B1 and C. A &
B are to be retained and the project
level and
extracts from A and B to be transferred on to Al
and Bl & sent to this Office for processing.
Form
C is to be sent as it is.
*
The baseline format is a sample design,
Any
aptations,
changes required must be made at
project before using it
<******>
adthe
58
FURTHER READING
Quinn Panton, Michael,
"Qualitative Evaluation Methods", Sage Publications
7th Edition
David Morris and Michelle B. Me Alpin,
"Measuring the Condition of India’s Poor”,
PQLI )
Promila Publishers
(The
Yin, Robert K,
'•Case Study Research" - Design &
Publications
Sage
Methods,
Fowler, Floyd J Jr.,
’’Survey Research Methods", Sage Publications
59
Struening, Elmer L & Merilynn B Brewer,
"Hand book on Evaluation Research, Sage Publicat
ions
Fernandes Walter & Rajesh Tandon,
’’Participatory Research and
Evaluation”,
Publications
ISI
UNIDO,
’’Guidelines
for Project Evaluation”,
IBH Publications
and
~ ~~
Oxford
i
BASELINE FORMAT (detailed)
Sch No 1
Street :
Village :
No
I Age |Sex
mem. I
I
I
___ I
I
I
I
I
1
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I ■
I
I
I
* Education
Age
M
S
D
Hlth
MAC
MS
fl
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
I Rel
I MSI Educ lOccupation
Ito HOHI
M I
S
I
I
I
I
I
I ___ I___
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
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I
I
I
I
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I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
'I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Religion :
Caste :
(Earnings
M |
S
I
I _ I
1
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I Days I D IHlth I
MAC
IEmp I
I
IR IY |G
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
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I
record as upto the Standard completed
to the nearest month
Main
Sub
record major Disability (if any)
record major Health problems (if any)
Mid-arm Circumference (R = Red, G = Green, Y = Yellow)
Marital Status
I— I— I —
I I I
I I I
I I I
I I I
I I I
I I I
I I I
I I I
I I I
I I I
I I I
I
I I
I
I I
I I I
I I I
I
I I
I
I I
I I I
BASELINE FORMAT (detailed)
A (contd)
Tree Type
No
Homeless (Y/N)
Water Source
Power
Leased in :
”
out :
Land Holding : (Y/N)
(If Yes)
Waste
Dry
Wet
Operation Holding :
Ann Inc
(Y/N)
Other;
Electrified
House well
House roof :
(Stone slab/Traditional/
Thatch/Others)
Migration during Lean season
(If Yes)
Where :
Cycle:
Sheep
Milch Cows
Goats
Pigs
Poultry
Assets:
Plough Bullocks
Bullock Cart
Tractor/Implemnt
Diesel Pump
(Y/N):
(Y/N) :
:
What kind of work
:
Cereal Consumption' (Previous Day):
Food
Qty
(Kgs
Rice
Rice Prod:
Value
(Rs)
Food
Wheat
Atta
Wheat Prod:
Qty
(Kgs
Value
(Rs )
Food
Qty
(Kgs
J owar
Ba j ra
Ma i ze
Small
Millets
Rag i
Value
(Rs)
FORMAT FOR CONSOLIDATION OF BASELINE DATA
Cluster
HH
No
No
fix
Name
I Mem- I Sex I Age I Mar.I Educn.
I bers I
|
I Statl
I
I_____ I____ I
I
I
Illi
I
I_____I____ I
I
I
Illi
_____ I
I_____ I_I
I
I
Illi
I
I
I___ I
I
I
Illi
I
I_____ I____ I
I
I
Illi
I
I_____ I____ I
I
I
Illi
I
I_____ I____ I
I
I
Illi
I
I____ I____ I
I
I
Illi
I
I____ I____ I
I
I
Illi
I
I
I
I
I
I
Illi
Village No :
I Occupation
IM
IS
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
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I
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I
I
Earn i ng
M
I S
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Name
Days Emp. I Migrtn
M
| S
I (Y/N)
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I_____ I_____ I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
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I
I
I
I
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I
I
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I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I ReliMAC
I Disabled I
I (Y/N)
I R I Y | G I gion
I__ I _l___ I_______
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I__ I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I__ I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I__ I
1
I
I
I
I
I
I_______
I__ I
I
I
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I
I
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I
I
I__ I
I
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I
I
I
I
I__ I —I___ I_______
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I__ I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I__ I — I___ I_______
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I__ I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I Caste
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
FORMAT FOR CONSOLIDATION OF BASELINE DATA (contd)
HH
No
Land Holding
I
I (Y/N)| Wet I Dry I Barr - IOperaI
en 11 ional
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
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I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
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12_____ I
I
I
I
I
Note: Operational Land
(Own Land
I Water
I Source
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Ax
I
I Land
I
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Income------Trees I Others
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FORMAT FOR CONSOLIDATION OF BASELINE DATA (contd)
Zl±
ASSETS
HH
(Plough
I
| Bullock | Tractor I Diesel)----------- LIVESTOCK------------ I---I
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I Pump (Sheep (Goat (Pigs (Poultry (Others (Cycle
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Material Possesions
IAlmir. I Others
I Rad io
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PREGNANCY HISTORY FORMAT
B
HH No :
Area/Village:
Name
I Age
| Sex| Rel to I Educn
(Yrs |Mths|
| HOH
I
I___ I____ I____ I_______ I
Illi
I
I--- 1____ I___ _l_______ I
Illi
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I___ I____ I____ I_______
Illi
i
r___
I Mar | Occupn
IStatl
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IPreg
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Family Type :
(1 “ Nuclear/2 = Joint/3 = Extended)
Religion :
(H = Hindu/M = Muslim/C = Christian)
Total Household Income :
Per capita Income :
PREGNANCY HISTORY FORMAT (contd)
Embe. foi. new ad^ltjpns and deletions to the family
Second Visit
Name |
I
____ I
I
____ I
I
I
Date :
HH No.
A 9e
I Sexi Rel to | Educn
Yr | Mths |
| HOH
|
-- 1----- 1
I
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I
-- 1----- 1___ I
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'll
I
(Marital
I Status
I Occupation
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Third Visit
I
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I___ I
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(Note changes like additional women through nmarriage, deaths & new horns)
BIRTHS: (for each Birth - Date; Sex; Place of Birth; Other
relevant information
DEATHS: (for each Death - Date; Sex; Age; Place; Cause
SECTION 2.
1PREGNANCY
--HISTORY
IQnly for women below 4 5 years )
1.
Name of woman
2.
Number of years married :
3.
Age at Menarche:
6.
I would like to ask you some questions about your children. Have you ever
given birth to children?
( ! = Yes/2 = No)
(If YES goto 10)
-'
' 2
N0'
7.
if
(Probe) Have ;you
-- ever given birth to any boy or girl, who later died,
even
the child lived for only a short period of time?
(1 = Yes;
2
=
No
)
(If YES goto 14)
8.
Have you ever been pregnant?
(If YES goto 16)
9.
Have you ever been pregnant even if that pregnancy lasted only for about two
months?
(1 = Yes;
2 = No)
(If YES goto 16’;
If NO goto Last)
4 . Age at Marriage:
5. Age at Present :
2
10. Do any of your children live with you?
11. If YES, how many?
(1 = Yes; 2 = No)
Daughters :
12. If NO, how many live elsewhere?
No )
Sons
Daughters :
Sons
13. Have you ever given birth to any Lboy or girl who later died, even
if the
child lived for only a short time?
--- 2
(i = Yes ;
2 = No)
14 . If YES, how many of your children have died?
Number
15. Summing up, you have given birth to -
Number:
16. (If YES, proceed to ask about each child,
correct response).
If NO, probe further for a
(1 = Yes
B
SECTION 2
PREGNANCY HISTORY
(Only for women below 45 years)
I Complications
|Ges81 No I Date of
I
(if any)
I Delivery Itatn
I
IPeriod I
I
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KEY : Current Status* :
Outcome
(If
d )
I Out I Current I
Age
at|
Cause
I come I Status
I
I Death I
I (L/D)
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L = Living ; D = Dead
L = Live births ; S = Still born
(1 = Yes;
Are you pregnant now?
If YES, How many months :
Second Vis it:
(contd)
A = Abort ion
2 = No)
Any births? (Check with Pregnancy History as also with
the HH card).
Any deaths? (Check with Pregnancy History).
e>A
PREGNANCY HISTORY FORMAT
HH No
Name
Area/Village:
I Age
| Sexi Rel to I Educn
lYrs IMthsI
|
HOH
|
I_____ I_____ I_____ I
I
Illi
|
I____ I_____ I_____ I
I
Illi
|
I____ I_____ I_____ I
I
Illi
|
I Mar I Occupn
I Stat|
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I Perm.
IPreg
I Residence |(Y/N)
I
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I
I
Family Type : _
(1 = Nuclear/2 = Joint/3 = Extended)
Religion :
(H = Hindu/M = Muslim/C = Christian)
Total Household Income :
Per capita Income :
SECTION 2
PREGNANCY HISTORY
IQn.ly for women below 45 years)
SI No I Date of
I Delivery
I
.1
I
.1
I
I
I
I
I
I
(contd)
|GesIComplications
| Out- | Current I
(i f
)
Itatn
I
(if any)
| come I Status
I Age at I Cause
(Period |
|
| (L/D)
I Death |
I-------------- 1__________________ I____________________I I
I
'I
II
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I
I ------------ 1 I
I
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II
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I
I
•------------- 1
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I ------------- 1 -___________________ I
I
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II
I
I
II
II
I
I
KEY : Current Status :
Outcome
:
L = Living ;
D = Dead
L = Live births ;
S = Still born
A = Abortion
Section 2.
PREGNANCY HISTORY (Only tor women below 45 years)
First Visit
1.
: Date
Name of the woman
Age at :
3. Menarche :
2 . No . of years married :
4. Marriage :
5. Present
NON-CEREAL CONSUMPTION
Date
Name
Village Name
_/_/_
I Rel to
I HOH
I
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Age
I Sex I Education
I
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HH No :
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Occupation I Earning : I/D
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CODING : a) Relation to HOH
W = Wifq
S = Son;
D = Daughter ;
G = Grandchild ;
M = Mother
F = Father; I = Son-in-law/Daughter-in-law
b) Sex
1 = Male ;
2 = Female
c) Education
Classes 1 - 10 = No 1 - 10; Graduate = 11
d) Occupation : C = Coolie ; L = Agriculture on own land
A = Artisan; 0 = Others
e)
I/D (Independent/Dependant ) : 1 = Independant ; 2 = Dependant
DEFINITIONS : Household
HOH
those living and cooking under one roof.
Head of the Household - the decision maker i n the
family.
FOOD
CONSUMPTION
c
CEREALS:
PULSES:
MEAT Prods:
M I L K & Milk prods.:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Wheat / Suji / Maida / Atta
Jowar / Bajra / Maize
Small Millet
Ragi
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Thuvar
Moong
Urad
Khesar i
Others
Rice
1. Meat
2. Poultry
3. Eggs
4 . ‘ Fish
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Milk
Curd
Butter milk
Butter
Ghee
Prods.:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Mustard oil
Groundnut oil
Coconut oil
Til oil
VEGETABLES:
1.
2.
3.
Potato
Others
FRUITS:
1.
2.
Banana
Others
Others Items:
1.
2.
Sugar
Jaggery
OIL
KEY:
C : Cash Purchase
H : Home Grown
B : Borrowed
NON-CEREAL CONSUMPTION
(contd)
c
FOOD CONSUMPTION
(Ohe week'n data)
(A)
T E M S
I
I
|
PULSES
I
MEAT
PRODUCTSI
|
CEREALS
|6|7|1|2|3|4|5|1I2|3|4|
1112
13
14
15
DAYS|qty I Rs. I qty I Rs. I qty I Rs.I qty I Rs. I qty I Rs. I qty I Rs. I qty I Rs. I qty I Rs. I qty I Rs. I qty I Rs. |qty I Rs. I qty I Rs. I qty I Rs. I qty I Rs. I qty I Rs. I qty I RsI
f = = = = = = = == = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = === = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =|= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =:=l= = = = = ::: = = =: = = = = = = = = = = = =: = = ”=
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-------------------------- 1
c
NON-CEREAL CONSUMPTION (contd)
(B)
+--------------------------------------------------------I
ITEMS
T
S
I
I terns
MILKS& MILK Prods.
I
OIL
Prods.
(VEGETABLES
I
FRUITS! Other Items
I
I
I1|2|3|4|5|1|2|3|4|1|2|3|1I2|1|2I
DAYS|qty I Rs. I qty I Rs. IqtyIRs. IqtyIRs. IqtyIRs. IqtyIRs.|qty I Rs. I qty I Rs . I qty I Rs . |qty I Rs . I qty I Rs. I qty I Rs. I qty I Rs. I qty I Rs. I qty I Rs. I qty I Rs.I
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'
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I
T
Random Numbers Upto 100 (an example)
53
25
43
11
85
93
74
42
48
63
10
18
90
49
42
74
92
63
68
21
97
32
32
36
59
51
86
64
21
45
84
56
18
70
91
20
0
29
24
11
85
24
16
34
38
17
6
81
69
33
53
83
63
77
71
99
27
80
1
17
71
69
92
96
9
63
19
14
81
92
22
58
10
43
71
28
78
32
51
71
24
96
81
39
72
17
49
73
85
62
79
6
40
61
19
2
28
95
54
11
Random Numbers Upto 300 (an example)
68
292
281
192
58
62
19
294
68
59
20
94
130
59
144
31
75
133
270
181
218
107
117
207
9
296
33
285
67
216
63
0
81
70
291
21
88
212
53
248
34
74
242
134
299
188
258
289
200
63
164
247
178
54
195
217
144
290
55
211
7
289
116
114
160
258
294
10
165
44
106
125
38
144
117
138
237
112
101
295
117
92
173
117
10
11
196
187
61
54
157
110
45
12
24
153
161
210
276
249
98
95
103
290
280
221
195
181
176
89
187
285
2
278
95
122
82
133
16
167
291
50
214
103
171
217
67
161
27
38
102
126
293
37
200
229
69
223
271
5
248
44
114
229
96
212
243
126
233
94
92
59
263
296
199
89
96
198
255
110
145
91
235
62
82
67
106
216
93
198
205
32
85
175
190
101
183
244
174
251
96
93
131
133
60
236
271
188
55
152
296
273
297
113
232
181
2
84
131
221
136
192
155
83
224
77
123
172
46
11
...contd
Random Numbers Upto 300 (an example)
(contd)
50
17
206
26
144
62
69
220
289
22
283
277
200
20
269
153
252
2
287
28
285
218
282
252
281
282
299
249
226
11
72
184
30
150
198
89
140
119
73
25
113
14
112
169
278
226
143
256
155
25
270
260
275
176
14
126
143
148
243
28
205
201
43
187
273
168
5
180
127
27
156
204
203
286
79
26
237
260
6
17
indicators
(at National Level)
Adult Literacy Rates 1981 (for major states in
age 15 years and above)
India,
State
Persons
Males
Females
INDIA
Andhra Pradesh
Bihar
Gujarat
Haryana
Karnataka
Kerala
Madhya Pradesh
Maharashtra
Or issa
Punjab
Rajasthan
Tamil Nadu
Uttar Pradesh
West
Bengal
40.76
32.32
29.34
48.32
39 .28
77.48
78.14
32.27
51.68
38.85
42.19
28.24
50.46
30.50
48.13
54.84
34.32
44.85
62.76
54.43
56.90
85.98
47.63
67.98
55.98
50.71
43.01
65.99
45.36
61.15
25.68
20.03
13.17
33.16
21.58
28.23
70 . 79
15.88
34.56
21.16
32.42
12.03
34.65
13.92
33.25
Source: Census of India 1981
An analysis of the situation
of children
Refer :
India, published by UNCF,New Delhi 1984
in
Enrolment in Classes I - V (1950-51 to 1981-82)
Enrolment (in millions)
Year
Boys
1950-51
13770
1960-61
23.593
35.739
1970-71
1980- 8KP) 44.576
1981- 82(P) 44.976
(P)
: Provisional
Refer:
Percentage of children
enrolled in classes I-V
to total population
in
the age group
6
11
Girls
Total
Boys
Girls
Total
5.385
11.401
21.306
28.112
28.587
19.155
34.994
57.045
72.688
73.563
60.8
8 2.6
92.6
99.0
99 . 4
24.9
41.4
59.1
66.2
66.9
42.6
62.4
76.4
83.1
83.7
Source: Ministry of Education
An analysis of the situation
of children
India, published by UNCF,New Delhi 1984
in
Per Capita Apparent Consumption of Foodgrains
Year
Grams per day
1951
1961
1971
1977
1980
1981
1982
53
63
73
79
397
458
452
458
411
454
454
Note :
The 1977-79 figures is 15.4 % more than that
of
1951-53
Source :Manrai,
ML and Bhatnagar,
DS,
’’Food Strategy
for Eighties” Kurukshetra, December 1983
Refer
:
An analysis of the situation of
children
in
India, published by UNICEF,New Delhi 1984,pg. 47
Percentage
Distr ibut ion
of
according to weight for age
1
- 5
Degree
(Gomez
Year
1969
1974
1975
1976
1978
1980
No . of
states
6
9
7
9
10
8
Source:
Refer :
year
Ch iIdren
of malnutrition
Classi f icat i on)
N
Nor
mal
>90%
Mild
75-90%
Moderate
60 - 75%
Severe
<60%
18000
2410
1721
6775
4713
4008
3.0
3.8
3.4
10.6
14.3
14.8
14.0
21.9
22.1
41.1
42.4
47.9
65.0
53.8
52.6
39.8
34.9
32.6
18.0
20.5
21.5
8.5
8.4
4.7
National Nutititon Monitoring Bureau,Institute
of Nutrition, 1981
An analysis of the situation of children
in
India, published by UNICEF,New Delhi 1984
Crude B i rth Rate for Ma j or States
(per 1000 population)
Year
Rural
Urban
Total
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
38.9
38.9
38.4
35.9
35.9
' 36.7
35.8
34 . 3
34.7
34 . 3
34.6
29.7
30.1
30.5
28.9
28.4
28.5
28 . 4
27.8
27.8
28.3
27.3
36 . 8
36 . 9
36 . 6
34 . 6
34.5
35.2
34.4
33.0
33.3
33.3
33.3
Source: Vital Statistics Divis ion.
Office of the
Registar General
Refer:
An analysis of the situation of children in
India, published by UNCF,New Delhi 1984
PoPuLATioH
I
OP INJ)IA (HOl-gQ
Q In yn'ilUonS)
Population
J J)ECAJJAL G-ftovJT ft RATE
ABSoLUT^iNCREA^r
s
‘
>■
—I
*•1
/>
J
YEAK
Crude Death Rate (per 1000)
Year
Rural
Urban
Total
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979'
1981
17.3
16.4
18.9
17.0
15.9
17.3
16.3
16.0
15.3
13.9
13.7
10.2
9.7
10.3
9.6
9 .2
10.2
9.5
9.4
8.4
8.0
7.9
15.7
16.9
16.9
15.5
14.5
15.9
15.9
14.7
14.2
12.4
12.5
n°uf5T-_Sample Registration Bulletin,
Vital Statistics
Division,
... ... f Office of the Registrar General
Refer:
An analysis
of the situation of
children
in
India, published by UNCF,New Delhi 1984
ChiId Deaths (1-4 year £er. 1000 population )
and North Arcot District
in Ludhiana
Underlying
causes
Ludhina 3
rural
centres
Number
Rate
Rural
Number Rate
Urban
Number Rate
All causes
48
6.9
358
24.0
163
15.0
Diarrhoeal diseases 11
Measles
8
Other infectious
diseases
1
Nutritional defi
ciency
5
Disease of nervous
system and sense
organs
1
Disease of respira
tory system
8
Congenital anoma
lies
1
Other and unknown
causes
12
External causes
2
1.6
1.1
90
37
6.0
2.5
34
36
3.1
3.3
0.1
29
1.9
20
1.8
0.1
1
0.1
1
0.1
1.1
2
0.1
191
8
12.0
0.5
North Arcot District
0.7
0.1
1.7
0.3
67
5
6.1
0.5
Source: Arole and Rohde, ’“
;
’Organisation
of Health Service and
Training of Physicians for- Child Health
I’
Services’, 1983 .
Rexerj, An analysis of the--------situation
-.1 of children
in
India, published by UNCF,New Delhi 1984
Position: 2659 (2 views)