ENVIRONMENT HEALTH
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- ENVIRONMENT HEALTH
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RF_E_3_PART_1_SUDHA
I
Weekly Edition —3
THE
IzcliaX Notiouai NouMpapefc
Sunday,June
1980.
HINDU
Printed at Madras, Coimbatore, Bangalore.
Hyderabad and Madurai
Water "mining" from a pit.
ROTECTED water supply, especially
for those in the villages — whether
j
they live on the banks of a perennial
river or in coastal villages or in the arid zones—
is still an unsolved problem.
Even in a town like Tiruchi, right on the
banks of the Cauvery, where the corner
stone for the present water works was laid
in 1 892, people do not enjoy uninterrupted
water supply — not to speak of a number
of pockets within the municipal limits still
not receiving drinking water.
In Pudukottai district, 1,1 40 hand pumps
were provided to tap ground water under
the aegis of the UNICEF. They very often
go out of order. Putting them back to use
is a major headache to the Water Board
maintenance staff. An assessment has
shown that it costs nearly Rs.1 40 a month
to maintain a pump.
during the Seventies also made an
intensive exploration and identified that in
Tamil Nadu three zones — Neyveli belt,
Aranthangi coastal belt and Tiruvadanai
belt in Ramnad district — have copious
ground water potential. It has even mapped
the transmission zones where the sea
water and the ground water aquifers meet.
In Pudukottai district during the
Sixties, the ONGC and a few Central
agencies engaged themselves in exploring
the ground water potential. The ground
water cell of the State Government,
The cell suggested that in these areas,
ground water could successfully be tapped
through deep bores and that this water,
after treatment, could be made potable.
In the villages in Aranthangi, Aavudayarkoil and Arimalam panchayat union limits,
water in open wells is saline because of
sea water intrusion. The mainstay for them
is the water from the tanks and ponds which
receive replenishments during the monsoon.
The people draw water at the
“drinking water ghats" as distinguished from
the "bathing ghats" of the tanks. They
take the water in pots and allow the mud
to settle.
Twelve comprehensive water supply
schemes (CWSS) were drawn up by the
TWAD Board for the benefit of the coastal
residents in the region covering a
population of nearly one lakh.
Mr. M. Subramaniam, Executive
Engineer, TWAD (Rural Water Supply Division),
Pudukottai, said that 1 2 bore wells had
been sunk to a depth ranging between 600
and 1 ,700 ft.
There is at present the curious
practice called "mining". Water is first
collected from the pit in a small brass
utensil and transferred to a pot. It takes
about 30 minutes to fill a pot of water.
Supply from
an artesian well.
All the deep bore wells of the CWSS are
artesian wells, Mr. Subramaniam pointed
out. A sum of about Rs. Three crores has
been earmarked for the 1 2 schemes, but
maintenance strategies have not been
worked out. Water from the artesian wells
has more hydrogen sulphide than surface
water. Through aeration, sedimentation and
Alteration the impurities were removed and
only treated water was being pumped into the
distribution mains.
Tiruchi Staff Reporter.
Weekly Edition —3
THE1
SUNDAY, DECEMBER 7,1980
B HINDU
Iw/lioA Notiouat klewApapeft,
Pf ntod
at Madras Coimbatore Qangaiora
Hyderabad and Madurai
o
-4?
utants
YDERABAD is one of the nine
■ FT- cities in the country where the na. I Lltional air monitoring programme
has been undertaken by the National
Environmental Engineering Research In
stitute (NEERI), in accordance with the
World Health Organisation's suggestion
to assess air quality within the framework
of selected parameters. Madras, Bombay,
Delhi, Calcutta, Kanpur, Ahmedabad,
Jaipur and Cochin are the other centres.
WHO chose India in 1978 as the nodal
J^nt in South-East Asia for air monitoring.
I he main purpose of the programme is
to alert the public and authorities about
any abnormal increase in pollution levels
and to ultimately enthuse local1 agencies
to take the programme into their hands.
Four parameters are chosen for monitor
ing pollution levels. The programme covers
the determination of the quantum of sus
pended particles and that of sulphur diox
ide, an assessment of sulphation rate and
of dust fall. The programme includes
collection of meteorological information
for data interpretation.
Increasingevidencetheworldoverseems
to prove that certain concentrations of
particulate matter, sulphur dioxide, carbon
monoxide, photochemicals, oxidants and
hydrocarbons produce serious tetratogenic,
carcinogenic, mutagenic and other effects.
Besidesaffecting health, pollutantshave
been found to be responsible for the
decrease in atmospheric visibility damage
to buildings and corrosion.
In order to limit the deterioration in
air quality and improve it further, scientists
formulating.
control measures and ascertaining the
magnitude of air pollution from time to
time.
This necessitates the establishment of
a continuous air quality monitoring network
to obtain concurrent and comparable data
on both gas and dust levels in the at
mosphere.
In Hyderabad, NEERI has selected three
places for air monitoring—the Abids com
mercial area, Tarnaka and Moulali residen
tial areas. Air monitoring, a pilot programme
in Hyderabad, will continue till 1983.
Yet, the problem of pollution is oc
casioned by the lack of adequate sewer
lines and improper location of industries.
For the location of industries, the
athorities do not have base line data about
air quality, the scientists say.
A systematic planning for the location
of industries will foster the establishment
of more industries without fouling the
atmosphere.
NEERIhasbriefedtheHyderabadUrban ■
Development Authority on air quality survey ■
in Hyderabad to determine the level of I
pollution, to define the areas of pollution I
according to the levels, and finally to I
develop mathematical models to predict I
pollution levels, identify the pollution I
sources and suggest control measures.
I
NEERI proposes to prepare air quality '
maps which will help decide the proper
location of industries. NEERI also proposes
to take up air quality monitoring programme
in Visakhapatnam where industrialisation
is apace.
Environmental scientists suggest that |
air filters should be used to reduce the
vehicular emission of carbon monoxide
and carbon dioxide. They also suggest
that autocatalytic convertors should be
used, as in the U.S., to reduce effectively
the carbon dioxode and carbon monoxide
emission.
Atcoal-basedthermalplantsandcement
factories, the scientists say, electrostatic
precipitators should be installed to absorb
dust particles. Similarly, for chemical in- I
.filters and wet scrubbers
Mr.A.ShyamasunderRao,MLC,recently 11
raised in the State Council question of 11
air pollution in Mancherial town (Adilabad II
district) where a cement factory is located, II
with a coal mine nearby. The Minsiter II
for Municipal Administration, Mrs. Sarojini I
Pulla Reddi, said that it was proved that
pollution was high in Mancherial town.
I
The cement factory had set up a dust
collecting equipment. The factory would u
be advised to take effective steps to prevent
the dust from escaping into the atmosphere.
magnitude of,air pollution from time to
time.
This necessitates the establishment of
a continuous air quality monitoring network
to obtain concurrent and comparable data
on both gas and dust levels in the at
mosphere.
In Hyderabad, NEERI has selected three
places for air monitoring—the Abids com
mercial area, Tarnaka and Moulali residen
tial areas. Air monitoring, a pilot programme
in Hyderabad, will continue till 1983.
Mr.A.ShyamasunderRao,MLC,recently
raised in the State Council question of
air pollution in Mancherial town (Adilabad
district) where a cement factory is located,
with a coal mine nearby. The Minsiter
for Municipal Administration, Mrs. Sarojini
Pulla Reddi, said that it was proved that
pollution was high in Mancherial town.
The cement factory had set up a dust
collecting equipment. The factory would
be advised to take effective steps to prevent
the dust from escaping into the atmosphere.
A Scientist measuring the presence of Gases entering the High Volume Sampler with the help of
Manometer at Abid’s Centre, Hyderabad, where the air pollution effects are found to be very high
NEERI has fabricated sampling gadgets
adaptable to local conditions. Sulphur
dioxide and samples of suspended particles
are collected every tenth day: a sampling
frequency of three times a month.
y About ten years ago, the air quality
in Hyderabad was good, in the light of
U;S. standards. But industrialisation in
some pockets of the city and the increase
in vehicular traffic have contributed to
the deterioration of air quality over the
city.
A hue and cry has been raised against
further industrialisation in and around
Hyderabad. At one time, some officials
even suggested a ban on further industr
ialisation in the city and the shifting of
industries to other parts of the State.
But, environmental scientists were not
sure that these reasons attributed for pollu
tion were indeed correct. Compared to
the industrialisation of other big cities
like Bombay, Calcutta and Bangalore, the
number of industries located in Hyderabad
is not significant.
There was, however, no pollution problem
in Mancherial due to the coal mine. NEERI
would be approached to conduct a survey
of pollution levels in Mancherial.
Recently, some people working in the
drainage galleries of the Nagarjunasagar
dam, complained of suffocation, fatigue,
bronchitis and breathing trouble. The pro
ject authorities requested NEERI to find
out the cause.
The NEERI scientists conducted experi
ments and analysed the levels of hydrogen
sulphide, carbon monoxide and carbon
dioxide for eight days in September and
concluded that in certain. parts of. the
galleries, humidity was extremely high.
One of the remedies suggested by the
scientists is more ventilation at various
levels of the galleries.
After laboratory arid pilot plant studies,
NEERI has designed effluent treatment
plants for all major industries in the State.
Hyderabad Staff
Reporter
Colour
Transparency
by
Our Staff
Photographer
.
Co
.... nt’ALTH CELL
Floor) St. Marks Road
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Concepts Background.
A
Proposals
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560 001
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A. Historical
- - . . _ - - — - -r» ■ ^.■..|^ ■■■■»- .w> >■ ■background
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••• Mu ■■ i i and —definitions
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Hobert Owen was among the .first to see that, unless
controlled9 machines producing within a modern market
economy would have socially harmful consequences; and he
wrote in:1815?
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•'The general diffusion of manufactures throughout
a country generates a new character in its inhabitants;
. and as this character is formed .upon a principle
quite unfavourable to individual and .general happiness,
it will produce the most lamentable and permanent
.evils, unless its tendency- be counteracted by
Legislative interference and direction ...... the
governing principle of trade manufactures, and
commerce is immediate pecuniary ..gain, to wnich.on
the groat scale every other is made to- give/way.
rfhen Owen failed to persuade the government of his day
to listen to his arguments he demonstrated the beneficial ‘
effect that the secure environment of a welfare-oriented
textile mill had on the workers and their productivity at
blew .Lanark. The mill made consistent profits in an era
when other mills were closing down or incurring losses even
though Owen, paid out L 7000 in wages for four months when
the mill was closed. • Thus, as early as the beginning of
the nineteenth century, 185.years ago, farsighted individuals
wer< recognising the not-so-welcome effects of industriali
sation. - From this ooint on the nature of mancs concern
for the environment maybe traced.
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The example of England is instructive?
1800 - 1824? iiobert Owen managed the pioneering but
eventually short-lived textile mill at New Lanark.
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1844 - 1845 ? Frederic Engels investigated the slum
conditions and wrote ‘The Condition of the Working Class in
England-’ describing the poverty and the terrible -physical
conditions.
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1848 2 The Government passed the first Public..Health Act
regulating the sanitation and sewage arrangements in the
newly sprung up industrial townships. . •
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1868 : The Artisans and ..Labourers Dwellings Act was passed
to regulate the individual housing.
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1875 : fhe Artisans and Labourers Dwellings Improvements Act
w-s passed to further control the development of housing. The
Public Health Act was amended to give the municipalities
permission to set up separate departments for dealing with
sewage and sanitation.
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I8780- 1890 s Different industrialists adopted the -garden
town" approach to plan their industrial townships in order
to make life more'livable for their industrial workers.
Cadbury set up Sournyille in 1878, Lever sot up Port
Sunlight in 1887 s and now litre;- set up a townsnip in York
in 1890,
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1909 ? So far the attempts to control the environment had
been mainly in the.hands of the industrialists wishing to
have a healthier working force or the State in keeping towns
free of epidemics and disease. But during the Boer 4ar
it was discover-' d that recruits from working-class areas
were very weak.- sometimes too’weak to even lift a rifle.
A committee sot up to investigate the reasons for this
reported.on the-appalling living conditions of the working
class and recommended the passing of legislation to control
these conditions. Accordingly in 1909 the government
passed the Town Planning Act which gave the State authori
ties the power, for the first time, dictate how private
property in land was to be used.
1930s 2 The massive problems of the world-wide recession
giving rise to crises in industrial production, employment,
transport etc. gave rise to the first debates on regional
disparities and government action to control these in a
laissez-faire economy.
'• ’
• 19^7 s ’The first Labor government had come, to power and it
tried to implement the first steps of State controJ^over
planning, through hationalisation and the Town and Country
Planning Act which extended planning .concepts from the
city to the village areas.
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. 1950 ? do rid dur II had by- now devastated a''large number of
r towns and these had to be rebuilt from scratch.
In.,
addition John Maynard Keynes had shown through his general
theory how the State not-only could but had to act with
its enormous fiscal .and polit!cal-powers to control the
economy. Thus the rationale for State planning was
established.
•
1968 2 -dith the complete breakdown of the . colonial system
and its consequent economic problems'the government had to
make additional efforts to organise and manage production,
housing, transport, food.etc. Hence the new Town and
Country Planning Act'was passed to control the environment.
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1970 s di th the increase in education and political
consciousness various sections of the public began to
fight both private and public enterprise on environmental
Issues of location, noise, pollution, etc. and so the
State integrated environmental action by setting up the
Department of the Environment. :
3
all tills is neither completely repr: sent itive of
developments in other countries nor unique.
For instance,
State Planning began in earmest in :the USSR in 1920, Even
the US and UK had extensive experience in control by
Government during the two Jorld Jars.
India did not go
through the same process of industrialisation as the UK
nevertheless it adopt d much of the social and planning
legislation of Groat Britain, But the trends are fairly
clear.
In the 1920s environmental issues wore mainly raised
as a protest against industrialisation and its despoliation
of the countryside.
In the 1960s it became fashionable to
talk of pollution, ecology, and muchelse. But in the 1970s
population and pollution have become pressing problems for
governments everywhere.
//hat we learn from history then is that the’ degradation
and control of the environment became public issuesfor
governmental action only when they posed economic problems
in the course of production for private profit -and that
governmental action had to take up increasingly stricter
positions with regard to private property and its use so
that the social fabric was not destroyed,
Jhen these underlying issues become clear we can now
proceed to define our concepts of Environmental Planning so
that these become helpful in understinding our society and
the tasks we have to take up in order to correct its ills.
Je may take -as a starting point Frank Fraser Darling’s .
comment s •’ ,, we need to develop some yardstick for. human
content^ to be able to measure the lesser doget of discontent
and psychosomatic disease in rehabilitated environments.
This is the ultimate concern of politics, •’ Je can now
define Environmental Planning as that political exercise
in allocation and management of resources wnich improves
the well-being of those engaged in production, prevents the
harmful by-products of industrialisation, and preserves
the natural resources, ■'
Je have already dealt with the first two issues, we
shall now take up the third,
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3. Resources -human and material - and development?
4b
Jo shall not enter here into the debate on the world
ecological crisis - important though it may b< - but shall
concentrate on the case of India using underdevelopment as
an illustration of the ’ general problem of development.
4
Food, energy, and production are intimately related to
the economic state of a nation. The following figure reveals
with great clarity the position of India with respect to
the rest of the world?
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4500
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2000
2500
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3000
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Cross national product(dollars per capita)
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- The jJS uses’ov:-r 4-ty X 10 Kcal per c ipita of’which
8.16 X 10° Kcal were- used to provide food for an average
US' resident of which^ further, 18%’ w is used on the farm. If
all the world hud the sarie per capita energy bill for the
entire food chain, a quantity equal to two-thirds of the
1970 world commercial energy use- would have been consumed
for this purpose.
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Let us look at a few more' relevant figures?
1.‘Between 1971-73 the industrialised countries-with 30$
of total world population produced 60% of the world’s food.
5
2. The US supplied between 1965 and 1970 50/<> of the world’s
exports of cereals and its fellow industrialised countries
took 2/3rd of these exports.
3. The cost of all commercial food exports was
§996 m in 1955
§3000 m in 1967
§4-000 m in 1972
§9000 m in 19744. On present trends
(a) the annual increase of food supplies is
208/0 in the industrialised world
2.7% in the developing world
(b) the annual increase of food deiiiand ds
1.5% in the industrialised world
3*5% in the developing world.
5. The consumption of cereals is
222 kg in the developing countries
1000 kg in the industrialised world (per capita). Of
tni’s 1000 kg only 70 kg is consumed directly by hum m
beings. The rest (930 kg) is either fed to cattle and
consumed as beef or supplied as luxury food to pet
animals.
6. 372 m tons of grain are used annually for livestock feed
in the rich countries. This is approximately the total
amount of grain now consumed directly by humans in
China and India (total population 1400 million).
To illustrate further the dynamic relationship between
food, energy, production and money, lot us take the -case of
a typical hypothetical developing country:
It might be assumed that in country X 20% of the food
requirements are being met by farmers using Green devolution
techniques, there is available only limited foreign
exchange, and half of the fertiliser supply is imported. If
•a lOO/o increase in fertiliser price occures, the following
sequence of events may take place:
i. because of limited foreign exchange, fertiliserpurchases must be halved, reducing total fertiliser
supply to 75% of the original level.
ii. Farmers using Green devolution technology bid up
the price of fertiliser discouraging other farmers
from trying this practice.
iii. The total foodgrains supply drops 2^^, but since
f irn famllies consume half the country°s food, the
shortfalls in marketable surplus is 5^°
iVo Persons anticipating the shortage enter the market
trying to buy advance food supplies, consequently
driving food prices up to perhaps double their
original level.
v. Persons with low incomes who must buy food are forced
to starvation level diets.
vi o The government in oMer to prevent st arvation, buys
grain on the world market and soils it internally
■it low prices.
vii. Grain purchases consume the limited foreign exchange
reserves being accumulated for energy resource
development and fertiliser plant construction.
Food prices in such countries become linked to inter
national energy, fertiliser, or food prices irrespective of
the productive capacity of the people. With energy prices
dependent on what the market will bear, affluent economies,
which are already dependent on high energy use and stand
to incur great Losses if energy flow is cut, can afford to
bld energy prices up to very high levels. One recent model
of California agriculture shows shadow prices of diesel fuel
of around §550 per berrel. The impact of all this is
basically to prevent countries such as X from using or
expanding the use of Gree devolution technology.
dearing in mind that industrial development depends
upon surpluses accumulating froz/agriculture and upon
adequate food supplies in an underdeveloped but developing
economy let us also look at estimates of world resource
depletions
dumber of years until total resource depletion based
on current exponential rates of uscs-
aluminium
Coal
Gold
manganese
dickel
52
147
26
91
93
Molybdenum 62
Cobalt
145
Iron
170
Mercury
38
Petroleum
47
Chromium
151
Copper
45
Lead
61
Natural gas 46
Platinum •
82
tfithin such a macroeconomic situation what are the
specific problems that India faces and will have to face?
7
1. By 2000 a.D. the population will r<ach ?0 crores.
2o Jith increasing population pressures land ownership will
be fragmented making it all the more difficult to apply
aodorn technology.
3. There- will, therefore, be a decline in land productivity.
By the end of the century 210 million tonnes of foodgrains
will be required to feed the population -an increase of
100 million in 25 years.
5. There will be the increased need to export goods at
competitive prices in the world market.
60 Large' scale under- and un-employment will exist in the
agricultural sector.
7. Consequently, there will be large migrations to the cities.
80 Disparities in income, health, education, housing etc.
etc. will continue to grow.
90 The quality of the environment will continue to deter
iorate further adding to the vicious cycle of under
development and poverty.
The figures for agricultural and industrl •*! growth
rates reveal the 'dimensions of the struggle to grow:-
, •
Agricultural growth rates - 56/57 to 7O/71a
1. 5 t o 6/0 with small variations — Punjab,Haryana,Kar• • *
nataka.
2. 5. to 7/0 with large variations — Rajasthan, Gujerat.
3. 2^ -. 3/ .[.with small variations — Ta-ailnadu, Kerala.
4. 3 - 3iX
with large variations — Orissa,We st Bengal,
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Uttar Pradesh.
■5 = Under 2% with small variations — Andhra, Assam.
6a unic-r 2% with large vari.itions — Bihar,Madhya
Pradesh, riah irashtra.
Rate of growth in large-scale manufacturing sector:
_
•
Plan I
Plan II
Plan III
Plan holiday
Plan IV
Plan V
target
7.00
10.50
10.75
12.00
8.00
realisedp.a.
6.00
7.25 ■
8.00
3-33
2.75
(agriculture)
A.2
4.0
- 1.4
6.2
2.5
Here again it should .be remembered that agriculture
provides the base for national development.
It both provides
the purchasing capacity for manufactured goods in the rural
areas, the raw materials for agroindustries, the market
for agriindustries, and the surplus for industrial investment
8
in the initial stages.
//hi le the 'Gr' on devolution
brought about some r- markable technological; innovations
it only raised the output of -wheat, muiae, and jowar, quite
often at the expense of cotton, groundnut, and other cash
crops from which land was taken away. Also the output rise
levelled off after 5 years in 1970. The growth in agricul
ture has been limited because of (a) lack of cultivable
land? (b) inefficient land and water management.
The incapability of the economy to grow rapidly is
reflected in the social tensions and fears, a medical account
puts it thus:
’dising irreparable damage accompanies present industrial
expansion in all sectors.
In medicine these damages appear
as iatrogenesis.
Iatrogenesis can be direct: when pain,
sickness, and death result from medical care; or it can be
indirect: when health policies reinforce an industrial
organisation which generates ill-health; it can be structural
when medically sponsored behaviour and delusion restrict
the vital autonomy of people by undermining their competence
in growing up, caring, ageing; or when it nullifies the
personal challenge arising from their pain, disability, and
anguish. Most of the remedies proposed to reduce iatro
genesis are engineering interventions. They are therapeuti
cally designed in their approach to the individual, the
group, the institution, or the environment. These socalled remedies generate second-order iatrogenic ills by
creating a new prejudice against the autonomy of the citizen.*’
Thus far the problems are clear. What about the
solutions? In the next section we will deal with the
solutions proposed by governmental and institutional
authorities.
C. Planning for growth:
It is possible to approach social problems with
'Herbert Spencer’s attitudes:-
suffering and evil are nature’s admonitions; they
cannot be got rid of; and the impatient attempts of bene
volence to banish them from the world of legislation before
benevolence has learned their object and end, have always
been more productive than good.”
or assort with Leon Trotsky;’Through the machine man in socialist society will, command
nature in its entirety, with its grouse and its sturgeons.
He will point out places for mountains and for passes. He
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will change tne course of rivers, und ho will lay down rules
for the ocr .ns. The idoilist simpletons may say th.it this
will be a boro, but that is why they are simpletons. Of
course, this does not nean that the entire- globe will be
narked off into boxes, that the forests will bo turned into
parks and gardens, host likely, thickets and forests and
grouse and tigers will remain. And nan will do it so well
that the* tiger wont even notice the machine, or feel the
change, but will live is he lived in primeval tines. The
machine is not in opposition to the earth. The machine is
the instrument of man in every field of life-’.
or to take positions in between.
distory certainly seems to favour Trotsky.
Given the postulate that it is possible for men to
change the reality through concerted -action let us see what
solutions are proposed by those who cun influence national
policy.
Outlining the Strategy for Integrated Rural Development,
C. Subramaniaia states that '‘The challenge facing us is for
harnessing the potential of science and technology for the
optimum use of all our natural assets - human, animal, and
physical - for banishing poverty from our midst". For
this he proposes that the focus be on the integrated use of
r-- sources and the provision of full employment. This is to
be d me bys-
1. Modernisation of agriculture through land reforms,
community nurseries, water management, pest control,
fish culture, and the use of post-harvest technology,
2. Emphasis on health and family planning.
3. Increased production of energy.
Setting up of agro-industrial complexes.
5- Improved management md marketing.
6. Setting down of minimum productivity standards.
7» Encouraging participation of locaVpeople so that public
agencies perform efficiently.
8o Investing in resear oh and scientific training.
9o Central coordination.
Thus, government is to take specific action in providing
the infrastructure for development (water, transport,pesti
ciics, health, family planning, power, panch.ayat boards,
research, education; administration etc.) and to propose
norms for private production.
• i. ’
rlajni Kothari, looking into the future at 2000 a.D.
mikes life styles, organisation of space, and organisation
of production the central Issues. Accordingly; he recommends
that:
10
1. The principal focus be on the goneration of employment.
2o This is to be done by c italysing the growth in agriculture
through the app Lieut ion of modern technology and
oxtensive land reforms.
3» Generation of employment in rur A areas through large
nub Lie works can be supported by agricultural growth
resulting in restriction of the migration to the cities
and provision of a base for rural industrialisation.
a social continuum has to bo maintained by planning so
as to reduce regional disparities.
5. Mass education is required for cultural changes to support
growth.
6. an ethic of consumption has to be laid down to control
the spending of the affluent classes.
?. The nature of production should be determined by the
needs of the masses.
8. Social minima in health, nutrition, education have to be
provided.
9o Participation by the people has to be enoour>ged at
every level in every institution.
Here, too, the St ite is to take the initiative in the
service sector and lay down production and social norms.
K.N. Ha j , investigating the causes'of Industrial
Stagnation in India arrives at the following analysis:-
1. Growth of industry does not depend on an increase in
the utilise! cap iclty but the pattern of demand for the
production.
20 The demand is of three types:- (a) private and domestic
consumptions (b) fr.om government and public enterprises
(c) for export.
3. Domestic demand is in turn dependent on the condition
of agriculture. Growth in income from agriculture will
increase domestic purchasing capacity.
Agricultural development will also affect ugro-based
industries.
5. Chemical and metallurgical-base industries mainly cater
to the affluent sections and hence should be strictly
controlled.
6. Therefore, it is necessary to focus <n agricultural
development.
7. This can be done by a package of land reforms, innovational
technology, development of small scale rural industries,
marketing infrastructure*, appropriate fiscal and credit
policies, and decentralisation of the decision-making
powers to the people’s institutions.
J
Once again, the State is to develop the infrastructure but
not interfere in the production for private profit itself-
11
So we see that a bread consensus exists amongst
policy-makers and economists on the scope' and content of
planning for growth. The consensus focusses on the need to
provide an infrastructural base for the development of
agriculture and rural industry so as to provide employment
but not to interfere in private profit oth<r than in laying
down certain norms.
In order to assess the value of these proposals we
need to analyse society and its structure more deeply and
systematically to arrive at an understanding of the confli
cting forces in society and their directions.
Only then
can we consciously choose the form of our intervention. In
the following section we shall attempt to look at certain
theoretical formulations of the nature of society and their
practical correlations.
D. Who plans, who pays, who benefits?
As we have seen in Section a planning w is undertaken
as a deliberate State function in order to reduce, if not
remove, the economic disparities between different sections
of the population. Thus the cure for the problem of poverty
was to be found in a redistribution of income and resources
primarily through the provision of employment.
Now
employment obviously means that there is an employer and an
employee. The employer works for profit and the employee
for wages.
Hence the essential relationship in all
production becomes one of wage-employment, and the price
paid for the product should recover both the cost of
production as well us the profit of the owner. The mathematical
femotionality can best bo described bys
p = c + v + s
where p = price of unit product
c = fixed capital investment per unit
product
•
v = Variable capitalper unit product
(including wages)
and s = surplus profit
s
or the rate of profit
r = _______
c
+
V
We shall now see how this equation from Marxian economic
analysis helps us to understand the dynamics of development.
The equation expresses two fundamental principless-
a) Firstly, for the economy to develop’the rate of profit
must always%bo a positive quantity greater than Q. Moreover,
in a competitive1 market it will try to maximise itself.
12
b) Secondly, the surplus available * is dependent upon to
what extent the -cost of production c+v can be decreased.
This specifically indicates a degrease in v which includes
the wage and is therefore likely to be resisted by the
wage-earner.
The satisfaction of these two principles has been the
task of planning ns we shall, now see.
1. Profit
a) r can be increased by keeping the cost of production
c+v constant but increasing the price p thus increasing
s.
In a market economy the simplest method of doing
this is to create a shortage in the supply. Such
profits are by and large taken by merchant trade. The
system of planned rationing of scarce goods while
aimed at price and supply control indirectly assists
the merchant who can take g )ods out of the rationing
controls and sell then on the open market. Sugar is
sold by the State to the authorised merchant at Rs. 2
per kilo who then, in collusion with government
officials, falsifies his books and sells the sugar
in the .market at Rs. 6 per kilo.
b)
If v can be decreased then r will increase. The most
common way of doing this is to incr ase the productivity
of Labour, pr -by technical innovations that reduce the
need for labour. Both cill for the correct management
of technology. Since the Emergency of June' 1975 the
tightening of -’discipline” has increased production
in the entire public sector.
Record targets,.increased
exports, and profits have been reported in coal,power,
steel, fertiliser, mining - all under State control
and essentially providing raw materials for private
industry and private agriculture. At the same time
layoffs are reported from many sectors of private
industry. An indication of the drive for profits is
that in 9 months in 7^-75 the rise in industrial output
w „s 3*2% after stagnation.’ In addition bonus and .
dearness allowances have been frozen to control inflation*.
c) Decrease in c in order to raise r takes a special
importance in a country where capital is scarce. The
objective of the conception of Appropriate Technology
is to introduce :tsuch processes and innovati >ns which
may not be capital intensive, should, be able to
generate employment and could be managed with local
skill and competence, using local raw materials and
13
should lead to capital formation for further investment.’
Profit (surplus) is therefore to be increased by minimal
investments in capital goods and infrastructural
facilities such is education and transport.
d) Capital availability- is essential for further investment
and growth.
Capit il is normally extracted from surplus
s but not all s has been invested in productive units.
Much of it has been converted into wealth or used for
luxury consumption. The government’s drive to unhoard
wealth, declare income, and control black money would be
interpreted as an attempt to divert more capital into
production.
Foreign aid is another source of capital
investment and various concessions have been proposed
to invite foreign investment. Net flow of external
assistance fell to Rs. 25^ crores in 1973 but it is
estimated to bo well over Rs. 1000 crores in 75-76. The
Nnrld Bank has recommended that gross aid to India
should rise from Rs. 2098 crores in 75-76 to Rs. 317^
cr. in 1980 to Rs. ^?20 cr. in 1985-86. This is to be
looked at in the background of invitations to multi-natio
nals to invest in India and the fact that the rate of
return on US manufacturing industries in India has
increased from 7.5% in 1967 to 15.8% in 1972.
Fiscal policies reveal the real nature of investment
distribution. The 1976 budget records the dramatic reduction
in direct taxation on personal income and wealth tax in
order to provide more purchasing capibity. Tax reductions
for private industry are also accompanied by an Investment
Allowance of 25% for acquiring plant and machinery. This
is in effect the reflection of the report last year that
the.. Ministry of Industrial Development was considering
a scheme to make it compulsory for all firms in selected
industries, including larger industrial houses, to
reinvest their profits in renovation, modernisation, and
expansion of their existing units. -Further incomes in
the budget arise from the Rs. ^80 cr. of impounded
Dearness Allowances of wage earners for a year. Of the
Rs. 7852 cr. of budgeted expenditure, two-third has been
allocated to defense and the primary sector (petroleum,
steel, transport, coal, fertilisers). Rs 15 cr. has been
allotted to C. Subrananiam’s Integrated Rural Development.
Credit policies have been specifically directed to
provide funds for investment to increase production in
rural areas while maintaining prices for 'agricultural
products at the same level.
e)
Increases in population wipe out increases in production.
To maintain growth and extract more surplus for investment
it is essential that the number of mouths to feed be
decreased relatively. Hence the heavy emphasis on Family
1L
Planning. Apart from the earlier incentives being
offered for steriLisations (cash rewards9 transistors9
etc.) and vasectomies etc. the Four-point programme has
established the rationale for application of enormous
administrative pressures,
FP clinics have been set
targets at the cost of their allowances; State govern
ments have been announcing penalities for those government
servants who do not undergo ’-sterilisation; ration
cards and employment are being tied up to family planning.
f) Early capitalist growth had emphasised the concept of
competition and hence ever increasing rates of profit.
The new "Ethics of consumption" and monopoly control are
attempts to put an end to run away competition.
-’The
Indian case tends one to conclude that the volume of
surplus product is not adequate to the scale of extended
reproduction in the structure where the product originated.
A large body of surplus product may exist side by side
with the stagnation of the structure or it may be mainly
expended to finance rapid expansion of production in
•another structure.
In sone cases the redistribution
system 'acts as a brake on extended reproduction9 thereby
maintaining the dominance of those sections of society
which live off the surplus product of a given structure.
If the volume and material composition of the surplus
product are well balanced-with the numbers9 demographic
dynamics and aspirations"of the dominant class9 then this
class for a long time• experiences rather weak stimuli
for change in the mode of production,
•
*
•
•
2, He si stance.
•
»
*
•
"
•
•
•
Resistance to the process of growth would be encountered
from those whose interests are harmed or not satisfied by
economic development./ Hence9 this resistance has to be
.overcome,
' .
'
• -
.
■/
*
-vra).Land reforms are essential to agricultural growth as the
older system of land ownership patterns1 is not conducive
to the application of modern technology. Large tracts
•of land under the ownership of one family and rented out
for subsistence farming to small farmers are not
.. productive neither is there the incentive for greater
production on the part of the shareholder or tenant.
The determined application of land celling Acts reflects
attempt to break the opposition of the large landowners.
b) However, land redistribution of tiny plots to landless
also does not make economic-sense for these too are not
viable for the application of technological Inputs.
The political rationale for this would9therefore, be to
15
ease the exploitxtion of bonded labour until such time
as alternative employment becomes available through
rural industries and public works.
c) The major conflict between employer and employee is
rooted in the ownership of the means of production. Wage
agitations9 strikes, bundhs, gheraos, representations
are reflections of this conflict. It is not sufficient
to ban the conflict and impose the ban by force. Other
measures to wear down the resistance are important.
One of the ways to do this is to' make the worker a
property owner too. The very process of education,
training, and employment ensures that the worker comes
from a background of petty ownership.
Worker participation
• in management attempts to give selected workers a
democratic chance to have a voice in a limited arc a of
owner control, iind there is the latest suggestion by
the Industries Minister to invest the impounded Dearness
'Allow?pee of workers in public sector shares. Corruption,
. too, plays a major role in providing government
servants with a vested interest in the existing process
of development.
In spite of the Emergency and the spate
of transfers 9 the patwari, the peon, the office clerk,
the administrative and executive officers continue to
receive their 10% share so that they nay supplement
the salary offered by the State. Traders, merchants,
contractors remark that corruption has not been removed,
it h .is only become 'lore expensive and hence less people
-can1afford.it. The structure of administration is also
•: designed to decentralise the conflict. Large production
and manufacturing units contract out portions of their
. work to large contractors who sub-contract to smaller
contractors who further sub-contract to petty contractors
• who contract out to labour contractors and skilled
- workmen and so on. The total surplus extracted is,
therefore, distributed in diminishing percentages over
a wide range.
'
d) Divisions within the opposition are also useful to
overcome the resistance.
The multipolarity of political
parties, the diversity of trade and labour unions, the
income gradations in the working class, the hierarchical
relationship between workers in different sectors of
industry, the conflict between the administrative
apparatus and the productive labour force are all
factors which divide the resistance and a unified contra!
coordination body is capable of successfully manipulating
these divisions. The 20 point programme provides the
correct platform for establishing the centralis ition.
e) Mass education Is advocated as the base for a democracy.
But the cost of mass education is very high. Instead mass
advertising provides a convenient method of building up
an image and attitude while selective training reinforces
16
the mass consciousness* Every mass media, every bus,
truck, and train carries the slogans of the 2Q-point
programme. The commercial advertising firms were
mobilised for this massive effort*
In addition regular
courses are being organised for union leaders, profess
ionals, and party members on the form and content of
the new economic initiatives. The point being constantly
driven home is that production is being reorganised to
provide for the needs of the masses,, that structural
transformations are being made to benefit the people.
With a record output of foodgrains last year to permit
the government to control food prices in the market
these statements can be proved sufficiently true for the
1xrgely uneducated population* In this context the loss
of democratic freedoms in sone areas means little at
the present time*
f) Potential resistances to the system lie in the young
people who enter the educational institutions expecting
employment at the end of the course. Banning unions,
rustications, and signed pledges arc not in themselves
enough*
Cultural, attitudinal changes are necessary
for their tolerance of the system* Publicity is valuable
but still not enough* Hence, opportunities have to be
provided to engage the youth in national action of some
sort* The National Service Scheme for students and a
plethora of other schemes for youth and social welfare
offer the opportunities potential problem-makers to
adjust to social realities*
It is estimated that such
schemes reach out t^ 6 to 7% of the student population
and the importance of these programmes should not be
underestimated*
g) The industrial trxnsitian in Europe was influenced by
arjd in turn encouraged the work ethic of Protestantism
which broke away from the earlier Catholic fatalism*
Neither Hinduism nor Islam have had such a break*
Hinduism remained and developed as an ideology of
developed feudalism which is why it forms the base of
the backward-looking political parties today. While
this offers problems for the industrial development of
India - which offers a rationale for charismatic and
autocratic leadership trends - nevertheless the system
of caste institutions exhibiting features of tribal
cohesion, slavish humility, and social estate organisation
are useful in absorbing dissent and peaching conformityfor instance, in the appeal by Vinob.a Bh-ave for an
era of discipline.
The reader may be wondering how all this is related to
17
exercise in the allocation -and. management of resources which
improves the well-being of those- engaged in productiona
prevents the harmful by-products of industrialisation, and
preserves the natural resources19.
(Here preservation is in
the sense of regeneration rather than mere protection,, )
The point by now is quite clear:- all planning including
environmental planning today, is undertaken under duress by
the profit-making sections of society in order to preserve
their dominance over society,, The real question then is
whether planning can be used in India to remedy this
situation and what should be the direction of the remedy?
E, Ideals and examples:
That the problems of industrial society lie tn the private
ownershipof the means of production and, thereby, production
for private profit was recognised even by Robert Owen with
whom we started this piper, hence, in the abstract plane
it is not so difficult to stipulate that if the motivation
for private’property wore to be removed from society.then
social and economic ills would be amenable to solution. Thus
the- demand for socialisation of the means of production,
ioO. social ownership and control..
To illustrate the point let us take the case of the
Hukamchand Jute Mills (manufacturing Caustic Soda) at
Anlai, run by private industry for private profit; Under; law
the Mill has to provide basic medical facilities for its
250 employees. Two years without a doctor in the health
centre finally sparked off an agitation amongst the employees
and within 24 hours a doctor was located and employed. The
salary of the doctor was fixed at Rs. 800 p.m. and the budget
for medical supplies at Rs. 1200 p.m.
Uithin a year the
doctor found that he was on duty practically 24 hours a day
as he was resident in the Mill colony and that the budget
for medical supplies was totally inadequate0
For instance,
chlorine gas leakages would occur frequently and up to a
dozen asphyxiated workers would be brought in demanding
immediate treatment. Tne first step in this would be to
supply Oxygen but there was only one compressed Oxygen bottle
to be shared between a dozen men.
In other instances most
workers would get the prescription from the' doctor and then
have to purchase the medicines from outside as the doctor
has specific instructions not to issue drugs except to
‘’important19 persons such as union office-holders and super
visors. Finally the doctor asked for a salary increase to
Rs. 1200 and a medical budget of Rs. 2500. After two months
of indecision the management offered the doctor Rs. 1000 and
no increment in the budget. The doctor resigned and the
Mill is once again without medical facilities. The question
to be asked is would the same have happened if the Mill had
boon under social (workers’) control rather than under
private ownership?
18
• Here is another report:
-This plant, started in 1968, refines several million tons
of oil a year.
I walk out among pipes and red banners to
the unlikely sight of pools of goldfish and ducks in cane
pons. There are smiles when I ask how these can stand the
polluted environment.
’’You have seen the point:3, says
a worker with a knowing grin,- but upsi :.o down'’. The fish
and ducks are the living fruit of ingenious affort to' beat
pollution. The plant emits waste water, the worker explains,
which contains harmful sulfides and phenols.
If allowed to
run away it would damage crops and foul rivers. The best way
to get rid of evil it was reasoned, is to turn evil into
good. Here is a tower where sulfides are removed from waste
water.
Over there is a cement pool where the residue of oil
is skimmed off it - and sent back for refining. Nearby, a n
oration tank where compressed air and a flotation agent are
added to the water. The water then flows into pools in
which the emulsified oil and flotation agent are scooped off.
Still left are the phenols, but with the aid of a rotary
beater they are absorbed by micro-organisms.
Now the water
is ready for the fish and ducks, as well as vegtable plots
which help to feel the plant’s workers. Everyone grins with
satisfaction as we survey this cunning sequence.'4
The plant described is General Petrochemical in Peking.
In the UK dereliction, neglect and misuse of resources
are found in all the old centres of the Industrial Revolution.
Of all the abuses the river’s require the most urgent
action because of their far-reaching impact on land, air,wild
life and people.
Of the 30 per cent..which need improvement,
over 10 pur cent arevseriously polluted. The river Trent
receives the sewage of the great midland cities. It could
cost nearly 200 million to .cleanse it to standards set 60
years ago, yet probably only a quarter more to treat the
sewage-so that the water is almost drinkable. Yet the UK
goverhiiient believes it to be significantly worthwhile to take
up ■ environmental restoration.
For instance, the Nuffield
Foundation, the Swansea City Council, and the Government
initiated a study of the valley of the river Tawe in 1961.
Over 1200 acres of this dead and derelict landscape bore
witness to the depredations of nineteenth-century copper
and zinc smelting.- during the investigations it was estab
lished that the legal problems arising from multiple ownerwhip
wore considerable. Other issues extended far beyond the
vaLLey. Reclaiming part of the site for light industry would
affect employment in neighbouring valleys where coal-mining
was on the decline.
Its use for recreation would relievo
pressures on unspoilt countryside, a formal report for the
project was presented in. 196?.. Rince then 5^ acres have
been-'reclaimed and much of the valley has been used for new
development projects or landscaped.
150 acres have been
19
afforested. Flood prevention schemes have been undertaken
on the river Tawe,
-but in order to resolve the multiple
ownership problems the Swansea City Council had to acquire
and amalgamate in land ownerships.
In the US Halph Nader wrote in- 197 1 2
’’The Federal
role in water pollutioncontrol began in 19^8 on a temporary
trial basis and became permanent in 1956. ... Beginning
with the drafting of the water pollution legislation, the
Federal effort grew into a complex charade. The built-in
procedural delays exceeded the professional avarice of
the most adamant corporate lawyers. The generic delegation
of initiatory moves to the states insured the availability
of. a 5livide-and-rule’ tactic by industry vis-a-vis
already subservient and underequipped state agrncies.
A 72 year old Federal law banning the dumping of industrial
pollution into navigable waterways went almost completely
unenforced until its 70th birthday when the first of some
30 in junctive actions were brought against a fraction of
the approximately -40,000 daily violators. Hundreds of
millions of dollars of construction grant subsidies flowed
from Washington to local government for waste treatment
plants which industry promptly used to dump more waste
through. This subsidy to local industry turned into a
subsidy to factories that increased water pollution. The
Kafkaesque tapestry extends into the mockery of Federal
enforcement conferences, the neverending deadline
extensions for the weakest of pollution controls, the
secured trade secrecy over what lethalities industries dump
into the public’s waterways, the clear evidence of serious
and worsening contamination of drinking water, the damage
to other people’s property and property rights by industrial
municipal, and agriculturalpolLution without even any
compensation. the loss of livelihoods for thousands of
commercial fishermen, and the emergence of water so laden
with ignitable wastes that, rivers such as the Buffalo and
the Cuyahoga are declared official fire hazards ....
Its
(the Federal role’s) effectiveness to date can be
concisely assessed by the virtual absence of any evidence
that the seven laws passed and more than three billion
dollars spent by the? Federal government has reduced the
level of pollution in any of our country’s major bodies
of water, so that they are once again suitable for human
use ....”
And, finally, some revealing data from Tachai, the
pioneering commune in China?.-
20
Product!on of grain
160
180
2^0
337
5^3
917
Individually (19^9)
'
Mutual Aid Team member (^8-52)
Cooperatives 1st year (53)
Advance cooperative 1st year (56)
Commune 1st year (58)
Present (7^)
Jin/mou
jin/mou
jin/mou
jin/mou
jin/mou
jin/mou
v/hat are the lessons that we. can draw from the historical
experience of this and other countries about environmental
control? —
•K
1. The technical aspects of control, conservationj and
regeneration are within the grasp of mankind.
2. The environmental economics is extremely important in
the long run but not so visible when the objective is
immediate profit.
3. tfhat we despoil today somebody else will have to pay
■ for tomorrow - at much higher cost.
4. Governments and agencies act on environmental Issues
-■ only when there is sufficient pressure from organisat
ions of people.
•
•
•
I
5. People organise on such issues when they have a direct
.• vested interest in as also a consciousness of the
■ preservation of the environment.
6.-Thus action for and against environmental planning is
, essentially political.
•
% <•
•
•
*
•
•
•*«•*
•
7. The large-scale aspect of environment al action makes
it imperative for the state to be involved.
8. Political action by those engaged in production is,
■therefore, the central issue of all environmental (and
•. other) action and planning.
, , . Merely a theoretical perspective will not lead to the
practical solution of the issues under consideration. The
slogan of .’’Socialism” is, therefore not a panacea for all
ills. It is a concept, a guide for action, a perception
of the future - a possible future not a determined one.
The possibilities of that, future depend upon the reali
ties of the present and the social forces that emanate
from the present. It is the consciousness of me about their
social fabric and environment that will determine how they
shape their lives, as conscious individuals, therefore,we
too have to set out specific takks and goals.
21
F.
Tasks;
The tasks "before us 9 then, would seem to lie in three
areas:
1. Intellectual:
A detailed understanding of how the present
planning process sustains and perpetuates an existential
society and of what are the dynamic forces within that
society interacting with planning is essential for
extrapolating- into the future., This is not merely an
academic exercise for a few individuals. Rather it
involves theoretically challenging the present system
and organising a structure that will enlarge the "body
of individuals conscious of social contradictions and
pose the issues for the larger society. The methodology
of setting up such structures and the formation of
cadres has been established in detail in another set of-.
papers and hence we need not gointo it hero.
2. Cultural:
A desire for change is rooted in the
realities of life.
If life is perceived to be unpleasant
and full of deprivation then forces are released for
bringing about a transformation in that way of life.
However, perceptions are.not absolute and what is
unpleasant for one nay be indifferent for another.
Responses to environmental factors can be conditioned
over periods of time. Those who have known nothing but
dirt and hunger, for instance, in their daily lives are
likely to accept these as unchangeable and given. Forms
of communication (newspapers, drama, propaganda) are
also intensively used by dominant classes to create
attitudes and thought processes that are - at that moment
of time - not aimed at changing society but rather at
preserving what is bearable in it. The task would,
therefore, be to examine what are the- forms of culture
that break away from the past and look into the future
and what is the relationship of these with the techno
logical forces extant in society. These issues have
been dealt with separately and we shall have to consider
in greater detail the methodological tools necessary.
3. Economic:
Since material conditions form the base
from, which consciousness arises (if there were no
poverty there would be no perception of poverty) and,
hence, the culture and organisation of human beigns;
therefore we have to look into the economic forces
and policies that dominate in society today and frem
this determine the way in which we would intervene.
For instance, if the trader extracts large surpluses
from the production process and does not invest it in
productive ways then does not an Intervention in the
marketing organisations lead to a consciousness of
how society operates and, thence, an attempt to control
the environment?
22
We shall end this paper by noting that the concepts
of environmental planning'presented here differ in many
details and definitions from what is commonly accepted
by institutional structures but we have tried to estab
lish the rationale of why we differ. Since the concepts
are new the methodological tools are -also to bo evolved
anew so that analytical treatment of data may be
possible with different biases.
We are .on new ground
and it is best that we are sure of what is under our feet
before we take the next step. '■
.
‘
List of references
1. Lincoln Allison; Environmental Planning; a political
and philosophical analysis; George Allen & Unwin
Ltd-. 1975.
2. 8.No Juyal; Area Development Planning; Concepts, methods
and practices; seminar paper, 1976.
3. Rajni Kothari; an outlook for India’s future (2000 a.D.)
a Interim report on rural development;NCST, 1976.
C. Subrauaniam; Strategy for Integrated Rural Develop
ment; Govt, of India, 1976.
5. K.N. Raj; Growth and Stagnation in Indian Industrial
Development; G.L.Mehta memorial lecture,Bombay,1976.
J.
6. C. DeFonseka; The Man-Land relationship and Agrarian
reform
in China; seminar paper, Colombo, 1976.
<
•
7. Commerce, August 18, 1973.
•
•
•
c
8. Financial Express, August 9, 19739. .LJo Chancellor & J.R.Goss; Balancing Energy and Food
Production,1975-2000; Science, Vol.192, 1976.
10. Times of India; selected news items on Industrial
•policies and data.
11. Economic and Political Weekly; selected data from
19 Companies'®.
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12. Sone aspects of the study of a multistructural society;
unpublished manuscript.
13. Mo Naveed; India; The June’76 budget;Imprecor,no.51,May,76.
1^. India’s Health Dilemmas and Us; Hole of Ideological and
Political Factors; seminar paper, 1976.
15- Communist Party of India(Marxist);Central Committee
Meeting, Jun. 1976.
16. Appropriate- Technology Development Association;Statement
of objectives; Lucknow, 1976.
17‘. Rose Terrill; Flowers on an Iron tree; Five cities of
forthcoming publication, 1976.
< * China;
•
18. David Zwick & Marcy Benstock; Bater Nasteland;Bantam,
1971.
19a Robert arvil.L; Man and Environment5 Pelican, 1967/
.
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* •
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20o Geor.ce Dalton; Economic Systems and Society; Capitalism,
Comminism and the Third. Norid; Penguin, Modern ‘Economic
Texts,
• •
21. C.c.^Fonseku; Tachai; seminar paper, 1975*
2d Lim Tech Ghee; Technology and Culture* in Southeast
• zisius In search of a now balance; project paper,
University Sod ns, Malaysia, 1975«
23o BoNo Juyal and Vikasbhai; Response to Technology and
Culture in Southeast Asia; Varanasi, 1975-
24. Narayan Chandra; Plan for Social Change; seminar paper,
Varanasi, 1976.
The Shahdol Group
July,1976.
c
cowi^1’r'
B°ad
67'A'^So^-5eo0°1
AIMS AM~ POTENTIAL BENEFITS OF WATER S UPPLY IMPROVE ’TENTS
Dr. SV. Rama Rao*
There is urgent need for understanding the health
aspects in water supply and a programme launched for such a
purpose must bestow top priority for health education regardino
the importance of water. This education is important for not
only the community but also the administrators and aoencies
■involved in providing water supply to the community.
/O% of our body is made up of water in the tissues
and-water is an universal solvent and but for its role,
metabolic activities would come to a stop and life would not
be possible.
The developed countries are fortunate since they do
not have the problem of finding resources.
From thic-r standards
providing water does not cost much and people can afford to pay.
All they want is water should be readily available in abundance.
The water provided thus is of a quality which has minimal risk
of health hazard and people tend to take things for granted and
they may not look at the Health aspect critically.
India is a vast country and reswrces are poor.
People themselves are often too poor to pa/ for water and
specially so for a filtered safe water supply in their homes.
• Governments, Agencies - private and public including
Plantation management who provide funds for supply of water to
Community under their, care nec-d evidence of health benefits for
their financial investment on a Water supply project.
Funds are provided for a project of safe water
supply and it is too meagre for an ideal one. Alternatives
have to be thought of.
Improvements and innovations are called
for.
Few people get excellent water and a majority have either
no water supply worth its name or they are substandard.
Diseases•related to water supplies are numerous and
distributed over a vast area. Decreasing the incidence. and
prevalence of these- diseases is-one of the important priority
goals in any public health undertaking in our country.
The indirect effect of lack of a protected water
supply is reflected in our health indicators which compares
very unfavourably with those of developed countries.
*Prof. & Head ,
Dept. of. Community Medicine,
St.John’s Medical College,
Bangalore - 560 034.
C'
2
Table - I*
Some of the Health Indicators in
India compared with USA.
CDR
IAR
.
MMR -
•
Life Exp.
INDIA
USA
15.0 (1976)
9.4
122 (1971)
18.0
3.6(1976)
0.18 (1972)-
56.6 years
70 years
uur or ±0uu rive birros 25V *or
co not reacn their
‘5th’ birthday.
150 of these do not even rea:h their first birth
day. The wastage of human life is enormous and if we analyse
the dauses we find that water related diseases account for many<
Engineers and Administrators need to have a very clear
understanding of these facts and figures to appreciate the
enormity of the problem and the importance )f providing adequate
funds on a priority basis for water supply scheme. A large
amount of misery, sickness and deaths related to water supply
can be prevented by household tap systems o: water supply.
Th-e World Health Assembly in 1972 has set a new
target - n25% of the rural population in de/eloping countries
to have reasonable access to safe water supply by 1980”.
Reasonable defined as dis proportionate part of day not spent
in water fetching,
At present 86% of the rjral population in
India do not have reasonable access i
Cons Lderc-d by Region,the numbers and percentages of people without reasonable- access
to safe water supply were as follows:
Table - II*
•
Population
% without reasonable
access to safe water
Africa
136.0 mil.
89
America
92.1 mil.
Region
76
•
Eastern Meditaranian
Europe (/\lger ia
JVbroces & Turkey)
139.5 mil.
••
82
South East Asia
666.7 mil.
91
Western. Pacific •
59.0 mil.
79
1111.6 mil.
86
All Regions
I
•
^“Source: Water, Wastes and health in hot climates.
— •* —v». r
•• •■...... '
....... ' . .
;. .
.; •
3
,
.. .TV? problem of population explosion in the'
oeveloping countries makes the situation worse 1
Merely to
keep.the- unservec population-constanti.t is?necessary to
provide water for a population equal to 5 times the population
of United Kingdom (28G million by 1980).
This can be described
as the everworsening situation, .or as"crisis. “
For majority of the World population there is no
possibility that the needed financial and human resources for
providing an ideal water supply would be forthcoming.
Efficient and rational allocation of financial and
human resources, planning for water supply development with
closely defined and agreed objectives sc that scarce resources
may be utilised to the best advantage appears to be the only
possible solution.
*
rational planning presupposes closely defined and
agreed objectives.
We do not have any at present for the- low
income communities.
These objectives could be set forth having
in view the short term aims and benefits as also long term aims
and benefits.
.
Table..- Ill*
•
•
•
f
Aims and Potential Benefits of -Water
Supply Improvements.
Immediate•
Aims
•'
■ ■■
■■■
•'
■■
• •• Stage I
benefits'
Stage. II ...
benefits'
. Stage III
benefits
1 *
• " • ■ j”:
Improved water
........
. Save time ’”
Higher cash
.incomes
Increased and
more -
Quality
Save energy
Labour release
. /.
Crop innovation
Quantity
Improvedhealth
Crop improve--... Reliable subsistence
ment
/Availability
Animal
husbandry
Anirpal hus
bandry
innovation
Improved health
Animal husbandry
impr ovement
Increased
Ic-isure
liability
At one of the spectrum’of immediate- aims we have in
mind a high grade water ..sc.rvice... for •_a prosperous community, to
provide water of high quality,- abundant in quantity, complete
availability and total reliability and at rhe other end we have
communities with no water s.uppiy^of any sort worth mentioning.
In between we have various and different grades.
V
.1
The- Low Income- Communities while they cannot afford
the high grade water service which is unattainable, must think
of some combination of improvements.
•■‘Source : WaterWastes and health in hot climates
...4
4
The potential benefits of each type of water supply
needs to be examined with a view to assess- the degree to which
different improvements will realise different levels of benefits.
This will enable one to know the improvements with the most
impact, at a given cost and the anticipated cost-effectiveness
of alternative schemes can be compared.
it can be seen from the table III that the benefits
from Stage I to Stage III are arranged chronologically and the
complementary development inputs and inititatives required at
each stage are indicated in Table - IV.
Table - IV *
Complementary inputs necessary for the
achievement of the various aims and
benefits set out.
Aim or benefit
Complementary inputs or prerequisite
conditions
Immediate aims
Active community participation and
support.
Competent design
Adequate facilities for operation
and maintenance.
Appropriate technology utilized
Stage I benefits
New -supply used in preference to
old.
New supply closer to dwellings than
old. ’ •
Water use pattern changed to take
advantage of improved quantity^
availability and reliability'
Hygiene changed-to utilize improved
supply.
Other environmental health measures
taken
Supply must not create new health
hazards (e.g. mosquito breeding
sites )
Stage II benefits
Good advice and extension services
must be provided by government
personnel concerned with agri
culture, animal husbandry, coopera
tives, marketing, education,
credit etc.
Stage III benefits
Water supply development must be just
a single component of an integrated
rural development programme which
has the active support of the local
community.
■^Source: Water, Wastes and health in hot climates.
5
Stage I complementary inputs are limited but more easy
to attain whereas the Stag’s III complementary inputs- are more
complex, wider in scope and are interventions over which a water
supply Engineer or agency has no control.
It is more and "more
difficult to attain as one moves from Stage I to Stage III.
What is the need for complementary input is another
question to be examined. Studies have revealed that water
supply may be necessary but is never a sufficient condition
for development as far as the community is concerned.
Therefore
water supply development must be accompanied by a carefully
designed package of complementary inputs. The possible comple
mentary inputs are shown in Table IV in relation to the
realisation of the benefits listed in Table III.
Even the
immediate benefits requires specific complementary efforts.
Design benefit concept: Keeping in view the potential benefits
one can design or evaluate a water supply scheme.
If one decides
on the goal with specific benefits of a proposed water supply
scheme then the combination of different improvements io water
quality, quantity, availability and reliability can be selected.
The cost effectiveness can be worked out and compared with
alternate design approaches taking into consideration the-chosen
design benefits.
While attempting to achieve the defined goals
the resource allocation will have to go along within the policy
and rational frame work of National and Regional planning.
Design benefits will depend on the specific scheme under
consideration and need to be defined quite precisely if they
are to be of value.
Stage I benefits is related to two factors namely
changes in the water collection journey (Time and energy saving)
and secondly to improvements in health.
Therefore to start
with design-benefits should be aimed at ’time and energy’
savings and health improvements can be restated in more general
terms.
Fundamental aim of water supply improvements in low
income communities should be to reduce the cost of water to the
consumer. A design-benefit generally applicable to all should
be cost reduction.
What goes to make up the cost of water?
Any cash payment made to water authority, to the owner of a
dwelling, a water carrier or vendor.
In low income communities
generally this type of direct payment may not arise.
The value
of time-energy expanded by the house-holder to go to the water,
point for collection is a very important component which should
be costed.
Lastly the cost of sickness related to use of
polluted water, use of insufficient water or ro diseases
acquired in the course of water collection have to be included
while costing a water supply.
Therefore the two most important design— benefits
which we have to keep as goals to be achieved are - shortening
the water collection journey and improvement of health status
of the community. The improvement in water supply thus
. .
achieved will take care of its quality, quantity, availability
and reliability to a considerable extent.
. . .6
A
6 ..
.
’
s*
X
.References :
1. Feacham & .Others - Source, Water Wastes & Health in Hot Climates.
2. Govt, ’of India
Family Welfare Programme in India - Year
Book - 1977 - 78. C
3.
Progress in water Technology (1979) A journal of the
International Association on Water Pollution Research)
11, 1 & 2 Rsrgamon Press Oxford New York.
• HUMAN SETTLEMENTS
• INDUSTRIES
• ENERGY GENERATION
• LARGE SCALE ENGINEERING
WORKS
• AGRICULTURAL OPERATIONS
increase of population also adds to the environmental strain, because all
men must satisfy their basic needs of food, energy, water, clothing and
In the advanced countries, in many cases, the population is small and
they have not only ths aoirty to utilise disproportionately large amount of the earth’s
resources, they can also utilise
tho resources of other less
developed countries in
order to sustain their
affluent life styles.
i<*A«v
8t
is
HUMAN SETTLEMENTS
We live in aggregations which may vary from a small village to a large metro
politan city.
These human settlements, irrespective of their size, have to be so
organised that their needs, such as, housing, food, education, employment, health
care and transportation are catered to.
If the organisation is not adequate to
the population, or if there is not sufficient care, then, villages can be insanitary
and towns and cities can become congested, noisy, disease-ridden, and full of
slums. In both cases, the quality of life becomes poorer; man becomes unhappy. It
is not only economic constraints that can lead to such situations but also a lack of
civic consciousness amongst all citizens. Many of the factors that make life pleasant
are not those that are obtained only through spending of money.
Human settle
ments should ensure better quality of life for the people.
INDUSTRIES
Industries have often been called the big polluter. The impact on human
environment is not restricted to highly industrialised countries only. India also has
severe pollution problems of its own.
Improper location of industries, the use of
“polluting" technologies, and inadequate waste treatment facilities are chiefly res
ponsible for deterioration in air and water quality in industrialised cities of our
country. Other indirect stresses on the environment can come from creation of slum
colonies of migrant workers from rural areas.
At the same time, industrial growth is vital for us.
Industrial development
should, therefore, be carefully planned to include environmental consi
derations.
ENERGY GENERATION
Energy is needed in almost every facet of our life. It is needed for cooking our
food; it is needed to produce the utensils in which we keep our food or store our
water, to produce our clothing, or bricks for the houses.
While energy is very
necessary, if not carefully tended, the generation and use of energy can be a
polluter of environment.
For instance, the mining, processing, transportation, burn
ing of coal and disposal of consequent ash material could each pollute the
environment heavily.
The use of fuel in motor vehicles leads to exhaust emissions
that can foul the air and cause smog. Even the ordinary cowdung cakes when burnt
in congested areas can be severe health hazard due to air pollution.
disposal of wastes needs consideration.
Proper
LARGE SCALE ENGINEERING WORKS
While multi-purpose projects such as dams and large irrigation projects, to
give an instance, have important role to play, they can also adversely affect the
ecology of the region if not properly planned or operated. Areas likely to be sub
merged could be dense forests, the habitat of wild life. Problems of water-logging
could arise.
Migration of fish could be similarly adversely affected.
AGRICULTURE
Excess fertilisers applied to the field naturally get washed away during drain
ing operations or by rain into nearby watercourses.
growth of aquatic vegetation.
This causes uncontrolled
If the same thing happens to pesticides applied on
the fields, it can lead to toxic effects on aquatic life-effects that may in many ways
be transmitted to man himself.
Pesticides and weedicides can also poison man
through an improper use through fruits and vegetables we eat.
NATURE CONSERVATION
Smt. Indira Gandhi: “The environment in which animals and plants be
come extinct is not safe for the human beings either’’. There is a constant battle
for accommodating the growing needs of our population. Increased demand for land
for agriculture, settlements and other projects is usually met by clearing forest areas.
This has resulted in many inter-linked adverse effects on our environment including
increased soil erosion, landslides, flash floods and depletion of ground water
resources.
Deforestation has deprived wild life of its natural habitats and contrib
uted to the depletion or extinction of many rare species.
MAN AND BIOSPHERE
The idea of Biosphere Reserves is based on the concept of preservation of
life in its totality in situ so that it may serve as a natural referal system for the
future and serve as a bench-mark.
sity.
This enables preservation of total genetic diver
This genetic diversity of plants and animals in a biosphere reserve is a great
resource for mankind if properly looked after.
Among the wild vegetations, there
may be wild rice or other wild fruits and cereals which can be cross-bred to give
new varieties which may be more resistant to diseases or give higher yields etc.
Animals can provide a resource for experiments for medical and physiological
research; research in this area has become more important to understand man him
self.
Here again, the wild species of animals become very important for study.
While considerable stress is laid on prohibiting the killing of wild animals,
hardly anything appreciable has been attempted so far to preserve wild plants or a
proper total environment for plants and animals.
ecological
balance
Man is a part of nature, and not separate or independent; at the same time, man is
unique in the influence he has over nature.
Man derives all his food, clothing,
shelter and other amenities from nature. In that process, if he does not take care to
protect and cherish nature, but decreases or destroys nature, he will find that
his own life and that of his children is in jeopardy.
In the words of our Prime Minister, “It is sad that, in country after country,
progress should become synonymous with an assault on nature
The higher
standard of living must be achieved without alienating our people from their heri
tage and without despoiling nature of its beauty, freshness and purity essential
to our lives.”
what is pollution ?
The air, water, soil, plants and trees, animals all constitute the en
vironment.
These constituents keep on interacting with each other to maintain a
mutual balance, called “ecological balance”.
Man using nature in the process of
development does cause certain changes in environment.
If these changes are
not fully orchestered to preserve the harmony of nature and the ecological balance,
he runs the risk not only of increasing the costs of development but of imbalances
which may be so serious as to reduce his living conditions instead of enriching it.
It is this imbalance which creates pollution.
Environmental Pollution
If populations are small, the effect on the environment also is proportionately
reduced if other conditions remain the same.
In developing countries like India,
where the process of development puts a severe strain on the environment, the
YOU AND
YOUR ENVIRONMENT
(First Floor)Sc. Marks naad
BANGAlOlE - 56^ vvl
COM«MuiV/Ty ■■' $7/1
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•
- 5gQ 0q^|
3^HCEL^
•SPACE SHIP EAHTH’ is an encapsulated planet
within whose confines man and his fellow
lodgers - the beasts and even the bu*s have
to live together.
If we foul up that living
snace, vitiate the atmosphere, poison the
water, restrict our food rations, tamper
l
with the ,eating system and wall ow in the
excrement, domestic and industrial, our
tenancy will be limited.
We can irreversibly
damage the biosphere on which all life
depends•
(WORLD
HEALTH
AUG - SEPT 1971)
FOP CENTURIES WB HAVE TREATED LAND, SEA AND SKY
AS THOUGH THEY WERE LIMITLESS.
THEY APE NOT.
WE HAVE PUMPED MILLIONS OF TONS
OP PARTICUIATE MATTER AND NCKTOUS
GASES INTO THE ATMOSPHERE
POLLUTED MOST OF OUR RIVERS AND
• LAKES
PRODUCED ‘ SO MUCH
TRASH THAT WE’RE RUNNING OUT OF
PLACES TO PUT TT
ALLOWED
PESTICIDES TO TRAVEL ALL THROUGH
THS FOOD CHAIN
ACCUMULATED
MERCURY, LEAD, DDT AND STRONTIUM
90 TN OUR RCTIES
WE HAVE DISRUPTED NATURE’S SYSTEMS - THE SELF
RENEWING CYCLES THAT HAVE AUTOMATICALLY
REJUVENATED OUP I AND, WATER AND AIR.
WHEN
WE TAMPER WITH THESE SYSTEMS WE THREATEN
THE BASTS OF UTE ITSELF.
Is pollution the partner of economic progress
Must Man pay for his economic well-being tri th
foul water, noxious fumes and nerve jarring
noise ?
Can we achieve the material benefits of
industrialization for all the people of the
world ’H.thout jeopardising our health and
despoiling our environmental heritage ?
(WORLD
HEALTH
FAY- 1972)
TOXIC CHEMICALS AND HEAVY METALS
es
*•»
—»—sr •• sr®.mz
-=:«*sr— =r•*=?
In the U.S. 12,000 toxic compound
3 enter the natural
AH
water system via sewage discharge and only a portion
is removed by nonnal sewage treatment.
2
14 States in the U.S. have reported cases of mercury
poisoning to recent years.
3
Minamata Bay, Japan - 112 cases of mercury poisoning
(44 deaths) as a result of eating fish caught in
the bay.
4
Bristol University School of Chemistry recently reported
^exceedingly high levels of Cadmium
’ in the Bristol
•Ju
Channel (550 ppm in limpets).
5.
Symptoms of mercury poisoning - Low levels - headaches,
fatigue, insomnia, anxiety, lethargy, loss of anpetite.
High levels - blindness, deafhess, convulsions, coma,
mental retardation.
6.
6,000 poisonous products flow down the Rhine, including
16,150 tons of sulphates, every day.
The river
deposits 70 tons of mercury in Holland each year.
In the North Sea recently a layer of dead fish was
discovered stretching 80 miles and packed several yards
thick.
The fish had been killed by pollution.
8. • In 1970 the world catch of fish was lower than in 19#.
OIL
9.
MAN PUTS AT LEAST 3 MILLION TONS OF CRUDE OH, INTO
THE OCEANS EACH YEAR.
10.
THERE IS AN ESTIMATED 1 MILLION TONS AT PRESENT
FLOATING ON THE SURFACE OF OCEANS.
11
THE •DO-IT-YOURSELF’ MOTORIST USES OVER 20 MILLION
GAT,LONS OF OIL EACH YEAR;
OF WHICH GOES DOWN
DRAINS AND INTO RIVER SYSTEMS.
SEWAGE
12
BIGGEST POLLUTER OF FRESH WATER IS SEWAGE
13
IT MAKES ENORMOUS DEMANDS ON THE CKYGEN
CAPACITY OF THE WATER.
14
NITRATES FROM SEWAGE + FERTILISERS AND
PHOSPHATES FROM SEWAGE AND DETERGENTS,
OVERSTIMULATE PLANT GROWTH.
THIS CAUSES
DE-CXYGENATION OF THE WATER, WHICH KILLS
MOST OF THE LIFE-FORMS PRESENT.
15.
01
IN SWITZERLAND BATHING HAS BEEN
BANNED TN
LAKES LUGAHNO, CONSTANCE, GENEVA, BIENNE
LUZERN, WECHATEL, THUN, ZURICH, Z1 Lt
BECAUSE OF POLLUTION.
CAR EXHAUST GASES
1,
150 different chemicals have been identified in
car exhaust.
2.
Carbon Monoxide is the mo<;t abundant of these.
3.
In heavy city traffic concentrations of 500 ppm
are cannon.
100 ppm is the accepted maximum concentration for
working conditions.
4.
Lead Tetraethyl added to petrol is absorbed by the
body and accumulates especially in brain tissue.
5.
Children are particularly sensitive to lead poisoning.
6.
Two British research workers haw recently stated that
average lead levels in urban dwellers are very close
to the levels which cause enzyme inhibition in human
metabolism.
7.
The lead industry in this country takes 80 mg per cent
in the blood as the level at which to show concern.
8.
In Russia after extensive research the industrial
limit has been reduced to 10 mg per cent.
9.
Polycyclic hydrocarbons are more abundant in diesel
engine exhaust.
They are amongst the most potent
cancer causing chemicals known.
INDUSTRIAL
1.
COAL AND OIL ARE STILT. MAJOR SOURCES OF POWER. ELECTRICAL
GENERATING PLANTS USING THESE FUELS PRODUCE COLOURLESS
SULPHER DIOXIDE IN URGE AMOUNTS.
IT IS CLAIMED THAT
THERE IS NOT AN ECONCMICAL WAY OF REMOVING IT.
BRICKWORKS + METALS MELTING ALSO PRODUCE SO«.
2.
DISSOLVED IN WATER. SULPHUR DIOXIDE PRODUCES AN ACIDIC
SOLUTION.
3.
AREAS OF NORTHERN ENGLAND ARE UN-CUTTIVATABLE DUE TO
THE SULPHUR DIOXIDE COMES FROM THE
ACIDIC RAINFALL.
MANCHESTER INDUSTRIAL COMPLEX.
4.
SULPHUR DIOXIDE ALSO BLACKENS AND ’RATS* AWAY STONE
BUILDINGS.
5.
C CMBUSTTON (F ONE TON OF COAL RELEASES 150 lbs OF
•SOOT1, 80 lbs OF SULPHUR DIOXjDE, 8 lbs NITROGEN
DIOXIDE, 30 lbs OF ACIDS, 20 lbs MISCELLANEOUS
SUBSTANCES.
NEW YORK CITY BURNS THE EQUIVALENT
&
OF 32 MILLION TONS
OF COAL EACH YEAR.
G E NERAL
1.
AIR POLLUTION HAS BEEH ESTABLISHED AS A MA.TCF
CONTPIBUTTON TO ASTHMA, BPOHCHTTIS Al© EMPHYSEMA.
2.
RESPIRATORY DISEASES APE THE BIGGEST KILLER
DISEASES IN THIS COUNTRY.
R I 0 R A T I 0 N
M «M»«••—W «DLE
■■ ■ ■ MilT E
«MB*.
«■>■»•••■*■
•• «»•*
ENVIRONMENTAL
•—4H»~4a»••
\
.
HAS CONTINUED AND ACCELERATED UNTIL IT HAS PEACHED
f
THE POINT OF CRISIS.
WE MUST UNDERSTAND THE
PROBLEMS WE FACE IF WE APE TO SOLVE THEM.
ISN’T TOO LATE TO LEARN.
IT
THE MORE TO KNOW
ABOUT OUR WORID, THE MOPE EFFECTIVELY WE CAN
WORK TO SAVE IT
9
IT’S THE ONLY ONE TO HAVE .
*
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC
■■
••———I
ANTI-POLLUTION
MEASURES
ENVIRONMENT EDUCATION
ANTI-POT TUTTON CTTOKS/SURVETIJANCE
*
EXHAUST EMISSION COW 01. TWICRS IN
VEHICLES
CLEAN AIR7AJATEP/LAND LEGISLATION
ENVTROIJMENTAL SANITATION MEASURES
REDUCTION OF USE OF PESTICIDES
FRPTTI.TSERS/zDETEr,CzENTS
—— ■»
” WORLD
ENVIRONMENT
DAY "
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION* - Health hazards and remedial
measures.
BY
DR.V.PARAMESHVARA
PRESIDENT,
IMA BANGALORE BRANCH
/1'<F/''stF(oorl‘T
C Ell
BAft/GAiG ‘^a,*.
'
All around us the pollution is on the increase - in ‘the—air^
in the water, on the land*
It is mainly due to industrial--teixhnolo.gics.- -Pollution has grown as the population has grown and people>
have become prosperous. Pollution studies are of a multidisciplinary nature an'd is the concern to people working in a number of fields biology, medicine, engineering and legislature.
Environmental
‘x-r
pollution has been defined as any substance which changes'the natural
composition of the environment (since the world began the environment k
has been changing).
’
Every breath pollute the air.
Decaying of an organic sub
stance emits poisonous odours. Now that man, animals and vegetation
have been joined by cars, ships, aeroplanes, houses §nd a host of
'industries as pollutants of the air. All the large cities of the
world have problems created chiefly by overcrowding. More crowded •
the city more the likelihood of further pollution. Simple process
of burning fuel to produce heat and energy is accompanied by the
production of many pollutants.
Combustion (incomplete) of fuels
(coal, gas, oil, etc.,) in industry, internal combustion engine,
electricity generation and domestic and commercial heating etc.,
leads to the production of carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxid and
nitrogen oxides.
Internal combustion of gasoline of motor vehicles
produces unburnt hydrocarbons(HC), particles of carbon - soot and
smuts. Ash is formed from non-combustible substances. Smoke is a
fine suspension of ash and soot particles in air.
It is estimated
that 60 percent of city air pollution and 90 percent of the nitrogen
oxides emissions are due to automobiles.- Increased. amounts; of carbon
dioxide affects photosynthesis and may affect world, climate7. Carbon
monoxide in the air has adverse effect on health.
Blood haemoglobin
has 200 times more affinity for carbon monoxide than oxygen.
The
transport of oxygen from the lungs to the tissue is thus impaired.
Sulphur dioxide in higher concentrations produces respi- .
ratory problems. At a much lower concentration sulphur dioxide
damages plants, limestone and marble, works of art (especially
frescoe). Unpainted timber absorb sulphur dioxide and are suscepti
ble. to damage. Sulphur dioxide is shown to be the major contributor
to tho deterioration of books and papers. Sulphur dioxide damages
leather, and corroaes metais.
Nitrous oxide ( 2 mg.kg*^) are known to cause leaf damage
in sensitive plants and may bleach certain dyes.
In higher concen
tration nitrous oxide irritates mucous membranes.
* Lecture delivered at I.M.A., Bangalore Branch on the World Environ
ment Day on 5.6.1980.
Pg '
2
Photochemical oxidants arc produced by a complex series of
chemical reactions initiated when specific omissions (hydrocarbons
and oxides of nitrogen) by internal combustion engines and other
sources are exposed to sunlight.
The result is the formation of
ozone, peroxyacyl nitrate (PAN), formaldehyde, acrolein, nitrogen
peroxide and organic peroxides.
Pollutant ozone concentrations
damage vegetation, motor vehicle tyres and asphalt and cause irri
tation of the respiratory system. PAN effects vegetation particu
larly young leafs, and alters cardiovascular functions and is an
irritant to mucous membrane in human beings.
%
•
Air borne particulate matter in the ambient air have their
origin from pollen grain, microorganisms, fungi, spores, insects,
sand, dirt, smoke, dust, insecticides, aerosals, metallurgical
operations, etc.,
These particulates-injure the respiratory system
and causes infection, cancer etc.,
Deposits of aerosol are unsighty
and expensive to.remove. Air odours arise from house hold and
commercial garbages, harmful or not, present a problem of aesthetics.
Indoor pollutants have their sources from outdoors and from within.
Noise 'is wanted sound. As noise builds up to 60 decibles it begins
to interfere with ordinary conversation.
It disturbs sleep, learn
ing, blood pressure rises, heart rate changes, pupils dilate, serum cholesterol increases and stomach acidity increases - heart burn.
Noise may be continuous or intermittent and the sources of noise are
motor vehicles, planes, trains, factories, machineries, constructions,
sound of horns, loud speakers and human voice.
Urban Problems and Social Pathology
>
a.
>
Problems of large cities are created by over-crowding
created by housing, employment, education and recreation.
Cumulative
effects of spectrum of environmental hazards,- by dus-t, dirt, noise,
stagnat air, smog, CO, packs of stray dogs, etc., confuse the psyche
and limit the efficiency of human performance. Long term exposure :
to urban stress can disturb psychological balances which leads to
outburst of violence, vandalism, breaking and entering, robberies,
assaults, arson, setting fires, suicide, homicide.
The result is
quality of individual’s life style declines. Man needs nature more
than ever.
• .
Today 90 percent of air pollution comes from man made
sources.
The demand is great for clean air. Air pollution is ‘costly.
It ruins vegetation, makes paint peel off and discolour, cracks tyres(
and deteriorated nylon, rusts iron and tarnishes silver, kills cattle
and blocks out the sun thus adding to house, clothes, cleaning,heat
ing and lighting bills and reduces visibility and causes more auto
mobile accidents.
■
.
Can wo afford to reduce our industrial output or use .of
transport? or can we modify our existing methods without increasing
penalties? or a totally different approach toward the same objectives?
Battle for the environment
An individual’s awareness for change and determination to
carry out the change are the key points in-keeping our environment
clean. Rich must treat the poor with generosity’.
The social
reformers of seventy years ago, had- objectives which were attained
long after the pioneers died.
Politics today is very short sighted.
The press has a large role to play in educating the public and raising
the public opinion. The public - (consumers) must make politicians
answerable to the people of all aspects of environmental policy.
Patching up is good for the present, but the real solution has to be
determined by civil servants, scientists, engineers and physicians.
Automobiles
Removing the cars from the city scene- virtually eliminates
the problem, reducing the dirtiness of the internal combustion engine
and finding an alternate method of propulsion - e.g., battery powered
cars. Automobile engines should be cleaned and tuned, regularly and
periodically. Use of automobiles with visible ’exhaust' should be
made a punishable offense.
Lorries and buses should.be designed to
have their exhaust pipes turned upwards so that ’exhaust’ is dis
charged towards the sky. Stopping, starting and accelerating of idle
vehicles should be minimised. Number of traffic lights should be
minimised or done away with and substituted by traffic police.
’One
way’ has to be introduced wherever parallel roads exist. Sounding
of horns should be made illegal except under special circumstances.
Automobile traffic should be prohibited in congested and commercial
areas.
Lorry traffic should be diverted only through certain main
roads preferably where police stations are situated. Outstation
buses should start and stop at the outskirts of the City.
Building construction
Workers should be housed in proper lodges and provided with
transport to the work spot. Water and toilet facilities for the
workers should be made compulsory at the construction spot. Orien
tation courses on environmental pollution including the effect of
garbage, excreta and noise should be arranged as a rule. Multi
storeyed buildings should have their own incinerators.
Indus rial workers should bo educated about the environ
mental pollutants. Orientation courses for workers in restaurants,
hotels, and recreation clubs with regard to personal hygiene and
communicable diseases should be compulsory.
It is necessary to
improve and increase the number of public toilets, bath rooms with
good supervision and eliminate stray dogs and beggars. Indiscriminate
throwing of letters in public and open spaces should be made illegal
and open air fruit and vegetable selling should bo abolished.
Construction of multistoreyed buildings in the centre of
the city should be? stopped. Smoking in public places should be
prohibited. Planting of trues should bo encouraged. Water drain.s
should bo covered and maintained properly. Use of public loud
speakers and address system should be prohibited except in notified
places. Processions and protest groups should not voice their
grievances vocally. Advertisement on the importance of clean en
vironment in lucid languages is imperative.
’KEEP
THE
CITY
CLEAN’
Wo earnestly hope that aesthetic and healthy planning of
the city set by our far-sighted fore-fathers will not be ruined by
the considerations other than the interest of the public health.
ijVj^'M*VrstHo
£>-*. p-JQ !' : /
0G3
DR. M.L. SHANKAR
President,
A.O.H.,
I.
(Karnataka Branch)
’' - 2222=12212222121=211'1
5th JUNE,1980
'POLLUTION FROM INDUSTRIES IN BANGALORE1
I am very happy to speak to this distinguished
gathering on the occassion of 'World Environment Day'. We7
in the city of Bangalore/ have a greater responsibility to
maintain and promote the fair atmoshphere^our elders have
established.
DEFINITION:
- Pollution is definedras presence of contaminants in
excess which may injure the health of human beings and their
.
environment.
It is known that industries irrespective of the
nature of products they produce do create problems of pollu
tion of air, water, noise etc.
The causes have been physical
and chemical like effluents, fumes, gases, smoke, dust, heat
atkd noise.
Radioactive’materials have added to the list of
pollutants in recent years.
SOURCES OF POLLUTION:
Air pollution is caused by industrial solvents, sul
phur and its products, acids and alkalis, carbonmonoxide,
carbondioxide, hydrocarbons, halogens and radioactive subs
tances.
Industries contribute to pollution with the use of
coal, coal gas, tar, oils and other fuel.
The waste products
of iron and steel industry, metallurgy, oil and petro-chemiycal industries contribute largely to the cause of pollution.
Industrial air pollution stands second, only next to automobile
air pollution.
The various industrial processes have contributed to
*
the reduction of concentration of particulate matter through
out the world.
The industrial pollutants like aromatic comr
pounds, sulphur and its products, flourides, oxides of nitro
gen, ammonia, carbon monoxide, carbondioxide, lead and lead
fumes, products of phosphorous, arsenic, manganese, chromium
•
-
... 2
2
::
::
mercury are known causes of various ailments like irrita
tion of the eyes, n os
They cause
-respiratory passages.
congestion of the lungs, pneumonia, anaemia, affections of
the stomach, liver bones, skin, vision, brain and nervous
system.
Cancer lesions are known to occur.'
•
POLLUTION CONTROL:
>
/
A constant problem closely associated with indus
trial development is the question of disposal of industrial
0
•
9
waste products into the general atmosphere in both urpan
and rural areas without creating health and other problems.
At present much of the air pollution in towns is not dire
ctly rented to industry but is rather a result of urbani
sation and growing use of gasoline powered vehicles, crow
ded living etc.
Health problems due to industrialisation
implies transformation of peasant society into a community
I
•
i
•
dependent upon industry.
•
/
•
In short industrialisation means
I
a social and economic revolution in the culture of a nation.
Any such revolution is bound to carry with it hazards.
Control measures are contemplated by:
'
.
1. reduction of contaminants at the source,
’ use of protective equipments, - ops rat ion
in specific enclosures, adequate light,
ventilation and arrestors.
_ J
2. modification of equipments, timely repla
cements, changes in the modes of operation
good maintenance to avoid leakages, treat
ment of effluents adequately to dilute and
neutralise before discharge into natural
drainage systems.
••
.
f
3. Cost consideration'and continuancy
%
4. Legislation
’
-
5. Co-operation with regard to Research and
Development with the world organisations
like W.H.O., I.L.O.
6. Environmental monitoring and suitable action.
AS WE ARE TO-DAY:
The industries in Bangalore handle vide range
of products to cover all fields of industry.
The Public
Sector undertakings like, HMT, HAL, ITI and BEL,
The
3
3
Private Undertakings like-> MICO, Kirloskars, GKW, AT4CO,
International Instruments, Binnys, Government undertakings
like, NGEF, the various industrial estates have all taken
up to measures to contain ’POLLUTION’.- Some control
measures taken up by these units in Sewage and effluent
disposal have been exemplory.
The plant establishments
in Foundry, Painting, Heat Treatment
have been above the
•
level of standards.stipulated.
All the industries are
under the purview of the Inspectorate of Factories who
ensure all measures of safety.
Evaluations indicate that the levels of pollution
of air is low in the townships of the Public Sector under
takings.
This is due to the fact that these townships
are away from the crowded and busy areas.
The industries
have taken adequate measures against pollution.
The
eucology of the areas are maintained well.
The fact that evaluation of pollution levels of
many of the residential areas in the city are high, should
concern the people in position in the Government, the
corporation, the BDA and private voluntary organisations.
It is their moral responsibility to consider, advise and
implement measures to ensure life in the city of Bangalore
acceptable, desirable and healthy.
September, 1979
VoL 9 No. 9
AUTO-EXHAUST POLLUTION SURVEY AND ITS EFFECTS
ON EXPOSED OCCUPATIONAL GROUPS
Although the first automotive vehicle as
a mode of transport made its appearance as
early as 1898 in the West, it was not till the
nineteen fifties that
automobile activity
emerged as a source of community air pollu
tion.
In India recognition of the magnitude
of the air pollution problem originating from
automobiles, is a recent phenomenon.
The
experience gained in Western countries can
only serve as a guideline for the formulation
of Indian air pollution control programmes,
for which the epidemiological data pertinent
to local conditions should be used.
The
growth of urban centres and increase in urban
traffic is an accompaniment of industria
lisation.
While the rate of growth in size
of an urban area indicates its dynamic quali
ties the movements within it are the features
that sustain and accelerate such dynamism.
In India, while the bullock cart as a means
of transport still prevails, the growth of
automated traffic in urban centres, including
Ahmedabad, has far out stripped the normal
expectations.
The results are reflected in
our urban scene viz, increasing congestion on
the roads, growing delays, excessive pollu
tion build-up in the road side atmosphere and
high accident rate.
The paucity of data on health related
studies in India led to a cross sectional
study being carried out at various traffic
junctions of Ahmedabad city in order to eluci
date the role of local conditions (traffic
density and micrometeorology) in auto-exhaust
pollution build-up and its health hazards on
occupationally exposed high risk population
groups like traffic policemen and shopkeepers
stationed at the traffic corners. The study
attempted to:
(i)
measure the atmospheric concentration of
major auto-exhaust pollutants like carbon
monoxide (CO),
lead (Pb),
oxides
of
nitrogen (NO z\ ) and 3,4 benzopyrene B(a)P;
(ii) elucidate the role of traffic density of
different types of automobiles along with
local meteorological conditions in pollu
tion accumulation in the atmosphere of
preselected traffic junctions;
establish
(iii)
the level of association bet
ween the urban exposure concentrations of
carbon monoxide, lead, oxides of nitrogen
and 3,4 benzopyrene with respective body
absorption indicators of pollutants in
high exposure groups like traffic police
men and shopkeepers; and
(iv) generate data for the prevention pro
gramme in order to minimise the health
risk from this urban source of pollution.
The initial selection of traffic junc
tions was done on the basis of the information
available from the local traffic cell and
thereafter a pilot survey was carried out to
determine the concentration of each pollutant
separately. The purpose of this pilot survey
was to select traffic junctions with different
exposure conditions (from low to high) so that
the relationship obtained between inhalation
concentration and body burden is validated
Division of Publication & Information,
ICMR,
New Delhi-110 016
over a
tions .
wide range
of field
exposure
condi
Two traffic corners from each of the
three categories of high, medium and low ex
posure conditions for all pollutants (CO, Pb,
NO and B(a)P) were finally selected for this
survey.
One pollutant at a time was taken up
for physical as well as biological monitoring
and in one season at least two sets of obser
vations were recorded for each sampling loca
tion and traffic junction.
The traffic den
sity was always obtained by manual counting at
the time of atmospheric sampling.
ATMOSPHERIC SAMPLING
The traffic junctions were selected, as
mentioned earlier, on the basis of the pilot
atmospheric pollution survey because it was
seen that the local ventilation conditions
varied from traffic junction to junction as
the atmospheric pollution build-up is not
purely a function of traffic density.
The
concentrations were observed to be higher for
a few traffic junctions, located in density
built-up
residential
areas,
because
of
"cannons" formed by multistoried buildings on
all sides of the cross roads, thereby res
tricting air dilution.
The location for air sampling was decided
purely on the basis of working places of
selected subjects during their duty hours and
the height of sampling was invariably fixed in
the breathing zone of the subjects on duty.
Some differences in sampling duration occurred
and were due to the limitation of detection
limits of analytical methods used or low '<ir
concentrations
for different
auto-exit a us t
pollutants.
A separate sampling train was designed
for each pollutant and was fixed at the moni
toring site on prefixed sampling days.
The
collected samples were transferred to the
laboratory and were quantitatively analysed
for CO, Pb, NO X and B(a)P levels.
MONITORING CF HEALTH EFFECTS
At the onset of the study 100 policemen
were selected and out of them 70 belonged to
occupationally exposed traffic policemen with
varied exposure history (5 to 20 years) and
age groups (25 to 45 years).
The remain
ing 30 policemen served as a control group as
they belonged to the
same socio-economic
status but were stationed at a police station
and never worked on the busy streets.
2
Based on an interview, clinical examina
tion and haematological analysis, 40 out of
the 70 exposed and 20 out of 30 non-exposed
police personnel were selected for further
study.
Shopkeepers at the preselected traffic
junctions who volunteered for study formed the
other exposed group.
The investigations carried out included
(i) estimation of
carboxy haemoglobin in
blood; (ii) electroencephalogram;
(iii) psy
chological tests including general aptitude
test battery (finger dexterity, manual dex
terity and motor coordination), speed and
accuracy, and tool matching.
Every test was
administered before and
after their duty
hours according to standard procedure and
scored
according
to standard keys;
and
(iv) estimation of lead absorption indicators
viz. blood and urine lead levels.
ENVIRONMENTAL DATA
The cumulative frequency distributions of
ambient CO concentrations at 95, 90 and 85 per
cent hourly average observations (from 06.00
to 22.00 hours) were more than 9 ppm (EPA
standard for 24 hour average) at relatively
heavy, medium and low polluted corners respec
tively .
When all the observations at traffic
corners were taken collectively it • was seen
that more than 85 per cent of half hourly
readings crossed this community air standard
of 9 ppm.
As far as occupational exposure
standards (8 hourly average) of Western coun
tries are concerned, 25 per cent of the obser
vations at heavy polluted junctions crossed
even the 35 ppm mark.
While for medium and
low polluted corners these percentages were
eight and zero. As regards the association of
atmospheric CO pollution to traffic density,
a highly significant linear relationship for
winter months was observed.
The TLV for the inorganic lead concentra
tion of an industrial atmosphere (8 hours ex
posure)
ranges from 150 to 200 pg/m3 in
Western Europe and America but the countries
of Eastern Europe have set much lower maxima,
ranging from 10 to 50 pg/m3.
Only 25-40 per
cent of the total atmospheric lead levels
observed in this study crossed the 10 pg/m3
levels. However, it is important to note that
exposure is not confined to the occupational
group alone but also to the community in
general, for which even the Western standards
are in the range of 2-4 pg/m3 (East European
standard is of the order of 0.7 pg/m3) for
3 months average.
In this study 75 per cent
of the observation time air lead concentra
tions exceeded even the maximum ambient stand
ard of 4 pg/m3.
As far as the relationship
between traffic density and air lead build-up
is concerned, it was seen that in winter
conditions of calm and stable atmosphere the
relationship was positively associated and
the regression coefficient was found to be
significant.
The current EPA standard for N02 is
100 pg/m3 (yearly arithmetic mean) while the
Japanese standard is only 40 pg/m3 (24 hourly
average). The ambient assessment of this study
indicated that more than 75 per cent of one
hourly average readings for NO* were more than
100 pg/m3.
The condition at the medium and
low polluted corners was equally bad if the
Japanese standard was taken into considera
tion.
In fact the Japanese standard for
oxides of nitrogen is more applicable for
Indian climatic conditions, as both India and
Japan fall within the global tropical range
where meteorological conditions are favourable
for oxidant formation.
The highest correlation coefficient indi
cating a positive relationship, was observed
between the ratios of heavy vehicular density
G total density with. NO £ N0x (0.46).
The
correlation coefficients with heavy as well as
medium type of vehicular traffic as a source
of air NO concentration were 0.29 and 0.22
respectively.
In the larger urban centres of the world
B(a)P concentration ranges from 0 to 400 ng/m3
with the majority of these urban centres
experiencing less than 25 ng/m3. The concen
trations resulting from natural atmospheric
processes are usually accepted as permissible
levels, however due to its carcinogenic effect
the Russians
have recommended
a maximum
permissible concentration of 1.0 ng/m3
for
community air.
In this study the range of
urban
B(a)P
concentration
was
15
to
32.6 ng/m3 in the summer season in compa
rison to winter range of 25 to 1300 ng/m3.
These results suggest that the road side
atmosphere (at breathing levels) is highly
polluted by B(a)P.
BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS
Carbon monoxide
The various health hazard
parameters
which are related to carbon monoxide were
monitored in exposed as well as control group
of subjects.
87 per cent of the traffic
policemen complained of eye irritation during
their working hours, while 65 per cent comp
lained of headache, 33 per cent of giddiness
and 33 per cent of body pain at the end of
the day after traffic control duty.
The non
exposed persons did not have any such com
plaints .
The carboxyhaemoglobin (COHb) ana
lysis of exposed non-smokers showed a small
significant rise in early morning COHb levels
in comparison to non-exposed non-smokers.
A
significant correlation was also observed for
four hour exposure periods between COHb levels
and average atmospheric CO concentration.
In
18 per cent of exposed subjects the evening
COHb level crossed even 5 per cent saturation
mark. Further, it was seen that during the
rest period of four hours (1200 to 1600 hours)
there was a drop of 44.3 ± 13.2 per cent in
COHb levels in the case of exposed non-smoker
traffic policemen. While for exposed smokers,
there was rise or fall in COHb levels depend
ing upon the smoking habits.
Observations of
this study confirm the view that the low
ambient exposure to CO in heavy smokers is not
additive as far as the rise in blood COHb
level is concerned.
The psychological test performance of ex
posed subjects revealed
that the traffic
policemen were of average intelligence (Tscore range of 50-62 for Non-Reading Aptitude
test battery) and no significant difference
was noted in their psychological test perfor
mance before and after duty hours. As regards
the sponteneous electroencephalogram (EEG),two
out of six volunteers (33 per cent) showed a
low voltage tracing with fast alpha rhythm at
COHb levels of the order of 5 per cent.
How
ever, it is difficult to draw any firm conclu
sion from such changes because of the limited
number of subjects and the effect of other
environmental stresses.
Furthermore,
the
adverse climatic conditions (WBGT index was
significantly higher
than OSHA limits of
30.6°C for moderate work and wind velocity of
more than 300 fpm) and effect of other asso
ciated pollutants do not allow a conclusion
that carbon monoxide exposure is the only
factor responsible for such EEG changes.
Lead
The comparative picture of variations
observed in lead absorption indices, possibly
caused by occupational exposure to airborne
lead concentrations indicated that rise in
the blood and urine lead levels of the police
men and shopkeepers on duty in comparison to
3
the general non-exposed
ficant (P<0.05).
population was signi
When the blood and urine lead levels were
compared to the currently accepted limits for
non-occupationally exposed people (blood lead
40 pg/100 ml, urine lead 80 pg/lit and A amino
levulinic acid dehydrase(ALA-D) 0.6 mg/100 ml)
it was found that 10-15 per cent of the total
subjects had higher levels.
The mean values
of the observed lead indices, however, were
not statistically different from these normal
1imits .
Correlation analysis indicated a lack of
any significant
correlation between daily
average air lead exposure at different traffic
junctions and corresponding blood lead of the
volunteers stationed at the respective corners
by virtue of their occupation on the corres
ponding day of air sampling.
The correlation coefficient between log
Pb-U (urine lead) and Pb-B (blood lead) was
observed to be significant. A non-significant
negative correlation was found between Pb-B
and ALA-D activity.
But there was a definite
indication that the blood ALA-D activity of
occupationally
exposed population to even
ambient lead pollution,
was significantly
lower than general non-exposed population.
A non-significant correlation
was observed
between ALA excretion in urine and Pb-U for
these exposed groups.
For lung function tests, the statistical
intergroup comparison revealed that in general
there was no significant impairment due to the
existing levels of N0x along with other auto
exhaust pollutants.
Although no significant
variation was noted, the comparison between
low and high exposure groups indicated a defi
nite trend towards lowering of the lung func
tion test values (VC, FEVj-6 and PFR) for non
smoking population.
The reduction in pulmo
nary function for heavy exposure population
was about 0.6 lit, 4% and 10 lit/min, for VC,
FEV^% and PFR respectively.
No uniform trend
was observed for smokers because the smoking
habits and its nature were not comparable.
Only a significant variation for PFR test
was noted in heavy exposure group as compared
to low exposure subjects.
It may perhaps, be
due to the synergistic effects of high dust
lead along with a number of other auto-exhaust
gaseous pollutants, which are known to produce
upper respiratory tract irritation.
In addition, the comparison of pulmonary
function tests with the
normal standards
available for North Indian population showed
that for the same age groups VC and FEVj% were
considerably lower for all exposure groups in
this study.
However, such comparison is of
very limited value unless the normals are
established for matched population of the
local region.
3.4 Benzopyrene
Oxides of nitrogen
From the analysis of intergroup compa
rison of clinical manifestations it was seen
that the subjects in the age group of 30-59'
years in high exposure group showed an appa
rently greater tendency for positive respira
tory symptoms as compared to their counter
parts in medium or low exposure groups. Simi
lar trends were also found in non-smokers and
in the subjects who had been working in that
area for more than 5 years.
However, the ’t’
tests applied for inter subgroup comparison
indicated a non-significance.
Haematological and urine examination did
not reveal any unusual differences. Incidence
of hypertension was 18.39 per cent in the
study population. After adjusting for the age
factor
no
significant
differences
were
observed among the various subgroups.
In a
few hypertensive subjects the electrocardio
gram showed changes of left venticular hyper
trophy and strain.
4
The four hourly mean B(a)P levels showed
that 60 per cent observations were higher than
15 jjg/1000m3 which is the recommended MAC in
USSR.
The total B(a)P intake during 8 hours
working period per day was equal to 1.75 pg
(taking the mean B(a)P level of traffic junc
tion atmosphere as 425 pg/1000m3 with 82 per
cent as respirable fraction which was observed
in Bombay and 15m3 as inspired air volume per
day) .
In epidemiological surveys of lung cancer
for establishing the association with urban
B(a)P concentrations, it has been observed
internationally that lung cancer is charac
terised by large variations in incidence rate
which is further influenced by the special
variations concerning urban-rural and male
female differences. The local cancer hospital
records indicate that male .’female ratio in
rural areas of Ahmedabad district is higher
(10:1) in comparison to urban city area (5:1).
IVliile such ratios
in major international
studies vary from 4 to 5.
The lung cancer
100000 are also 2 to 3 times more in
Ahmedabad city than the surrounding
rural
area.
The general epidemiological data on lung
cancer from many countries prove that air
pollution as an etiological factor is only
secondary to cigarette smoking, but the role
of smoking is
possible enhanced
in the
presence of air pollution.
However in India,
females in the low or even middle income
groups are also exposed to high B(a)P levels
during cooking (along with urban air exposure}
due to the use of local cooking fuels like
cattle dung cake, wood and hard or soft coke.
This write-up is based on the Monograph
entitled
’Ahmedabad Auto-exhaust Pollution
Survey and its Effects on Exposed Occupational
Groups’, published by the Director, National
Institute of Occupational Health, Ahmedabad.
SUMMARY OF DR. J. B. SHRIVASTAV MEMORIAL LECTURE
Dr. U.C. Chaturvedi, Reader, Department of
Pathology
and Bacteriology,
K.G. Medical
College, Lucknow, delivered the Dr. J.B. Shrivastav Memorial Lecture on ’Iirmune Mechanism
in Viral Infections’ at the Indian Council of
Medical Research, New Delhi, on 6th September,
1979.
Most viral infections elicit immune res
ponse in the host; even infections initiated
in utero or at birth generate immune response.
Host immune responses against virus and the
virus-infected cells operate at three levels,
(i) humoral (antiviral antibody and comple
ment);
(ii) cellular (sensitized T-cells and
macrophages);
and (iii) combined humoralcellular (K-cells, macrophages and polymorpho
nuclear leucocytes).
Dengue virus is endemic in our country
and has caused many extensive epidemics.
As
not much information is available on the
immune mechanisms in this infection,the immune
response of Swiss albino mice to dengue virus
type 2 (DV) was studied.
When the virus was
inoculated i.c. into adult mice, all of them
died by 8 to 12 days but the virus did not
cause morbidity or mortality when inoculated
p.
i.
or i.v.
It was further noted that the
immune response of mice administered DV by
different routes did not differ materially.
Adoptive transfer of serum obtained from mice
3 to 5 weeks after the third i.p. dose of DV
protected recipient mice against intracerebral
challenge with DV, whereas the serum obtained
after 1 and 2 weeks provided minimum protec
tion .
Immunosuppression has been used as a
means to assess the role of the immune res
ponse in acute viral infections.
The immuno
suppression converts sub lethal experimental
infection into lethal infection.
A single
dose of cyclophosphamide (CY) given 24 hours
after DV i.p. or i.c. substantially reduced
the number of antibody forming cells in the
spleen.
Three doses of DV, each followed by
CY 24 hours later, produced specific hypores
ponsiveness to DV but not to a heterologous
virus (Coxsackie B^) with a reduction in anti
body forming cells in the spleen of such ani
mals against DV but not against Coxsackie B^
virus.
Adoptive immunity to DV by passive
transfer of specific antiserum was abolised
along with increased titres of the virus in
the brain of immunosuppressed mice.
But the
protection could be restored by a second dose
of antiserum given 72 hours later.
Thus the
findings show that humoral antibodies play a
crucially important role in protecting mice
against DV infection.
The cell-mediated immune response was in
vestigated in DV infected or immunized mice
using leucocyte migration inhibition (LMI)
test. Out of four experiments using different
doses and routes of the virus, a significant
LMI was observed only on two occasions, with
borderline values.
Adoptive i.v. transfer of
immune spleen cells obtained from mice 1 to 5
weeks after immunization did not protect reci
pient mice against even a small dose (IOLD5Q)
of DV.
Reconstitution of immunosuppressed
mice by immune spleen cells had no protective
effect.
Depletion of T-cells by treatment of
mice with antithymocyte serum did not poten
tiate DV infection.
It was therefore, con
cluded that CMI plays no protective role in DV
infection.
Absence of CMI and poor protection by
early phase immune serum in DV infection prom
pted a search for the cause.
It was observed
that adoptive transfer of immune spleen cells
suppressed the DV specific antibody forming
cells in the spleen of mice.
The suppression
was maximum in early phases of immunization
but declined to negligible values by 5th week.
The suppressor activity may be.due to T or B
lymphocytes or macrophages. In further experi
5
merits it was observed that the glass-adherent
cells had no suppressor activity.
Immune
spleen cells depleted of macrophages by carbo
nyl iron treatment had higher suppressor acti
vity. The pure B-lymphocytes had no suppressor
activity.
Almost all the suppressor activity
was present in T-lymphocytes. Pretreatment of
immune spleen cells with antithymocyte serum
and complement abrogated suppressor activity.
It was also noted that the activity could be
transmitted by cell homogenate thus indicating
that the activity was mediated through soluble
factors.
The suppressor activity was also
present in mice infected i.c. by DV. Thus
during DV infection suppressor activity was
present in the spleen of mice.
Some of the T-cell functions in DV in
fected mice were studied.
Following the i.c.
inoculation of DV the spleen weight of infec
ted mice was reduced as was the proportion of
T-lymphocytes in the spleen-cell suspensions.
In DV infected mice the mean haemolysin titre,
16 days after i.p. inoculation of 4xlO8.SRBC
(a thymus-dependent antigen), was 47 compared
with 406 in normal mice.
Spleen cells from
DV infected mice produced significantly re
duced direct GVH reactivity in Parker strain
(PS) infant mice.
Thus DV selectively dep
leted T-lymphocyte sub-populations responsible
for helper and effector functions and spared
suppressor T-cells in the spleen of infected
mice. This explains the absence of CHI in DV
infected mice and also the poor protective
effect of early phase immune serum.
The relative importance of humoral or
cellular factors depends upon the nature of
the virus and the type of host reaction.
All
the membrane associated viruses have CMI.
In
’cytolytic type’ of host-virus infection humo
ral antibodies are more important while in
’steady state' CMI is important and in ’inte
grated’ type of host-virus infection both may
play a role.
Both type of responses may
complement each other
in restricting the
spread of the virus and elimination of virus
infected cells.
At times there may he an
over-reaction which may result in pathological
lesions in the body.
ABSTRACTS
Some Research Projects completed recently
Cytogenetic studies in mental retardation
Cytogenetic investigations were done on
215 mentally retarded patients. These patients
were screened to rule out certain metabolic
and organic disorders.
Patients with more
than 2 congenital abnormalities (including ab
normal dermatoglyphics) were investigated.
Cytogenetic
investigations
included
buccal smear for ’X’ chromatin, blood smear
for presence or absence of drumsticks, fluore
scence study of buccal smear for 'Y' chromatin
(whenever necessary),
dermatoglyphics
and
blood culture for chromosomal analysis.
In
about 75 cases chromosomal analysis was done
using ASG banding technique.
For each case, twenty five or more meta
phase spreads were counted, 5 drawn, 5 photo
graphed and 3 karyotypes were made.
The results showed numerical and struc
tural abnormalities.
There were 10 cases of
sex chromosomal abnormalities.
Of these, one
was Klinefelter syndrome, three were Kline
felter mosaic, 3 were Turner mosaics and 3 had
long ’Y’ chromosome.
6
Of the autosomal anomalies, one case had
'G’ monosomy, one had 2i ring chromosome, 2
cases were of 13/14 translocation and one was
of 1/3 translocation.
There were 12 other
deletions and additions.
cases
with
minor
Out of the 32 cases of Down’s syndrome,
3 were D/G translocation.
There was a case
with typical Down's syndrome features with
normal chromosomal complement of 46 XX.
I.
M.
Thomas
Department of Anatomy
St. John's Medical College
Bangalore.
Publication:
Thomas, Manorama, Narayanan, H.S., Jayakumari,
R.N. and Victor, R. D/D translocation: Report
of two cases.
Medical Genetics in India,
Vol. 1, 1978, pp. 162-166, Edited by Ishwar
C. Verma,
Publishers
Aurcma
Enterprises,
Pondicherry.
of
Study of prevalence of anterior segment ocular
pathology in children due to xerophthalmia in
Assam
A survey was carried out from June, 1977
to May, 1979 amongst 6000 children 0-12 years
of age, at 20 sample sites in rural and urban
areas and tea garden labour colonies in 3 dis
tricts of Assam, to study the prevalence of
anterior segment ocular pathology due to xer
ophthalmia. This was also assessed during the
same period by a random study in children
attending the eye and paediatric out-patient
departments of the Gauhati Medical College
Hospital.
The overall prevalence of anterior seg
ment ocular lesions due to vitamin A defi
ciency in the children was found to be 10.6
per cent. The prevalence was found to be more
in tea gardens (19.2 per cent) than the rural
(9.1 per cent) and urban (8.0 per cent) areas.
The prevalence in children attending the eye
and paediatric out-patient departments
was
found to be 32.7 per cent and 7.03 per cent
respectively.
Male children were found to have suffered
more than female children.
Xerophthalmia was found to be more preva
lent in the 3-12 years age group at these
sample sites as well as at the paediatric
out-patient department.
Children attending
the eye out-patient department suffered more
in the age group of 3-5 years.
As regards the different grades of xer
ophthalmia in all the sample sites, it was
observed that more than 90.0 per cent of the
affected cases belonged to XO and XI grades.
There was not a single case of active kerato
malacia (X3B)
detected in the entire 20
sample sites. However, in the eye out-patients
45.4 per cent of cases had severe degrees of
xerophthalmia (X3A, X3B and X4).
It was observed in this survey that the
incidence of xerophthalmia was more in child
ren coming from poor families.
Regarding the seasonal variation, it was
seen that more cases of xerophthalmia
were
detected during the period from May to October
(summer and autumn seasons) than in the period
from November to April (winter and spring
seasons) in rural and tea garden areas. But
in the urban areas two peaks of incidence of
xerophthalmia were found - one in the months
of May to July (summer season) and the other
in the months of February to April (spring
season) .
L.
C.
Dutta
Department of Ophthalmology
Gauhati Medical College
Gauhati.
Hepatic carcinogenesis in the monkey
modification by enzyme inducers
and its
In this study, an attempt was made to
determine the protective effect of two known
enzyme inducers namely DDT and sodium pheno
barbitone against the acute toxic effect and
tumourgenesis of a hepatocarcinogen, diethylnitrosamine (DENA).
The effect of the first
inducer i.e. DDT could not be worked out
as
the animals treated with DDT died 2 and 10
weeks after the first injection.
Autopsy in
these animals did not reveal any apparent
abnormality. The second inducer, phenobarbi
tone was tolerated well
for more than 7
months. However, the high mortality observed
in the animals made it impossible to draw any
logical conclusion as regards carcinogenesis.
Phenobarbitone treatment concurrent with
dosing by DENA seemed to protect the liver
against chronic damage induced by the carcino
gen. It may be assumed that this regimen will
also help in reducing the oncogenic potential
of DENA and the resultant tumour induction
regarding the number and frequency.
On the
other hand pretreatment with phenobarbitone
seemed to have no effect on the hepatic injury
produced by DENA.
It is thus reasonable to
assume that induction of hepatic microsomal
enzymes
brought
about by
phenobarbitone
administration detoxifies DENA in the liver
and thus protects the organ against the injurying action of this agent.
It is well
known that many substances are detoxified in
the liver cell by the microsomal enzymes,
particularly the ones incorporating functional
P450.
The beneficial effects of phenobarbi
tone with regard to DENA toxicity may be based
on this mechanism.
N.C. Nayak
Department of Pathology
All India Institute
of Medical Sciences
New Delhi.
ICMR
The Scientific Advisory Committees of the
following Institutes of the Council met during
the month:
National Institute of
Occupational Health,
Ahmedabad.
September 24, 1979
Indian Registry of
Pathology, New Delhi.
September 27, 1979
Cytology Research Centre,
New Delhi.
September 27, 1979
Malaria Research Centre,
Delhi.
September 28, 1979
Meetings of the following Expert Groups/
Task Forces were held at ICMR, New Delhi:
ICMR Task Force on Acute
Respiratory Diseases.
September
1, 1979
ICMR Task Force on
Kala-azar.
September
3, 1979
ICMR Task Force on Ence
phalopathy in Children
September
7, 1979
ICMR Task Force on
Microbiology
September 11-12, 1979
ICMR Advisory Commi
ttee on Health Care
Delivery Systems.
September 14-15, 1979
ICMR Task Force
on IUDs
***
September 20-21, 1979
***
***
NEWS
Conferences/Seminars/Wrkshops:
Dr. G.V. Satyavati,
Deputy DirectorGeneral, ICMR participated in the International
Conference on Traditional Asian Medicine, held
at Canberra, Australia, between September 2-7,
1979.
Shri V. Ramadas Murthy, National Insti
tute of Nutrition, Hyderabad, participated in
the X International Conference on Health Edu
cation held at London between September 2-9,
1979.
Dr. C.V. Ramakrishnan, Deputy DirectorTuberculosis Research Centre, Madras, parti
cipated in the International Conference on
Atypical Mycobacteria,held at Denver,Colorado,
USA, between September 5-8, 19 79.
Dr. V. Ramalingaswami, Director-General,
ICMR delivered the Keynote address on the Role
of ICMR in Community Health with Special Refe
rence to MCH and Family Welfare at the work
shop on Involvement of the Rural Community in
Family Welfare Programmes, at the Institute
for Research in Reproduction, Bombay on Sep
tember 10, 1979.
Dr. Badri N. Saxena,
Deputy DirectorGeneral, ICMR, participated in the third meet
ing of agencies conducting or directly suppor
ting research on the Biomedical Aspects
of
Family Planning held at Geneva on September
10-11, 1979. He also participated in a sympo
sium on Steroid Contraception and Mechanisms
of Endometrial Bleeding^held between September
12-14, 1979 at Geneva.
PROGRAMME OF SCIENTIFIC LECTURES AT THE
INDIAN COUNCIL OF MEDICAL RESEARCH, NEW DELHI
8
Date
Topic
Speaker
6.9.1979
Studies on Virology
(Dr. J.B. Shrivastav Memorial Lecture)
Dr. U.C. Chaturvedi,
Lucknow.
20.9.1979
Tuberculosis in Children
(Dr. Kamala Menon Medical Research
Award Oration, 1978)
Dr. P.M. Udani,
Bombay.
18.10.1979
Nutrition and Immunity
(Shakuntala Amir Chand Prize Lecture,
1978)
Dr. P. Bhaskaran,
Hyderabad.
25.10.1979
Molecular Basis of Host-Virus Interaction
(Kshanika Award Oration, 1978)
Dr. Maharani Chakrabarti,
Varanasi.
ICMR AIDED SYMPOSIA/SEMINARS/WORKSHOPS/CONFERENCES
Symposiuin/Seminar/Worksh op/
Con ference
Date
Institution/Department
National Seminar on Neuro-oncology
August 8-10, 1979
National
Institute
of
Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bangalore.
Seminar on Potentialities of High
Energy
X-ray Machines in’ the Treat
ment of Malignant Diseases
September 21-22, 1979
Department
of
Radio
therapy,
Postgraduate
Institute of Medical Edu
cation
and
Research,
Chandigarh.
Workshop on Immunodiagnostic Methods
in Parasitology.
October 29November 10, 1979
Department of Parasito
logy, Postgraduate Insti
tute of Medical Education
and Research, Chandigarh.
Symposium on Newly Emerging Diseases
of Man and Animals
November 1-5, 1979
Haryana Agricultural Uni
versity, Hissar (Associa
tion of Microbiologists
of India).
Workshop on Investigative Procedures
in Haemorrhagic Disorders
November 5-6, 1979
Pasteur Institute, Shil
long (Indian Association
of
Pathologists
and
Microbiologists) .
Workshop on Biomedical
and Libraries
November 26-30, 1979
Institute for Research in
Reproduction, Bombay.
Information
First National Conference
Science and Society.
on Yoga,
December 4-7, 1979
Institute
of
Medical
Sciences, Banaras Hindu
University, Varanasi.
Symposium on
genesis
Carcino
December 9-11, 1979
Cancer Research
Insti
tute,
Tata
Memorial
Centre, Bombay.
December 27-30, 1979
Institute of Genetics and
Hospital for Genetic Dis
eases, Hyderabad (Indian
Society of Human Gene
tics) .
Symposia on Viral Encephalitis and
Recent Advances in Blood Transfusion
and a Slide Seminar on Non-tumorous
lesions of CNS.
January 3-5, 1980
Postgraduate Institute of
Medical
Education
and
Research, Chandigarh
(Association of
Patho
logists
and
Microbio
logists) .
Winter School
on Crystallographic
Computing Techniques
January 4-14, 19 80
Indian Institute
ence, Bangalore.
Environmental
National Symposium
Genetic Defects
on
Child
with
of Sci
9
Ins titution/Department
Date
Symposium/Seminar/Workshop/
Conference
in
January 16-18, 1980
Department of Microbio
logy, Lady Hardinge Medi
cal College, New Delhi.
Hundred
January 17-19, 1980
Institute of Postgraduate
Medical Education and Re
search, Calcutta.
Workshop on Microbial Procedures
Antibiotic Resistance in Bacteria
International Symposium on
Years of Malaria Research
COUNCIL'S TRAINING PROGRAMMES FOR 1979
(5)
Leprosy:
At the Central Jalma Institute
rosy, Agra.
for Lep
Nutrition and Endocrinology:
Training course in Leprosy for medical
officers: (February 15 to March 30, J 979,
and September 3 to October 13, 1979).
Virology:
At the
Pune.
(1)
(2)
(3)
National Institute
of
Virology,
Short-term training course on Laboratory
Diagnosis of JE:
(February 1 to 15,
1979).
Short-term course in Tissue Culture and
Cell Biology: (June 18 to 30, 1979).
Diploma course in Medical Virology
Poona University: (July, 1979).
At the National Institute
Hyderabad.
M.Sc. (Applied Nutrition) course:
1979 to February , 1980) .
(2)
Annual certificate course in Human Nutri
tion for teachers in agricultural univer
sities: (June to August, 1979).
(3)
Annual certificate course in Endocrino
logical Techniques and their Application:
(September to October, 1979).
(4)
Annual certificate course in Nutrition:
(December, 1979 to February, 1980) .
of
Training course in Reproductive Biology:
(January to March, 1979) .
(2)
Radioimmunoassay of Protein and Steroid
Hormones:
(January to March, 1979).
(3)
Training course in
to February, 1979).
in
Reference
Centre,
Genetics:
(1)
A certificate course in Blood Banking
Technology and
Basic Haematology for
medical officers: (February 1 to March
15, 1979).
(2)
Training course in Blood Banking Methodo
logy for Technicians: (May 17 to June 7,
1979) .
(January
Occupational Health:
Basic
Immunology:
At the National Institute of Occupational
Health, Ahmedabad.
•' ’I
10
Group
Research in Repro
(1)
Training course
(January, 1979).
(June
Haena tology:
At the Blood
Bombay.
At the Institute for
duction, Bombay.
of Nutrition,
(1)
Reproductive Biology:
(4)
Training course in Contraceptive Research
and Reproductive Endocrinology: (March,
1979) .
t
>
•'
•.
A
(1)
in Chemical
Training course in Hazards
Industry: (February, 1979).
COURSES FOR TAIENT SEARCH SCHEME FELLO/JS
Cell-Biology and Cyto-Genetics:
(2)
Rerresner course in Occupational Health
for E.S.I. medical officers: (September,
1979) .
At the Indian Institute
of Science,
Bangalore: (December 27, 1978 to January,
1979) .
Clinical Pharmacology:
Immunological Techniques:
At the Postgraduate Institute of Medical
Education £ Research, Chandigarh.
(January, 19 79) .
Biostatistics
At the Central Jalma Institute for Lep
rosy, Agra: (February 1 to 15, 1979).
Clinical Chen is try
tion:
At the Institute for Research in Medical
Statistics, New Delhi.
(1)
(2)
Diploma course in Biostatistics: (Septem
ber, 1979) .
and
Medical
Instrumenta
At the National Institute of Nutrition,
Hyderabad: (July 6-14, 1979).
Use of Radioisotopes in Medicine:
At the National Institute of Nutrition,
Hyderabad: (July 16-25, 1979).
Certificate course in Orientation to Bio
statistics:
(September 1 to November 30,
1979).
Clinical Pharmacology:
(5)
(4)
Certificate course in Statistical Tech
niques in Medical Research: (January 1 to
March 31, 1980).
Certificate course in Planning and Evalu
ation of Health Programmes: (April 1 to
50, 1980).
At the Department of Pharmacology, Post
graduate Institute of Medical Education £
Research, Chandigarh. (November, 1979).
Principles and Methods in Medical Statistics:
At the
Tuberculosis Research Centre,
Madras: (December, 1979).
Laboratory Animal Technology:
At the National Institute
Hyderabad.
of Nutrition,
Laboratory Animal Technicians Training
Course: Junior level: (June 4 to July 15,
1979), Senior level:(August 1 to Septem
ber 30, 1979) .
SOME
ICMR
Haematological Techniques:
*At the Department of Pathology, Christian
Medical College, Vellore.
*Dates to be announced later.
PUBLICATIONS
TECHNICAL REPORTS
Price
Rs.
Research in Medical Education (1970)
4.00
Research in Health Practices (1970)
4,00
Acute Encephalopathy Syndrome in Children (1970)
4,00
Exfoliative Cytology (1971)
4,00
Developments in Industrial Psychology in India (1971)
4.00
Proceedings of Seminar on Immunity and Immunoprophylaxis in Cholera (1971)
4.00
11
Pri ce
Rs.
Symposium on Clinical Evaluation of New Drugs (1972)
4.00
Laboratory Methods in Investigation of Thyroid Diseases (1972)
4.00
Proceedings of the First Annual Meeting of the Indian Academy of
Cytologists (1972)
4.00
Review of Work Done in Rural Water Supply in India (1972)
4.00
Genetics and our Health (1972)
4.00
All India Conference on Research in Reproduction and Fertility (1973)
4.00
A Study of Morbidity Patterns and Standard of Medical Care in the
Rural Centres of West Bengal (1973)
4.00
Seminar on Infectious Hepatitis and Study Group on Australia Antigen (1973)
4.00
Atlas of Histopathology of Liver: Hepatitis and Cirrhosis Q1974)
10.00
Studies on Pre-school Children (1974)^ Reprinted 1977
3.50
Studies on Weaning and Supplementary Foods (1974), Reprinted 1977
4.00
Medicinal Plants of India - Vol. I (1976)
30.00
Alternative Approaches to Health Care (1977)
,
Gratis
Gratis
Research in Malaria - An Outline (1977)
Health Hazards of Mycotoxins in India (1978)
5.00
O'EDITORIAL BOARD
Chairman
Members
Dr. V. Ramalingaswami
Di re ctor-Gen eral
Dr. S. V. Ap te
Dr. N.D. Datta Banik
Dr. N.P. Gupta
Dr. Usha K. Lu th r a
Dr. Badri N. Saxena
Chiefs Publications
Dr. G.V. Satyavati
Editor
Dr. N. Medappa
Printed and Published by Shri Prem Chand for the Indian Council of Medical
Research, New Delhi at the ICMR Offset Press, New Delhi.
R.N. 21813/71
Ms', i arie-Mignon Mascarenhas M.D
Head
Department of Community Medicine
St. John’s College
Bangalore
INDIA
DATE: MARCH 1979
NEWSLETTER OF THE CARIBBEAN DEVELOPMENT ANO CO-OPERATION COMMITTEE: Published
by the ECLA Office for the Caribbean, Port-of-Spain.
UNITED NATIONS ECONOMIC COMMISSION FOR LATIN AMERICA P.O. Bqx 1113 Port-of-Spaln, Trinidad
& Tobago: Cable Address: ECLA Port-of-Spain. Telex: 394
Phone: 62-35595/35428.
77ie Caribbean Development and Co-operation. Committee (CDCC) is a permanent subsidiary body at the minis
terial level of the Economic Commission for Latin America. The Committee acts as a co-ordinating body for
activities relating to development and co-operation in the Caribbean sub-region and serves as an advisory and
consultative body to the Executive Secretary of ECLA in respect of Caribbean issues. Members include: the
Commonwealth of the Bahamas, Barbados, Republic of Cuba, Suriname, Dominican Republic, Grenada, Guyana,
Jamaica, Haiti and Trinidad and Tobago. Representatives of Belize and the West Indies Associated States and
observers from the Netherlands Antilles also attend the Committee sessions.
THE DIRECTOR SPEAKS
AT
WORLD FOOD COUNCIL REGIONAL CONSULTATION MEETING
February 19—20, 1979
Port of Spain, Trinidad
Need For Balanced Concept Of Development
3
’■'T
There is deep concern within CEPAL about policies which relegate agriculture
to second best position in national programmes while other sectors of the economy
benefit from such a partial approach to development.
A more balanced concept of development is needed to achieve the objective
of rapid industrialization for Latin America on a solid agricultural base. These were
some of the observations, Mr. Silbourne Clarke, Director of the CEPAL Office for
the Caribbean, made, speaking on behalf of Mr. Enrique Iglesias, United Nations
Assistant Secretary General and Executive Secretary of CEPAL at the opening session
of the regional consultation meeting, organized jointly by the World Food Council
and the Inter-American Development Bank.
The observations were aimed, Mr. Clarke said, at identifying a limited number
of practical measures which could produce short-range impact. They were presented,
he said, from the standpoint of a regional institution focusing on the Latin American
scene.
COMMUNITY HEALTH CELL
47/1,(First Fioor)3c. Marks
page 1
LO4E - Jwu 001
VOL. 2 NO. 2
There have been significant changes, he added, in the social structure of rural
and agricultural areas of Latin America, related, no doubt, to the dynamic growth
of the modem sector of Latin American agriculture. However, there were still
unsolved social problems and those have in some instances worsened.
Best Use Of Planning Capacity
Stable agricultural policies, he felt, were realised when emphasis was placed on
making the best use of the planning capacity of the State to anticipate and give
continuity to agricultural policies. The provision of incentives that were coherent
and rational would also, in his view, permit agricultural programmes to be imple
mented on clear and firm bases. In that way, temptations to alter programmes
indiscriminately might be considerably minimised.
A realistic view, he urged, must be taken about root problems affecting the
structure of agricultural development, bearing in mind, he added, that each country
must solve in its own way the problem of access to land by underemployed family
groups.
Concentration On Peasant Farmers
There was also a need, he felt, for governments to concentrate resources in
favour of the agricultural sector for the benefit in particular of peasant fanners,
who had to compete with modem agricultural systems which had a great capacity
to absorb and negotiate resources to the disadvantage of peasant farmers.
Attention, he believed, ought to be paid to the types of foreign technology
which have been or were to be utilised in the making of agricultural products.
Foreign technology, he stressed, should be examined to determine their substantive
relevance as a resource endowment that could also be applied beneficially to the
social problems of Latin America.
While international financial agencies, he pointed out, should be urged to
modify their acceptance and approval procedures, governments, he felt, should
complete as quickly as possible the preparation of agricultural investment projects
which already satisfied the requirements of the agencies.
Widening Participation In Development
The agricultural population, he stated, should be encouraged and given more
opportunities to participate in the development of the sector, emphasis being
placed on providing training for them, as well as improving and extending social
services in rural areas.
Income Redistribution
Income Redistribution policies, he noted, gave renewed stimulus to agricultural
production because they influenced the size and growth of domestic demand for
agricultural products.
MAJOR FOCUS REPORT
SOME SOCIAL ASPECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
Limited Research
Many countries of the Caribbean are embarking on major industrialization
programmes — Barbados, Jamaica, St. Lucia, Trinidad and Tobago among them —
page 2
without, perhaps, perceiving a need to give major emphasis to the social aspects
of environmental management. With the notable exception of Jamaica, many of
these countries are without governmental agencies equipped to deal with environ
mental management. In fact, very limited research has been done in the Caribbean
on the effects of industrialization on the local population. Interestingly, the Report
of the Second Conference of Ministers responsible for Health, emanating from the
CARICOM Conference held in Montserrat in 1976, states inter alia that “the greatest
hazards to human health in the Caribbean are to be found in the environment and
in particular, in factors related to the quality and quantity of drinking water supplies
and the disposal of wastes”. According to a WHO report, approximately 400 million
persons in developing countries are affected by gastro-enteritis, caused by polluted
drinking water. It is estimated that about the same number of persons suffer from
other water-related diseases.
Serious Environmental Problems
According to a paper prepared for the joint UNEP/ECLA Caribbean Environ
ment Project, entitled: Policy Issues Relating to Environmental Management,
the limited number of studies which have been carried out in the region indicate
that environmental problems are becoming very serious, particularly in the more
developed countries. There are serious problems relating to: liquid and solid waste
disposal (domestic and industrial); the increasing use of inorganic fertilizers and
pesticides, resulting in accelerated aquatic and marine weed growth, a dramatic
increase in the level of nitrates in subterranean water and fish kills; poor agricul
tural and other land use practices, resulting in erosion of the soil and siltation of
rivers; deforestation, leading to erosion and siltation problems as well as to the loss
of water-shed protection, increased flash flooding and reduction in aquifer recharge;
the placing of valuable agricultural land under buildings and roads to cope with the
proliferation of the private motor vehicle and the process of urban and suburban
spread.
Investigating Effects Of Pesticides
It is worth noting here that the Government of Colombia has adopted a pro
gramme to investigate the effects of pesticides on the health of the population. The
cost of the programme is approximately US $3 million. It was adopted in response
to complaints from farmers, agronomists and doctors about the danger to human
health resulting from the indiscriminate use of pesticides. As indicated in the World
Environment Report of January 15, 1979, Colombia used 17 million kilograms of
pesticides in 1978 at a cost of US $140 million.
Among the 638 pesticides on the market are a variety of products based on
DDT, Aldrin, Deldrin and Parathion. Fifty-five of this number contain 2—4—D and
2—4—5—T, popularly known as the “orange agent”, used to destroy forests and
plantations during the Viet Nam War. To avoid creating severe imbalance in the
natural environment, strict control is required in the application of these chemical
agents. The substance 2—4—D is considered 700 times more dangerous than
Thalidomide. Studies in the rice-growing region of El Espinal in Central Colombia
indicate that farmers there suffer from various illnesses due to the pesticides used in
the spraying of crops.
Toxic Elements
A report on Environmental Health Strategy issued by PAHO/CARICOM, March
1978 states that there is a wide variety of pesticides, weedicides and herbicides in
use throughout the CARICOM region. Some of these are known to be toxic.
page 3
Beach Pollution
Beach pollution is also an area of priority concern to students of Caribbean
environmental problems. The main source of beach pollution in the Caribbean
Islands is sewage. Raw sewage is often discharged into the sea. Few countries in
the region have facilities for sewage treatment. The discharge of industrial wastes
into the sea also compounds the beach pollution problem. The social effects of
this discharge on tourism in the region have not been fully assessed and systematically
documented. In the English-speaking Caribbean, for instance, Owen Jefferson
estimates that tourism accounts for 77 per cent of the Gross Domestic Product in
the Bahamas, 50 per cent in Antigua, 20 per cent in Barbados, and 6 per cent in
Jamaica.
Social Effects Of Tourism
An important area of study is the related question of the impact of tourism
on the social relations and psychological health of the population. Joyce Cole,
who has done one of the few empirical studies on the sociological impact of tourism
on the Caribbean observed that there was little contact between local inhabitants
of Tobago and tourists to that country. Although she found in general a favourable
attitude to tourists, a substantial number of students held unfavourable attitudes to
them. However, her report noted that the individual Tobagonian developed a more
favourable attitude towards tourists as he became more exposed to them.
Impact On Local Culture
There appears to be a need for further research on the impact of tourism on the
local culture of the Caribbean. For instance, is there a tendency towards greater
dependence, and a reinforcement of attitudes of racial and cultural inferiority
among Caribbean communities, which have to rely on tourism as one of their main
sources of revenue? In what ways does the host country or community affect the
tourist? Attempts should be made to record and assess the values and attitudes of
tourists before and after their visits to the host countries. It is evident, states the
UNDP Report of July 1975 on Regional Aspects of Tourism Development in the
Eastern Caribbean, that there are more speculations than answers in the questions
that pertain to social impact of tourism in the Caribbean. The problem, the Report
continues, is not confined to the region. It has world-wide scope. The ‘cause-effect’
relationships between tourism development and the host societies need to be better
understood. For planning as well as for action, the Report concludes, governments
and private sector alike aspire for better decision-making tools. This subject requires
sustained basic research for a number of years.
Action Plan
It is expected that the Action Plan being developed by the Caribbean Environ
ment Project for Sound Environmental Management in the Wider Caribbean Area
will include some of the social considerations raised here. The Caribbean Environ
ment Project is an element of the Regional Seas Programme of the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP), which, however, goes beyond consideration of
purely marine affairs to encompass many sectors and related multi-disciplinary
activities in areas such as natural resources and ecosystems, industry and technology.
A description of the Caribbean Environment Project has already been outlined in
CDCC/FOCUS Volume 1, Number 4 of November 1978.
Aim of Paper
The aim of this paper is to focus in a two-part presentation on an understanding
of our actions and their effects in selected areas of development such as environ
mental health; tourism; human settlements and habitat. Other aspects of the Carib
bean Environment Project will be examined in forthcoming issues of CDCC/FOCUS.
page 4
REPORT ON PROGRESS
CIVIL AVIATION
The Second Meeting of Civil Aviation Experts was held in the Offices of the
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) in Mexico City from 24—26
January, 1979. The meeting produced a series of recommendations for considera
tion by the Fourth Session of CDCC, that are designed to improve civil aviation in
the region.
The recommendations included the establishment of a Standing Committee of
Ministers responsible for Civil Aviation in the CDCC, an ongoing programme of
work, regular meetings of the CDCC Directors of Civil Aviation, consideration of a
multilateral agreement, and improvements in air freight, facilitation of commercial
and technical co-operation between regional airlines.
MARITIME TRANSPORT
The Third Session of CDCC gave high priority to the Maritime Transport Pro
gramme, (E/CEPAL/CDCC 35), and this has been actively pursued; however, one
item of that programme was cancelled owing to lack of support on the part of
CDCC member-countries, namely, the meeting on Search and Rescue that was
scheduled to be held in December 1978. The purpose of that meeting was for the
Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organisation (IMCO) to explain the
Search and Rescue Convention, and to provide an opportunity for CDCC members
to prepare a Caribbean position in this vital area. Despite several maritime accidents
and losses in the region in 1978, especially involving inter-island small vessels, the
situation was that most CDCC members did not designate representatives to the
meeting.
Other parts of the programme are proceeding according to plan. The Shipping
Traffic Survey is underway; the United Nations Conference On Trade And Develop
ment (UNCTAD) and the the Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organisa
tion (IMCO) have fulfilled their commitments and revised proposals to deal with
small-vessel and schooner problems; and proposals concerning regional co-operation
in shipping development will be presented to the Fourth Session of CDCC in
Suriname.
POSTAL SERVICES
No CDCC member has accepted the offer of assistance to establish a Postal
Users Council. However, progress has been made towards the formation of a Carib
bean Restricted Postal Union, and the advanced preparatory work permits for the
establishment of a Union during 1979. There is acceptance that such a development
would lead to marked improvement in postal services.
There may be some urgency in this matter since there is some uncertainty
about participation of non-independent countries in the Universal Postal Union.
Several territories in the Caribbean are affected, including the Netherlands Antilles,
Belize, Antigua, St. Kitts-Nevis-Anguilla, Montserrat and St. Vincent within CDCC,
as well as the Cayman Islands, Turks and Caicos Islands, the British Virgin Islands
and Bermuda with respect to the movement of international mail. It is probable
that membership in a Restricted Union would overcome such difficulties.
page 5
THE POSSIBILITIES OF CREATING MULTINATIONAL MARKETING
ENTERPRISES
During the months of September and October, 1978, the Economic Commission
for Latin America, Office for the Caribbean and the United Nations Conference on
Trade and Development jointly undertook a survey to detect the possibilities of
establishing multinational marketing enterprises. A report was submitted which is
described as follows:
The introduction to the report describes the objective of the study namely, to
identify the possibilities for co-operation open to the establishment of multinational
Marketing Enterprises for semi and fully manufactured products in the Caribbean
region. The first part of the report is concerned with a technical analysis of the
problem as a preliminary basis for the survey. The analysis is done within the frame
work of the New International Economic Order and includes a survey of Latin.
American countries in this perspective.
A study is also made of the effects of rapid industrialisation and export diver
sification on economic growth with particular reference to LAFTA, the Andean
Group, and the Central American Common Market. An examination is also made
of the evolution of these integration systems and of the conflict of interests which
emerged in some of the multinational projects being developed in the region.
The second part of the study deals with country reports for the following:
Barbados, Republic of Cuba, Dominican Republic, Guyana, Haiti, Jamaica,
Suriname, and Trinidad and Tobago. Identification is made of the type of products
which have maximum export potential in a multinational marketing enterprise.
At the end of this section is a summary of conclusions drawn from a study of
interviews conducted for this exercise, emphasis being placed on points of common
interests and divergence. Strategies and suggestions from each country are
also outlined in this segment. Finally, proposals are formulated for the following
sectors: textiles and garments, footwear, food processes, machine tools and raw
materials, furniture and wood products, fertilizers, aluminium, fish and derivatives.
The third part of the Report incorporates recommendations by sectors into a
specific strategy. In fact, such a strategy, conceived in a political and economic
context, necessarily involves at the first stage the organization of a Task Force to
support joint marketing enterprises and to lay the basis for the task of defining,
identifying products, co-ordinating different participatory projects and drafting the
statutes of the Company to be established.
The strategy proposed in the report is organized in three stages. The first stage
involves the development of multinational enterprises in the form of co-operatives
or joint export efforts. All the countries visited in the survey are in a position to
participate in the first stage. The second stage will reinforce the first stage as well as
involve co-operation at the level of production.
The third stage will concentrate on the integration of the preceding stages,
creating a concrete multinational enterprise. This phase will be the culmination of
the processes of awareness and the political will to undertake joint ventures at the
regional level.
THE CARIBBEAN DOCUMENTATION CENTRE
The Third Session of the CDCC endorsed the Report of the Meeting of
Librarians and Documentalists and requested the Secretariat to concentrate its
efforts on the following main recommendations emanating from the Report:
page 6
(a)
Appointment of a Working Party to accelerate the establishment
of a Caribbean Information System and formation of a Congress
of Librarians;
(b)
Encouragement of member governments to strengthen their national
information infrastructure by formulating national information
policies, supported by the introduction of suitable legislation,
continuing budgetary support and adequate machinery for imple
mentation of such policies; and
(c)
Creation of adequate programmes designed to train information
specialists at all levels.
Agricultural Information Network
The Secretariat initiated development of the Caribbean Information System in
the fields of agriculture and socio-economic planning. With assistance from
UNESCO’s Regional Adviser for Information Services, guidelines for the establish
ment and operation of an agricultural sub-regional network were prepared and dis
tributed to agricultural librarians and Ministries of Agriculture for their considera
tion.
Socio-Economic Information Network
In order to provide decision-makers, planners and project implemented with
effective information services, the Secretariat has taken positive steps to establish a
regional information network for socio-economic planning designed to allow for the
smooth transfer from manual to automated procedures. The network will strengthen
information infrastructure at the national level and secure compatibility among
socio-economic information units in the region. Funds have been secured for
training courses to assist library and information personnel in the Ministries of
Planning and Development in the use of modem techniques which would standar
dize bibliographic procedures and secure bibliographic control of socio-economic
information, especially government documents and technical assistance reports,
thereby strengthening intra-Caribbean technical co-operation. The first training
course will be held in May 1979, after which an information specialist from the
CDCC Secretariat will travel to the various member states to assist where necessary
in the setting up of specialized libraries.
Computer-Based System
Under its Regular Programme for the Working Party, the Secretariat has sought
assistance from UNESCO to design and cost a decentralized computer-based regional
information system, initially covering planning, agriculture, science and technology,
industry and trade sectors. Among other tasks, the system will take immediate
steps to improve services offered to the region through current manual operations.
UNESCO Adviser
In consultation with the CDCC Secretariat, the UNESCO Regional Adviser for
Information Services, has to date visited five member states and assisted these
governments in formulating requests for assistance through UNESCO’s Participation
Programme.
Congress of Librarians
The Statutes for the Congress of Librarians have been drafted for considera
tion by a meeting of Caribbean experts.
page 7
I
VIEWPOINT WITH A FOCUS ON
CARIBBEAN WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT
“Hear their cries without name”.
Hear their cries of knotted water
sap
Hear the urine dripping from an immense bladder
Hear the metal knife on the cord
Where the navel still bum .... burn bum
LEROY CLARKE
“It is not useful to try to consider separately the
problems of the Caribbean mother and those
of her child.”
Dr. Phillip Boyd
Chief of the Health section
Caribbean Community Secretariat
“We are guilty of many errors and many faults, but
our worst crime is abandoning the children, neglecting
the fountain of life. Many of the tilings we need can
wait. The Child cannot. Right now is the time his
bones are being formed, his blood is being made
and his senses are being developed. To him we cannot
answer, “Tomorrow”. His name is “Today”.
Gabriel Mistral
Chilean Poet and Nobel Prize Winner.
Painting by LEROY CLARKE
of Trinidad and Tobago
OUR WOMEN AND CHILDREN NEED
CARE AND ATTENTION
Priority — Women’s Participation In Development
At the Third Session of CDCC, Member Governments accorded priority to
Participation of Caribbean Women in Development. At the First Regional Con
ference on the Integration of Women in the Economic and Social Development of
Latin America, held in Havana in June 1977, the representatives of the govern
ments of Latin America and the Caribbean adopted a regional plan of action which
established CEPAL’s responsibilities in this field.
Purpose Of Regional Plan
The purpose of the Regional Plan of action is “to present a minimum action
programme aimed at the promotion of equality of opportunity and responsibility
for women in the common effort to overcome obstacles which hinder the develop
ment of both men and women as individuals and as members of a society”.
Practical And Immediate Solutions
The programme, known as: Participation of Caribbean Women in development;
training and income generating programme, is an integrated set of projects which
are designed to produce practical and immediate solutions to the problems of
integrating women in Development in the Caribbean sub-region.
page 8
A project has been submitted to the Voluntary Fund for the Decade of Women;
this project includes both national and regional programmes on surveys, training,
and research. The project has been approved in principle; but to date funds have
not been released.
Inseparable Problems Of Mother And Child
It seems important to point here to an observation made recently by Dr. Phillip
Boyd, Chief of the Health Section, CARICOM, that it is not useful to try to consider
separately the problems of the Caribbean mother and those of her child.
When the United Nations proclaimed 1979 THE INTERNATIONAL YEAR OF
THE CHILD, Mr. Kurt Waldheim, Secretary General of the United Nations, invited
member countries of the organization to make the physical and mental welfare of
the child an integral part of their programmes for social and economic development.
Mankind, Mr. Waldheim said, must give the best it can to its children. All peoples, he
stressed, have a responsibility to participate in joint activities which are designed to
create a secure and joyful future for our children.
Mr. Carlos Martinez Sotomayor, Regional Director of UNICEF in the Americas
urged the Latin American and Caribbean Region to give high priority to the future
developers of the region. This is particularly important for the region, where a great
deal of emphasis is placed in the development process on improving the quality of
life of its peoples, and where the young numerically constitute a most important
human resource. Dr. Boyd’s recent report to CARIBBEAN CONTACT on the
deplorable state of health of our women, children and young adults as well as a
concern we share for our traditional family life values make it necessary, it seems,
for us to seek a synthesis of the technical and human aspects of the healing process
as a matter of urgency. In this approach emphasis is placed on the difference
between curing the disease and healing the patient.
The International Year of The Cliild may well help us to foster family co
operation in strengthening individual responsibility for health, in achieving whole
ness through self-regulation.
Limitations Of Conventional Medicine
Our medical systems have little to do with the whole person, with wholeness,
health; but is, primarily, a disease care system. Our medical practice, it would
appear, does not give enough consideration to the relationship of the individual
person to the family, to the relationship of a person’s physical condition to his/her
oral and other cultural traditions, life and work.
Realistic Approach
A realistic approach to women’s concern in the region seems to demand a
restoration of wholeness in these areas and in the remainder of contemporary life.
In essence, we are invited in International Year Of The Child to make an appoint
ment with the Family of Man in the New World, perceived as a whole person.
Specifically, this means that we should strive for a new synthesis which com
bines a traditional knowledge of human self-mastery and the most sophisticated
tools of modem science and technology in the integrated areas of health, com
munication, and family life.
The new synthesis may extend significantly our personal and collective capa
cities for orienting the development process in a single direction — the reciprocal
maintenance of peoples and their environments in the region based on the creation
of sound health practice and policies, designed to foster harmonious and socially
constructive individual and family life.
In this way, we may ensure a healthy continuity of human life in the region
and provide a basis for meaningful education of the children in the New World.
page 9
1 ■
UNITED NATIONS - ECLA
WHAT IS CDCC?
CDCC is primarily an attempt to make obvious, within CEPAL for the first time., and tuso within the United
Nations, a very first beautiful challenge for the countries of tills region to make the concept of self-reliance a
concrete way to mobilise resouices, and io make these resources available for the purpose of development in all
the countries.
The second concept on which we must focus is tl?c question of the regional structure g- the Unhed Nations.
We need very much to rely on regional and
bodici! (such as the CDCC) .in. order ro bring the
United Nations closer to the countries, and close.! to the nerds of our people; thereby making? more efficient
and more responsive to tire hopes that were inherent in the cxw.tion of this institution.
Mr.. Enrique Iglesias,
Executive Secretary,
CEPAL, Santiago, Chile.
FUNDAMENTAL AIM GF CDCC
The fundamental aim behind the creation of the Committee and its activities is rite social and economic
development and solidarity of our countries of our region.
Mr. Pedro Padilla Tonos,
Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs,
Dominican Republic.
CDCC NEGOTIATING NEW ECONOMIC RELATIONS
The establishment of the Caribbean Development and Co-operation Committee is in line with the struggle
of the underdeveloped countries to pool efforts for implementing the postulates contained in the Declaration
and Plan of Action for the establishment of a New International Order, and in the Charter of Economic Rights
and Duties of States.
CDCC forms part of the present overall tendency of the so-called Third World to adopt its own co-operation
schemes and serves as an instrument to improve the negotiating power of Latin America and the Caribbean with
third countries or groups of countries.
Mr. Ernesto Melendez Bachs,
Vice President of the State Committee of
Economic Collaboration,
Cuba.
KEY DATES
13 May 1975 - CDCC established by Resolu
tions 358 (XVI) wliich was adopted at the Sixteenth
16—22 March 1977 - Second Session of the
CDCC held in Santo Domingo
Session of the Economic Commission for Latin
America.
12—18 April 1978 - Third Session of the
CDCC held in Belize City, Belize.
31 October - 4 November 1975 - First Session
21—27 March 1979 - Fourth Session sche
duled to be held in Suriname.
of the CDCC, held in Havana, Cuba.
CDCC MEMBER COUNTRIES
Commonwealth of the Bahamas, Barbados, Republic of Cuba, Dominican Republic, Grenada, Guyana
Jamaica, Republic of Haiti, Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, and Suriname. Representatives of Belize and the
West Indies Associated States and observers from the Netherlands Antilles also attend session of the CDCC.
THE CDCC SECRETARIAT
ECLA (CEPAL) Office for the Caribbean, Port-of-Spain - Director, Mr. Silboume St. A. Clarke.
PRIORITY CONCERNS FOR UPCOMING FOURTH SESSION IN SURINAME
Caribbean Information Systems; Science and Technology; Council for Social and Economic DevelopmentElimination of Language Barriers; Development of Sub-regional Strategy for Third Development Decade.
WHO PROPOSED THE CREATION OF CDCC?
His Excellency Dr. Eric Williams proposed the creation of this Committee.
• 1
s
coMM»Bnv
UNESCO UNEP ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION NEWSLETTER
Vol. IV, No. 2. June 1979
National Training Activities
in Environmental ducation
Together with the organization of regional workshops, described in the previous issue
of Connect, initiation and support of training activities at the national level constitute
one of the major areas for action of the Unesco-UNEP International Programme for
Environmental Education. They form part of the concerted follow-up to recommendations of the
Intergovernmental Conference on Environmental Education, convened in Tbilisi (USSR).
October 1977.
Specifically the Tbilisi Conference stated that:
‘•The training of qualified personnel is considered to be a priority activity. This holds good
for both initial and in-service training, for the purpose of familiarizing teachers in formal education.
organizers in nonformal activities for young people and adults, administrative personnel
and educational planners and researchers with environment-linked subject matter and educational
and methodological guidelines.”
Thus far. support of national training activities in environmental education has been initiated
with a number of Member States.
This procedure has been followed: Training activities to be undertaken are identified by
Member States according to their perceived needs, whether inside or outside the formal
school system. Then a project is drawn up for submission to the Unesco-UNEP Environmental
Education Programme, stating goals and objectives, character and number of participants.
institutions involved, planned schedule for preparation, implementation and evaluation of the
proposed training activity, and details of the finances requested as well as those provided locally.
Qualified personnel for such training activities are considered to include teachers.
teacher educators, curriculum developers, educational planners, administrators and supervisors. The
aim. as stated al the Tbilisi Conference, is. on the one hand, to acquaint such participants
with different aspects and problems of the environment and, on the other, to provide them with
a basic training which could enable them to incorporate environmental education (EE) effectively
into their respective activities.
Additional aims include acquainting participants with the widest possible range of educational
aids, emphasizing low-cost materials and their adaptation to local conditions ; stimulating
institutions involved in teacher training to prepare EE training materials suitable for local
urban and rural situations in both formal and nonformal education; and the exchange and diffusion
of EE training materials and information.
Reports on completed national training activities will appear in Connect as they are
received
Republic of Korea
Philippines
The first national EE training workshop for which a
report has been received was held in Seoul, Korea, 1115 December 1978. It was organized by the Korean
National Commission for Unesco following a recom
mendation to this effect at a previous National Seminar
on the Development of Human Environmental
Studies. It was also conceived as one of the steps to
implement recommendations adopted at the Tbilisi
Conference.
Organized by the Science Education Center of the
University of the Philippines, a national training
workshop on environmental education was held at the
University's Center in Quezon City, 26-31 March
1979. The specific theme of the workshop was: Water
Resources. There were 26 participants, representing
1 1 of the 12 Regional Offices of the Ministry of Educa
tion and Culture. 10 Regional Science Teaching
Centers or Regional Staff Development Centers, and
two secondary schools of Metro Manila.
The objectives of the workshop were to provide prac
tical experiences for the teacher-participants which
would enable them to: (1) learn concepts and principles
of water resource protection, conservation and
management as they apply to the Philippine environ
ment; and (2) develop competence in using the im
mediate environment in teaching these science concepts
and principles. Accordingly the six-day workshop
was conducted around field and laboratory activities as
well as talks and lecture-discussions, which gave participants an opportunity to ask questions clarifying the
activities they had just undergone and how best adapt
the knowledge acquired to their own local situations.
Stream tables were constructed in the gardens of the
Science Education Center to demonstrate stream for
mation. channel erosion and silt deposition. Similarly
the chemistry laboratory provided experience in obser
vation and measurement of such conditions as water
pH and hardness, the determination of dissolved
oxygen and the biodegradability of locally manufac
tured detergents. At the campus lagoon, participants
learned to record atmospheric and water conditions, to
collect freshwater microorganisms using an impro
vised plankton net made of ordinary wire, local cloth
material and a plastic vial, and to identify
plankton. There was also a field visit to a nearby
water filtration and treatment plant.
Evaluation of the workshop was obtained both quan
titatively. in terms of pre-workshop and post-workshop
test scores, and qualitatively, in terms of the nominal
ratings, comments and suggestions of participants
recorded on an evaluation sheet. On the whole the
response was positive. As for future plans, the intenlion is to hold two more such EE workshops by the
University of the Philippines' Science Education
Center, one stressing soil and the second air.
Two domestic factors accelerated the need for a
national training workshop. One factor has been the
new Charter for the Protection of Nature, proclaimed
by the government, which has resulted in a country
wide movement aimed at raising general awareness of
the environment among the public and impressing it
with the importance of active participation in the solu
tion of environmental problems. A second factor is
the current governmental effort to revise school cur
ricula during 1979 and 1980. involving a major expan
sion of education in environmental matters with
emphasis on a new’ interdisciplinary approach.
There was a total of 64 participants at the Korean
National EE Training Workshop: 9 from various
government agencies. 10 from the Graduate School of
Environment. Seoul National University. 25 from 11
provincial Boards of Education and primary and
secondary schools. 15 from teacher-training and
research institutes, and 5 from the press and broad
casting media.
Programme and discussions were divided into two
parts: 1 . Analysis of Environmental
Problems. 2. Basic Direction of Environmental
Education. The first part involved such themes as the
natural ecosystem and economic development and ef
forts on the part of the government and international
organizations to improve the environment. The sec
ond part dealt directly with environmental education:
its goals and contents, methodologies and instructional
resources, the present situation in Korean primary and
secondary schools and out-of-school EE for the general
public. To aid discussion on the last theme, a special
report was prepared for the workshop on a survey of
environmental perception and attitudes of Korean peo
ples.
000009000'0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
Workshop on Environmental Education and Training
in African Universities
A workshop on environmental education, training
and research in African univer
sities was held in Nairobi,
Kenya, from 3 to 9 December
1978. It was convened by the
Association of African Univer
sities, hosted by the University
of Nairobi and sponsored by
the UN Environment Program
me (UNEP), the Agence de
cooperation culturelle et technique, the Commonwealth
Secretariat and the Association des universites partiellement ou entierement de langue fran^aise.
The workshop was conceived as one of the follow-up
activities of the Tbilisi Conference and had these long
2
term objectives: (1) to further environmental education,
training and research in the African region at the
university (or post-secondary) level through actionoriented programmes and by establishing networks of
institutions; and (2) to help develop and provide per
sonnel in the various countries knowledgeable in the
principles and practise of environmental management
and environmentally sound development.
The immediate objectives were to bring together a
group of selected experts and key personnel in the
nelds of environmental education, training and
reseat ch from African universities; to review the pre
sent situation of these areas in African universities: to
identify the best measures for the collection, exchange
and dissemination of information about environmental
Connect
education, training and research and ways of encourag
ing and supporting their development in African
universities.
The workshop was attended by 161
participants. Ninety-six came from 50 universities.
19 from UN agencies and organizations, 16 from
governments and 30 from various bodies and post
secondary educational institutions. University par
ticipation included vice-chancellors, deans of faculties,
directors of research institutes, senior professors and
scientists.
The work was primarily organized by plenary ses
sions and task forces, the latter bringing forward
recommendations on specific themes dealt with in
plenary session for consideration, amendment and
adoption at the closing meeting. These themes were
dealt with and discussed: (1) the conceptual and
philosophical basis for environmental education, train
ing and research; (2) problems and prospects in these
areas, especially concerning learning about en
vironmental systems, human and other natural
resources and human intervention in the environment;
and (3) institutional and pedagogical approaches to en
vironmental education, training and research in
African universities.
A total of 85 recommendations were adopted by the
workshop in Nairobi. They were related to these
central topics: teaching and research: institutional
frameworks for teaching and research; linkages
between teaching and research and policy-making
systems; and institutional networks in Africa for en
vironmental education, training and research. They
were addressed to these “target sectors”: African
governments and universities, international agencies
and organizations and nongovernmental bodies.
Recommendations directed to African universities
referred to: (1) the need for environmental education
and training, stressing interdisciplinarity; (2) in
stitutionalizing environmental education and training
within and between universities; (3) content and
methods of teaching with an emphasis on participation
in a problem-solving approach to local environmental
problems; (4) potential audiences for university EE
programmes from the general public to specialized
professional groups; and (5) research with an accent on
the real environmental needs of society.
Workshop participants brought papers on the state
of environmental education, training and research in
their universities and countries. These will be com
piled and published. Copies of the report and other
publications concerning the African workshop may be
obtained from: Secretary General. Association of
African Universities. P.O. Box 5744, Accra-North,
Ghana : and EETU. UNEP. P.O. Box 30552. Nairobi.
Kenya.
OOOQO00O0OOQOQOQOOOOQOOOOOO0OOOOQOOOOOOOCQOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0OOOOOOOOOO©
Science Education and the Environment
A three-day conference on the theme “Science
Education for Progress - a Regional Perspective” was
organized, with Unesco support, in Barbados. 20-22
April 1979. The meeting was attended by a total of
about 130 participants from countries in the Caribbean
subregion, from North, Central and South America
and from a few countries in Europe and Africa. It
was cosponsored by the International Council of As
sociations for Science Education (ICASE), the Carib
bean Regional Organization of Associations for
Science Education (CROASE) and the National
Science Teachers Association (NSTA) of the USA.
The main focus of the conference was on science
education for development and on the educational
significance of the social implications of science and
technology. The conference gave considerable atten
tion to environmental themes. One whole day was
devoted to a study in depth of the topic « Energy » with
particular reference to the needs and possibilities of
countries in the Caribbean.
The conference went on to discuss the teaching of a
theme such as “energy” in a context which brings out
its social relevance and the importance, for national
development, of wise policy- and decision
making. It was agreed that, in the context of social
relevance, a more interdisciplinary approach to the
curriculum was essential, especially in the fields of
natural science and social studies.
One discussion group of the conference was devoted
to the topic “Using the Environment to Teach
Science”. A series of practical activities were
reviewed which could be carried out in the school
grounds. Each of these was an attempt to contribute
to an understanding of one or more fundamental con
cepts in environmental education.
Integrated science curricula for primary and sec
ondary levels developed in the Caribbean were
reviewed during other conference sessions. Some of
these courses, such as the Belize project “Environmen
tal Approach to Primary Science”, include many en
vironmental themes related especially to local
agricultural and industrial development.
A full report of the conference will be published,
later in 1979. by the International Council of Associa
tions for Science Education. It will be obtainable
from Mr. W. King, School of Education, University of
the West Indies. Cave Hill, Barbados.
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
With the report below, Connect continues its series on national EE activities and invites
similar reports from other Member countries
Environmental Education in the United States
The roots of environmental education in the United
States grew out of educational movements concerned
• h appreciation of nature, conservation of natural
v Lnrres and use of the outdoors for teaching. It received national attention in 1970. when the U.S.
June 1979
proclaimed one week in May as “National Teach-In on
the Environment”.
In the same year, the U.S. Congress passed the En
vironmental Education Act and established the Office
of Environmental Education within the Department of
3
Health. Education and Welfare to administer the
Act. This legislation helped to provide the leadership
and funds for local, state and national initiatives in the
■field of environmental education. Specifically, the
Environmental Education Act has financed over 500
projects since 1971 in the areas of community
awareness, instruction and curriculum, personnel train
ing and evaluation and dissemination. The Office of
Environmental Education has identified a key
governmental individual in each of the fifty states as
the contact for environmental education. Periodically
they are brought together for exchanging ideas on
furthering EE throughout the country.
In addition to the national legislation for en
vironmental education, several states have had similar
legislative success in stimulating EE activities at the
state level. The California EE Act, for instance, em
powers the State Department of Education to en
courage the development of educational opportunities
specifically related to environmental education. The
New Jersey EE Act provides for school district
programmes, regional facilities for students and
teachers, and curriculum research and development
centers. In Florida, the Environmental Education Act
was passed to stimulate awareness and understanding
of the environment and develop problem-solving skills
among students, teachers and administrators in the
state. The Wisconsin statutes require that the conser
vation of natural resources be taught in every elemen
tary and secondary school. In addition, adequate in
struction in the conservation of natural resources is re
quired for teacher certification.
Since 1970 there have been six national conferences.
each with a different EE focus. The sixth and most re
cent was a national leadership conference on en
vironmental education, which was a follow-up to the
Tbilisi Conference, to review recommendations from
all of the previous national and international
meetings. The outcome was the drafting of 16
definitive recommendations relating to a national
strategy for environmental education with each recom
mendation targeted for implementation along an es
tablished timeline. (See Conned, Vol. Ill, No. 3,
September 1978.)
In addition, three major professional organizations
have sponsored annual conferences and provided an
arena for the exchange of information. They are the
Conservation Education Association, the National As
sociation for Environmental Education and the
American Society for Environmental Education.
In order to obtain better communication and coor
dination among all federal agencies with an EE in
terest. the Federal Interagency Committee on Educa
tion formed a subcommittee on environmental
education. This subcommittee has served to bring
agency representatives together several times a year to
exchange information on their EE approaches and ac
tivities. It has also played an important role in help
ing to prepare the U.S. Delegation to the
Intergovernmental EE Conference at Tbilisi.
A consortium of nongovernmental organizations has
also been formed to link groups involved in en
vironmental education. It is called the Alliance for
Environmental Education, has a combined
membership of 30 organizations and 12,000 in
dividuals, and meets regularly to discuss environmental
education issues of mutual concern and to take joint
action when appropriate. Regional coalitions have
also been formed to exchange ideas of common intcrest. These include the Western Regional EE Coun
cil. the Great Lakes EE Council, the Southern
Regional Council and the Northeast EE Development.
A Journal of Environmental Education, dedicated to
the publication of research activities in environmental
education, has been created. In addition, there has
been established a computerized EE diffusion system,
Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC)
(see p. 8). in which all relevant EE activities are
available on microfilm at centers located throughout
the country or by mail for a reasonable price.
For additional information on EE activities in the
U.S., write: International Organization Division,
Department of State, Washington, D.C. 20520. U.S.
9@@®@O®OOOOOGOOOOOOOO0QOOOOOOOOOOOO0OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOQ0OOOO
Ekofilm Festival
The sixth international Ekofilm Festival, whose
theme was “Technology in the Service of the Human
Environment", was held in Ostrava. Czechoslovak
Socialist Republic. 21-25 May 1979. One hundred
and fourteen films had been submitted to the en
vironmental film festival's organizers from which 100
films representing 19 countries were selected for the
competition. The principal prizes were rewarded, in
this order, to documentary films of the following
countries: Federal Republic of Germany.
Czechoslovak Socialist Republic, USSR. Bulgaria.
Poland. Netherlands. Finland. UK and USA.
A regular feature of the Ekofilm Festival has been its
panel discussions and seminars accompanying the
showing of the documentary films. This year’s panels
were devoted to the subject and film treatment of: (1)
protection of the atmosphere from industrial pollution;
(2) noise in the human environment: (3) current
problems in the preservation of water quality; and (4)
the impact of large-scale agriculture on the environ
ment.
The festival's seminar was of special interest, since it
concerned the role of films and television in en
vironmental education of both specialists and the
general public. Over 50 educators, filmmakers, TV
producers, journalists and other media specialists par
4
ticipated. They concentrated on constructive
criticism of the environmental films shown from the
point of view of their educational effectiveness vis-a-vis
youth and adult audiences inside and outside the for
mal school system. Emphasis was placed on a clear
statement of the problem coupled with its solution
reached through an interdisciplinary as well as a
problem-solving approach.
In addition there was a professional discussion at the
seminar on the techniques of documentary filmmaking appropriate lengths for different age levels, proper mix
of entertainement and instruction, audio and visual,
etc. - with the goal of improving pedagogical and
educational content without loss of general ap
peal. The encouragement and improvement of TV
programmes on the environment, which all participants
stressed as being of major importance in public educa
tion. was similarly discussed in terms of form, content
and techniques. Lastly ways and means for impro
ving the international exchange of EE films and TV
programmes were also discussed and explored.
For information about procurement of movies
shown at the Ekofilm Festival, write: RAPID,
Czechoslovak Publicity Agency. Tyrsova 7, 701 43
Ostrava 1. Czechoslovakia.
Conned
EE Institutions and Communications
Directories on environmental education institutions
and programmes are being prepared as part of the
International EE Programme which is devoted to
promotion of the exchange of information and ex
perience in this field. Please send details and
documentation to Connect, address on back
page. The following items have lately been received.
Fondation Universitaire Luxembourgeoise, rue des
Deportes 140. 6700 Arion. Belgium. This institu
tion s stated aim is "to stimulate and coordinate ap
plied scientific research and some forms of
postgraduate studies, namely in the field of en
vironmental studies and psychopedagogy, in coopera
tion with other Belgian universities and equivalent
institutions.' The Environment Department of its
Interuniversity Centre for Environmental Studies offers
a research programme based on problems of the
quality of life, economic development and promotion
of the rural environment with an emphasis on interand muitidisciplinarity. Studies can lead to a doc
torate. a master's degree or a certificate in environmen
tal studies.
Universite Catholique de Louvain, Belgium. Since
1971. this university has had courses, seminars and
field work on the environment, particularly pollution,
for both general and specialized educational pur
poses. The instruction is highly inter - and mul
tidisciplinary. A 26-page descriptive brochure in
French is available from the university’s Service d'e
ludes. Krakenstraat 3, 3000 Louvain. Belgium.
Environmental Studies Association of Victoria, 324
William Street. Melbourne 3000. Australia. This as
sociation is nonprofit and nongovernmental and has
been involved in EE since 1972. It offers a variety of
study courses ranging from one to three days, which
are generally open to all. However there is a special
emphasis on teachers and their in-service education
needs. Further information as well as the newsletter
ESA V News are available from the association at the
address above.
Partners for Livable Space, 2120 P Street NW.
Washington. D.C. 20037, U.S.A. Nonprofit and non
governmental. this coalition of organizations and in
dividuals is dedicated to improving the quality of life of
its nation's communities. One major area of action is
promotion of public awareness by means of publica
tions. mass media, a syndicated newspaper column, a
newsletter for members and a news magazine titled
“Livability".
A note of clarification has been received from
Dr. Nilay Chaudhuri. Chairman. Central Board
for the Prevention and Control of Water Pollu
tion. New Delhi. India, regarding an item ap
pearing in Conned, Vol. III. No. 4. The item
quoted Development Forum, which is published
by the UN's Centre for Economic and Social In
formation. to the effect that “a government com
mittee reported that the water in New Delhi is so
badly polluted it should not even be used for
watering gardens." Dr. Chaudhuri kindly re
quests that the item be clarified. “The fact is,"
he writes, “the water being supplied to New Delhi
by the Municipal Corporation of Delhi is
wholesome and safe, because the water is ob
tained from the River Jamuna upstream of the
Wazirabad Barrage and is adequately treated
before it is supplied to the public. It is the raw
water of the River Jamuna downstream of the
Barrage which is very much polluted and the
quality of this raw water at times does not permit
its use even for gardening."
June 1979
*
**
From Dr. Kiew Bong Heang, Malayan Nature
Society. P.O. Box 750. Kuala Lumpur. Malaysia: “The
Malayan Nature Society, a nonprofit, nongovernmen
tal organization formed in 1940. is deeply interested in
promoting environmental education in Malaysia and
its neighboring countries, in addition to nature studies
and conservation education. The Council of the
Society has set up an Education Committee for this
purpose. The programme is planned for a three-year
period (1979-1982). Phase I will involve a workshop
of teachers and scientists to identify EE problem areas
for Malaysia. Phase 2 will involve soliciting of rele
vant scientific personnel to develop needed resource
materials which will be tested in .the state of
Selangor. Phase 3 will involve the production and
distribution of the tested materials. If funds permit.
the materials will be sent on request to other ASEAN
countries. In planning this ambitious programme the
Malayan Nature Society takes the view that if it is
willing to do the work, there will be other organisations
which will come forward with funds to support it."
From Mr. J.H.P. Sankey, Liaison Officer. Field
Studies Council (International). Preston Montford.
Montford Bridge. Shrewsbury SY4 1DX, U.K.: “The
Field Studies Council runs short residential courses in
nine centres in England and Wales on such en
vironmental subjects as conservation, plant and animal
ecology, birds, soils geography, geology and many
others for groups from schools and colleges as well as
for amateurs of all ages. Special courses are
organized on request for groups from the Continent
and visits can be arranged to places of interest near a
centre. Special fee arrangements are made for
groups. The Field Studies Council is a private, non
profit organization involved with environmental educa
tion since 1946.”
5
EE Publications and News
Tropical Forest Ecosystems: a State-of-Knowledge
Report Prepared by Unesco!UNEP/FAO. Paris,
Unesco. 1978.684. Hard cover, 180 F: soft cover,
144 F. (Natural Resources Research, XIV).
This report aims at providing a clear summary of
knowledge of the structure, functioning and evolution
of tropical forest ecosystems and of the human popula
tions that live within and around these ecosystems. It
also describes some of the main patterns of use of these
ecosystems. Tn presenting this information, the report
attempts to identify gaps in knowledge, to present
recommendations for future research, to indicate ap
propriate methodologies for problem-oriented studies
on tropical forest ecosystems, to describe examples of
land and resources management and examine some! of
the reasons for success or failure in specific concrete
situations, and thus to highlight needs for future orien
tation in land-use and management strategies.
The report comprises three principal parts. Part I
chiefly contains the research results of biologists and
other natural scientists. Fourteen chapters deal with
the description, functioning and evolution of tropical
forest ecosystems, covering both disturbed and un
disturbed situations. It includes information on com
position. structure, biomass, primary and secondary
productivity, water budgets, nutrients cycling, energy
flow, stability, species interactions, succession, growth.
regeneration, pests and diseases.
Part II is of particular interest to demographers.
social anthropologists, ethnologists and other scien
tists. as well as resource managers and land plan
ners. It is mainly concerned with the biological
behaviour and socio-cultural aspects of the human
populations living in and around tropical forest
ecosystems and with their patterns of use and manage
ment.
Part III of the report contains eight regional case
studies, which describe specific tropical forest
ecosystems from various viewpoints (either basic
research or utilization and management) to illustrate
the kind and orientation of research.
- From Nature and Resources, Vol. XIV. No. 3.
July-September 1978.
Man and His Environment: An overview of
Unesco's involvement, 1979, 65 pp.
The content of this brochure, as indicated in the
Preface, “has been extracted from Thinking Ahead, a
book which explains the Medium-Term Plan of Unesco
for the period 1977-82. Each of the brochure’s seven
sections is devoted to one of the objectives of the
Medium-Term Plan concerning Man and his Environ
ment” - namely, (1) Knowledge of the earth’s crust and
of its resources: (2) The biosphere: man's influence on
his environment; (3) Sharing water resources; (4) Man
and the sea: (5) Man and the city: (6) Safeguarding the
heritage of mankind and preserving the natural en
vironment: and (7) Knowing how to live: education on
the environment. “The texts give a comprehensive ac
count not only of the main guidelines for the Organiza
tion's activities in the coming years for each objective,
but also of the reasons which dictated their choice and
of the evolution of relevant action. No attempt is
made here to give detailed descriptions of current or
planned projects, nor of the ways and means by which
these projects are implemented." For a more detailed
description of Unesco's involvement in environmental
education (Section 7) through the Unesco-UNEP Inter
national EE Programme, see Connect, Vol. III. No 4.
December 1978.
For information about the above items, write:
Unesco Press. 7. place de Fontenoy, 75700 Paris,
France.
6
"People, Water and Sanitation" is the title and sub
ject matter of the 191-page Spring 1979 issue of
UniceTs Assignment Children, a journal concerned
with children, women and youth in development. Part
1 concerns lessons learned from past experiences in
water supply and sanitation for all. Part II deals with
urban slums, “the sector left out of planning". These
dossiers are followed by specific case studies:
“Methodology - Paraguay", “The Village Level Colombia". “The National Level - Bangladesh",
“Training - Malawi", “Maintenace - Tamil Nadu, In
dia”. “Shared Technology - Mali" and “Women Kenya". Lastly there is a report on a WHO meeting
concerning “Appropriate Technology for Improvement
of Environmental Health at the Village Level", held in
New Delhi. India. 16-20 October 1978. For further
information, write: Unicef - Assignment Children,
Villa Le Bocage, Palais des Nations, Geneva 10, Switz
erland.
The State of the Environment in OECD Countries is
a 15-page reprint summarizing a report published by
the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and
Development. It covers a 10-year period (1969-1979)
and is available in English or French from the OECD
Observer, 2. rue Andre-Pascal. 75775 Paris. France.
At the close of a meeting of the Ministers for En
vironment of OECD countries, 7-8 May 1979, a
declaration was adopted stating that Member govern
ments “will support the promotion of environmental ob
jectives and awareness in the field of education" and
“they wil encourage public participation, where poss
ible. in the preparation of decisions with significant
environmental consequences, inter alia, by providing,
as appropriate, information on the risks, costs and
benefits associated with the decisions."
Forum, No. 4/78, published by the Council of
Europe in English, French, German and Italian, in
cludes a 12-page section on “Environmental
Education" for both rural and urban areas. Address:
67006 Strasbourg Cedex, France. A memorandum in
English and French on the second meeting of the Com
mittee of Experts on Environmental Education and
Training, 26-27 September 1978, is also available.
Parks and People is a 28-page report on a European
Conference for Naturparke/Parcs Naturels/National
Parks (UK)/and Equivalent Reserves, 25-29 September
19 7 8. An entire day was devoted to
“Interpretation/animation/and Environmental Edu
cation" with special reference to the German ex
perience and on the day following to the French
ecomusees. Write: Principal, Losehill Hall,
Castleton. Derbyshire S30 2WB, UK.
*
**
Urban Management Processes is a 154-page report,
complete with background papers, on the proceedings
of a seminar of the same name which was sponsored by
the Australian National Commission for Unesco and
held in Adelaide, Australia, 22-25 August 1977. It
may be procured by writing the Commission, care of
Department of Education. Woden ACT, Australia
2606.
Development of Environmental Education in
Australia: Key Issues is a 104-page publication with
sections on: (1) the definition and aims of environmen
tal education; (2) a strategy for the development of EE
in Australian schools; (3) the role of supporting
organizations in this development, such as government
authorities, teacher associations, tertiary education in-
Connect
•
•
stitutions and community organizations; and (4) a sur
vey of EE needs in Australia. Report of the Cur
riculum Development Centre Study Group on En
vironmental Education, 48 pp., contains the views,
recommendations and suggestions of members of the
EE Study Group on current needs and future ac
tions. For further information on both publications,
write: Ms. Annette Greenall, EE Coordinator, Cur
riculum Development Centre, P.O. Box 632, Manuka
ACT, Australia 2603.
>>
JEP 4: Teacher’s Manual is a spiral-bound trial edi
tion in English only of a text designed for the joint
purpose of teaching English and the principles of
ecology to young peopfe. JEP stands for Junior
English Programme, which was created by the Centro
de Linguistica Aplicada of the Institute de Idiomas
\ azigi. Ave. 9 de Julho, 3.166 Sao Paulo, Brazil, to
whom requests for the comic-book style teacher's
manual should be addressed.
❖
# >>
De Toute Urgence is a magazine devoted to the
rational use of the environment and its resources,
published by the Conseil quebecois de 1’environment
with the support of IUCN. Vol. 10. No. 1. March 1979,
includes articles on the accident at the Three Mile
Island nuclear installation near Harrisburg, Pa.. U.S.,
as well as other articles and book reviews of en
vironmental education interest. For further informa
tion. write to the Conseil quebecois de 1'environnement,
C.P. 39, Sillery. Quebec, GIT 2P7, Canada.
Three publications have been received from Universidad EAFIT (Escuela de Administracion y Finanzas y
Tecnologias), Medellin., Colombia: (1) Documento de
Estudio sobre Education Arnbiental - 4 Modelos-, (2)
Temas Administrativos 30 (largely on environmental
management); and (3) Ensayo sobre EcoAdministracibn. For information, write Universidad
EAFIT at the address given.
$ $ fl
The Educational System Applied by the Administra
tion of the Krkonose National Park is a small
pamphlet describing the many EE activities of the wellknown national park of Czechoslovakia involving
schools, nature groups, lectures and meetings, a
museum, library and documentation center.
fl
fl
a
A 162-page Report on Environmental Education in
Denmark in the light of the Tbilisi Intergovernmental
EE Conference, which is also reported on in length, is
now available in Danish from: Ministry of National
Education. Frederiksholms Kanal 21-25, 1220
Copenhagen. Denmark.
fl fl fl
Nouvelles de I'ecodeveloppement is a quarterly in
French only which has been appearing since February
1977. It is edited by the Centre international de
recherche sur 1‘environnement et le developpement of
the Ecole de hautes etudes en sciences sociales and
published by the Maison des sciences de 1’homme with
the financial support of UNEP. As the title suggests,
news and articles concerning ecodevelopment. or
ecologically sound development, constitute the focus of
the magazine. It is distributed freely to institutions
June 1979
and individuals such as libraries, documentation
centers, researchers and the like. For information,
write: Nouvelles de Pecodeveloppement, 54, boulevard
Raspail. Bureau 309, 75270 Paris Cedex 06, France.
Campagne d'information et d'action educative sur
1'environnement: Region Provence-Alpes-Cote d'Azur
(1977-1978) is an interesting folio-size 74-page
brochure prepared by the College mediterraneen de
reflexion et d'echanges sur 1’environnement, 2 rue
Beauvau. 13001 Marseille, France. Chapters deal
wih "Environment and Educational Activities", “En
vironment and the General Public” and “Environment
and the Commune".
« fl A
Zeitschrift fiir Umweltpolitik (Journal for En
vironmental Policy) is a new quarterly “intended to
work as a creative force in environmental policy by virture of both its problem-oriented approach and its high
theoretical standards." Articles are primarily in
German with up to a third in English. All articles
have a German and an English resume. For informa
tion. write the publisher: Deutscher Fachverlag GmbH,
Schumannstrasse 27. 6000 Frankfurt/Main, Federal
Republic of Germany.
Leben und Uniwelt (Life and Environment) is nor
mally a bimonthly publication (monthly on occasion)
devoted to biology and the protection of the environ
ment. both natural and built. For further information,
write: Prof. Dr. H. Bruns, Editor, Weiherallee 29, D
6229 Schlangenbad 5, Federal Republic of Germany.
A series of publications in German has been received
from the University of Essen. Four have been issued
since September 1977. They deal with: (1) the univer-'
sity’s EE materials centre; (2) national and inter
national EE conferences from Stockholm to Tbilisi and
afterward, interdisciplinarity, etc.; (3) EE trends in the
Federal Republic of Germany and the promotion of EE
in schools of the EEC countries; and (4) the specific
contribution of the earth sciences to an inter
disciplinary EE university curriculum. For informa
tion. write: Prof. Dr. Peter Schneider, Zentralstelle fiir
Umwelterziehung. Universitat Essen - GHS, FB 9,
Universitatsstrasse 5. 4300 Essen 1, Federal Republic
of Germany.
fl fl fl
The Dakar-based Environment Training Programme
known as ENDA is publishing an interesting series of
documents on appropriate technologies for the
developing world - windmills, tractors, village
mechanization, natural fertilizers, etc. They are ap
pearing as supplements of the organization’s quarterly
magazine African Environment. For information or
literature, write: ENDA. B.P. 3370, Dakar, Senegal.
ft fl fl
La Escuela
Su Medio (The School and its En
vironment) is a 54-page booklet on school experiences
in the Spanish province of Alicante, 1976-1978, which
involved use of the local environment for pedagogical
purposes. It has been printed by Sucesor de Such,
Serra y Compania, Avenida de Orihuela, 51, Alicante,
Spain.
fl fl fl
REED (Review of Environmental Education
Developments) is a newsletter in its seventh year, par
ticularly useful for its information on environmental
education in Great Britain. It .is produced and
7
published by the Directorate of the Council for En
vironmental Education at the School of Education
University of Reading. London Road, Reading RG1
5AQ. U.K.
::t
ERIC (Educational Resources Information Center)
is a national information system, a source for obtaining
documents on education (environmental and other) and
a network of decentralized information centers. It
collects, screens, organizes and disseminates
educational reports, furnishes copies of educational
documents at nominal cost, prepares interpretative
summaries, research reviews and bibliographies on
critical topics in education and services decentralized
information centers throughout the U.S. ERIC
"clearinghouses" monitor, acquire, evaluate, abstract,
index and list current information relevant to their par
ticular educational area. The “clearinghouse" for
science, mathematics and environmental education
(ERIC/SMEAC) may be addressed at The Ohio State
University, 1200 Chambers Road, 3rd Floor,
Columbus, Ohio 43212, U.S. It distributes its own
EE newsletter.
Environmental Awareness Through the Arts is a
spiral-bound, 198-page teacher’s guide to the use of art
for awakening environmental awareness in
students. It has a carefully planned core of cur
riculum activities with some illustrative
materials. For information, write: Ms. Myrtle Kerr,
Supervisor. Art/Humanities, Department of Education,
P.O. Box 44064, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, U.S.
«
#
#
A collection of colorful wall posters and other
materials has been received from the Chief Conser
vator of Forests, Forest Department, P.O. Box 228,
Ndola. Zambia, together with this communication:
"We in the Forest Department of Zambia spend a good
deal of time producing materials, posters, wall teaching
features and pamphlets on the need for forest conserva
tion in particular and environmental .conservation in
general. Naturally much of the material is Zambiaoriented. but much is applicable to most developing
countries in tropical and semi-tropical conditions and
might also be of value to others."
MAB in Thailand
A National Seminar on Planning and
Management of Environmental Research Pro
jects was held in Bangkok. Thailand, from 11 to
22 December 1978. with the support of Unesco.
The seminar was convened by the Thai Natio
nal Committee for the Man and the Biosphere
(MAB) Programme, assisted by Unesco consul
tant Dr. R.A. Hynes of Griffith University, Aus
tralia. The overall aim of the seminar was to
help increase the effectiveness of research in
contributing to pragmatic solutions to environ
mental problems in Thailand. The seminar
involved lectures and practical exercises. It
concentrated on such major issues as identifica
tion of field projects through systematic analysis
of problems, techniques for selection of projects,
the design of research projects, guidelines for writ
ing of project proposals and techniques of pro
ject control and management. A 390-page book
of seminar materials was compiled for use by
seminar participants. The seminar was organ
ized within the framework of MAB Project A on
tropical forests and the UNEP-Unesco Program
me for the development of ecological pilot pro
jects in tropical forest areas.
Save trees.
This issue is printed on recycled paper.
Connect is also published in French as Connexion, in
Spanish as Contacto, in Russian as Kontakt and in
Arabic as Arrabita. Contents are exactly the same in all
editions. Connect is free. Reproduction of its contents
is not only permitted, it is solicited and encouraged.
Gwmedi:
Published by Unesco
7. place de Fontenoy. 75700 Paris, France
Maulde et Renou - Paris. Printed in France
ja/^/77
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tent Is high, Its 'nuisance effect’.
the emp.oyees said, is due to lack
of effective anti-pollution
mea
sures. Another
reason is that
the power plant was initially de
signed for operation on coal of
an ash
content of around 4045%. Thus, with the low sulphur
coal used here, the electrostatic
precipitator was not in a position
to function effectively
to trap
most of the outgoing ash. The
electrodes placed just after the
boiler and below
the chimneys
are also not cleaned frequently.
About the extremely high noise
levels, nothing at all seems
to
have been done. In many foreign
countries there are laws against
excessive noise
levels at power
stations, but not in India. While i
the noise affects workers within
the plant, the fly ash hazard is
shared by both the workers and
people outside the plant. People
interviewed
in the immediate
vicinity of the power station —
office-goers,
shopkeepers,
stu
dents al the nearby Delhi Schoo!
of
Architecture — complained
about the Ily ash. Most of
the
offices there keep I heir windows 1
shut. “Often we arc- forced
to
open them for a few minute-; des
pite the ily ash, since the air
inside the office gets stalo
and
stuffy.” On certain days,
when ’
the smoke is particularly strong, 1
the surrounding areas are over- i
laid by a line mist-like canopy.
Senior members of the mana
gement admit that some seclor-i I
of the power station, especially I
Unit-1 of the thermal power ge- ,
Derating unit (Japanese),
were |
functioning below par, because I
of wear and tear of ihe machi
nery a (feeling its mechanical pre- I
cipitalor. This unit causes the
maximum pollution. Since Unit-! i
has run most of its life, it is not |
economical to Incur much expen-|
dilure on it. A new electrostatic
precipitator, they said, was to be
installed soon. It would be sup
plied by Bl (EL. As lor Units 2.
3 and 4, the original .suppliers of
the machinery had agreed to ef
fect improvements in it and
a
sum of Rs 2 crore
had
been
sanctioned for this purpose.
To clean the electrodes, they
explained, the- temperature
of
the boiler had
io be brought
down from
a level of about
2,000’F,
when
under
full
opera
tion, to about 30-40C. The cooling
took lime and hence the diffi
culty in cleaning the electrodes
frequently. Besides, the electro
static equipment, which incorpo
rates the electrodes, cannot func
tion much belter with the type
-y-.
of low sulphur coal which
used at the power station, unless
the capacity of the electrostatic
precipitator is increased by about
four times. This would cost DESU
about Rs 6-7 crore. When it was
pointed out that this difficulty
could be overcome by equipping
the plant with fabric dust collec
tors which are particularly effici
ent in the case of low sulphur coal
(which is used at this plant) and
operating at constant efficiency,
the management staff seemed to
be at a loss for words. The cost
of equipment and operation of a
fabric filter compares favourably
with that of an electrostatic preci
pitator Moreover, it will greatly
reduce the levels of fly ash in the
atmosphere.
The measures taken to control
the pollution level at the power
station reflect a lack of imagina
tion and, probably, resources to
by G.’S/George'and Ancy Abraham
back it up. The authorities say
monitoring
noise
level they are constantly
the supervisory
staff (middle The very high
In India today, major urban rung technicians and engineers) which caused these troubles was pollution levels and testing the '
/ T A IR pollution Is a relatively re/&• ztl cent phenomenon even in the areas and even the countryside are and members of the senior ma experienced by us. There was a efficiency of the electrostatic pre- I
*■ advanced countries of the world. exposed to air, water and noise nagement
comprising
highly numbness about our ears which cipitalor. Nothing, however, seems j
ha qualified engineers The response lasted over 15 minutes
after to be happening beyond the moni
In India, the magnitude of
the pollution, leading to health
zards
and
extinction
of
plants
problem has not been fully asses
patterns showed a marked diver emerging from the power sta toring stage, since statements
sed, except, in a few regions like and animals. The common pollu gence at the two ends of
the tion. Nowhere did we see a wor about having "increased the fre
with protective quency of cleaning the electrodes
Chembur (Bombay). On the whole, tion parameters in Delhi are sul continuum. There was, however, ker equipped
nitrogen dioxide, a greater convergence of views ear inasks or face-masks
to make it more effective in trap
pollution from industry appears to phur dioxide,
hydrogen
sulphide,
oxidents,
and
Why were the workers not ex ping fly ash,” are belied by earlier
.pass unnoticed. One explanation
between the supervisory
staff
for this is the restricted spa- suspended particulate matter.
and the middle-rung
engineers, amined at regular intervals at a ones about the difficulty of fre
To determine the pollution ef and the ordinary workers at the much earlier stage? Are the pro quent reduction of boiler tempera
'■ tial spread of industry,
another
the ture in order to clean the elec
could be the absence or ineffec fects of industrial plants and plant. Among the employees, the tective masks provided for
of coal-yard workers (at the adjoin coalyard and boiler workers ef trodes.
tive functioning of air monitoring power stations on the lives
Regarding replacement of defec
stations in major cities and towns. workers employed in them and ing Rajghat power house which fective? Why are the workers not
people
in
the
surrounding
areas,
ear tive or worn-out electrodes, it had
The air monitoring stations set up
is a part of the
Indraprastha provided with protective
- by the National Environmental we studied the functioning of the plant complex)
and the boiler plugs? Do the power station au been decided to replace the elec
' Engineering Research Institute Indraprastha power station, a unit workers were more seriously af thorities provide free medical fa trostatic precipitator of Umt-1 of
(NEERI) in Bombay,
Calcutta, under the Delhi Electric Supply fected by the fly ash and
high cilities and/or compensation for the thermal generating unit and to
workers affected by fly ash. Ac effect improvements in Ihe rest of
Delhi, Madras, Hyderabad, Kanpur, Undertaking (DESU). It is a 38,009 noise levels
cording to the workers, their de the equipment. But HU now, no
Jaipur, Ahmedabad
and Nagpur KW installation set up in financial
Han Chand, a Class IV emp mand for a periodical examina positive steps have been taken
ere unable to formulate ‘realistic co-operation with the US Govern
standards’ for permissible levels of ment. It was commissioned in loyee, looks what he is—a boiler tion was conceded by the mana The wiremesh installed in three
who is a tuberculosis gement only in 1976. 'The face chimneys to slop the ash panicles
eir pollutants and lack sophistica September 1973. Power is trans worker
flat masks are defective and outdat doos not seem to be very effective
ted monitoring and tracking inst mitted to the plant from Punjab, patient Lean, gaunt, and
of anguish, ed. Most of us also suffer from At one time, say the authorities'.
ruments. Above all, there is little as also to Haryana and Uttar Pra chested, eyes full
I lari Chand’s story Is a sad one. eye ailments. No protective ear there was a plan to construct one
enthusiasm for such concepts ns desh.
been sup big chimney in which the three
joined the power station in masks or plugs have
environment and ecology.
The main complaint against the He
when he
was in normal plied to us despite repeated re existing chimneys would bo mergIndraprastha power station is 1971
This was borne out In an inter obout the significant quantities of health. Within three years, ho quests."
cd, but this was not considered
According to the workmen, no quite practical and (he plan was
view we had with Dr B. D. Nag ily ash emanating from its three bewail having spells of cough and
treatment shelved, hurt her measures within
Chaudhuri, Vice-Chancellor of Ja chimneys. Smoke from the chip;. chest pain. In 197(5, when all the compensation, except
were
X-rayed, he was of the affected workers, is pro the power plant to keep down fly
waharlal Nehru University and for neys (205 ft, 200 ft. and 200
fl. workers
found to have developed tuber vided by the power station au ash levels include installation of
mer Chairman of the National high) keeps pouring
out from culosis
He was one among
(10 thorities. and even this depends more draft fans and ducts. Water
Committee on Environmental Plan early in the morning till late in the
had caught the disease. Most on the availability of beds al the is periodically sprinkled by work
ning and Co-ordination, who ex evening. Thu fly ash from the ch:m who
them were Class III and IV em Mehrauli TB hospital. Only six ers within ihe power station prepressed regret over the purely re neys is carried by air currents to ol
reserved
by puses to prevent lho fly-ash coat
commendatory role of the Commit the offices and residential comp ployees. Many secondary cases of beds have been
DESU for its power plant emp ing the cement surfaces from
tee. "It is only in the case of new lexes of Indraprastha, Nizamuddiu, TB were also detected.
floating.
‘ 1
industries that the Committee has Bengali Market, the trans-Jamuna
According to the vice-president loyees.
been able to get its recommenda colonies, and, on certain days, even of the workers’ union, of
Could the high fly ash output
the
About the detrimental effects of
tions implemented.” For instance, to far-away South Delhi colonies 1,000 workers
at the complex, and the extremely high noise le the fly-ash and high noise levels
a condition for establishing new right up to Vasa nt Vihar.
nearly 300 have contracted tuber vels be due to the design of the on workers and people staving or
paper mills is that no mercury
culosis. The workers believe that plant, its defective functioning, working outside the pjant environ
Besides
settling
down
on
pub
filters should be used. However,
most of the TB cases are the re ouldatedness, the quality of the ment, the power house authorities
lic
buildings
and
residential
nothing could be done in the case
sult of fly ash inhalation
for coal used, or lack of efficient expressed the view that " lv ash
ureas,
the
fly
ash
also
po'luh
•
>
of earlier industries and plants.
long periods. The workers sup anti-pollution and anti noise mea has nothing to do with U anions
water,
causes
skin
irritation
and
The Committee, for Instance, had
port this view by saying
that sures? Most of the workers and workers. The disease is (ole v due
may
even
lead
to
tu
nrculosis
gone into the working of
the among the workers employed at such a correlation was establi middle level
supervisory
and o their unhygeinic |iv-.^ \-ondiIndraprastha power station,
but the power slat ion.
shed by the Irwin Hospital doc management staff feel it is so.
lcn U
Pointed °ut
due to the heavy cost involved in
tors who conducted
the. --ray Part of the high fly ash output that the?doctors
who had conduct
modifying the plant, and installing
In order to study the effects examination in 1976. Besides the Is also due to the quality of the ed the X-ray examination
ihe
anti-pollution devices,
nothing of the fly ash and loud
noise TB cases, a large number of wor coal used in the plant—the bitu workers had established of
came out of the investigative ex produced by the power plant, wo kers have developed
breathing minous variety containing 30*33% cot relation between the nv a\shhigh
>n’
ercise, except a long list of re im’iorviewed various
categories difficulties. Many
more suffer ash. The belter quality coal goes ako and IB among the‘workers.
commendations that are gathering of employees including thoio be from varying degrees of deaf to the steel
plants.
However, the^d.snussed it fls ridieu"°s 8nd
dust.
longing to Classes
III and IV, ness and high blood pressure.
while it is true that the ash con
Mik
NEW DELHI, July 31.
Industrial air pollutants affect
plants, particularly mango trees,
considerably.
According to a University Grants
Commission sponsored study con
ducted in Bombay for three years,,
the damage ranges from 20 to.
30 per cent during early post
monsoon period to about 100 per
cent behind a chemical factory
situated in front of a hill range
during summer.
The study, conduted by Dr. S.
B. Chaphekar, Associate Professor
of Ecology, Department of Botany,
Institute of Science, Bombay, and
two others, revealed that mango
trees were consistently affected
by the quality of air, irrespective
of the type of pollutants, i.e. autoe^hausts of road-sides or effluents,
from
chemical
factories
or
petroleum refineries.
According to the study, industries'
in greater Bombay region throw
about 1,000 tonnes of pollutants
per day into the atmosphere. Of
•these, 38.4 per cent is carbon
monoxide, 34.4 per cent sulphur
.dioxide, and the rest is made up
of particulates, oxides of nitrogen
and others.
On human beings, “the air pol
lutants" cause mainly respiratory
irritation and in extreme cases
serious lung congestion leading
to death. Hydrogen fluoride causes
■respiratory diseases, fluorosis, teeth
mottling and irritation. “Reduced
visibility is also associated with
air pollution".
Dr. Chaphekar and his associate
investigators, Dr. D. B. Boralkar
and Mr. R. P. Shetye, also conducted
their research on other plants includ
ing thespesia (Bhendi), erythrina
(Pangara) and polyalthia (asupala).
The maximum damage estimated
on leaves of thespia in and around
Bombay was 20 per cent Com
pared to mango, this plant appeared
to be more resistant, with less
than five per cent damage at mos7
of the spots.
At one spot near a refinery.
the damage, though small, was
•present throughout the year.
Amongst the plant species used
for estimating the damage to foliage,
only mango was consistently relia
ble, the study says. It showed high
foliar damage in industrially polluted
areas as well as along road-sides.
Hence it is conclued that only
mango trees can prove a reliable
and
consistent
air
pollution
monitoring instrument.—PIT
*
VAST >7 ?3)M GOFFES P OCJSSIM AMD TREATM3MT
prof .v. cn\Mmsz&aaR
’>.ith the steady urbanisation and industrialisation of this
country in recent years the problem of pollution of the rivers and
streams
•r»
has assumed considerable importance*
Since the untreated wastes from
industries when discharged into any Water course may pollute th© Later beside
producing bad taste -nd odour in water* endanger fish life ^nd create insanitary
conditions in the its local environment* u study of the characteristics of
industrial waste and their disposal is Justified*
The rapid tempo of the
expansion of industries in the recent times has necessitated an intelligent
and rational approach to understind and appreciate the problems involved in
successful disposal of industrial wastes*
Almost all industries make use of water in sotno process or
other and discharge it back as waste water at sono stage or other*
Almost
inevitably these waste waters find their way into natural water courses or
streams*
It is undisputed that irrespective of immediate or present effects,
w .stes discharged into a stream cause pollution and continuous and indiscriminate
There may be as many
addition of waste waters will eventually spoil the stream*
problems of treatment of waste as there are industries*
It Isas been reported about the pro bl css of water pollution in
plantation area*
Th© coffee industries is quite a major on© in Mysore State.
The data regarding the extent of coffee p:rown in India and the number of coffee
curing centres is collected from the Director* Coffee Research station*
I
have come to know that curing of coffee does not require or involve use of water
and as such problem of water pollution is caused before coffee is sent fox* curing
Meaningful characterisation information can only b© obtained
through proper analysis of representative samples*
adequately characterised the
Ju
Once th© waste hasbbeen
raataent requir£n ent can be established by
comparing the quantity of pollutants to be discharged with the assimilative
capacity of the receiving body of water*
The common effects of waste Waters on receiving systesie viz
natural bodies of water are
Oaygea depletion
Interference with aquatic life (Toxicity)
Danger to riibMc health and safety
(pathogenous) & Miscellaneous economic damage
Industrial wastes are complex, highly individual in composition
contain often substances difficult to remove.
Further it is reported that there is not so much of water
pollution in the coffee growing regions in Mysore State due to pulping of
coffee which extends from Dec-March*
Usually it seems the Sntate owners tai
precaution to see that the water which is used for washing coffoe is not let in
the stream directly but let into largepits*
47/t
*
•
'?7V
1
1' •
.
1
cat, ....2/‘fM
*
Extent of coffee area in India in Hectares
t
Mysore
78192
Tanil Nadu
25756
Kerala
27839
A*P♦
469
Other areas
437
—ir-Wliu ,
133693
Total
AWW i i—iw M>
Ab earlier stated coffee curing is a dzy process ?.nd
water is not used at any stage of the process*
Actually the problems of wa
pollution so far as coffee industry i@ concerned is mainly confined
to the coffee growing area or regions®
^offee berries after being
separated from the plants are pulped at the estate level with the use
of water for separating and cleaning of the coffee beans from the outer
skin and mucilago of fruit®
The effluent of thia process flows down and
invariably finds its way into a stream or a river thus pulluting®
Th© process involved in the preparation of coffee from the
stag© of picking till it is marketed is furnished by planter from
Harley Estate Sakleshpur®
1® a) Pickings
If the aim is to have the parchment coffee it is considered ti
quality coffe©® only tho ripe fruits if picked inadvertently are sorted out
before taking for pulping.
b) If coffee is to be sent as Cherry the fruits as well as Slightly
under or over ripe are picked and dried without the removal of skin
and pulp.
It is considered a little bit inferior coffee as the fxflity
smell is passed on to be beans®
2. Pulping 3
Pulping is the removal of outer skin and pulp from the
seeds®
Tfce fruits have to pass from tho Pulper along with tho
required quantity of water® nearly 2 to 3 thousand gallons of water
per tonne of coffee.
The skin and the pulp go to the • Sippipits1
and tho beans are collected in the vats®
J® Fermentation :
The beans thus collected in the vats undergo fomentation
for 36 hours®
Thus the mucilage attached to the beans is removed®(in
my opinion it is this process which makes the waste really 13 ally and
dark ih colour) ®
4® Washing s
The beans are washed with clean water 2 or 3 times till
: 3 3
this turns white in colour*
'The requirement of water is nearly at the
rate of 5000 to 6000 gallons per tonne.
5. Drying s
Washed beans are brought into the drying yard for
drying.
Either it is spread on tho flooring tiles or on the irioro not
mesh 3 feet above tho ground.
Tho aosture before bagging must not
be more than 15*5 kg. per forlit( forty litres).
6. Curing ?
The coffee is than transported to the curing works.
The
white skin of the parchment coffee of the outer layer of tho cherxy
coffee is then removed.
After proper grading and grabbing* the coffee
is ready for marketing.
Arabica coffee picking starts from Decani ends in Jan
and Robusta coffee starts in Jan and ends by the beginning of March.
coffee
Tho best quality/is grown nt higher altitudes
3000* and above.
Larger mills are located ct the lowor elevations near
rail roads and highways where coffee cherries may be easily transported
from producing areas.
The ultimate discharge of the liquid wastes from the
coffee mills has become an important problem to solve.
Wastes are
discharged into dry channels where decomposition occurs and an odor
nuisance develops affecting those in the immediate vicinity.
Fortunately during rainy seasons these channels are flushed.
Many
plants? due to scarcity of water have to collect and store rain water
for use during the milling season.
JL
x have seen huge big storage tanks in some estates to store
water during
store water during r?Xsy season located at higher
levels.
maitopacturing process and SOURCES OF WAST&5
The various steps during the pro eeasing of coffee
cherries are listed below.
A flow di a,.^asa a
wing the steps* along
with points of water use and waste sources* is presented in Pig* 1.
1.
The coffee cherry is dumped into a receiving
vat from which it is conveyed to the pulpers by water
2.
During the conveyance* stones* etc. are separated by
traps and ’floaters’ the unsound cherries* ax*® diverted
to separate pulpers.
3*
The pulper removes the skin and a large portion of the
flesh fr
4.
the coffee bexn.
The hulled bean is then transported by water to a fermen
tation vat where it is allowed to remain and ferment in a
f
t
.
aoiat atats, the excess water being drained off after
conveyance, and roused if
•
Set^leable
solids
(nl.por liter)
5-day 2®°C
BOD(ppa)
Total
colids
(ppm)
Suspended
Solids (ppm)
——
—
1250-2220
600=700
4260
2060
1800-2920
eo-i .rr
4960
848
160
3220
Pulp
47000
Fermentation
wastes
Pulping wastes
Combined pulp and
fomentation wastes 6150-134000
FACTORY-1n AMBITS
Volume,
gl/ ton
AFRICA
proportion of
total volume.
clean coffee
2.0P >day at
26.7 C*
ppm
Pi'oporiion of
tctalWD
Pulping wastes:
34 )
2400
45 )
Main tank effluent 2220
17
39'
55
Repa»ser-tank
effluent
840
6
l>40
5
First tank
280
2
2800
Second tank
27Q
2
1300
4
1
Repasser tank
165
1
1900
1
Main
4700
35
40
6
Rapaseer
440
3
1
13445
ICO
100
Pulp water
4490
35
Tank-washing wastes:
Channel washings
Total
)3B
9
In ano ther study in El S -Ivador the average characteristics cf pulping and
fermentation waters were as foil owes
5-day 20°C, BOD
Fermentation wash water
Dopulping water
Min
Max
K san
Min*
295
3600
1700
3280
1500
9400 2500 8000 429
xatzl
xdxS
ataJ
4.1
4.7
x4xl
Combined wast
Mux* Mean* Min* Max*Mea
tx2
Ph
4.1
5.5
Turbidity ppm
250
c>000
1750
1500 4000
'900 1500 2500 225(
Suspended .Solids ppm
235
2385
900
625 1055
750
885
3140
2100 10090 12340
11300
Total solids ppm
4.3
530
4.7 4.5
810
64C
6800 7240 704C
3 4 3
fermentation nay be an little as 12 hours or as much as
two days depending on fermentation conditions®
Fomentation of the bean is required before all the flesh of
the cherry can be satisfactorily removed from tho parchment
which immediately surrounds ths silver skin of tho coffee boan®
The fermentation process enables
the bean to be dried in a clean
parchment which guarantees its quality®
5
The fomented bean is then washed» by draulically clarified?
and conveyed to the drying patio? sigain by water®
The beans
are screened from the water and spread out to dry in tho sun
Sometimes mechanical driers ar© used subsequent
A
for several days®
to sun drying
6®
When the coffee has dried sufficiently to insure colour and
flavour® it is milled to remove tho parchment®
The coffeo bean
is then graded® sacked® and shipped to the market®
COFFEE
CHERRIES
FRESH
J
WATER
i
2000-3000 gln/ton
receiving
VAT
CHERRY AID) WAT SR
PULP®
I
FR ESH
WATER*
BEAM AND WAT AR
WASTU WAT®
FSffi* STATION;
TANK
i
i
••- .
v« Tr,<.^, >-r •*#•!
PERMUTED BIL'iK A1JD WATER
VAST 5? WATER
a*. — mm mm
r
FRESH
J_ WASH®
watkr—
5000-^000 ffin/ton
- ■ ■ ■ ■— *•
:
1
WASHED B&UI AND WAT®
- »- - - ■ ~|--- —r —i—i—ji
r in ~ -
’
!
I
•;
SORE®
*
*
WASTE WAT®
-
j
PARQxMEHT
- SKIN
MILLIHG
[:
i'j
<-
FINISHED
BSAB
DRIED BEAN
;
T •
WASTE
WATER
Picture-ipiow diagram of typical coffee washing
: 5 s
PLOW r.HSST OF TYPICAL COFFEE 7&3HIHG MILL
Therefore, tho princiapl uses of water and the origin of
wastes in the coffee mills are as follows:
(a) To transport the ooffee to the pulpers
(b) To transport the pulp to a hopper or pile
(c) To transport the beans to the fermentation v^ts
(d) To wash fermented bean
(e) To transport the fomented bean to the drying patio
(f) Hiecellanaous operations:
Traps for stones, etc.
Separation of ’•floaters"
Hydraulic classification of x aus
Boiler water
The water requirement is in the order of 260 gallons par 100 lbs
of finished coffee, in those plants where the water is used only o^ce#
This
quantity is reduced to 100 gallons per quintal of finished coffee Ixe those
plants which recirculate as much water as possible#
CHARACTERISTICS OF THB WASTES
The main wastes from coffee mills are:
1# Solid wastes
:
n
(a) Pulp
( b) Parchaent
\
\
2# Liquid wastes:
\
\
(a) Pulping water
N
(b) Fexmentation wash water(tank water)
\
\
•<
The pulp is the neat potentially damaging waste from the mills, but
it is generally recovered and used for fuel or fertiliser#
when the fresh
x
pulp is stored in open piles its sugar ie attractive to flies and a bad
nuisance develops,
is ennated#
vhen the pulp begins to forwent, a foul, repulsive odour
There is no fly breeding in the pulp, probably because of the acid
■ •/
nature of its decompaction#
The pulping water contains a relatively high
aaount of settleable solids, and as it contains sugar and other soluble materials,:
it is a large contributor to atreaa pollution#
The fexmentation wastes are
very bulky with colloidal gels of pectins and the other productf
fro.-n the coffee parchment by fermentation*
The strengty of this waste is
small when compared with that of the pulping water* and its products of
deccapositoh are relatively stable and inoffensive*
The parchment from the
dry milling of the dried bean has no sanitary significance*
It is nearly pure
cellulose* and is generally used for fuel in the steam boilers that power
the mills)a
Ths following table presents the average sanitary characteristics
of wastes from three coffee plants at
Salvador using different amounts
of water*
The results are wore significant when calculated on a unit basis
and they more nearly approach the strengths expected when the millas are
operating at capacity*
ijbs* of 5~day* 20 c
of coffee cherry milled;
per
Average* fermentation water
0*55
Average* fomentation water
0*08
Disregarding the pulp0 which xs usually removed* the
expected 5-day 20°C*
BOD load per quintal of ©offee cherries milled would
be the sum of the two other components of the waste or a total of 0*64 pounds.
5 diiy 20° C B.O.D* load/100 lbs of coffee cherry rstlled would
represent a population equivalent of that mills 100 quintals would contribute
the saiao BOD load to a stream as would a town of 4000 people.
The following
tables shows the gverage results of examination
of waste waters produced at a Kiambu factory in Tact Africa.
The Coffee Pollution Committee (Kenya Colony) carried
out investigations at four different coffee factories to measure the amount
of pollution occurring in each of the various divisions of the water used
in the factory*
From their studies it wa« quite obvious that the pollution
arising from pulping operations was more serious than that arising from
coffee washing*
METHOD OF TR3ATMEH? OR DISPOSAL
M
Pulp is KKmk valuable as a fuel or fertiliser* and after
removal from the conveying water by screens it may be handled in one of the
following ways*
1*
When there are no facilities to Carry the pulp imi ediately* it may
be stored in a pile; but the fresh pulp* because of its sugar content* creates
a fly nuisance*
Also* if it is allowed to .remain in a moist condition* fei>
mentation occurs which yields foul odours*
controlled fey sprinkling lime over the pile*
Flies and odours are sometimes
After the milling season* the
pulp is usually taken to the fame where it is used as fertilizer*
2.
Immediately hauled by trucks or carts to the fa:
a where
it is put into in the ground and covered*
5»
Immediately dried upon patios and used for fuel*
Filter
presses have been used very satisfactorily to yield a oaks that may be burned
after a few hours drying.
Dried nule <«.«•»— —J ‘
i 7 s
One analysis made on dried pulp is as folio was
Cont©nt(per cent)
Protein
1*30
Fiber
19*70
Ditrogen*-fre© i&tract
riO.10
Ash
9*00
The value of pulp as fuel and sais fertilizer ie
well established but the most important i^eassn for removing th© pulp from
the wastes is to reduce the possibility of a serious pollution problem*
BOD of approxisatoly 47000 ppm a severe demand would bo placed on the
oxygen resources of the stream*
Pulp musilage has been suggested for animal feed, and
controlled feeding experiments have be 1 conducted in some Central American
forms*
Parchment s
The parcto all t is merely pure cellulose and has no sanitary
significance*
It Day be used as a fuel*
Liquid wastes:
The combined wastes from depulping op ©ration( after removal of
pulp by screening) and fermentation wash water iff generally treated b:
any on© of the following methods:
1* Lagooning and/or irrigations
According to Paul C»Word there exists a good
e
possibility of disposing coffee processing wastes by irrigation* Observations
of dry streaia channels which conducted the vast© with reasonable sedimentation
showed no evidence that the wastes was toxic to plant life*
only observed where plant life was subjected
had been ponded*
Damage was
to waste* high in solids* that
This method of disposal would bo practicable and
beneficial in those areas where contour irrigation ditches would be utilized.
Lfme could be added if needed for pH control* ad its application would
enhance the value of the waste fol* 1
USQ*
Further more, reductions in the
5-day BOD averagining 20p can be obtained by dos^s of 2 to 10 grainn/^llon*
Chemical preciptation using line and alum a© coagulant did not materially
reduce the BQD of the waste to a greater oxtdnt than did the use of Hae
alone*
Lagooning of the liquid wastes is an easy solution of the
problem in those instances where the mills are in isolated areas*
The liquid
wastes can be later discharged during the rainy season when streams aw
flooded*
laggonlng and Spray irrigation ?yritem has proved itself to bo a
simple lowcost and efficient method for the disposal of the "instant coffee
plant" effluent of Kes tie Company plant of Sunbury*
t 8 :
2* Stabilization ^onds 3
Us© of stabilization pond fur the trea
ent of coffee
processing waters hns bden suggested by pahren iv.d Suons and it appears
to be quiro promising*
Available information indicates tha£ there io
sufficient nitrogen, but there nay be an insufficient amount of phosphates
to support algal growth*
Calculations have shown that addition of an equal
volume of domestic waste would be quite sufficient to provide the necessary
phosphate*
Since th© pH of the combined wasted depulping and fermentation
—M
the wastes must be neutralised before
wastes) is approximately
nay be used for this purpose®
entering the pond*
3® Biological Filtration
Biological filtration with high rates of application
and recirculations, pi'ooooded by dhcmic.il precipitation and sedimentation Ms
proved itself to b6 the best method for treatment of liquid coffee
wastes from plants in £L Salvador and ?Ciambu(ba6t Africa)*
range between 20 and 100 mgad®
pei' hour®
Loadings
lumber of recirculations between 2 end 15
BOD reductions are as follows?
53*7;* and 82*1 z> after 2 hours sedimentation
63-6/ and 86*4$ after 4 hours pedimentation
75.7:-' and 92*0 $ after 6 hours sedimentation
Best results are obtained with IQ recirculations per hour
and a filter loading of 60 mgad*
The effluent from biological filter can be used for
irrigation®
Tests have shown that wastes with small quantities of solids
are not toxic to vegetable life®
Environmental Pollution due to pesticides in coffee plantation:
Coffee plantations consume about 7% of the total pesticides
consumed in India for plant protection measures®
This consumption is distri
buted almost equally between chlorinated hydro cartons, parathion said cooper
fungicide
of these the chlorinated hydrocarbons persist for a longer duration
in the noil and hwtan health hasarcs and environmental pollution due to
their residues are of interest in assessing the level of residues and
measuring required to avoid them®
Preliminary investigations conducted
reveal that these
insecticides accumulate in the soil and are slowly leached out to the ponds
and tanks which form the normal source of drinking water for people and
animals®
The grazing of the animals in contaminated areas in and near the
vicinity of treated areas has increased the problem of the residues®
Chlorinated hydrocarbon residues are noticed in drinking
water from 0*02 ppm and the traces in milk and eggs*
copper are noticed in drinking water*
Higher concentrations of
With the adoption of low volume and
ultra low volume application of these pesticides in plant protection measures,
the effect of the concentrated pesticides on the- workers, the aerial
contamination, the drift of the low volume sprays spreading and settling on
larger areas and at other places far away fron the applied spot are other
problems
which need further studies*
*
Thus there is a need for ionsdiate investigations on
pesticide residue problems on the present methods followed kx and thorough
investigations of all these aspects before any now method or chemical is
adopted for large scale applications.
Conclusion :
There has not been much work done in the field of
treatment and disposal oi* Coffee wastes, however’ an attempt is made to get
relevant information from the persons concerned and. the information faroa
the literature survey in furnished*
It will ba worth while considering a
pilot plant study in any of the plantation area*
I gratefully
acknowledge ths help extended by the Director, Coffee Research Station
Balehonaur in providing statistical information and Dr»U*C*Havindr^-th
from Harley Estate Sakleshpur for the information regarding processing and
Mr.G^HeV^nkataramiah Junior scientific Officer, Coffee Research station
for the information on pollution due to pesticides and Dr • Hal ay Chowdhani
of I*I«TJCanpur for furnishing other information*
/////////
COMMUNITY HEALTH CELL
G7I1O (First Fioor)St. Marks Road
BAMGALOP.E - 560 001
II OF ATMOS PHERIC
I. INTRODUCTION
The air particulate sampler consists of, (a) a suction device
for drawing air through a suitable filter media and, (b) the filter
paper for collecting the particulates in the atmospheric air.
The suction device consists of a blower of either low capacity
of the order of ten to hundred liters of air per minute (figure 1) or,
of high capacity in the range of 5OO-2OOO liters of air per minute.
(figure 2).
Generally, these blowers are also attached to a flow
measuring device, normally a ’’rotameter” to measure the flow rate of
air through the collecting filter media.
This will enable the
calculation of the total volume of air sampled during operation from
which the specific concentration, i.e., concentration of pollutants per
unit volume of air can be calculated.
The filters used are of various types and sizes depending on
the pollutants being sampled.
For low volume samples, circular discs of
a few inches diameter are used, while for the high activity samples,
rectangular pieces of area ranging upto five hundred square centimeters
*
are to be used.
• •• • •
The filters are fixed in a suction head which is either
of the circular type with a screw cap containing the filter
to be screwed
on to the main body, or a rectangular box with a lid which can we clamped
on to the main body depending on the size and the shape of the filter
used (figure ?)•
The filters are backed by a wire mesh or metallic grid
to prevent rupture during suction.
Rubber washers or ”0" rings are
used to prevent leakage of air around the filters.
The suction head
with filter is connected to the inlet of the blower by rubber tubes or
hoses.
The flow measuring device can be placed at the inlet or outlet
side of the pump, (figure 1 & 2).
The operation of the sampler consists of fixing the filter
paper in the suction head and switching on the blower.
Depending on
the pollutant being measured, the filters can be changed several times
in a day or once in a few days after allowing a cooling period of a few
hours
to prevent overheating of the pump motor.
After the specified
period of operation, the blower can be put-off and the filter removed.
If required, the filter can be immediately counted for the required
time.
The filter can then be folded so that the collection area is not
exposed to the outside environment and the dust does not fall out.
It can then be despatched to this centre in the envelopes with address
printed on them.
The information
to be written on the cover has been
printed on them and is (a) place of sample collection, (b) dates and
timesof sample collection, (c) time duration of collection in hours and
minutes, (d) the counts recorded and the counting time, if the sample
activity has been measured, (e) flow rates at the beginning and end of
the collection period, and (f) any meteorological data, viz., rainfall,
wind direction
etc., available.
II. OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS FOR ATMOSPHERIC PARTICULATES SAMPLER
1 . UNITS
: (a) Suction head, (b) rubber tube or hose, (c) suction pump,
(see figure 1,2, 5)•
2. CONNECTIONS
(i) Connect one end of the rubber tube or hose pipe to the
nozzle of the suction head, using oil to press the tube into the nozzel.
The connection should be air tight. (Figure-1).
(ii) Fix suction head in a place with free access of air,
preferably in the horizontal position.
from rainfall
The filter should be sheltered
(iii) Connect the other end of rubber tube to the air in-let
nozzle of the pump.
This connection should also be air tight •
The air
out-let nozzle can be either left free or connected to a rotameter, if
available.
(inlet and outlet nozzle can be determined by operating the
pump)
5. OPERATION OF THE SAMPLER
(i) Unscrew the suction-head-cap or cover.
paper inside and
fix
Place the filter
it back by screwing or clamping, depending on
the type of suction head used.
Check that there is no leak (The ”0”
rings or washers fixed in proper position will ensure that there is no
air leak).
(ii) Put on the pump and operate for the required time.
At
the end, stop the pump and unscrew suction-head cap, remove collected
filter and put a new one for the next collection.
collection area of filter.
Do not touch dust
‘
(iii) The filter can now be counted if required.
....
.After
counting, put filter paper, folded inside (i.e., with dust collection
inside) in the sample cover.
(iv) Enter dust collection data on sample cover or the data
sheet as required.
4. PRECAUTIONS
(i) The suction-head cap with filter paper should be properly
screwed or fixed on the suction-head assembly to avoid air leaks.
(ii) The flow rate of the sampling unit should be periodically
measured using a rotameter and changes in flow rates, if any, should be
noted and reported, (it is important to measure the flow rate and time
of operation correctly as the accuracy of the measurements depends on them)
(iii) The pump should be switched off for an houre or two
evorday to avoid over heating from continuous operation.
This period can
be adjusted between the termination of one collection and the start of
the next.
(iv) The oiling schedule of the pump should be strictly followed
to avoid pump damage.
(v) The tube connecting the suction head to pupp should be
straight as far as possible- to avoid air flow obstructionsdue to sharp
bends or foldings in the tube.
Ill OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOACTIVITY COUNTER
1. UNITS
(a) Electronics scalar and High - voltage units, (b) Radioactivity
detector assembly, (c) Connectors and cables, (d) Batteries and cells or
eliminators.
2. CONNECTIONS
(a)
(b)
(c)
...............
(a)
3. OPERATION OF COUNTER
(a)
Put on the counting unit and check the voltages and other
settings (The scalar should be put on first, and then the High voltage unit)
(b)
Put filter into counter (Collection area facing counter) by
pulling out the sample shelf, fixing the filter in sample hole (with tape
if necessary), and pushing back the shelf to original position.
Do not
put tape over the collection area of filter paper but fix covering the
edges only.
(c)
Reset the scalar to obtain zero readings in the registers and
6
start counting by putting on the count switch of scalar.
The stop watch
should be started simultaneously in case there is no automatic timer
control in the scalar.
(d)
Stop counting by putting off the count switch at the end of
.the counting time(with automatic time control this is not necessary).
Note counts recorded in the counter.
(e)
Do the second counting at the required time.
Then the filter can
be removed and the source counting or background counting can be carried
out.
If necessary the unit can be put on the test mode to keep the
9
scalar operating.
3. PRECAUTIONS
(a)
Care should be taken to see that during operation the personnel
do not touch the High voltage points:
(b)
The cables should be connected and disconnected only with the
mains and other cables removed from the power points.
(c)
The spacificd operating voltage should always be maintained,
(d)
In moist atmospheres, it is preferable to keep the unit on
t
conrinuoualy/ The unit can be kept on in the test mode or background counting
carried out when sample counting is not being done.
(This may not be
possible in battery units, -whore power has to be conserved).
(e)
Proper operation of the instrument should be checked by-taking
standard source and background counts periodically.
The same count rates
should be obtained in both cases within the limits of the standard
deviations of the counts
measured.
If results are not agreeing, the
’’Plateau" of the counter should be checked.
(f)
The filter paper should be properly placed in the position
assigned to it in the holder.
It should cover the circular area indicating
the filter paper position.
erroneous results.
Placing it in the wrong position will give
The filter papor need be removed from counter only
after all the readings have been taken.
(g)
The readings should be started and terminated at the exact time
specified for the various readings^
(h)
The sample holder should not be withdrawn completely out of the
probe unit.
It should be pulled out only sufficiently to allow the filter
paper to be fixed in the assigned position.
If the holder has to be
completely removed. it should be done only after putting off the High
voltage»
4 a TAKING THE PLATE:.’TOF THE COUNTER
Place the source in the counter.
(b)
Reduce voltage till there are no counts recorded in the scalar
(c)
Increase the voltage by steps of 25 or 50 volts and record the
counts per minute at each voltage.
Counting time should be adjusted to
accumulate a few thousand counts at each voltage to reduce errors in
counting.
(a)
Plot the curve of counts against voltage.
A curve of the type
shown in figure 4 snould be obtained if the system is operating properly.
If a fairly flat(platecu) portion is not obtained in the curve it indicates
that the counting system is defective.
(e.)
The operating voltage of the counter should be fixed some-whore in
the middle of the curve (figure 4).
This voltage should always be
maintained.
(f)
PrecautionTowards the end of the plateau
will begin to increase very fast.
the count rate
The counter should not be operated in
this “discharge region" and the voltage should immediately be brought back
*4
to the original value.
IV. SAMPLING AND COUNTING SCHEDULE OF THE AIR PI LT ER SAMPLES
1 . SAMPLING SCHEDULE
(a) 1st sample
should be collected for ..I.:
hours
• M
f rom. I
r*
----- ------ -
to Xhv1 .■
(b) 2nd sample
should bo collected for .. . P.
hours from
.toJA‘A
I|f3
—
- I
*
2. COUNTING SCHEDULE
(a) 1st counting should be for . A P.... minutes from .
minute after
collection
‘
end of saraple/to .PA., minutes after end of sample collection.
(b) 2nd counting should be for . . A .1 . . .minutes from . ]
after end of sample collection to
P.. .. .minutes
I ... .minutes after end of sample
collection.
3. ADDITIONAL REQUIREMENTS
3^
CR:vds
12.5.77
) 1 • c-n? Vvy"S
J <) • cro
) H
/7
.
rr.wwnwta
GAUGE
FIGURE1. DIAGRAM
OF
AIR
BLOWER
AND
5cms
SAMPLING
SYSTEM
USING
RB-5
DIA. FILTER.
F-5047-
a.
PRESSURE GAUGE
FIGURE
2
DIAGRAM
OF
BLOWER
AND
AIR
SAMPLING
30 cms x
15 cms
SYSTEM
FILTER.
USING
HIGH
CAPACITY
FILTER HOWER
RUBBER
WASHER
"FILTER
PAPER
RING
WIRE
FIGURE : 3 . DIAGRAM
OF
TYPE . ( NOT
HEAD
SIDE
VIEW
HEADS (1)
SCALE )
---------------- ------ -------------
GAUZE
"-SUCTION
SUCTION
TO
__ zj__ _z_ "
CIRCULAR
TYPE
(2) RECTANGULAR
F - 5047- M -
COUNTS
FIGURE .'4 . COUNTS
AGAINST
VOLTAGE
OF
ALPHA
COUNTER
F — 5048 - G - 44>
Reprinted from American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene
Vol. 2, No. I, July, 1953
Printed in U.S.A.
•'to,
' 6$.
THE ROLE OF THE MECHANICAL ENGINEER IN PUBLIC HEALTH
LAWRENCE B. HALL and S. W. SIMMONS
THE ROLE OF THE MECHANICAL ENGINEER IN PUBLIC HEALTH1
LAWRENCE B. HALL2 and S. W. SIMMONS3
Communicable Disease Center, Public Health Service, Savannah, Ga.
In recent years, the field of public health has experienced a great influx of
specialists. Prior to 1910, medicine and nursing were almost the sole professions
within the health department. At that time medicine was almost entirely clinical.
As preventive medicine developed it was imperative to enlist the services of many
scientific disciplines in a cooperative attack upon the complex problems of mod
ern public health. Thus we now find that the dentist, the sanitary engineer, the
bacteriologist, the mycologist, the virologist, the physicist and may others have
a definite place in the field of preventive medicine.
As each of these professions has increased its activity in research and field oper
ations for the control and prevention of disease, it has had to reach for new tools
with which to perform its task. Today an examination will show that a surprisingproportion of these tools are not biological, statistical or diagnostic in nature but
are instead purely physical tools, apparatus and equipment. Today, who could
envisage a modern health department without x-ray apparatus, autoclaves, scales,
forceps, hypodermic needles, refrigeration, examination tables, microscopes,
animal traps, insecticide sprayers and countless other items which contribute to
its efficiency? Similarly, what modern public health research project could made
progress without drawing upon the resources of, a scientific supply organization,
an enterprise whose catalog is a veritable encyclopedia of the physical require
ments of research? The modern concept of public health does not limit the field
to the health department. When we consider the hospitals and the vast network
of sanitary services protecting the modern city, the list of complex mechanical
equipment is enormously lengthened.
Having become accustomed in our daily lives to the assistance of mechanical
appliances, we frequently lose sight of the contribution of specialized physical
equipment to the solution of problems in public health. With the realization of
this dependence upon mechanical aids, we must in turn give credit to a hitherto
largely anonymous benefactor in public health, the mechanical engineer. His is a
profession trained in the design and production of mechanical equipment, in the
operation of mechanical processes and in the attainment of maximum efficiency
in the work of men and machines.
This is in contrast to the sanitary engineer whose work with the problems of air,
water, food and shelter has long been recognized. The sanitary and the mechani
cal engineer may have a common goal, the betterment of public health, but they
utilize different avenues of approach. The sanitary engineer works and thinks
1 One of four papers composing a Symposium on Sanitary Engineering in the Tropics
held on November 15,1952, during the Annual Meeting of the American Society of Tropical
Medicine and Hygiene at Galveston, Texas.
2 Senior Sanitary Engineer
3 Scientist Director
578
THE MECHANICAL ENGINEER IN PUBLIC HEALTH
579
largely in terms of the utilization of processes, labor and equipment to accom
plish his goals, 'rhe mechanical engineer, on (lie other hand, is concerned pri
marily with the design, development and production of the equipment and tools
required. He is the engineer you would call upon to design a new insecticide
sprayer, a laboratory shaking machine, an autoclave, an automatic injection
apparatus, a garbage grinder, an ultracentrifuge or similar devices, The design,
production and testing of equipment such as this is the activity in which the
mechanical engineer can and has made his contribution. We need not expect to
find a mechanical engineer in every local health department, but today there is
recognized an increasing need foi men trained in mechanical engineering, with a
backgiound of public health experience. Such experience is required in order to
interpret the needs of public health for industry and to produce the specialized
apparatus for public health research. Today there is probably no such engineer
on the payroll of any state health department. However, the World Health
Organization has recognized the need for this discipline by appointing several
mechanical engineers as expert panel members. The Expert Panel on Insect icides
includes several such experts. Mechanical engineers were not eligible for the
Regular Corps of the Public Health Service prior to 19-17. However, there are
at present throughout the world a few mechanical engineers employed in various
governments at the federal level and the number is increasing. Nevertheless, (he
greatest contributions of the mechanical engineer to public health will continue
to be made in industry, but his integration into major health units is increasingly
indicated since it is here his talent can be employed to design specialized ap
paratus and equipment for specific operational and research programs foi which
tools are not available.
It should be borne in mind that these contributions are not limited to highly
indust rialized countries, for mechanical equipment is frequently much more vital
to sanitation and other public health activities in under-developed areas than in
those that arc more advanced. In each case, but particularly when equipment is
to be used in remote areas, careful engineering is required to assure durability,
simplicity of design and maintenance, and low cost. Now let us examine in more
detail a few of the activities and accomplishments of the mechanical engineer in
this field.
For many .years the mechanical engineer has been actively engaged in in
dustries which are noted for polluting the air with smoke, larry products and
corrosive gases that in turn may menace the public health. An increased aware
ness of responsibility for this problem is now apparent among the mechanical
engineers. Similarly, the exhausts of our millions of internal combustion engines
have contributed to air pollution in metropolitan centers. Improved combustion
design by the mechanical engineer can reduce this problem and has done so. A
long step in this direction appears to have been taken with the recent report of
the development of equipment which completes the combustion of fuel com
ponents normally wasted up the stack.
For many years, in these same plants, a war for survival has been waged be
tween men and machines. During the industrial revolution the need for safety
5S0
LAWRENCE B. HALL AND S. W. SIMMONS
in factories was hardly recognized, but since that time the mechanical engineer
has taken the lead in the correction of unsafe situations, in building safety into
machines and in training for safety.
In ihe production of optimum artificial environments the mechanical engineer
has taken a leading role and, in so doing, has exerted an influence on the fringe
factors affecting the total physical well-being of man. Further research on these
problems is under way in an environmental laboratory in which almost any arti
ficial environment can be established and its influence on man evaluated.
A continuous recording dust sampler. Particulates in the air are impinged on
the adhesive side of scotch tape, the tape moves through a staining bath and then meets
a facing tape. The tapes, witli the particles sandwiched between them, are stretched in a
frame for examination under a microscope.
Fig. I.
Preventive medicine, in its increasingly effective fight, to control the vectors
of disease, has leaned heavily on the mechanical engineer for tools to accomplish
the end result. From the initial use of kerosene for the control of mosquitoes
to the present day application of residual insecticides, the equipment for the
application of vector poisons has been of crucial importance. In the early days
of mosquito control, knapsack and compression sprayers for the application of
oil and dusters for Paris green, were borrowed from agricultural designs. With
the advent of the use of residual insecticides on the walls of sleeping rooms, there
developed a need for specialized spraying equipment to implement the new tech-
the mechanical engineer in public health
581
iiiques. Designs were evolved in step with the development of new methods for
the use oi DD I and related insecticides until many of the requirements were
crystallized by the World Health Organization’s Expert, Committee on Insecti
cides in establishing specifications for hand, compression, knapsack, and stirrup
pump type sprayers, hand dusters, chemical resistant materials, cut-off valves
and hose connections. Mechanical engineers in public health are working closely
with the manufacturers of spraying equipment to bring their products into com
pliance with the specifications.
Pig. 2. A fatigue testing apparatus for compression sprayer tanks. To determine weak
points in the tanks pressure is applied and released until 7,500 cycles have been accom
plished or until failure results.
Currently, improvements in application equipment arc moving forward. A
constant delivery sprayer was introduced in 1948 and as a result of the recogni
tion of its advantages commercial models are now being developed and produced
in Italy, France, and the United States.
Application of the principles of mechanical engineering to the production of
specialized research equipment has proved highly advantageous to the Technical
Development Branch of the Communicable Disease Center in Savannah, Georgia.
There the Equipment Development Section, staffed largely by mechanical en
gineers, has produced animal exposure chambers, electronic respirometers and
metabolism rockers for studies on the toxicology of economic poisons. For re
582
LAWRENCE B. HALL AND S. W. SIMMONS
search on insecticides, a device has been produced which scmi-aulomatieally
cements short threads to (he backs of live (lies for identification purposes;
another has been constructed which automatically records the time of death and
the number of (lies killed by a formulation under test. For investigation in the
field of air-borne pathogens, continuous recording dust samplers have been built*'
(Figure 1). air How meters have been improved and the relative efficiencies of a
number of air samplers have been determined.
Contributions have also been made to the efficiency of field operations by a
study of the rat proofing characteristics of various construct ion materials, by
the improvement of rat guards, by the design of a new type of aerosol generator,
by improved systems for the dispersal of insecticides by aircraft and by the
testing of insecticide sprayers (Figure 2). This list by no means exhausts the
specific contributions made by the Equipment Development Section. The list
could be expanded indefinitely if one were to consider the contributions of the
mechanical engineer to other fields of environmental health protection including
water supply, sewerage, sewage treatment and the collection and disposal of
solid wastes.
Thus the mechanical engineer is contributing his small bit to the public health.
He does not ask to supplant any of the well known scientific disciplines now en
gaged in the field, nor for more renown, but he does ask that, when advantageous,
his particular training and capabilities be utilized in the solution of problems
important to the public health.
£
*
STEVENAGE
•
?
* '♦ • *
y*
Stevenage
THE FIRST OF BRITAIN’S NEW TOWNS
In November 1946. Stevenage was designated as
the first New Town to be built in Britain
under the New Towns Act 1946. Today, after 26
years, it is a pleasant and prosperous town
of 73.000 people, built around the
b-riginal old town of about 7,000 people.
Stevenage is situated 30 miles North of London,
on the main road and railway route from
London to Edinburgh. It is one of eight New
Towns located around London with the object of
providing new homes for people from London
who are living in unsuitable accommodation.
The concept of the New Towns was that they
should provide not only homes but also work
and recreation for their people and the great
majority of the residents of Stevenage make their
Part of Queensway, and illuminated clock tower and
pool in Town Square, in the traffic-free Town Centre.
living in the town, working either in the
industrial areas, in the shops and offices or in one
of the services or professional organisations.
The development of Stevenage is in the hands
a public corporation known as the
Stevenage Development Corporation, appointed by
the Secretary of State for the Environment
and responsible, through him, to Parliament.
The Corporation consists of a Chairman and
eight Members who appoint their own chief
executive and staff. Money required for the
development of Stevenage is borrowed from
the Government and is repayable with interest
over 60 years.
During the 26 years that the Corporation has
been responsible for the planning and
development of Stevenage as a New Town.
more than 18.000 new houses and flats; 10.000
car garages; 60 factories, warehouses and research
laboratories (giving employment to more than
20,000 people); five large office blocks; 360 shops
and stores; a general hospital; 14 public houses;
six restaurants; 14 churches; 50 primary,
secondary and special schools; six community
centres and tenants meeting halls; 400 acres of
playing fields; 100 miles of roads and 25 miles of
cycleways have been completed.
A college of further education, public library,
health centre, swimming pool, youth centre,
dance hall, tenpin bowling centre, 100 bedroom
hotel and police, fire and ambulance stations
have been provided in the Town Centre, and
a twin-auditoria cinema, arts centre
(incorporating a theatre), indoor sports centre,
new railway station, law courts and multi
storey car parks are either under construction or
planned for the near future. A 150 acre main
town park, with man-made boating lakes, has
been developed by Stevenage Urban District
Council, and future recreational plans include
two golf courses on the periphery of the town.
The original Master Plan for Stevenage
envisaged the development of an area of
6,156 acres (2491.2 hectare) as a town with a
total population of 60,000 with all the residential,
industrial, commercial and other development
necessary to achieve a balanced and largely
self-contained community. Under the Stevenage
Master Plan 1966, however, Stevenage will
continue to grow to a population of more than
100,000 during the next 25 years—to 80,000 in
1975/1976 by planned immigration from London
and thereafter to 105,000 in 1995 by its own
natural increase. In June 1972, the Corporalion
of
Fairlands shopping centre, on the main footpath system,
in the ultra-safe Pin Green residential area.
Principal pedestrian-way through traffic-separated
Pin Green housing area.
Segregated cycle- and pedestrian-ways linking
Town Centre and residential and industrial areas and
underpassing main-road junctions.
was asked by the Government to suggest where
an additional 3,000 to 4,000 acres of land
might be incorporated into the designated area;
such enlargement would call for a revised
Master Plan.
The town was planned on the basis of an
industrial area of some 400 acres (161.9 hectare),
with a reserve area for possible expansion,
on the west side of the railway. A second
employment area is now being developed in
the north-east of the town on a 100 acre
(40.5 hectare) site which was added to the
designated area in 1965.
Each residential neighbourhood of approxi
mately 10,000 people contains a variety of
dwellings, from small bed-silting room flats to
five-bedroom family houses, with its own
shopping centres, playing fields and children's
playgrounds, community facilities, schools,
churches and doctors’ and dentists' surgeries.
Groups of houses and fiats of higher standard
and design have been built in different neigh
bourhoods for executives and professional people
working in the town so that a distribution of all
levels is achieved throughout the town. Houses
for sale and building sites for owner-occupied
houses are also available. Since the Corporation
was authorised by the Government to offer
rented houses for sale to sitting tenants at up to
20% below current market prices, the proportion
of owner-occupiers has been increasing rapidly.
The shops are planned so that the housewife
can obtain, within easy walking distance of her
home, most daily requirements in the neighbour
hood where she lives. Primary schools, public
houses, churches, self-contained accommodation
for elderly people and community facilities are
located as closely as possible to the shopping
centres.
The larger stores and the main indoor
recreational and entertainment facilities are
located in the all-pedestrian Town Centre which
is situated between the residential neighbour
hoods and the industrial area. With its attractive
squares and canopied shopping “streets”, reserved
for pedestrians only, the Town Centre affords
shoppers complete protection from accidents
and from the weather.
Traffic separation has been an important
aspect in the planning of Stevenage. In addition
to the miniature highway system which has been
provided just for cyclists, the Town Centre
(which is as yet uncompleted) was the first
shopping centre of its kind in the country
where the principle of the pedestrian precinct
dominated the whole concept. The principle was
later carried into the housing neighbourhoods
and the newest—and largest—of the town's
residential areas where development is almost
complete, has been planned with full segregation
of motorists from cyclists and pedestrians, each
having their own “highway” system, with
pedestrian and cycleway underpasses al all
major road junctions.
For further information about Stevenage
write to:
The Press and Public Relations Officer
Stevenage Development Corporation
Swingate House, Danestrete
Stevenage, Herts.
Telephone Stevenage 3344
Printed in England by Stevenage Printing Ltd.. 109 High Street,
Stevenage
2/73
COMMUNITY HEALTH CELL
(First Floor)St. Marks Ro*<
BANGAlO.IE - K60
HISTORY
OF
HEALTH
OF
TOWNS
Ancient Times
City life often more insanitary than rural , but not always. In ancient Rome,
Athens and Babylon fine buildings were accompanied by a high standard of public
health:
City baths
Aqueducts
Straight streets
Under-floor heating
Mediaeval Times
Cities grew more haphazardly, were insanitary and affected greatly by plague,
cholera and typhus, particularly plague.
1666 Great Fire of London stops plague
19th Century
1832
1842
1847
Edwin Chadwick (1800-1885) a lawyer led a great sanitary movement and
instituted' Royal Commissions. Published most successfully his "Report on
the Sanitary Conditions of the Labouring Population".
He supported doctors in public health, and though he was forced out of public
life by his extreme views, continued to feed them with statistics.
Health of Towns Committee in U.K.
Chadwick, Shaftesbury, Dr T. Southwood (1788-1861) and Sir John Simon
encouraged the widening of streets, paving of sidewalks, drains and sewers.
1847
Dr William Duncan appointed the first Medical Officer of Health MOH,
in Liverpool.
William Rathbone, a phi 1antropist there encouraged beginnings of health
visiting, employing one of Nightingale’s nurses Miss Agnes Jones, as health
visitor. She died of typhus after three years home nursing.
1848
Sir John Simon made M.O.H. of London.
of Health)
1854
Dr John Snow removed the handle of the Broad Street pump after an epidemic
of cholera involving 500 deaths was traced to infected water,
1865
Christian Mission in London founded by William Booth, later became the
Salvation Army. Worked especially to rescue beggars, unemployed, orphans,
prostitutes and criminals. Organised soup kitchens, free lodging houses, etc.
1886
Dr Tom Barnado started orphanages in London; Dr Muller in Bristol
Headed first Ministry (General Board
1889-1897 Charles Booth (1840-1916) wrote "Life and Labour of the People of London,
1889-1897" and in 1901 " Poverty, a study of Town Life".
1899
Sir Ronald Ross
malaria control
advised W. MacGregor in Lagos on swamp reclamation and
1901
Seebohm Rowntree
surveyed city of York, and again in 1935
1901
General Gorgas controls yellow fever in Cuba and Panama
20th Century
Dr I.L. Oluwole (1923-1953) first African
1914
Lagos Board of Health set up.
MOH
1958
Ione Acquah writes her survey of Accra city
1961
Peter Marris
1960s
Noise abatement. New town satellites. Revolutionary town planning changes
around railways, roads on different levels, car free shopping centres.
publishes a study of Lagos re-housing
COMMUNITY HEALTH CELL
07'Mrjrst
Wisrks rload
r.
. r £ ?• OO1
'■ , - f
•
R, Schram
April, 1973
DORKING AND MOBLEY
RURAL DISTRICT COUNCIL
POPULATION
-i *=•
34-, 300
<_AREA
3-
53,943 Acres
•--- a. -•»
J-'-sv - .
a
DENSITY OF POPULATION
t0_9c^yjBOOM^rii’TKra.tftaL.* -
a
«-
v*»- -*
TOTAL RATEABLE VALUE
ri
0c62 persons per acre
£1,943,827.
THE RURAL DISTRICT of DORKING- and HORLEY was formed
in 1933 under the Surrey County Council review of the area
and. comprised parts of the former Reigate and Dorking
Rural District Councils.
Its Charter and Arms were granted in 1959District comprises 12 Parishes including:-
The Rural
Abinger Betchworth Capel
Headley Leigh Newdigate Ockley V'otton
Buckland
Charlwood Holmwood
Horley
G-ATjTGK AIRPORT comes within the Rural District and is
situated in the Parish of Charlwoodo
n <i
Wil lit SUPPLY
tov'.WftC*
Water is supplied to areas in the Western Parishes by
the West Surrey Water Board and in the Eastern Parishes by
the East Surrey Water Company. The w< ter is drawn from bore
holes in the North Downs.
There are still a few properties within the Rural
District that are supplied from private water stores and
wells, these are principally situated within the outlying
•Darts of the District.
REFUSE
The Council collects 7,000 tons of refuse a year from
the District. Refuse is disposed of to two principal tips
in the locality, one in vhe Dorking Urban District and at
a private tip operated by the Bucklanc. Sand and Silica
Company.
■ i wnlTnw—w r*srac
»
The principal sewage works is at Hoi ley which deals
with 1,500,000 gallons of sewage per cay. The works has
recently been modernised to allow for the development in
the area.
The Villages of Charlwood, Capel, Holmwocd, Ockley,
Abinger, Puckland and Betchworth are sewered.
The Council owns ?l additional small sewage works, 2 at
Ockley, 1 at Capel and 1 at Holmwood. Sewage from the
Villages of Abinger, Betchworth and Buckland discharge into
2,
the sewers of neighbouring Authorities. The remaining
parts of the District which arc unsewered are served by
Cesspools, Septic Tanks and in a small number of cases there
are premises still with bucket closetso
Approzdmatcly 12 - 1A Million gallons of sewage is
removed from cesspools throughout the District by the
Council3s tankers, and private Contractors are employed to
make a weekly visit to empty the bucket closets in the
area.
HORLEY
Horley which has a population of ever 18,000 is the
major centre of population within the District, and the
industries in this Parish include:- Steel 'forks,
Manufacture of Dumpers and Earth Moving Vehicles,
Electronic Research Laboratories, Manufacture of ‘food
working Machines, Motor Transport Engineering Depot, Food
Supply warehouses and Aircraft Serviceso
AMELCETIES
Horley is provided with a fine Public Library, a new
Clinic, a now Fire Station, a new Ambulance Station, Cottage
Hospital, an S.T.De automatic telephone exchange, Cinema,
Five Primary Schools, Two Secondary Schools and there are
Churches of all denominations.
GATWICK AIRPORT
;rv
•
.* *4F*ka*
i» *-**<r-T
v__j»
A unique feature of Dorking & Horley Rural District is
(ratwick Airport'which is one of the five International
Sanitary Airports in Great Britain, which occupies an
extensive site in the south-east corner of the District,
2 5 miles from London and very n^ar the Surrey-Sussex border®
The new Airport was the first to combine air, main line
rail (London-South Coast Line) and trunk road (Ao25)
facilities into one terminus, and sue}, has been its success
that developments completed in 1966 have more than doubled the
former size of the building, and considerably extended the
aurono
X
Today, the east-west runway is 150 feet wide and 8,200*
long, with another 1,000* of clearway extending from the run
way thresholds. The main London-Brighton road had to be
diverted 2^ miles to clear one end of the runway.
Since 1958? the number of passengers using the airport
has increased more than five times to the 1964-65 figure of
1,140,414- The volume of traffic has increased in similar
proportions too. when the airport opened in 1958, the
number of passengers in that year was 220,000. Traffic has
increased to such an extent that in 1966-67? 1,650,000
passengers passed through the terminal®
The existance of the airport places certain demands on
the Council*s services and in fact daily refuse collection is
provided to all parts of the airport, and there is a special
trunk sewer connection connecting to the Council*s Horley
Sewage Works. The luolic Health Department of the Council
undertakes the inspection of imported food coming into the
airport and undertakes non-medical services i.e® Disinfection,
Disinsection and rodent control as required under the
International Sanitary Regulations®
HORLEI
SEWAGE
WORKS
During the past ICO years with the progress of industry and
the higher standards of health and hygiene the science of River Pollution
Control has progressed in such a manner that although the scientific
knowledge and "know how” has been available the capital required to
operate schemes of purificatiam of waste water and industrial effluents
has never been wholly available.
In recent years a more critical view
has been taken of river pollution, and it is a fact that many rivers on
this country of ours which some 100 years ago supported fish life such as
salmon, trout, etc. , but up to recent years had been allowed to degenerate
in what might be described as open sewers.
With the passing of legislation
to prevent pollution of rivers the financial aspect has somewhat eased and
more and better purification works have been and are being built.
The township of Horley inaugurated its first sewage works in
1938 which was of the bacteriological filter type, as the years passed the
works became inadequate to cope with an increasing population and industrial
load.
Extensions were added to the Depot and were completed in late 19&3
with the exception of minor works.
The extensions are of the Activated
Sludge Principle.
On entering the works one sees the managerial offices, laboratories,
workmens messrooms, showers, locker rooms, etc.
The building on the
right is the Major Pumping Station.
This station pumps the sewage and
industrial wastes draining from Horley, Saifords, Povey Cross, Charlwood
etc., to the primary processes.
Before being iDumped the solids in the
sewage, e.i. rags, paper etc., are cut up into small dices f- cube in a
machine called a Comminator.
The pumps pump the sewage into Grit Separation Chambers where
grit is separated from the sewage, these are located North of the Pumping
Station,
After leaving the Grit Separation Chambers the sewage enters two
Circular Tanks knovzn as primary settlement units, here the grosser solid
are settled out and these solids are known as sludge.
The sludge is with
drawn and pumped or gravitated into "sludge digestion units" of which more
will be said later.
Prom the two primary settlement tanks the sewage liquor is then
passed to a dividing bay where automatic division of the flow takes place,
this is North of the Circular Tanks.
A third of the flow is taken to be treated on biological filters
Of f which there are four situated to the West of the primary tanks.
In
these filters bacteria live and breed, these bacteria require two things
to support their life cycle
1
2
Oxygen
Food
In the case of 1, the oxygen is carried through the filter or habitat of
the bacteria intermixed with the sewage liquor.
In the case of 2, the
food is supplied with the finely suspended particles in the sewage.
Note the opaque liquor which is passed onto the surface of the
filter and compare with the ffluent in the filter channel
This effluent
is collected into a further settlement unit called Humus Tanks where the
excrete from the bacteria mixed with the filter effluent is separated and
a clean pure liquid is left which is discharged over grass areas before
entering the River Mole.
cor
n*
. .continued
He left a point in this description -where y of the flow was
diverted to Biological. Filters, we now consider the processing of the
remaining § of the flow.
Adjoining the point of flow division we find
that there are five units for treating the remaining § of the flow.
These are described as Activation or Aeration units, the sewage liquor
enters LPl
one end of the unit, and is discharged at the opposite end.
The treatment consists of vigorously agitating the liquor by revolving
stainless steel brushes, whilst in a state of agitation the liquor is
absorbing oxygen.
Carefully note that at the inlet end a slurry like
liquid is being fed into the units, this is in fact millions of bacteria
which are the tiny creatures that feed on the fine solids suspended in
the sewage liquor (as in the case of the biological filters except that
these are a completely different species).
Again the life cycle is
completed - bacteria - oxygen - food.
After a certain period the
liquid leaves the aeration units intermixed with millions of tiny
bacteria to enter the final tanks which are circular and 2 in number.
At this point the liquid is separated from the bacteria. The
liquid, which should now be clear and pure, is passed over grass areas
and out to the River Mole.
The bacteria are collected and returned to
the inlet of the aeration units to carry on the good work of purification.
It was said earlier that more would be said of sludge digestion.
When the sludge is put into the digestion units it undergoes a period of
fermentation and digestion for about 160 days, which reduces its bulk and
frees it from obnoxious smells.
After this process the sludge is pumped
to the Sludge Drying Plant, and on entering the sludge is treated with
three chemicals (1) Ferrous Sulphate (2) Floccatant AS5 (3) Lime.
The
treated sludge is then fed to the pick-up bath; sludge is then picked up
by the rotating Coil Filter Drum, water being removed by vacuum. The
solid remaining on the surface is then discharged onto a conveyor belt
and hence to containers for disposal.
A few facts about Horley Sewage Works.
The cost per head of population is about the cost
of one cigarette per day to run the works.
About 1.5 million gallons per day are treated.
Constant research in the Laboratories are taking place.
The work is not unhealthy, but rather the reverse.
The management and staff appreciate your visit and interest shown.
C.
WARDS
o
Services Manager.
INDIAN
77TH
4TH-9TH
COCHIN
CONGRESS,
SCIENCE
FEBRUARY
"RURAL HEALTH AND SANITATION
1990
A NEED OF THE HOUR"
-
(INVITED PAPER)
BY
DR. V. PARAMESH VAR A*
important and integral part of social and economic develop
is an
Health
ment of the country.
population
lives
In a
rural areas and 85
in
per cent of health
because
health
in
a
on
sure
to
reflect
rapid
and
equitable
is
human capital.
tool
development
of
economic
development
depends
the
people.
Investment in rural health
Delivery
of rural
of the rural
manpower and
the maldistribution of health
health care is concentrated in urban places,
resources
where 85 per cent of the
like India
countr-y
care
health
is
the
society,
on
the
is an investment
very
essential.
In-
spite of considerable progress and achievements in eradication of several
diseases,
communicable
rural
of
sanitation.
food
supply
and
health
of
rural
nutrition.
Many
apart from aesthetic.
people
still
centres
round
hour,
only
next to promotion
diseases
both
communicable
is the need of the
pest borne and worm
vector and
tation;
This
the
and
infestations are directly linked to sani-
The first step to improve sanitation is by
including and adopting such measures as observing personal clealiness and
hygiene,
eat
food
to
keep the house and
that
is
fresh
and
its surroundings clean and pest free,
protected
against
flies,
purify
water
to
for
i
*
MDBS FRCP(LONDON) FACC FCCP FICA FISE FAIID FIMSA FAIID FIMSA FIAMS FICN
Past President, Indian Medical Association
Past President, The Association oE Physicians of India
54, Kumarakrupa Road
Bangalore - 560 001
2
drinking
other
nets
store
and
wastes
household
and
sanitary
under
to
devices
other
container,
clean
a
in
dispose
conditions
and
use
bites.
The
proper
insect
prevent
excreta
human
of
and
musquito
for
site
*
The place should allow rain,
be selected.
homes should
be away from a refuse dump and stagnant
drain away from the house and
water
where disease vectors and stray animals may live.
smoke or litter would be a great nuisance.
is
waste water to
essential.-
Every
home
should
Water
should
be
protected
not
should
Animals
latrine
have
which
safe
from
drawn
living
should
be
quarters of
safe and
from
possible
sources, if
dust,
of the house
ventilation
Good
the
share
Odours,
people.
inexpensive.
a
or
spring
Most enteric infections, enter the body through food and
well.
Therefore cleanliness with regard to both is essential.
water.
Promotion
of
environmental
education
on
health,
sanitation
should
economic
development.
people’s
programme
approach.
While
and
structure
be
health
community
planned
the
water
health
Rural
and
depends
is
best
Government
administration,
and
supply
service,
health
and
public
upon
as
information
sanitation.
part
sanitation
of
Rural
general
must
be
and
socio
made
a
administered
through
intersectorial
could
provide
basic
agencies
voluntary
and
non-Governmental
infra
agencies
being a part of the community and without bureaucratic hurdles are most
suited
to
provide
rural
great contribution by
health
and
sanitation.
donating their time,
Rural
people
can
make
labour and material. Community
participation also means resource moblilisation as no Government however
affluent
and
committed,
care and sanitation.
can
cater
to
every
expectation
of
rural
health
3
Use
mass
of
media
to enhance community
method
education
health
in
an
is
effective
cost
Mass media experts learned
participation.
in behaviourial sciences and health
important
communication skills must be included
in this programme.
The Government responsible for the health
public should straight
of the
away garner adequate information on current rural health and sanitation in
each district and prepare time bound action goals.
It is also imperative
to establish a national plan for adequate and optimal rural sanitation and
achieved
with
borne
diseases
prevent
by
other
appropriate
establishing
departments
insanitary
of
out
conditions.
dealing
be
could
and
co-ordination
with
food
communication
those
particularly
This
policy,
education and public information.
The
whole
problem
war footing and
of
health
rural
an approach
that
sanitation
has
emphasises the
to
be
tackled
intervention
on
a
to change
the whole rural community by health education.
Rural Health and Sanitation - the need of the hour could only be achieved
health
educators
than
more health- care
delivery,
a
by
better
mental
organisations,
a
more
doctors,
political
dedicated
11
will,
11
11
11
health
care
than
involvement of non-Govern-
profession and
11
better
a
motivated
community.
CHAPTER 6
Ell VI RON MENTAL
6.1.
SAN ITAT I ON
WATER
WATER IS ESSENTIAL TO LIFE AND, THEREFORE, A
COMMODITY WHICH EVERYONE MUST USE.
IM RURAL AREAS, WATER IS USUALLY CONSUMED RAW
WHILE PERHAPS 90 PER CENT OF ALL THE OTHER FOOD
IS RENDERED SAFE BY COOKING BEFORE USE*
THEREFORE, IT IS VERY IMPORTANT TH./T SPECIAL
ATTENTION BE PAID'TO THE PROVISION OF SAFE DRINK
ING WATER.
6.1.1. USES OF WATER
Water is mainly used for:
i.
drinking and cooking;
ii.
cleanliness - washing the person, clothing and
household;
iii.
safety - in case of fire;
iv.
cultivation- of fruit, flowers and vegetables;
v.
watering livestock.
6.1.2. DRINKING WATER
Water used for drinking must be free from chemical
substances and micro-organisms in amounts which would present
a hazard to health. Also, drinking water must be colourless
and clear, and should be free from any odour or taste.
WATER WHICH IS S.\EE TO DRINK SHOULD CONFORM TO
CERTAIN INTERI'JATIONAL STANDARDS WHICH GIVE AN
INDICATION OF THE QUALITY OF THE WATER.
6.1.3. INTERNATIONAL STAND;.RDS
These standards specify in figures what the acceptable
safety limits are.
It is not necessary for you to know these
figures, but ifc is sufficient to have an idea of what these
standards relate to. These standards are:
i. Bacteriological : The major danger associated with
drinking water is the possibility of its recent
contamination‘by human excreta or animal pollution.
The standard is, therefore, related to the detection
of coliform bacteria (faecal bacteria) in water.
ii. Chemical : There are certain chemical substances,
e.g., fluorides, nitrates, lead, or arsenic, which
if present in drinking water at concentrations
greater than certain limits may be injurious to
health.
iii. Other : Standards have also been laid down regarding
the limits of acceptability in relation to total
solids, colour, turbidity and content of chemical
substances (biparbonates, chlorides and sulphates)
I
2 -:
iv0 pH Range : The pH range for water is 7.0 to 8.5,
e.
i.
the water should be neutral or slightly alkaline
but not acid.
A SAFE WATER SUPPLY IN RURxlL AREAS IS A PROTECTED SUPPLY
WHICH COMES FROM A SAFE SOURC^
HAS BEEN PROPERLY TREATED.
HOWEVER, IT S-'DU7D .BE xV.^riBERED THAT EVEN THIS WATER CxAN BE
P0T4UTE2 uR CONTAM:A7rED AFTER IT HAS BEEN COLLECTED FROM A
o/aFE SOURCE IF PROPEix PRECAUTIONS ARE NOT TAKEN.
6.1.4. DIEEASES TRANSMITTED THROUGH WATER
Water polluted with human excreta is the cause of
gastro-intestinal diseases, i.e. cholera, typhoid, bacillary
dysentery and diarrhoeas.
All these are caused by bacteria.
Roundw^orm, guineaworm and amobic dysentery are examples
of parasitic diseases spread through contaminated water.
Poliomyelitis (infantile paralysis) and infectious
hepatitis (jaundice) are serious infections transmitted by
contaminated water; they are both caused by viruses.
6.1.5. COMMON SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY IN RURAL AREAS
The major sources of water supply are:
1. Surface Waters:
. i. collections of rain water;
. ii. tanks and reservoirs;
iii. rivers, streams and canals;
iv. lakes.
2. Underground Water:
i0 ordinary wells - shallow or deep;
ii. tube wells - shallow or deep;
iii. artesian wells;
iv. step wells;
v. springs.
6.1.6. POLLUTION OF DRINKING WATER
The risks of pollution increase when the water source is a
surface source. Drinking water can-become polluted in various
ways :
ft •
•-
•
1. Before the Water is Collected : Surface water is
polluted by people defaecating near the source o£ bathing and
washing their clothes and household utensils in ’or near the
water. These sources are also liable to pollution by animals*
;
Collections of water in tanks and reservoirs should
always be kept covered to prevent pollution by birds.
Underground water may be., contaminated from latrines,
cesspools, soakage pits, arid septic tanks. The location of
wells and the nature of the soil are important factors to be
considered if water contamination is tc be avoided.
2. During Storage : If water from a protected source
is collected in dirty containers, it becomes polluted and
dangerous for drinking.
Even if the container in which the
clean water has been collected was clean, pollution of vzater
can still occur from dust, flies, rats and birds, if the
viator A left uncovered,, Dipping dirtv tins into covered clean
3
Water should h c .red out of storage containers, or
run out through a tap,
a dipper with a long handle should
be kept in the water container.
W a te r c o n t a i n e r s should, preferably, be kept out of
reach of small children to prevent contamination and accidents.
6.1.7. RESPONSIbILITIE.' OF THE HEALTH WORKER (MALE) IN
ENSURING A SAFE WATER SUPPLY
THE PROVISION OF WATER SUPPLY IS THE RESPONSIBILITY OF ENGINE
ERS BUT IT IS THE DUTY OF HEALTH WORKERS TO ENSURE THAT THE
WATER IS SAFE TO DRINK.
AS A HEALTH WORKER IN THE RURAL COMMUNITY, YOU MUST ENSURE
THAT THE WATER CONSUMED BY THE COMMUNITY IS SAFE FOR DRINKING.
Your duties in respect of water supplies in the rural
areas include:
1. surveying the water sources in the community;
2. chlorinating public water supply sources;
3. ensuring that pumps fitted to community wells are in
working order by promptly reporting to the authorities
concerned those pumps which are out of order;
4. educating the public on the importance of consuming
only safe drinking water;
5. advising on proper methods for water storage;
6. advising on methods for water disinfection;
7. taking the necessary action to safeguard the health of
the community in the event of an epidemic caused by
contaminated water supply.
... !
1. Surveying the Water Sources in the Community : When you
assume your duties in the community, your first activity is to
conduct a survey to get to know the area and its people.
MAKE SURE THAT ALL' SOURCES OF DRINKING WATER, THEIR CONDITION,
WHETHER PERMANENT OR TEMPORARY, AND THE METHOD OF WATER COLLEC
TION ARE RECORDED„ THIS BASE-LINE SURVEY WILL HELP YOU TO
ASSESS THE MAGNITUDE OF YOUR RESPONSIBILITIES IN THIS FIELD.
PLOT THIS INFORMATION ON THE MAP OF YOUR AREA.
Refer to the household and village records in Chapter 4,
'Record Keeping1.
When surveying the water sources, the following points
should be checked to help you decide whether or not a well is
sanitary:
i. There should be no cracks in the lining of the well.
ii. A parapet wall about one metre high with a slanting
surface to the outside should surround the mouth
of the well.
iii. There should be a cemented platform two metres around
the well sloping downwards to .the outside.
iv. There should be a gutter or drain at the outer end of the
platform to lead the waste water to soak age vit.
4
v. Water should be drawn through a well bucket on a
pulley or, preferably/ through a hand pump.
vi. No washing of clothes or bathing should be carried
out near a well.
Fig. 6.1 and 6.2. are diagrams of an open well and a tube well.'
>
2. Chlorinating Public Water Supply Sources» : The dis
infection of water is vital in situations where^epidemics of wate
borne diseases have to-be averted or controlled without ade
quately protected water supplies. Chlorine is the most reliable
Fig;- 6.1:' Open Well .
Fig. 6.2: Tube Well
Rural communities living in vulnerable areas must have
their wells, ponds, tanks,canals and other raw water sources
periodically disinfected with chlorine. Chlorination must be
carried out with the available material and man-power resources
by a simple, inexpensive and practical method. The base-line
survey will help to facilitate the preparation of a plan for the
disinfection of water sources.
The objectives of ehlorinati on is to achieve a residual
chlorine content in the water of 0.5 parts per million (p.p.m.)
after 30 minutes of contact.
To achieve this it is generally
necessary to calculate the chlorine dose so as to reach 2 p.p.m.
immediately after chlorination.
Proceed as follows:
i. Material Required
a. Bleaching powder
b. Bucket of an adequate size.
.
• """*
5
ii. Technique
a. Estimate the amount of water in the well by using
the following formula:
2
=
Number of gallons of water in the well.
(D
=
diameter of well in feet
H
=
depth of water in feet;
' 5 D
H
e.g., In a well having a diameter of 4 feet and
containing water to a depth of 10 feet, the number
of gallons in the well would be
5x4x4x10
=
800 gallons
b. Calculate the amount of beInching powder required
by means of the following formula:
14
X
=
Number of grains of bleaching powder
required per gallon to achieve 2 p.p.m.
dose immediately after chlorination.
(Note: 15 gr = Igm)
(X
=
percentage of chlorine in the bleaching
powder)'
*
Note: If properly stored in a covered container in a cool,
dark, dry place, the chlorine content of unstabilised
bleaching powder should not drop below. 20 per cent.
*
For example, to chlorinate a well containing 800 gallons of water
with belaching powder having a chlorine content o|420 per cent
the amount of bleaching powder required would be
x 800 = 560 gr
= approximately 37 gm.
KEEP A RECORD OF THE AMOUNT OF BEACHING POWER USED FOR
■ EACH WELL TO SAVE YOU CALCULATING THIS AMOUNT EACH TIME.
c. Mix the calculated amount of bleaching powder
in a bucket three fourths full of water.
d. Lower the bucket containing the solution into the
well and agitate to ensure good mixing, taking
care that the bottom of the well is not disturbed.
IT IS DESIRABLE TO CHLORINATE OPEN WELLS ONCE A WEEK. FOR
THIS IT IS NECESSARY TO ENLIST THE HELP OF THE PEOPLE USING
THE WELL.
•
Chlorination of ponds, tanks and other suface waters
is not carried out as a routine.
It is undertaken during
epidemics when the water source is responsible. Consult your
supervisor for advice in such cases.
3. Maintenance of Hand Pumps : Tube wells are usually
disinfected before they are fitted with hand pumps and sealed.
Therefore, if the hand pump is out of order the usual source
of safe water supply is not available to the community. An
alternative source of supply, which may be polluted, will be
used and hazards to health created.
IT IS ESSENTIAL THAT TUBE WELLS SHOULD BE ADEQUATELY MAIN
TAINED TO REDUCE THE HAZARDS FROM THE USE OF POLLUTED WATER
Usually the panchayat is responsible for maintaining
the pumps in working order.
YOU MUST BECOME WELL ACQUAINTED WITH THE ARRANGEMENTS IN
FORCE IN YOUR AREA RELATING TO THE MAINTENANCE OF WATER
PUMPS. IT IS YOUR RESPONSIBILITY TO KEEP A CLOSE WATCH ON
THESE PUMPS AND ^REPORT IMMEDIATELY TO THE AUTHORITY CONCERNED
ANY PUMP WHICH IS OUT OF ORDER AND REQUIRED ATTENTION.
IT IS ALSO YOUR DUTY TO MAKE SURE THAT ANY OTHER SOURCE OF
DRINKING WATER SUPPLY WHICH IS USED WHEN A TUBE WELL IS OUT
OF ORDER IS RENDERED SPITE. CHLORINATION MAY BE NECESSARY AS
A FIRST STEP. ADVICE ON BOILING AND OTHER HEALTH EDUCATION
ACTIVITIES WILL HELP MAINTAIN THE HEALTH OF THE COMMUNITY.
4. Health Education of the Public : Your community
It is your
must know what is safe to drink and what is not.
duty to teach them what they should know about drinking water
Your topics for educational activities should include the
following:
The health hazards attached to drawing drinking
water from surface sources.
The importance of drinking chlorinated water even
through it may taste different.
The importance of boiling water, particularly after
the rains when the surface waters are more exposed
the risk of pollution than usual.
The safe way of storing water and of drawing water
from storage tanks and containers.
v
The diseases carried by water, particularly cholera.
The importance of keeping the areas around open water
supplies free from faecal contamination and other
sources of pollution.
Community responsibility for cleanliness of water
' sources.
The need for the community to seek advice whenever
problems relating to the supply and utilization of
water arise.
5 Advising on the Proper Methods for Water Storage : There
are very few houses in rural areas equipped with their own well
or hand pump. The majority of the population draw their drinking
water supply from a public source. Also, the person collecting
the water has to walk some distance to the well or hand pump so
that water is collected in quantities which will be utilized
throughout the day.
In the meantime/ the water is stored in
the house.
WHILE WATER IS IN STORAGE AFTER COLLECTION THERE IS ALWAYS
THE DANGER OF
ITS BECOMING POLLUTED/ IF THE NECESSARY PRE
CAUTIONS ARE NOT TAKEN.
As a health worker in the community/ it is your duty
to advise on the safe way of carrying and storing water as well
as the methods of water disinfection available for domestic
or individual use.
Storage : Water can be contaminated during transit and
'Storage even if it was quite safe at the source. The following
procedures are, therefore, recommended:
i. The containers used for collecting the water should
be clean. They should, preferably, be made of material'
which can be scrubbed and should be of a shape which
allows cleaning from the inside.
ii. Where water is stored in bulk, i.e. when it is stored
in a container other than the bucket or tin in which
it has been collected, the bulk container should also
be made of material which can be cleaned periodically.
It should be remembered that bulk storage results in
sedimentation of the solid particles, thus clarifying
the drinking water.
iii. The storage container must be supplied with a suitable
cover to prevent dust, flies and other insects, rats
or birds from.polluting the water. If the water is
in an outside storage tank, bird droppings are a
source of pollution.
iv. The storage tank should be raised above the ground
and protected to prevent cattle and other livestock
from drinking from it, and thus polluting it.
v. As afar as possible, the water should not .be drawn
out by dipping a tin or other vessel into the storage
tank.
Preferably, the water should be poured out
if the container is small enough.
If the container
is large and heavy, it should be provided with a
tap for running out the water or a dipper with a
long handle should be kept in the container.
WHEN RAIN WATER IS STORED IN UNDERGROUND TANKS, THE HAZARD
OF MOSQUITO BREEDING IS AD’ED TO THAT OF CONTAMINATION AND
THE PERIODIC USE OF MALARIOL TO CONTROL MOSQUITO LARVAE MAY
BE NECESSARY.
-
Maintenance of Storage Tanks : Large storage tanks should be
cleaned periodically to remove collected sediment and collec
tions of algae. The tank should be scrubbed with beaching
powder taking care not to pollute the tank by using dirty
brushes or by entering the tank without taking the necessary
precautions.
6. Water Disinfection (Domestic) : To ensure that clean
water is consumed, it is necessary to store it in a clean covered
container after disinfection.
Some of the methods recommended
for disinfection on an individual or domestic scale include:
•
*
a. Boiling:ensures total sterilization against all
bacteria, cysts, spores and ova. To be effective
however, the water must be- brought to the boil
and kept boiling for a minimum of 5 minutes.
ALL WATER CONSUMED BY BABIES AND CHILDREN SHOULD BE BOILED
TO PREVENT THE RISK OF GA ST RO-ENTER, IT IS AND OTHER DISEASES,
POLIOMYELITIS AND INFECTIOUS HEPATITIS.
b. Chemical Disinfection:
Potassium permanganate is avx
4.
.v*ent
/ d
ii., Iodine is an excellent disinfectant, particularly
for small-scale domestic application. Water
disinfectants based on iodine are available
commercially in tablet; form .and also as tincture
of iodine in liquid form.
'
••••
*
•
•
a
.
»
How to Disinfect Water Using Iodine :• Use two drops-.of
2 per cent Tn. iodine per' litre of- clear water, ■ Allow
a contact time of 20 to 30 minutes for ^effective
disinfection. ■
/
r ;
, ,;i = •_
Note : Highly turbid water should be allowed to’settle
before being treated with iodine.
’
When iodine tablets are used‘follow the manufacturer’s
’ instructions.
•
..
■ iii. Chlorine solution c^jr-a Iso,,he used as a dis;..; .
■ it;/£ • i nf e c taftib *.’6$« a
s c a-1 e.
.',
c. Filtration : Bacterial filters do not remove viruses,
g.
e.
those which are responsible' for infectious
hepatitis and poliomyelitis. There are various
types of/filters with different degrees ..of efficiency.
In general, however, filters require regular cleaning
and careful attention to ensure that- the filters
are not cracked, as otherwise they are a hazard
rather than a help.
In rural communities, filters will be used
■ only by those who can afford to purchase them,
.as they are relatively expensive.
•a •
•
•
•
I
•
•
7. Emergency Measures tg^rotect■the Health of-the •
•
Community in Water-borne Epidemics : The characteristics of a
water borne disease are as follows:
i. The-outbreak is explosive, i.,e. a. large number of
cases occur within the space of a day. A sudden
increase in the number of diarrhoeas suggests an :infected water supply.
ii. The outbreak is limited to the community served by
the, infectdd sources, i.e. the well, pond .or stream.
I
•
.
•
•
’
.
*
*»
,
•
•
•
iii. All age groups.and both sexes are affected.’
-.ii
i.';
’
?
■■
...V
•
-«■
•
■
>
..r
>
---- —*---------- L—,----- ------ -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
WHEN THESE THREE SIGNS OF A WATER-BORNE DISEASE SUDDENLY •
APPEAR, YOU MUST TAKE IMMEDIATE STEPS TO LIMIT THE SPREAD
OF INF.ECTION. •
Tl}e steps you must take are as follows:
i. With the help of the community seal off the water
source until it is effectively chlorinated.
ii. Instruct the householders,to empty all. their water
containers and run off the stores water into the
ground.
iii. Instruct all householders to ensure that the water
used for drinking or cooking is boiled.
■ iv. Demonstrate to the.householders how to disinfect
their water containers.
v. Treat all cases of diarrhoea and take the help of
your supervisor and of the medical officer.
vi. Chlorinate all the water sources in the village.
vii.
Before opening the source for use wait for your
supervisor to test the water for residual chlorine.
viii.
Educate the community so as to prevent the re-pollution
of open sources of drinking water supply.
MAKE ALL THE NECESSARY ARRANGEMENTS TO PROVIDE AN ALTERNATIVE
SOURCE FOR DRINKING WATER UNTIL THE POLLUTED SOURCE IS REN
DERED SAFE. THE EFFORT OF THE COMMUNITY SHOULD BE SOLICITED
TO PREVENT FURTHER SPREAD OF THE DISEASE.
.
DISPOSAL OF LIQUID WASTES (SULLAGE WATER)
6.2
Liquid wastes in a rural community are produced from
various sources, the most important of which are:
i.
waste from houses which consists of kitchen water,
bath water and water from washing of utensils and
clothes;
ii. spillage from public wells and waste from washing
places adjoining water sources;
iii. waste from cattle sheds;
iv. waste from market places, slaughter houses or fairs;
v.
waste from cottage industries such as weaving and
dyeing.
If stagnant pools of sullage water with the consequent
breeding of mosquitoes are to be avoided, adequate attention
to the disposal of this waste’ water is necessary.
Besides the hazard of mosquito breed! ng in the stag
nant water, other hazards are bad odours, dajnrepness of houses,
breeding of insects, rat infestation and the risk of pollu
ting water supplies.
6.2.1
RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE HEALTH WORKER (MALE) IN THE
DISPOSAL OF SULLAGE WATER
Your responsibilities in relation to sullage water
disposal includes:
1. Educating the community on the dangers of water
collections in the 'Ui^nity of human habitations;
2. helping the community to construct drains for con
ducting the sullage water to a place where it can
be safely disposed off;
3. helping the community to construct soakage pits so
that the water can be- driven underground where it is
absorbed without causing danger to health;
4. advising households to use sullage water for
watering kitchen gardens;
5. assisting the community in protecting wells from
contamination with sullage water;
6. advising the community on the proper maintenance
of cattle sheds and the hygienic disposal of waste
V'"'' “
10
7. advising market-stall owners and slaughter house
staff on hygienic ways of disposal of sullage
water;
8. making the necessary arrangements for disposal of
sullage water from fairs and melas.
REMEMBER THAT YOUR RESPONSIBILITIES DO NOT END WITH MERELY
TELLING THE COMMUNITY WHAT TO DO. YOU MUST SHOW THE COMMU
NITY HOW TO DISPOSE OFF SULLAGE WATER. GET THE COOPERATION
OF THE COMMUNITY LEADERS IN YOUR EFFORTS TO IMPROVE THE HEALTH
STANDARDS OF THE COMMUNITY ENVIRONMENT.
1. Educating the Community on Sullage Water Disposal: The
hygienic disposal of liquid wastes in rural areas can be achieved
without the expenditure of excessive amounts of money. The
community has to know ^hat it is expected to do and" be shown how
to do it. The responsibility for imparting such knowledge
rests with the health worker.
EDUCATING THE COMMUNITY TO IMPROVE ITS ENVIRONMENT IS A
MAJOR OBJECTIVE IN HEALTH PROMOTION. DEVELOP YOUR EDUCA
TIONAL ACTIVITIES AS YOU VISIT HOUSES AND OBSERVE THE WAY
SULLAGE WATER IS TREATED. DO NOT FORGET, HOWEVER, THAT
GROUP EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES INVOLVING THE COMMUNITY LEADERS
ARE ESSENTIAL TO ACHIEVE COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN IMPROV
ING THE ENVIRONMENT.
Some of the topics which you should talk about and
illustrate with demonstrations include:
i. the hazards to health inherent in collections of
polluted water;
\
ii. the health hazards caused by mosquitoes breeding
in sullage water in the civinity of houses;
iii. the composition of waste water originating from
households and ways of disposal which remove
health hazards;
. .
. •
iv. the hazards related to the collection of spillage
water from open wells;
v. the hazards to health arising from sullage water
from slaughter houses, cattle sheds, fairs, cottage
industries and markets;
vi. the diseases related to liquid wastes in a community
environment;
vii*. the construction of drains, soakage pits, etc., to
deal with sullage water.
2. Helping the Community to Construct Drains : If waste
water collects it has to be drained away to safety.
In rural
areas where water may be a scare commodity, sullage water
should be used to an advantage and should not be wasted.
It is,
however, important to lead it away safely without creating
hazards to health.
The construction of open drains to carry household
sullage water must be well planned. Silting results in stagnant
water collections and regular desilting can be an expensive
procedure; covering a drain-with slabs can also be very expen
:- 11
sive and the community may not be able to afford such expense.
It is important, therefore, to educate the community not to
block drains and to allow and ensure a free flow of water.
The
outfall point should be at a nearby field where a food crop may
be grown. Soakage pits and irrigation ponds may be constructed,
particularly if the amount of water is large. Th^6pening of
the outfall into water courses must be avoided as it will
pollute the water.
3. Showing the Community h,ow to construct a Soakage
Pit : A soakage pit is a dug-out space filled with stones or,
preferably, bverburnt bricks. The large number of stones or
bricks increases the surface area over which biological and
chemical action take place. The water seeps into the gound
and reduces the danger of polluting underground water sources,
e.g., wells used for drinking water supplies.
The soakage pit can be constructed at a suitable place
near the house to take the sullage water.
Before the water
enters the soakage pit, it should pass through a catch pit
so that silt and grit can be retained. This catch pit must
be periodically cleaned.
Soakage pits provide a hygienic way of disposal of
sullage water and they are cheap and easy to construct. They
must however, be cleaned periodically.
THE RAW MATERIAL REQUIRED TO CONSTRUCT A SOAKAGE PIT IS READILY AVAILABLE IN THE PROXIMITY OF A RURAL COMMUNITY.
IF LA
BOUR IS ALSO AVAILABLE /AND THE SOIL IS .ABSORBENT, THE CONS
TRUCTION OF SOAKAGE PITS TO DEAL WITH SULLAGE WATER PROVIDES
A HYGIENIC METHOD CF LIQUID WASTE DISPOSAL.
Construction of a Soakage Pit (see fig.6.3): Dig a pit
2 metres deep and 1.5 metres square of 1.5 metres in diameter.
Divide it vertically into three equal portions. The lowest
portion is filled with gravel or preferably overburnt bricks of
% size. The middle portion is filled with bricks of
size and
the upper most portion with bricks of
size. This is covered
ig. 6.3: Scakage PA*
~ : 13 :
YOU ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR ENSURING THAT THESE DRAINS ARE kept
FREE FROM SILT TO ALLOW THE WATER TO FLOW FREELY.
IF Zi PROPERLY CONSTRUCTED SLAUGHTER SLAB IS NOT AVAILABLE IN
YOUR AREA, USE ALL YOUR INFLUENCE TO GET THE COMMUNITY TO
CONSTRUCT SUCH A SLAB. SEEK THE TECHNIC/L ADVICE OF YOUR
SUPERVISOR SITING ZiND BUILDING IT.
8. Disposal of Sullage Water from Fairs and Melas : Sullage
water from fairs and melas is usually made up of waste water
from drink and food stalls, and water from ablutions.
This waste water is disposed off as follows:
i.
If the quantity is considerable, it is led into
shallow pits where it gets absorbed into the ground.
These pits are filled in at the end of the. fair or mela.
ii. If the water is small in quantity, such as water from
individual food stalls, it is sprinkled on the ground
to dry by evaporation and soaking into the ground.
6.3
EXCRET/a DISPOSAL.
The proper disposal of human excreta is an important part
of environmental sanitation since the intestinal infections common
to man are transmitted through the faeces of sick persons or
carriers of disease. Unhygienic disposal of human excreta leads
to disease transmission through:
1. flies which carry the germs from the excreta to food;
2.
drinking water contaminated by:
i. persons washing clothing soiled by faecal matter
in the vicinity of unprotected drinking water
sources;
ii. persons defaecating in or ne^r open streams or pools;
iii. the use of unclean vessels and ropes to draw water
from an open well;
iv. soil falling into an open well; e.g. from the feet
of people standing at the edge of the well;
v“ dust falling into an open well;
vi. underground contamination of badly sited wells.
3. vegetables contaminated by persons defaecating in cul
tivated fields or by human excrdta used as fertilizer,
and which are eaten raw without washing;
4. hands which are soiled after defaecation and are not
washed before handling food;
5. walking barefoot on ground infested with hookworm larvae
THE PROBLEM OF FAECAL-BORNE DISEASES IN INDIA IS ENORMOUS.
THESE DISEASES INCLUDE:
1. BACTERIAL DISEASES - CHOLERA, TYPHOID, BACILLARY DYSENTERY.
2. PARAxSITIC DISEASES - AMOEBIASIS, HOOKWORM, OTHER INTESTINAL
WORMS.
3. VIRUS DISEASES - POLIOMYELITIS, INFECTIOUS HEPATITIS.
*
14
6.3.1
EXCRETA DISPOSAL SYSTEM ..
Whereas in urban areas sewage is handled on a communal
basis, in rural areas the proper disposal of excreta is primarily
the responsibility of .the house-owner.
Excreta disposal facilities must, -therefore, be:
•
•
i. simple, easy to construct with locally available
materials, and cheap;
. •
.
ii. easy to maintain;
iii. acceptable to
the user;
iv. able to provide adequate protection from sun,
wind and rain;
%
v. able to provide the desired privacy.
PRIVATELY OWNED LATRINES GIVE A SENSE OF OWNERSHIP AND EN
COURAGE CLEANLINESS AND PROPER MAINTENANCE.
The methods of excreta disposal can be classified accordin'
to whether or not water is used to carry the waste material.
In
rural areas where there is no water carriage system, the privy
method of excreta disposal is
. used and this will be described
in this manual.
PRIVY Lu -TRINES MUST BE PROPERLY CONTROLLED TO AVOID HEALTH
HAZARDS.
1. Bucket Latrine (see fig.6.4): A water-tight receptacle
(Bucket) in a fly-proof compartment is provided for the accumula
tion and storage of excreta for short periods. The contennts
are regularly emptied into tr mches or are used for composting.
Fig. 6.4: 7-kicke t Lotr?..no
15
follows:
i. The bucket-chamber should have a rear door which is
•kept in good repair and is kept closed, except when
the bucket is being removed,
ii. The bucket-chamber floor should be swept clean every
time the bucket is removed,
iii. The door and walls of the latrine and the bucket
chamber should be made of hard, impervious, smooth
material so that they can be kept clean.
iv. The seat-hole over the bucket should have a flyproof
cover with a long handle which should cover the hole
when the latrine is not in use.
v. The latrine should be provided with a well-fitting
front door.
vi. Urine and liquid washings should drain into a soakage
pit at the rear of the latrine.
vii. The bucket should be placed between guide blocks to
ensure that it receives all the excreta without .
soiling the sides.
viii. The bucket should be in good condition and specifically
coloured to distinguish it from buckets used for
other purposes.
ix. Removal, emptying and replacement operations should
not result in any spillage of the contents.
BUCKET LATRINE PRESENT HEALTH HAZARDS ZiND SHOULD .BE CLOSELY
SUPERVISED TO MAINTAIN GOOD HEALTH. WHEREVER'POSSIBLE
THEY SHOULD BE REPLACED BY SANITARY LATRINES.
2. Sanitary Latrines : The characteristics of a sanitary
latrines are as follows:
i. The faeces are not exposed to flies or accessible
to animals.
*
•
9fl
ii. It is free of offensive odours.
iii. It is not unsightly.
iv. It does not contaminate surface water or ground
water in the ‘.vicinity.
There are two types of. household latrines which can
be constructed cheaply and on a large scale as a permanent
sanitary measure.
Contd/... 16
Ikr:
16
These are as follows:
a. Water-Seal Pit Latrine - RCA or PRAI Pattern (see fig. 6.5)
Fig 6.5:
Water-Seal
Pit
Latrine
•
*
This consists of:
i. The pit.
-
ii. The seat which has a platform, a pan, a trap, and
a water seal.
iii. The pipe which connects the trap to the pit.
iv. The superstructure.
The pit is 1 to 1.3 metres in diameter or one metre square
and is 2.5 metres deep. Depending on the soil a honeycomb
lining may be necessary. The pit is usually located outside the
house wall and should be atleast 10 metres away from any water
source. To prevent the nit from collapsing, it should not be
)
t
near a drain or roof drain or in a place where water collects.
Space should be provided for a second pit which is dug when
the first pit is full. The pit is provided with a strong cover
which is below the ground and is covered with earth. This type
of pit can be dug without using any special tools and the family
members themselves can construct it. This makes it cheap and
easy to construct.
The seat consists of a pucca nlatform made of bricks or
cementz a pan, a trap containing a water seal and a connecting
pipe which leads to the pit. The water seal should be of 1.25cm.
only.
The superstructure can be made of any material according
to the means of the family.
It is essential to flush this latrine each time it is
used for defaecation with 1 litre of water.
If properly used
a pit is sufficient for a family of five persons for three to
four years, depending on the nature of the soil. When the pit
is full the latrine cannot be flushed.
A fresh pit should be
dug, connected to the seat and covered with the old pit cover.
The old pit should be filled up with earth, rammed in properly
and allowed to rest for at least six months, rafter which the
contents can be taken out with a special auger and used as manure.
The advantages of a pit
1at ri ne are that:
i. it can be built without
special tools;
ii. the family members them
selves can construct the
pit with guidance from the
health worker;
iii. its cubic capacity is large
enough to satisfy the needs
of the family;
iv. it can be constructed within
the household premises;
v. excreta is disposed off
directly into the pit.
b. Bore Hole Latrine -.(see
fig. 6.6) : A hole, 25 cm. to 45 cm.
in diameter, is bored into the
ground with a mechanical or handoperated auger to a depth of 5 to
7 metres. The borehole is covered
with a squatting slab with a
cover.
The distance between the
seat and the ground water level
should not be less than 3 metres.
Fig. 6.6 :Borehole Latrine
i th .: ~ t s r- s ...a 1.
A water-seal plate can be
used instead of the ordinary seat
over the borehole, at a slight
extra cost. The excreta can be
flushed away with as little as
1 litre of water. The latrine is
clean and the excreta is completely
out of view and inaccessible to
flies. When the- contents of the
b n rat "• lo h v_- ra
:d 1 .tre
18
below the seat, the latrine should be sealed off and new one
built. The pit latrine or borehole latrine should only be
used by a family.
The characteristics of a well-constructed pit or bore
hole latrine are as follows:
i. The walls of the .pit or borehole must not show any
signs of cavingl in.
ii. The platform or squatting slab should be easy to
clean.
iii. No foul smell should be produced.
iv. The 'superstructure, doors and floor should be in
good condition and made of material which can be
easily cleaned.
v. The latrine should have adequate ventilation and
lighting.
THE ?xDVPNTAGES -OF THE WATER-SEAL TRAP ARE THAT SMELLS ZW THE
DANGERS OF FLY BREEDING ARE COMPLETELY REMOVED.
6.3.2. RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE.HEALTH WORKER (MALE) IN RELATION
TO ARRANGEMENTS FOR EXCRET/A DISPOSAL
THE SANITARY DISPOSAL. OF HUMAN EXCRETA IS ESSENTIAL FOR THE
MAINTENANCE OF HEALTH.
IN RURAL /AREAS, WHERE COMMUW.AL
ARRANGEMENTS FOR DISPOSAL ARE LACKING, THE HEALTH WORKER HAS
A VITAL ROLE TO PLAY.
Your duties include the following:
1. Surveying the arrangements for excreta.disposal in
the community.
2. Assisting and advising on the maintenance of existing
arrangements for excreta disposal.
3. Demonstrating and advising on the construction of
pit latrines and if available, procuring augers
for constructing borehole latrines.
4. /Advising on the siting of latrines, and the construc
tion of superstructures.
• •
5. Assisting the community in procuring slabs and water
seal traps.
6. If bucket latrines are in operation, supervising
closely the handling of nightsoil disposal and
trenching.
7. Educating the community about the health hazards of
insanitary arrangements for excreta disposal and
the diseases related to bad sanitation.
REMEMBER THAT THE MAIN OBJECTIVE OF SANITARY DISPOSAL OF
HUMAN EXCRETA IS TO REDUCE THE INCIDENCE OF FAECAL-BORNE
DISEASES.
1. Surveying the Arrangements for Excreta Disposal in
the Community : In order to orientate yourself to the existing
situation it is necessary that you should carry out a survey
of all the methods used for the disposal of excreta in the
community under your charge.
Proceed as follows:
Prepare checklists to ensure that all the points relating
to sanitary methods are not missed. The following checklists
are suggested:
a. Bucket Latrine
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
Is the latrine seat cover provided?
Is the chamber door self-closing and fly-proof?
Do the guide blocks position the bucket correctly?
Are a drain and soakage pit provided for wash water?
Is the bucket regularly emptied?
Is the latrine kept clean?
b. Water-seal Pit Latrine
i. Is it located more than 10 metres from a well?
ii. Is there a water seal?
iii. Can the latrine be adequately flushed with 1 litre
of water?
iv. Are there any defects in the superstructure, doors
and floors?
Vo Are the ventilation and lighting adequate?
vi, Is the latrine kept clean?
c. Borehole Latrine
i. Is is located more than 10 metres from a well or
hand pump?
ii. Is there a water seal? If notz is a cover provided
for the squatting slab opening?
iii. Are there- any defects in the superstructure, doors
and. f 1 jor?
iv. fire the > ventilation and lighting adequate?
v. Is the latrine kept clean?
ONCE THE SURVEY IS COMPLETED, ENTER YOUR FINDING IN YOUR
HOUSEHOLD RECORD AND VII LAGE RECORD.
THIS WILL HELP YOU TO
PLAN YOUR ACTIVITIES AND ASSESS YOUR PROGRESS.
2. /Assisting and Advising on the Maintenance of Existing
Arrangements for Excreta Disposal : Once you have carried out
your survey and compiled the results, you are in a position
to plan your activities.
Proceed as fallows:
i. Assess the time required to bring existing faulty
latrines up to sanitary standards.
ii. Plan your work piecemeal, tackling a few units at a
time.
REMEMBER THAT YOU ARE A MULTIPURPOSE WORKER AND, THEREFORE,
YOU HAVE OTHER ACTIVITIES TO PERFORM. DO NOT FORGET YOUR
OTHER ACTIVITIES BUT TRY AND DO SOME WORK EVERY DAY TO IM
PROVE THE SZxNITATION OF. THE COMMUNITY.
>4
20
iii. Explain to the householders what.needs to be done to
improve their latrines and what help is available to
them.
I
iv. Try and help them work out the cost of repairs.
v. Demonstrate to them some of the activities they have
to carry out to improve their latrines.
vi. Tell them of the benefits.to health in using sanitary
latrines.
vii. Involve the village leaders in your scheme to improve
the sanitation of the community.
HOUSEHOLDS THAT HAVE ALREADY CONSTRUCTED LATRINES MUST BE
MZTE TO USE THEM AND MAINTAIN THEM IN A SJ .NITARY STATE.'
3. Demonstrating and. Advising on the Construction of Pit
Latrines and, if available, Procuring Augers for Boring Latrines:
Water-seal pit latrines are the most hygienic method for excreta
disposal in rural areas where water is available in limited
quantities. They prevent bad odours and fly breeding.
EVERY EFFORT SHOULD BE MADE TO MOTIVATE RURAL POPULATIONS TO
CONSTRUCT AND USE PIT LATRINES.
Ignorance together with the expense involved in construc
ting a pit latrine are the main deterrents in adopting the method.
Ignorance must be overcome by arranging educational activities
and demonstrating ways of constructing latrines.
IF IT IS POSSIBLE TO CONSTRUCT A PIT LATRINE WITH A WATER
SEAL TRAP FOR DEMONSTRATION PURPOSES, YOU SHOULD DO SO WITH
THE HELP OF COMMUNITY MEMBERS. THIS WILL HELP YOU TO DEMON
STRATE AND HIGHLIGHT THE IMPORTANT FEATURES OF zA PROPERLY
CONSTRUCTED SANITARY LATRINE.
/Advise the community leaders and members where they can
get seats and slabs and technical, know-how for the construction
of latrines. The assistance of your supervisor should be sought
for this purpose.
In some blocks hand-operated augers may be available.
It is your duty to arrange with the block development officer
for borrowing this equipment for the construction of latrines
by those households wishing to do so.
4. Advising on the Siting of Latrines, and the Construction
of Superstructures : As a health worker in the. community you are
likely to be asked to give advice on the selection of a location
for the construction of a latrine and the type of superstructure
to cover it.
The criteria for selecting a site for the construction
of a latrine are:
i. technical - distance from water source;
ii. cultural - some object to using latrines because they
are situated in the house.
When advising on the type of superstructure to be used
keep in mind the following:
i
the cor+
cons tru^i-? on °
21
•
for providing protection from the sun and cold as
well as for giving the desired privacy.
5. Assisting the Community in Procuring Pans and Water
seal Traps : It is riot practical to make pans and water-seal
traps in the villages .because moulds are necessary and the
proper concrete mixtu re is required to ensure safety. These
facilities are usually available either at rhe Primary Health
Centre workshop or at the block development office.
Both the pans and traps are usually sold to the consumer
at a price which covers the costs ana which is within*the reach
of the rural people. Thu householder will seek your help in
procuring what he requires for constructing his latrine.
It is
desirable that the latrine should be constructed by a trained
mason.
YOU SHOULD Kl^ \ -.TT A
THE PANS Aw WATER-SEAL TRAPS,
THEIR PRICE AND THEIR AVAILABILITY. YOU MUST KEEP IN TOUCH
WITH THE MANUFACTURERS AND ESTIMATE IN ADVANCE THE REQUIRE
MENTS OF THE COMMUNITY.
6, Supervising the Disposal of Nightsoil and Handling
of Compost Pits and Manure Pits : Bucket latrines are notoriously
insanitary and whenever possible they should be replaced by pit
latrines. However, where bucket latrines exist you must super
vise the collection and disposal of the nightsoil. A safe method
recommended for disposing of nightsoil is through shallow trench
ing. The nightsoil is dumpted in the trench and covered with
at least 12 cm. of earth/ tightly packed to prevent fly breeding.
*•*
••
The use of human excreta mixed with animal excreta and
other solid wastes to form manure wi compost can provide a way
of enriching the soil to improve the crops.
For an outline of the principles of composting see
section 6.4.2.
REMEMBER TTL.T COMPOSTING CAN BE RENDERED SAFE IF THE PROPER
METHOD IS USED AND THE TECHNIQUE IS WELL SUPERVISED.
7. Educating the Community on the Health Hazards of
Insanitary Arrangements for Excreta Disposal and the Diseases
Related to Bad Sanitation : Cultural, Social, economic and
educational obstacles play a part in deciding what type of
sanitation is adopted by a community. The hazards to health
may be known already but these may be outbalanced by economic
factors.
BEFORE EMBARKING ON AN EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMME. TO IMPROVE SANIT7VTION MAKE SURE THAT YOU ARE WELL ACOUANITED WITH THE COMMU
NITY'S NEEDS, ITS CULTURAL AND SOCIAL HABITS AND ITS ECONOMY.
UTILISE THE COOPERATION. GF WELL-MOTIVATED LE/xDERS AND COMMU
NITY MEMBERS TO BRING ABOUT CHUJSIGE. IN THE ATTITUDES OF THE
COMMUNITY.
Education of the community towards positive health is
n continuous process and is an imnoccant cart of every health
. ,
4- .
.
- -• h
-Ln
.has to motivate and convince the consumer not only that the
construction of a latrine is beneficial but that its use must
become a habit and an integral part of one's way of life.
Some of the topics on which you should elaborate are
as follows:
i. The relation between disposal of excreta and pollution
of water supplies.
ii. The relation between disposal of excreta nad gastro
intestinal diseases.
iii. The importance of maintaining latrines in good condition
iv. The advantages and disadvantages of the various types
of latrines «,
v. The precautions which must be taken when trenching,
manure pits or compost pits are used for the disposal
Df human excreta.
vi. The neou for community action to implement a qood
latrine programme.
vii. The facilities available for construction and main
tenance of latrines and emptying of pits.
YOUR DUTY DOES NOT END WITH THE CONSTRUCTION OF LATRINES AND
THEIR MAINTENANCE; YOU MUST SUPERVISE THEIR UTILIZATION.
6.4
DISPOSAL OF REFUSE
The comuosition of refuse varies in towns and in rural
areas.
In either case, its accumulation in the house or at the
roadside leads to a considerable health hazard.
Refuse is made
up -of:
i. Garbage : Vegetable parings, animal and fish waste
matter from food proparnti■ns, left over food and
left over fodder of animals. These materials decay
and gi”e rise to foul odours, besides serving as
food for rats..and., flies.
ii, Rubbish : Inste materials such as bottles, broken
glasses, paper, tin cans, bits of metal, -plastic,
etc.
iii. /Ashes : Leftovers from burning wood, charcoal and
cow dung fuel.
iv. Dead Animals : Dogs, cats or chickens killed on the
roads, or animals dying of disease, or rats and dogs
deliberately destroyed.
v. Street Sweepings : Leaves, paper, cigarette ends and
other materials.
vi. Animal Dung : Dropoings of cows, buffaloes, horses
and other animals.
IN RURAL AREAS THE ORGANIC CONTENT OF REFUSE IS RELATIVELY
HIGH. THIS ADDS TO ITS VALUE AS A FERTILIZER IF PROPER COM
POSTING CAN 3E ARRANGED.
6.4.1. NEED FOR PROPER DISPOSAL OF REFUSE.
The principal public health reasons for proper disposal
of refuse are:
io piles of w -.t
1 c
irnt.rr.'1"
?.o' vide C -■•f
. ; . . .
! breeding
• • <
23
ii. organic waste materials decay and give off foul
odours and gases;
iiio scattered refuse is unsightly, and eye-sore to
the community;
iv. piles of waste macerial po.se fire hazards.
6.4,2. METHODS OF HANDLING .AND DISPOSING OFF REFUSE
Refuse collects in a household/ and has to be stores for
varying lengths of time pending its transportation to the
disposal site.
1. Storage : Not many rural households store refuse
in preparation for collection as very often organised collection
does not exist.
However, if such storage is done, you should
ensure:
i. that the dusrbin is proved with a lid to prevent
flies and injects from getting to the refuse;
ii. that it is small enough to be easily carried when
full, but sufficient to collect the household refuse;
iii. that it is made of material (plastic or metal) which
is easy to wash and not easily broken or destroyed
by rats, cats and clegs.
.
’THE CONTENTS OF THE DUSTBIN ARE USUALLY EMPTIED DAILY INTO
NEARBY REFUSE PIT OR WASTELAND OR THEY MAY BE BURNED.
■
■
■—
■■■■
-'
........... . ■ ■■■—
....
■■
-• —.
. — ■—
■—
■.
2. Collection : In most rural areas there is not public
refuse collection system, so that a member of the family or a
family sweeper collects the accumulated refuse regularly for
final disposal. However, where a public system operates, the
refuse is usually collected in wheelbarrows and transported
from the house to the disposal site, which is usually as near .
the village as possible so as to minimize costs.
REMEMBER THAT I REQUENT COLLECTION GF REFUSE IS' NECESSITY FOR
GOOD SANITATION. LONG INTERVALS BETWEEN COLLECTIONS CREATE
STORAGE PROBLEMS AND FOUL ODOURS.
3. Disposal : The sanitary disposal of refuse may be
carried out around the home, where collection systems are not
in operation, and whore isolated homesteads exists. Where a
collection system operates, the refuse is disposed off by the
authorities concerned.
a. Community Methods of Disposal:
i. Dumping on Land : If dumping places are available
this is the chcauest method. The refuse is
usually burned to reduce its volume and minimize
flies.
Because no soil is used, flies and rats
abound in refuse dumps, while at the same time
the place is an eye-sore to the community and
emits foul odours.
ii. Sanitary Lanfills : This method of refuse disposal
does not create any nuisance, fire or public
health hazard.
It involves the distribution of
refuse in alternate layers of refuse in alternate
1 ay a r s v r ■ • fu s c• and e a rth f i 11 t o n re vc n t dogs
c
ii. organic waste materials decay and give off foul
odours and gases;
iii. scattered refuse is unsightly, and eye-sore to
the commun i ty ;
iv. piles of waste macerial pose fire hazards.
6.4.2. METHODS OF HANDLING .IND DISPOSING OFF REFUSE
Refuse collects in a household/ and has to be stores for
varying lengths of time pending its transportation to the
disposal site.
1. Storage : Not many rural households store refuse
in preparation for collection as very often organised collection
does not exist.
However, if such storage is done, you should
ensure:
i. that the duscbin is proved with a lid to prevent
flies and injects from getting to the refuse;
ii. that it is small enough to be easily carried when
full, but sufficient to collect the household refuse;
iii. that it is maae of material (plastic or metal) which
is easy to wash and not easily broken or destroyed
by rats, cats and dogs.
E CONTENTS OF THE DUSTBIN ARE USUALLY EMPTIED DAILY INTO
NEARBY REFUSE PIT OR WASTELAND OR THEY MAY BE BURNED.
2. Collection □ In most rural areas there is not public
refuse collection system, so that a member of the family or a
family sweeper collects the accumulated refuse regularly for
final disposal. However, where a public system operates, the
refuse is usually collected in wheelbarrows and transported
from the house to the disposal site, which is usually as near.
the village as possible so as to minimize costs.
REMEMBER THAT I REQUENA COLLECTION OF REFUSE IS NECESSARY FOR
GOOD SANITATION. LONG INTERVALS BETWEEN COLLECTIONS CREATE
STORAGE PROBLEMS AND FOUL ODOURS.
3. Disposal : TK sanitary disposal of refuse may be
carried out around the home, where collection systems are not
in operation, and where isolated homesteads exists. Where a
collection system operates, the’refuse is disposed off by the
authorities concerned.
Community Methods of Disposal:
i. Dumping on Land : If dumping places are available
this is the cheapest method. The refuse is
usually burned to reduce its volume and minimize
flies.
Because no soil is used, flies and rats
abound in refuse dumps, while at the same time
the place is an eye-sore to the community and
emits foul odours.
ii. Sanitary Lanfills : This method of refuse disposal
does not create any nuisance, fire or public
. health hazard.
It involves the distribution of
refuse in alternate layers of refuse in alternate
layers x. r fuse and earthfill to prevent dogs
24
iii. Incineration : This involves the construction of
properly designed incinerators/ and their proper
operation and maintenance. This method is very
appropriate for small villages where a number of
incinerators could be constructed from locally
available materials.
iv. Composting : This requires freque. * mixing and
turning and has not been found practical to
carry out on this seals*
b. Methods of Disposal Used in Individual Houses:
i. Burial : The refuse is deposited in pits and covered
with soil.
ii. Burning : Simple incinerators are sometimes used,
but the refuse is usually burned on open ground.
iii. Feeding to Animals : Left over food and other garbage
is fed to chickens, pigs, etc* When this method
is used,, the non-edible components of the refuse
are usually buried or burned.
iv. Composting ; The simplest home-composting method
involves the deposition of the refuse and animal
manure, together with grass, leaves and other
binding material, into a compost pit and covering
it with soild to prevent fly breeding and bad
odours. At times nightsoil is also emptied into
the compost pit. The compost is used as a
soil conditioner or fertilizer later on. Turning
and mixing of the compost with a rake or long pole
will increase sxidati on end will improve the
■quality of the fertilizer.
Composting is easily done in compost pits, which are
generally of two sizes:
a. 4 metres by 3 metres by 1.25 metres.
b. 3 metres by 2 metres by 1 metre.
The pits are dug into the ground and the walls may be
lined with bricks.
Composting is done by spreading the layers of refuse
and cow dung in the ration of 3 to 1 by volume until the whole
content of the pit is up to 30 cm. above ground level. The
uppermost portion should consist of refuse.
After six months the manure is ready for use.
REMEMBER THAT COMPOST PITS IN THE VICINITY OF HOUSES CREATE
A HAZARD TO HEALTH UNLESS THEY ARE CAREFULLY /AND CLOSELY
CONTROLLED.
6.4.3
RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE HEALTH WORKER (MALE)
IN RELATION TO REFUSE DISPOSAL.
It is your duty, as a health worker, to ensure that the
environment in which the* community lives is s^fe and conducive
t-' ho al th v
r . -1 1 '■••'uao.. ~
m
* livin'"’,
25
be eradicated or controlled.
Your duties include:
1. surveying the area to find out how the refuse is
disposed off;
2. assessing the methods in use, working out schedules
for their improvements, if necessary, and supervising
the procedures followed;
3. advising and assisting the householders and the
community in constructing disposal units and maintain
ing those in operation;
4. educating the community about the relation of refuse
disposal to health.
REMEMBER THAT RURAL COMMUNITIES ARE USUALLY POOR COMMUNITIES
AND CAN MAKE ONLY SMALL CONTRIBUTIONS TO SUPPORT HEALTH
ACTIVITIES. FURTHERMORE, THEIR AGRICULTURAL DEMANDS MAY BE
PARTLY SATISFIED BY CONTROLLED REFUSE DISPOSAL IN ORDER TO
PRODUCE ’WEALTH OUT OF WASTE’.
1. Surveying the area to find out How the Refuse is
Disposed Off: In your survey of the rural community you must
record the methods in operation for refuse disposal and whether
they are sanitary or insanitaryM
Equipped with this base-line
information you will be able to plan your activities and assess
the progress achieved.
Start by preparing checklists for methods of storage,
collection, transportation and disposal in use. When compli ng
the results of the survey, deficiencies will be easily
identified and the volume of work you will have to organise
can be assessed.
In India, refuse is an asset to the farmer and composting
is the main method used for its disposal. The checklist to
assess the adequacy and utilization of a compost pit should
include the following:
i. Is the pit located in a place which is not likely
to be flooded during the rainy season?
ii. Is the compost pit of the right size?
••
iii* Are the walls lined with bricks or are they
unprotected?
iv. Is the refuse in the right proportion to the amount
of cow dung being used for composting?
v. Is is applied in proper layers?
vi. Are flies and other vermin breeding in the
compost pit?
,
’•
vii. If the pit is full, is the top layer composed
of refuse?
viii. Is it filled up to 30 cm. or more above the
surface of the pit?
ONCE THE ABOVE INFORMATION IS COLLECTED YOU WILL BE ABLE TO
ASSESS WHETHER THE COMPOST PIm IS S V’TTARY OR INSANITARY.
26
2. Assessing the Methods in Use and Working out
•'schedules for their Improvement, if necessary, and their
supervision : Compiling the results of your survey and
charting them on a map is as important as carrying out the
survey itself* You should take time to interpret your findings
and group them to draw realistic conclusions of the situation
existing in your area.
Improvements which you feel are necessary will have to
be planned and discussed with the house-owners. The expenses
and labour involved also need to be worked out.
YOU SHOULD NOT BE DISCOURAGED IF YOU MEET WITH RESISTANCE TO
YOUR SUGGESTIONS. PLAN /AN EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMME WHICH WILL
GRADUALLY WIN YOU THE CONFIDENCE NECESSARY TO ACHIEVE THE
IMPROVEMENTS REQUIRED.
REMEMBER THAT WORKING WITH THE COMMUNITY NEEDS TACT /AND
PATIENCE. AVOID USING ANY METHOD WHICH WILL ANTAGONIZE
THE COMMUNITY TO YOUR WORK.
3. Advising and Assisting the Householder and the
Community in Constructing Disposal Units and Maintaining those
in Operation : You might find that some households have inade
quate/ or no facilities for proper refuse disposal.
It is
your duty to advise rhe householder regarding the type of dis
posal arranaements which are best suited to his needs. This
can be done by:
i. discussing with the householder any plans he has
in mindi
ii. advising him on the- best arrangements he can make
for refuse disposal;
iii. agreeing on the type of disposal arrangements
that will be made;
iv. estimating the costs involved in constructing the
unit;
v. assisting in procuring materials necessary for
construction;
vi. assisting, advising and supervising the construction
of the unit;
vii. advising on its use;
viii. supervising the way in which the unit is put into
operation and educating the householder about its
proper utilization.
IT WOULD BE USEFUL IF YOU COULD PREPARE DRAWINGS GIVING THE
ACTUAL MEASUREMENTS TO SHOW THE HOUSEHOLDERS AND THE COMMU
NITY LEADERS THE TYPE OF CONSTRUCTIONS NECESSARY FOR SANI
TARY DISPOSAL OF REFUSE.
4. Educating the Conmunity About the Relation of Refuse
Disposal to Health : The need of rural people is conserve refuse
in order to produce manure and at the same time to do this as
near to their house as possible without creating hazards to
Ikr:
Contd/.O.27
health. The proximity of refuse pits to dwelling houses
can pose a serious threat to the health of the family, if
proper precautions are not taken. These precautions should
become so routine that they become part of the way of life
*of the people.
7
To achieve this behaviour, an intensive educational
programme will be necessary especially if attitudes have to
be altered and habits have to be changed.
IN CONDUCTING EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES INVOLVE. TO THE FULL
THE COMMUNITY LEADERS AND UTILIZE ANY OTHER FACILITIES
AVAILABLE IN THE BLOCK WHICH WILL ENHANCE THE IMPACE OF
YOUR ACTIVITIES.
Organize individual, small group and large group
activities to educate the community.
Some of the topics
for education are as follows:
i. The relation of refuse disposal to health.
ii. The diseases for which insanitary refuse -disposal
may be responsible.
iii. The importance of the proper utilization of compost
pits to reduce health hazards.
iv. The precautions to be taken to reduce the breeding
of flies and other insects and vermin.
v. The hazards of dumping refuse in water drains.
USE ACCEPTORS IN THE COMMUNITY TO DEMONSTRATE TO OTHERS
THE SUCCESSFUL USE OF SANITARY METHODS OF REFUSE DISPOSAL.
•k-k-k'kk **************
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***********
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*******
* ****
***
*
<
Ikr:
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•
HEALTH HAZARDS OF THE RURAL ENVIRON!'LNT
In tho 'level opin world, the environ?..:.-nt in urn ?.n areas is
generally hotter controlled than the environment in ‘■Tiral areas whore
pollution- gees on unabated•
•
Legislation aiming at the provision of an environment conduc
ivo to rrometing healthy physical and mental development is enforced
in towns but generally no lcctorl in the rural areas. In the rural
areas enforcement officers arc net available in sufficient numbers,
the population is uncooperative because of illiteracy and the. funds
necessary- for development ar insufficient. All those factors, added
to which arc tra'iticnal habits and superstitions, rake the life of
the peasant hard end hazardous.
THE CHALLENGES FACED BY THE HEALTH TEAM ARE NUHDEICUS £UT, WITH
TACT. KNOWLEDGE Ar© IATIENCE, THEY CAN EE TACKLED SUCCESSFULLY.
5-1
HEALTH .HAZARDS WITH WHICH THE HEALTH k'CIKER. HAS TO DEAL
Every situation presents its own hazards and in this Manual
it would not bo possible to deal with individaul situations. The
general hazards to which a rural coni: unity is exposed include the
following ;
1. Hazards outside the hone such
bad roads, c olloctions
cf refuse, breeding of di sea so* carrying insects and
vermin, strav legs, unprotected water cclloctic-ns, unhygienic eating places, or unprotected electrical installa
tions •
Z
v
UP
Z
J
Z
2. Hazards in the home such as open fires, sharp implements,
overcrowding, badly constructed houses, unhygienic food
and water storage arrangements, insanitary latrines, or
uncontrolled disposal of waste water and solid wastes.
3-
Hazards in the fields such as accidents related to the
use of agricultural tools, snake bites, scorrion
stings, diseases related to the use of pesticides, or
diseases related to contact with plants and pollens.
4- Hazards related to cottage industries such as accidents
■ with machinery or health hazards to potters, weavers,
and dyers.
5- Hazards related to traditional habits such as those
connected with the collection of animal wastes for
household use, or hazards related to the breeding
of livestock.
6. Hazards related to lack of education about healthy living
such as rjoor personal hygiene or wrong food habits.
7 • Hazards related to poor medical facilities such as lack
of trained personnel, disjensarieA and drugs.
8. H zards related to poverty such ar malnutrition, lack of
shelter or inadequate protective clothing.
5 -2
HELPING THE COMMUMETY TO OVERCOME THE HEALTH
HAZARDS OF THE RURAL ENVIRON! jEHT
■
You, as a health werker, have been trained to be able to
cope with most of tho hazards of living in a rural environment and
the community will rely on you to a .'Teat extent to promote healthy
living and level.merit.
: 2 :
USE YOUR KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS TO TJ{E BEST ADVANTAGE AND DO NOT
HESITATE TO ASK YOUF SUPERVISOR’S ADVICE AID THE FEMALE HEALTH
WORKER1 S COOPERATION..WHEN NECESSARY . REMEMBER THAT YOU ARE
WORKING AS A TEAM WITH A COMMON GOAL AD YOU.1? ACITIVITIES MUST
BE DEVELOPED AS A; TEAM.
*
5.2.1 HAZARDS OUTSIDE THE HOME
X
•
■ • •
1- Bad Roads:' While the impQrvement of roads is not the responsibility cf the health worker, as a community worker you can help
in motivating the 'community to "improve their own reads to reduce the
risk of accidents, as well as to improve communications.
/ •
In Chapter 13, ’Accidents1, you ’will find instructions on how
' '•to deal with accidents >
J
•
2. Collections of Refuse: In many rural areas refuse is composted
for use on agricultural land and the collecticns of refuse outside
houses may bo limited. However, it still happens that refuse is moved from
the house to an open place near the village, because of lack of facili
ties for transporting the refuse to a safe distance aways from houses.
Your; duties as a- health worker in this case are enumerated in
section 6.4.
TO HELP YOU RENDER REFUSE COLLEC
VILLAGE LABOUR MAY BE REQUIRj
TIONS SANITARY. IN THIS CASE CONSULT THE COM! UNITY LEADERS AND
TRY TO GET VOLUNTARY LABOUR FOE THE COITION HEED OF TEE COMT UNITY.
3* Breeding of Disease-carrying Insects and Vermin: The breeding
of flies and rats is closely connected with refuse disposal, both out
side the house and on the house premises, This bro;ding must be reduced
or preferably completely prevented if diarrhoea, plague and typhus fever
are to be kept under control..
RHiEMBEE ALSO THAT RATS ARE VORACIOUS FOOD EATERS AID CONSUME ’
VALUABLE FOOD WHICH THE C01WNLTY NEEDSWHAT THEY DO NOT EAT
THEY SPOIL BY THEIR URINE AND FAECES RENDERING LARGE QUANTITIES
OF FOOD UNFIT FOR HUMAN CONSUMPTION.
IN THS FACE OF THE HAZARDS OF MALNUTRITION. THE-r/,T MENACE
' ASSUMES EVEN GREATER IMPOPTNA6E
Proceed as follows:
a. Ply Control
i. Ensure that household refuse is hygtcnically disposed of
both in the house and on-a community basis ‘(communal
•refuse should bo burnt or buried).
ii. Ensure that sanitary latrines are used for the disposal
of liuman excreta.
iii. Ensure that animal excreta i's"‘disposed•■of in a sanitary
way.
•
•
Soo section 6.3 for details.
b. Eat0 Control
i. Ensure the proper disposal of household refuse and communal
refuse, tips (communal refuse should bo burnt or buried).
ii. Store the food in rat proof containers.
iii. When the rat population grows to considerable proportions,
call, upon your supervisor to arrange for trapping or
poisoning rats*
3
EE-EMBER. THAT FEES GO IN SET CH OF FOCD AND IF FO D IS NCT
' AV/JL/jBLE TIGY'xSSiFT US FTETSGS .
-
- - - ——nr i
,--------- —
-
- - -
-
c* Mosquito control
The breeding habits of the malaria mosquito (Anopheles) and
those of the nosquito (Culex) that carries filariasis differ- The
. former breeds in stagnant or slow noving water in natural liabitats
and the latter in stagnant water in artificial habitats.
The malaria nosquito breeds in stagnant or slow mrving water,
wells and other collections of water outside the house;. These will
require:
'•
••
•
w
i. to be emptied if the collections are smell, c.g., holes in
trie road or by the roadside;
ii. to bo treated •itb_ malariol or other larvicides if the pools
are largo;
iii. to bo ronoved by filling in or complete removal, c.g., holes
in tree trunks must be cut so that water will not collect
in then;
iv. to bo irrigated if the collections arc tt the side % of strcans.
The filaria-carr- ing mosouito breeds in tins, old car tyres,
water tanks in houses and other mna-made water collections. Those will
require
.
-*•
•
> •
i. to be emptied and turned upside down so that water cannot
collect in ..then; . ‘
ii. to be completely removed;
iii. to be treated with malariol, if the containers are t oo large;
iv. to bo covered so that nosquitoos cannot enter then.
4;;Stray Dogs: Stray_dogs t bound in villages ard rummage for
food around human habitations. The bia70st hazards they nose, .besides
biting people who disturb then, is the hazard of rabies. Rabies is
a vcly~S0Ti'cus--virus-,disease, which affects the nervous system, and
once, the signs .^and symupoms of the disease’ are established-death is
certain.
;
> ■
THE OHLY WAY TO TACKLE THE PROBLEM CF BALTES IS TO PREVENT IT .
THIS CAN BE ACHIEVED ONLY'BY li'a UNIZING ALL LOGS AGAINST RABIES OR
&ESTI DYING ALL STRAY LOGS .
■
Proceed as follows:1 ■
... ‘
•4 • f * ' * * • •
i. If a person lias been bitton by a dog, take the precautions
enumerated in section 18.12•
ii. Report to your supervisor the presence of stray, dogs in your
area,, especially when their-nunbors become-, undt^proil-able.
t l
•
f
IT IS THE RUTY OF THE HEALTH ASSISTW (MALE) TO ARRANGE FOR. STIAY
LOGS TO BE DESTROYED .
’ ‘
iii. Educate the community on the hazards attached to the presence
of stray dogs in-the area and elicit their cooperation to
control this hazard.
V
5* Unprotected Water Collections: Unprotected water collections
can be .used for drinking purposes' or are simply rain water collections.
Beth present b-azards’t o’‘health, the former in the spread of intestinal
diseases arL the latter as brooding places for mosquitoes. The danger
of cliildrcn drowning ih‘ water pools is always ..present*
• 4 •
Youi? duties in-relation to unprotected’*
* water collections used
for drinking purposes tyre ..©Rumb'ltc’d, in section 6.1.7
*
• ••
••
• Your duties in relation to water collections which arc a hazard
through providing nosquito brooding sites arc dealt with in section
2.1.
*
5
Seo section 20.9 on how to deal with a person who has drowned.
6. Unhygienic Eating ELaecs: In many villages, restaurants and'
soplisticatcd eating places arc net usually found as the people oat
at hone. However, tea shops where snacks arc prepared usually exist.
It is your duty as a health worker to keep a watchful eye on these
pla.ee s.
Proceed 9 as follows:
a. Take an inventory of all the tea shops in your area and chart
then on the nap rt the su.be ent re.
b. i'-iako an initial inspection to assess the following:
i* the state of tie building and whether it is hygienics or
lends itself to the contarlnation of food;
ii. those-, rec of ibc water supply and water used for the
washing up'of’ eating and cooking utcnsil.§j.__
iii. the types of food served;
iv. the apparent state of health of the food handlers.
c< Advise the tea shop; owners on how to improve conditions
which ere found to bo below the required health standards
*
d. I'akq periodic visits to these shops to btect early deteriora
tion in their practices and to ensure that tho standards arc
maintained•
•• -••
REMEMBER THAT THE TEA SHOP IS /II IDEAL VENUE FOR PASSING INFORMATION
TO -THE CQL UNITY AND- -THIS OPPOPTUNI-IY SHOULD BE AVAILED OF .WHEN PEALTH
EDUCATION ACTIVITIES /IE BEING ORGANIZED .
.
7 Unprotected Electrical Installations: In r.iany rural areas
*
electrical installations arc insufficiently protected and Carry danger
warnings which arc of no use to illiterate pec pic. They pose hazards
of electrocution, particularly to. children.
As a health worker, it is your duty to spot these hazards
and bring them to the notice of the responsible authority.'
See section 20.8 on how to deal with patients who have been
electrocuted.
5.2.2
HAZ/TIS IN THE HOME
1. Open Fires: The use of open fires for cooking purposes,
and in tho winter for heating purposes poso hazards to health, parti
cularly to children.
•
•
•
Whenever you colic across an open fire in al'ionc, bring to
the attention of the notlicr the danger an open fire creates for ‘
children and the inportancc of keeping children away from unprotected
fires.
If a child or any other person is burnt or- scalded proceed
as detailed in section IS .8.- • • •
IF COW JUNG IS USED- FOR FULL SHOW TIE HOUSEHCL^ET- HOW TO BUILD A • •
SIiOKELESCHUA UTILIZING COW DUNG FUEL .
•
•
2. Overcrowding: Overcrowding in itself creates hazards
to health, cspceailly in the spread of air-bo rhe diseases and contact
diseases, cig., leprosy. In the rural area houses are not supplied
with 7i??h vuirbilotirr?-i moreover, vhat little is avr.il.a- lo is
....
/ 5 /
blocked up for fear cf thieves or wild animals. • ■
As a heel th worker your reversibilities ere to inform the
community of the health hazards posed by overcrowding and advise
on ways to solve then.
•*
.
Proceed as fellows:
.
*
..
i. Educate the household on the risks of ovcicrowding
in tlic hones and the way diseases are spread, i
ii. Take this as an opportunity to spread the family
planning programme, if it is not already accepted .in
that particular household.
iii. Educate the family on the special precautions which
which must be taken to prevent the spread of respira
tory diseases, o.g., tuberculosis, especially to
children, if any member of the family is suffering
from such a disease.
iv. Discuss the advantages of proper ventilation in
overcrowded houses.
3* Badly Constructed Houses: Badly constructed houses pose a
health hazard because if they collapse they can cause permanent injury
or death. Not only the material used but also the way the house is
planned nay be danger, vs.
Whenever you find a badly constructed house, proceed as- fcllows-i-------•
1
•■
. ’
i; Advise the householder whore ho can get help for
• . improving the safety cf his house.
ii. Plastering the walls will prevent the breeding of
'• sandflies and other insects. Advise the householder
to shoe then the walls using locally available material.
iii. Smooth, floors prevent the spread of dust and locally
available material must bo used to pad: the floors to
• remove the dust hazard • . ;
. ..
iv. Fay attention to the roofing of the house to protect
against adverse weather conditions.
• ■
v. Help the hovscfholder to. improve the planning of his
house to . rake it more. habitable. and conducive to healthy
living. .
• '"I .
"
vi. Educate the household on the advantages to health of
well-constructed,
• • • houses.
4. Unhygienic Food Storage Arrangements: Food..in- rural 'areas
is in short supply and its proper storage is important to protect it
against being eaten by rats,- as well as "against contamination by flies
and/ other insects.
••
.
...
Proceed as follows :
■.
..
■i. I‘-.spcct the food storage arrangements.,
ii. A''vise on the improvement's necessary to protect -pie
food from being eaten or shoiled by rats, er contamina
ted by flics and weevils4 .
iii 4 Educate the family on the importance cf (Gating clean food
and discuss with then the diseases that are syroad by conta
minated food-4-J
i
• .
iv. Lt ok at the arrangements for storing grain and make .sure
t-ia.t the container.is protected from infestation by
rats and other' vermin.
.
*
v .
..... iContd/6-
: 6 :
The Food Safe: the Food .Safe shown in figure 5-1 is easy and
•cheap to construct. It has the following advantages:
i* The food is protected against flics and other insects
and vermin. lake sure that the wire mesh is of the right
size.
ii. The food is ventilated and can be kept firly cool if the
safe is placed at the proper place in the house.
iii. It can locked against stealing of t he food.
iv. By placing each leg of the safe in a‘tin^ containing water,
or by hanging the safe to keep it off the floor, you will
protect the food against invasion by ants.
YOU LUST ADVISE THE HOUSEWIFE AGAINST STORING COOKED FOODS FCR. TOO
LONG AS TIBY CAN GET SPOILT ARD- TILES ENCOURAGES THE BREEDING GF‘ GEK-'S .
5•
Insanitary Latrines: The hazards of insanitary latrines in tto_
homes have been described in section 6.3 *
You should detect the number of insaatary latrines in yourarea during the base-line survey• This surVey will also give you the
opportunity to assess the number of households which have tjo latrine
at all.
...
- '
THE USE CF A LATRINE OFTEN'REQUIRES CHANGES IN ATTITUDE BY THE USER .
THESE CAN BE ACHIEVED ONLY THKUGH A: CONCENTRATED EFFORT® ON YOUR
PART BY- EDUCATING THE COMMUNITY AID DEMONSTRATING YOUR WILLINGNESS TO
HELP.
If possible construct a water-seal-latrine (b-.g., RCA or FRAl)
to demonstrate how a Sanitary latrine can bo built and how it is to’ bo
used.
Sec section 6.3 *1 for further details.
Contd/7-
6* Uncontrolled ~isposal of Waste Water and Solid Wastes:
The hazards tc health following uncontrolled disposal o flliquid
and solid wastes are do scribed in sections 6.2 and 6.4 whore methods
fortbho
sanitary
disposal
of
these
wastes
are
also
described.
••
*
.•
•
• • **
The information collected during your initial survey for base
line data will give you an idea of the ‘ magnitude of the problem in
your area. Proceed by drawing up- a programme, vmth the help of your
supervisor)
•
• to deal- with the problem precorneal.....................................
YOU WANT TO ACHIEVE IWV1IENT IMPFOVEWITS IN I'jTTIIQDS CF WASTE
DISPOSAL . THE BEST WAY TO ACHIEVE THIS IS THTOLGH A RLANNED
STEF-BY-STEP IROGRAllE BASE"' ON LOCAL CONDITIONS, HABITS AND
TABOOS. TRY TO AVOID ANY CRASH IL OGLALMCS WHICH -jAY NOT LEAD TO
THE DESIRABLE PERMANENT RESULTS .
_____________________________________________________ U-------REi-’^BER THAIYOUI. SUFEEVISOI IS SPECIALLY TTLIBgb IN EJOTWENTAL
HEALTH Al® ALL YOUJ. EF' ORTS IN -THIS -FIELD SHOULD EE CLOSELY- ELANN
ED WITH HIM ABD THROUGH HIS j’jYfcCE.
5-2.3. HAZARDS IN THE FIELDS
The farmer sjend^s most of his working dr.y in the field where
he is Using agricultural tools, mechanized er otherwise,’ and whore
ho is in constant contact with plants and chonocals, 711 these create
occupational health hazards of winch ho lias to be made aware by the
health worker so that good health is promoted and maintained •
1 • Accidents Related to the use of Agricultural Tools:
Agricultural tools whether mechanized or not, usually consist of hoa.vy
equipment supplied with sharp blades which aro often unguarded.
Accidents from such tccls include:
/
i. cuts producing wounds of varying degree, and severity;
ii
fractures, which may be simple, compound or complicated:
iii. crushing injuries which may result in injuries to vital
organs; these are wore likely to occur when tractors are used
in farming.
• •
See the chapters relating to the various types of injuries and
follow the stops suggested therein for -the- treatment of accidents*
REMEMBER THAT FIELDS ARE ALWAYS FULL OF iANUFE WHICH IS USED
AS A FERTILIZET,: SO E/SURE THAT EVERY AOCF-E T IHVOLVIHGpA WOUND
MUST BE GIVEN TET/1US TOXOF) CF Ail I-TETANUS S-RJJM.
• •
2. Snake Bites: As Snakes are usually found in the countryside, it
is not surprising that the majority of snake bites occur in farmers,
particula.rly during the liarvoBting of sugar ca.no, wheat, etc., when
the habitats where snakes live aro being destroyed. Special precau
tions must, therefore, bo taken during this period.
/
See section 1S.9 for-the procedures to bo followed in eases with
snake bites.
3. Scorpion Stings: As scorpions also live in the rural areas,
farmers arc more prono than other people to scorpion stings. . However,
scorpions often enter ho’ sas in villages and’*live under boxes,, etc.
so that the community is also al a high risk.
Soo section 18.10 for the procedures to bo followed in scorpion
stings.
•
Contd/8-
: 8 ;
4- Diseases Related to use of Pesticides:■The farmer who
wants to feet a good income from selling his crops has to ensure that they are
they are not destroyed or infested with pests. As** a pest control
measure, pesticides (DDT,BHC, Malathion, etc) abused for spraying
crops.
’
The pesticide is sprayed in a fine spray and the aerosols may
be inhaled by the sprayer causing bronchial and'lung irritation which
may result in chronic disease. Contact with the pesticide may produce
skin disease-which will require attention. Furthermore, certain
pesticides, e
g.,
*
Malathion, are toxic and may be injurious to- health
causing poisoning, DDT, the most commonly used pesticide in many
parts of.the country, is retained in the body and cumulative toxicity
nay re suit.;
•
•
•••#•••••
•••
*
••»
•
•
•
•<
•
•
•
•
•
AS A HEALTH WORKER YOU ARJ. RES RO SIBLE FOR EDUCATING THE 00 K UNITY
ON THE HAZARDS RELATED TO THE USE OF PESTICIDE-. AND THE PRECUI: TIONS
Rig CH MUST EE TAJCEN IN USE NG PESTICIDES.
JFEVENTIVE PEST:CIDE TOXICITY IS VERY IMPORTANT AS CURING PATIENTS
’ ITH PESTICIDE POISONING IS PROLONGED AND GHRONIC^INCAPACITATING
CClWlOnS"! :AY EEC G E ESTABLISHED............................
Proceed as follows:
.
%
i. Acquaint yburself with the kinds of pesticides in use in your area.
area •
ii. Discuss with your supervisor and the agricultural officers
the hazards related to the pesticides in use.
iii. Inform.the cor. unity of the dangers to their health-when
pesticides arc badly handled.
iv. Inform then of _tbe~precautions which they must take to pre
vent • contact, inhalation and poisoning from pesticides.
v. Ensure that chd Ldren -arc not. exposed- to pesticide poisoning.
IF YOU SEt.ANY SI?<j6
PESTICIDE TOXICITY REFER THE PATIENT TO
THE’ DOCTOR HI OH OUT DELAY.
...................
5- Diseases Related to Plants’ and Pollens: Allergies to
plants and pollens occur more frequently in rural orcas where plants
of various kinds are to be found. Very often a person who is
• allergic to specific plants will know at what time of the year signs
and symptoms of allergy occur. If theaLjlorgy is specific to one
plant (which is seldom the case), dosensitization is possible but
* this is a lengthy procedure and has to be done by a skin specialist.
In practice it does not happen with farmers because the allergy is
often of a multiple nature and desensitization would then be difficult.
A
Allergic symptoms pocur in the form of:
I. attacks of asthma (see section 20.4.1);'
ii. skin allergy (see section 18.1).
When these symptoms appear treat as scheduled in the relevant
sections- -referred -to above
*
....
SOME /XLERGEES CAN EE JREVENTED ESPECIALLY WHEN THEY OCCUP AT~A ”
DEFINITE SEASON OR TI1ZE OF THE YEAR . IN THESE CASES FEFER THE
PATI1ET TO THE Wl4/iRY"lffiiiLTH “CEWe‘ F(T ‘AD^GE.
• ■ • -.............
: 9 :
Your rosponsibilitins in preventing the occurrence of allergies include:
•
•
e
i. educating the fanners on the erases of asthma and allergic
skin diseases;
ii. advising them on the use of protective clothing to prevent
contact between plants and the skin;
iii. advising them on the use of inhalers when signs start to
appear.
•
*
6. Diseases Related to Field Dust: In the dry season, the fields
arc dry and'dusty. Particles of dust .arc inhaled and my cause bronchial
irritation giving rise to attacks of bronchitis. Continuous exposure
to the inhalation of dust will result in chronic bronchitis, which my
slowly incapacitate the farmer from doing a full day’s work.
•
•
•
•
•
•
• ••
-
•
•
•
•
•
••••*
IT IS'YOUR DUTY TO 'ADIVSE -FARbuSRS TO SEEK EARLY MEDICAL TREATMENT F®
ANY CHEST (L EDITIONS. TO PREVENT THE ESTABLISH AMT OF CHRONIC CHEST
DISEASES •
Irritation of the eyes is no^e frequent in idle rural areas- during
the dry season than at other tines Of the year.
5.2.4
HAZARDS RELATED TO COTTAGE INDUSTRIES
Small industries are established in many rural areas, where
idle activities arc developed in the hone and the products are sold
through cooperatives or directly. The most popular-of these industries
are weaving, dyeing, and the production of textiles, and. pottery'
Machines nay be used to a large or small extent and a number of people
may g)t together at the place of work, constituting a snail .factory.
Unless'proper precautions arc taken, these industri.es nay pose health
hazards and it is ycur duty to advise,, bn the health of the workers.
Proceed as follows:
r
a. Carry out a surrey of all the cottage industries in your
area.
b. Note the type of industry and the number of workers that each
employs.
•
c. Note the type of building where the industry is carried out
with special reference to:
- -
■ i. lighting;
ii. ventilation;
iii. drainage, if water is used’ in the process.
, •
d. If machinery is used, e.g., sewing machines, locr.is, or potter’s
wheels, note whether the machines are protected against
.accidents. '
••
*
c. Keep a supervisory control on the health aspects of the
industries •
*•’ •
1. Accidents with Machinery: Mechanical mcliincs which arc used
in cottage industircs should be properly protected to prevent accidents.
Particular attention should be paid to chopping and turning machines in
vHiich fingers can be crushed or get amputated. The machines used for
chopping up animal food is often the cause of amputated fingers, especially
in children who arc not aware of the hazard it carries. A^y this machine
is found in many rural hones, you should pa-y special attention to it.
• •
•
.................. .Contd/10-
: 10 :
TECHI'nQUISS APPROPRIATE FOP. THE
■ ■ VILLAGES j -SOME:.EXAMPLES
Wherever'machines are used, proceed as follows:
i.
During your--visit to the-villages,...note, .whether the-machines are
properly guarded and- used.
ii. Advise on any changes that qyte necessary to render machinery safd.
iii. Note the lighting and ventilation and advise, on any improvements you
consider necessary to promote a healthy working environment.
In case of accidents with machinery treat as suggested...under the -chapters
dealing with wounds and fractures.
,
2. Health Hazards of Potters, Weavers and Dyers: Pottery is a common
source of employment as containers for carrying water and other pottery
utensils are in common use. The material used by the potter contains
silica, which when inhaled gives rise to irritation of the bronchi and
lungs and may result in chronic lung diseases. Ahho the risk of burns
from kilns which are used for baking the pottery pose a hazard to health
unless proper precautions are iaken. Textile weaving, carpet weaving and
other industries where cotton is used pose a health hazard because of the_
fine cotton dust which is inhaled,...causing bronchial and lung irritation
It is, therefore, very important that adequate-ventilation be provided
in places where these trades are conducted so that the fine cotton dust
is carried away from the working environment. Extractor fans arc a big
help in reducing this occupational hazard, while at the same tine thoy^are
•cheap-to purchase^- easy to lit and cheap to run.
CHILDREN SHOULD’ NOT BE ALLOWED TO WORK IN INDUSTRIES VJILEKE COTTON -IS
USED AS PERblANENT INJURY TO THEIR HEALTH bAY RESULT. • '
a
•
Cherri cal dyes are usually used in the dyeing of cotton fabrics. 'These
dyes if ingested in large doses, may have a harmful effect on the body.
Children should £e kept away from dye vats in which the dyeing process
is carried out as the after finishing work to remove the chemical dyes--bn
their hands *
If any of these trades are in operation in your areals proceed as follows:
a. Pottery
Check that the dust fron the potter’s wheel is carried away
from the pottef and it is not inhaled.
Check that the machinery used is .not liable to cause accidents*
111. Check that the waste water is drained away-in a sanitary way*
iv. Educate the potter how to take precuations to protect his health
v. If a kiln is used, ensure that the hazards of fire are removed.
• Weaving
i. Check the premises inhere weaving industries are carried cut to
^ensure that the premises are generally suitable.
Check the ventilation to ensure that cotton dust is carried away
from the buildirg*
Check the methods employed for the disposal of waste products.
iv. Educate the workers invays of protecting their’health against
the diseases arising cut of their enployoment.
v. Advise on improvements which ray bo necessary to (render the
working environment healthy.
vi. Adivsc on the importance of s c.eking early treatment for diseases with
. • • chest signs -and symptoms . -•
MS
KEEP
VERY CLCSE CONTACT WITH YOUR SUPERVISOR WHEN CARRYING OUT ACITIVITIES RELATED TO COTTAGE INDUSTRIES AS HE IS IN A POSITION TO COOIERATE
■WITH OTHER OFFICERS C0IK7FNED WITH C0M4UNI-TY- DEVELOP® NT-/-IlDUSTPItALPROJECTS.
.
'
Contd/1
/
11
v. If a kiln is used, ensure that the hazards of fire are
removed.
for Weaving?
....
i. Check the premises where weaving industries are carried out to
ensure that the premises are gficrally suitable.
ii. Check the ventilation to ensure that cotton dust is carried
away from the building.
iii. Check the methods empolyed for the disposal of waste products.
iv. Biucate the workers in ways of protecting their health against
the diseases arising out of their employment.
v. Advise on improvements which may be necessary to render the
working environment healthy.
,Advise
vi.
on the importance of seeking early treatment for diseases
with chest signs and symptoms.
KEEP VERY CLOSE CONTACT V;ITH Y<UR SUPERVISOR WHEN CARRYITG OUT ACTIVITIES
RELATED TO COTTAGE INDUSTRIES AS KE IS IN A POSITION TO COOPERATE WITH
OTHER OFFICERS CONCERNED WITH COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT' INDUSTRIAL PROJECTS.
c. Dyeing:
i. Check that the sullage wager is disposed off in a sanitary way.
ii. Advise those handling dyes to wash their hands properly before
eating.
HAZARDS RELATED TO TRADITIONAL HABITS
5,2.5
•
A
•
•
Tradition and necessity demand that certair practices which nose Imealth
hazards be carried out in rural areas. Livestock and chickens are kept t~o pro
vide, milk and food and to use in land' tilling and cultivation where mecha_nized
agriculture is not yet developed or on small holdings. ‘ASilo, the limited.
income of the small farmer demands that maximum use be made of wastes to pro
vide compost and fuel, both of which create health hazards.
1 . Health Hazards Connected with the Collection of Animal Wastes ffor
Household Use: Cow dung is collected in many villages for making into cakzes
1
which are used to provide fuel for cooking and heating. The dung is coll-ectcd
by hand, mixed with husk and flattened out into shape for drying in the oonen
sun. This method of collection and preparation is insanitary and, parti ocularly
if the person handling the dung has cuts on the hand, exposes him or her to
the risk of tetanus and other infections. This, coupled with fly breedinog
and the lack of personal hygiene leads V a high incidence of diarrhoeas
among children.
<
•
•*
*
If you arc working in an area where cow dung is collected for use as
fuel, take the following precautions to safeguard the.-communityfs health::
i. educate the community on the risks, connected with this habit;
ii. impress upon the community, particularly the children employed
in this ’trade’., the need for personal hygiene and the importance
of not letting cow dung get anywhere near the mouth through th©
fingers and hands. The importance of washing the hands and es
pecially the finger nails with soap and water before eating must
particularly stressed,
iii. Discuss the hazards of handling cow dung when cuts are present
on the hands.'
iv. Assist the community in finding suitable places away from the
house for diymg the cow dung cakes to reduce the fly breeding
dangers.i
v. Assist the houseowner in con struct ion (smokeless chulas for use with
cow dung cakes.
...
y
vi. Impress unon cow dung handlers the importance of seeking medical
treatment for cuts and other injuries.
Ikr:
Gontd./... 12
•4
(
*— 12 —0 •
Cow dung is also used in-..composting and in manure nits** For details
on.the control of these nits to render the process sanitary see section 6.4.2.
2. Health Hazards Related to the Breeding of Livestocks Livestock is
part and parcel of every village house and forms the major form of wealth.
It is essential for nutrition and serves an a source .of income. It is necessary,
however, that .cows and buffaloes' be kept in hygienic conditions which do not
create health hazards.
Your duties to promote the community's health .require-that you:
i. advise the house owners to provide adequate space for their livestock
to avoid their being too near the house itself;
•
.
•
I
•
•
IT IS IMPORTANT THAT STABLES SHOULD BE PROVIDED FOR LIVESTOCK SEPARATE
FROM THE LIVING QUARTERS.
advise that refuse from stables should be collected regularly and
composted in a sanitary way;
advise that livestock should be kept clean to avoid fly
infestations;
.
advise that the pow’s udders should be cleaned before milking
ard so should th;c milker’s hands;
v. advise that the feeding places for livestock should be raised
off the gound and kept clean;
advise that sick cows and buffaloes should be kept in isolation
and treated;
vii. educate the community on the diseases related to livestock which
could be passed on-to man, o.g., tuberculosis from cows or undulant
fever from goats.
THE FAMILY AND ENVIRONMENT IN WHICH. IT LIVES ARE INSEPARABLE AND THE
IMPROVEMENT OF THE LATTER MUST HAVE A BENEFICIAL EFFECT OF THE FORMER.
5.2.6. HAZARDS RELATED TO LACK OF EDUCATION .
•
•••
•
•• ••
One should distinguish between education and schooling. A person
may be an excellent scholar but his or her ideas about healthy living may
be grossly lacking.... It is your duty to teach the community how to develop
good personal .-habits and how to ensure a healthy environment.
Your duties
include:
i. participation inr’health education programmes for school childm;
ii. teaching school children how to keep healthy through personal
hygiene;, the care of their teeth, the use of clean clothing and
. bedding, healthy sleeping habits and good nutrition;
iii. teaching children the importance of physical e.xcrcise for the
proper development of the body and the mind;
iv, educating the children regarding the importance of a healthy
home for maintaining good health;
v. educating the community leaders to appreciate their role
in health promotion activities'to improve the community
environment;
vi. educating the heads of the households on ways to promote the
health of their families through improving the environment of
their households;
vii. educating the mothers on how to look after their children and
promote their health through regular immunization, good
nutrition and healthy living.
Ikr:
Contd./. ..13
: 13 :
" •• v
-'
1
•
•vk advise that- the. feeding places for livestock should be
• Vaiscd off the ground and .kept dean.
vi. advise that sick cows and buffaloes should bo kept in
isolation and treated•
vii. educate the com^punity on the'diseases related to live
stock which could..bc passed on to nan, c.g., tuberculosis
from cows or undulant fever from goats •
...
•
•• •
»
•
•
»
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•
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•
•
“ *•
••
•“ •
•
•
•»•••.
THE FAMILY AND THE ENVIRONMENT IN WHICH IT LIVES ARE INSEPARABLE
AND THE IMPROVEMENT OF\THE LATTER MUST HAVE A BENEFICIAL EFFECT ON
THE FCRffiR
"...........
'<■■■.’............... .................. •"
•
\
•
~
‘
",
1
'•
•
-----
5-2,6 HAZYJDS RELATED TO I&CK CF EDUCATION
•
\
\
/
...
•
•
z’
•
,x
One should distinguish between education and schooling, --A person
nay bo an excellent scholar but his or her ideas al. out healthy living
my bo .grossly lacking. It is <your duty to teach the comunity h6w to
develop good personal habits and how to ensure a healthy envirprinent.
Your duties.include: •
\
•
i. participation in health education programmes for school
"children;
/
•
• ii . teaching school children, how to keep healthy through personal
'hygiene, the care of their teeth, the use of'clean clothing
and bidding, healthy sleeping halits and good nutrition;
iii. teaching children the importande of physical exercise for the
proper development of the body and the mind;
iv. Educating the children regarding the importnace of a healthy
. hone f) r maintaining gped health;
^educating .the communitjy leaders to appreciate their role
v.
in health promotion activities to improve the conmuntiy
___ environment;
.viZ cdi7xrt^g--tl2Q>diQads_ of t ho households on ways to promote
the health of their families- through.improving the environment of
\\
of their households/
vii. educating the mothers on how to look after tbpir children ■
■ •• ----------- and promote their, health through regular immunization,
. .... ------ good- nut-ri-tion --anrl—liealthy living
- x ••• •............. ............
/
■
■■■■ ’■■
............
...........
.
\
REMET4BER THAT AN ILLITERATE JEFSON CAN STILL.LIVE A HEALTHY LIFE AND
BE'i AN. EXAMTLE TO OTHERS'. YOUR EFFCF TS IN HE/JjTH LROMOTION SHOULD NOT
BE LIMITED TO THE LITERATE SECTION OF THE COMMUNITY BUT SIOULD BE
DRECTED TO ILL WHO ARE WILLING TO LE/JJN AND TO TROIOTE GOOD HEALTH FOR
TIIEI^LVES'7j'!D" OTl55Rs\’ ’ --------...............................................
•
5.257
>
•
•
•
•••
»—
...
.
... «
r
' ■ •- -■ -•
*. •- • .
HAZARDS REL.'.TIB' TO LACK OT MEDIC. L FACILITIES
" •
•
f
The health and rgedical fa ci lilies in rural areas arc, on the whole,
lacking ,in cjuality and quantity. This«means that’a miner ailment doos
not receive the necessary attention in time and eventually develops
into a major ailment with complications which may be serious. This
^-hazard is not present in urban communities where health facilities
are better and more esally available.
Under the bt.nimun Needs Programme it is planned to upgrade one FKC
in four 'to a 30-bodded rural hospital* This will improve the facilities
for referral and make surgical, medical, obstetric and gynaecological
specialists avail able nearer the rural community.
/Iso, in many rural areas .Hakim, Registered Medical Practitioners and
practitioners of other indigenous systems cf medicine are available.
Ifany people use their sefiyeos.
'
........... ........ .Cuntd/lZr-
-—
•’14 :
YOU MUST -MAYS KE3I GOOD RELATIONS WITH ANY IE3CAL IRACTIT10WSS
WCTKING IN YGUR AIEA. KEMEMB® THAT THEIR OBJECTIVES ARE THE SALE
AS YOURS 1 TO IFOVTDE HEALTH FACT LITT? S TO THE (M4UNITY AND TREAT
THOSE' WI-IO ARE 'SICK'1 ........... • " ' ' '
. ................
•
Communications in many rural areas are not very satisfactory and
patients may have difficulty 'in reaching the Primary Her 7_th Centro when
they arc referred t o the doctor
As fair?.s possible you should try
and arrange transport for such patients. ■ In casosT&f -emergency, elicit
the assistance of the village, panchayat and other coixiunity Icadc^s.^.
who may bo able to help -in proviolin^somo__fom of transport.- •
■
—
-
- -
-
-
.
f _--------- ,
—
-
,
,
------ ----------
-
.
■
■ —■—
..... . ■—---- ----
UTILIZE TO THE MAXIMUM TIE VISITS BY THE DOCTOR AND TffiTSUIET.VISOR
IN EXTEND IIS-T-HE MEDICAL- FACT HUES ...
TO THOSE
-HAVE
NO? GOT THE MEANS
- •WHO
.
**•
TO TRAVEL.
YOU HAVE A. MAJCR ROLE TO ELAY IN THIS FIELD Al© IT IS HOPED THAT YOUR
REESENCE IN TIE COMMUNITY VI IL IROVIDE BETTER HEALTH CARE AND BE THE
MAIN FACTOR IN ITEVENTING SHUTE AILMENTS FROM BECOMING MAJOR CGIffLli
w ICAL CARE OR -EARLY
CATED -AILMENTS- BY LECEIK -NG EEOMIT- AND -ADEQUATE MED
■ REE’Jii uRAL.«
'
•
Both you and your team rate,-. the health Werhr (Female), are expected
to spend to considerable part of your time in homo -visiting. Do.neb
miss this opportunity to look after the health needs of the- family
in its -own hemo.• •
•
KNQIYOUR LL STATIONS AND REFER PATIENTS TO SEE THE DOCTOR IN.GOCD TLE.
THIS WELL -HELP -THE- -PATIENT T 0 RECEIVE
A BETTER QUALITY CF HEALTH CARE
M
Wil AT- PRESENT .
.
./<•• •
.
f
5.2.8* HAZARDS RELATED TO POVERTYfl
•
•
•
Millions of people in India live below the poverty lino, i.o. they
cannot afford the basic requirements of fo<d and shelter. • The average
income in rural area’s' is below that of urban workers, but the needs<7,-> |
of rural populations arc also less than those of town dwellers.'
' ■
11Poverty by itself may not affect health adversely, but when it is combined
with ignorance and a lack of education then the effects on health become
manifest. The lack of adequate schooling facilities in rural areas reduce
opportunities for health education of children and the csta'Lshneit.
of good living habits among them.
1 A:
.• Bad nutrition in rural areas is often-attributed to poverty . However,
p. it is. clear that poverty alone is not to blame, but cooking-habits
and eating fads play an important role in -[he high incidence of alilnutri. tion in I? Ylia
...... ...... L
YOUR ROLE IS TO GET THE I'-iOjT OUT'OF WILAT THE PEASANT IN THE HJKAL
AREA CAN AFFtTOIIW-HIS LIMTED INCOME.’.,'. PAY SEEQ71 ATTENTION TO
NUTRITION HID COOKING HABITS /ND TO THE‘-'IHLOVEMEIL OF THE ENVIROl'U
KENT .• - TEACH AM) SHOW lEOFUfe HOW T O
THE LITTLE MONEY THEY CAN
/IFQRD-IN THE BEST POSSIBLE W/Y <
•
'■
You can help the .community’:in. your area by:
i« getting them .advicd on what crops to grow for foed (food
crop) and for soiling (cash crop); this wil 7 help their
nutrition- as well as give them an incomej.'- ”f- •
* teaching them how to get good nutrition from cheap foods;
it
iii • denostrating to t hem how to cook foods as to ratal n their
‘ - nutritious properties; take the cooperation of’ the .Health
Worker (Female) in this ’ activity.
\
■
_
iv.
teaching them to maintain g ood health; this will save them
money which U-oy would normally spend on medic hie;
v. motivating then to practise family planning so that
the little’ wealth they have will not l.e dissipated
among many persons;
vi. tolling then howto keep fit so that they can work
mere and earn more money .for their food and comfort*
•
»
FS-SiBFR TK FOVERTY IS
SYLDROME CAUSED BY A MI OF FACTORS." \ /
IDENTIFY THESE FACTORS Ad© FIND SOLUTIONS TC THEM. YOU MILL FIND
W
THAT TO SOLVE’ THE MANY F CBLELS YOU MILL II/ATJ TO COO ESTATE WITH
/ \
CTHEF OFFICERS^ c.g., AGRI CULTURAL,• EDUCATIONAL, AND COMMUNITY '
/
D1I7ILO naENT, WOFuKING IN THE SAi© BLOCK AS. YOW SELF.
■
/
•
*
(
I . ■■»■■■,
AS A IffiALTII WCIK12R YOU ABE A CO1MJIOTY WORKEP AM) ALTHOUGH YOUR
WORK EMHIASiZES HEALTH YOU MUST RElffiMBER THAT HEALTH IS RELATED
•TO MANY FACTORS.. SO BEHAVE /JS A 001 HUNIT'Y HORKET /J© THE C4MMmTY t
WILL SEEK YOUR 7DVICE ./
■■
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.
HEALTH EFFECTS OF AW POLLUTION
One philosophical and two scientific
concepts are needed to relate medical
science to the health problems posed
by air pollution.
The philosophical concept concerns the
role of medical science in responding to
those situations in which the health of
a community is believed impaired by
pollutant exposures.
The first scientific concept deals with
the respiratory dose of a material and
its absorption, detoxification, storage,
and excretion.
The second scientific concept concerns
the long-term interacting effects of
repeated exposures of the lung to res
piratory doses of pollutants. It also con
cerns the organization and interpreta
tion of evidence necessary to determine
the contribution of one type of exposure.
Most of this article will deal with the
two scientific concepts through consid
eration of the dose-response relation
ships of pollutants taken one at a time
— which is not the way most pollutant
exposures occur. Mortality and morbid
ity effects which can be related to vari
ous pollutant exposures are discussed
in relation to the interactive factors.
Finally, the relative impact of cigarette
smoking, industrial pollution, and com
munity pollution will be considered.
It is helpful to deal first with the philo
sophical problem of how medical
science can contribute constructively
to such an emotionally charged, eco
nomically sensitive, and politicized is
sue as community air pollution.
by
John R. Goldsmith, M.D.
Medical Epidemiologist
Epidemiological Studies Laboratory
California State Health Department
Berkeley, Calif.
and
Environmental Cancer
Epidemiologist
Office of Associate Director for
Field Studies and Statistics
Division of Cancer Cause
and Prevention
National Cancer Institute
Bethesda, Md.
AIR POLLUTION AS A DISEASE OF
THE COMMUNITY
When a patient complains to a doctor
of, say, shortness of breath and cough,
the doctor must find out if any treat
able problem exists, then treat it, and
care for the patient.
When a community is so afflicted that
people cough, weep, fear for their lives
and futures, and ask for medical help,
the task of the community health phy
sician is as compelling as that of the
clinician, although not so clearly de
fined. The community health physician
should seek out those problems that
are remediable and work with the com
munity at rectifying them. In any event,
he or she (or they) should accept the
reality of the community's complaint
and care about it. The problems of
community air pollution usually come
AMERICAN
to a head with typical complaints about
air pollution, often occurring with an
noying odor, respiratory tract or eye
irritation, impairment of visibility, soil
ing of paint or clothes, and damage to
vegetation.
Compared to the specific illnesses of
individuals, the physiological and bio
chemical disruptions caused by air pol
lution may be more subtle and complex
in their interactions. Nevertheless, they
exist and are usually detectable and
treatable, or preventable. For these
reasons, we speak of air pollution as a
disease of the community, affecting the
physical and mental health of the
residents.1
The treatment of such a disease in
volves reducing emissions through use
of control devices or alterations either
in technology or the materials used or
processed. It may also involve abate
ment or prevention of health problems
about which no complaint is made, just
as a system review in clinical practice
may indicate treatable disease of which
a patient did not complain.
Thus, medical science interacting with
engineering and technology has led in
Great Britain to the requirement for
smokeless fuel: that is, use of coke
briquets, natural gas, or electrical heat
ing instead of open coal fires which
were largely responsible for the pollu
tion disaster of 1952.2 This latter event
in London caused thousands of excess
deaths, mostly from respiratory diffi
culties. As the amount of black, sus
pended particulate matter in the air
Z THORACIC SOCIETY cowm' ;-,vh c;u.
.
(First Floor).;.. .Turks Aor.d
BANGAlOaE-SfiOOU^
FEVlo
(litres)
Sputum Volume
(ml)
SMOKE
(jjg/m3)
1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966
0-0 Mean FEVi.o of all men who attended at least one of the last four surveys
®
® Mean Sputum volume of all men who attended at least one of last four surveys
A------- A Mean concentration of black smoke during winter at seven sampling sites in London
W = Winter; S = Summer
Fig. 1 Mean values of FEV i.o and sputum volume in a panel of working men aged
30-59 in London, along with winter smoke concentrations, 1961-1966.3
dropped due to the “treatment” con
sisting of smokeless fuel regulations, so
did the production of sputum among
bronchitis patients (Fig. 7)3
In California, eye irritation from photo
chemical pollution was the complaint of
almost three-fourths of the population
in polluted parts of Los Angeles.4 This
situation was due to sunlight irradiat
ing motor vehicle exhaust ingredients
(hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen).
California health scientists also found
that carbon monoxide from motor ve
hicles was contributing to aggravation
of coronary heart disease, but this had
not been previously recognized in the
community.5 Today, motor vehicle ex
haust control systems are the “treat
ment” requiring decreased emissions
of hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and
oxides of nitrogen, not only in Los
Angeles, but all over the country. In
other locations, these controls are pri
marily preventive.
It is generally agreed that sulfur dioxide
interacting with particles can aggravate
chronic bronchitis. The community
“treatment” recommended for the high
frequency of bronchitis6 seen in pol
luted areas requires control of smoke
from trash burning and of sulfur dioxide
from large power plants. These are
being done.
The philosophic concept behind pre
vention was dealt with most compre
hensively by the American Association
for the Advancement of Science in the
report, “Air Conservation.”7 The Amer
ican Lung Association’s National Air
Conservation Commission deals with
this concept currently.
HEALTH EFFECTS OF SPECIFIC
POLLUTANTS IN RELATION TO
RESPIRATORY DOSE
Because breathing is so automatic and
air so transparent, we lose sight of the
fact that the daily exchange of air for
the adult male, for example, is about
30 pounds. This compares with less
than three pounds of food and about
four and one-half pounds of water.
Thus, if a pollutant dose were present
in equal proportions by weight (usually
expressed as parts per million: ppm) in
air and food, the body would have to
deal with 10 times as great a dose
through the respiratory route as
through the gastrointestinal route! For
example, 0.5ppm is a concentration of
ozone occasionally achieved for an hour
in Los Angeles (and almost never else
where). This is equivalent to about
lmg/m3 (milligrams per cubic meter).
A relatively active adult may breathe
15m3 of air a day, or about one cubic
meter an hour. Since virtually all ozone
is absorbed, the respiratory dose rate
approximates one mg/hour when the
concentration of ozone is 0.5ppm. Vir
tually all of the ozone reacts in the
layers of cells and secretions lining the
respiratory tract, but the biophysical
and biochemical details of this tissue
dose are not well established.
(As an exercise, you may want to solve
the following problems: Compute the
minute volume of ventilation equivalent
to 1 cubic meter an hour. What is the
weight of 1 cubic meter of air? If the
minute volume increases in hard phys
ical activity, what dose rate of ozone
would be expected?)
Ozone is a relatively insoluble but
highly reactive gas. Sulfur dioxide is
relatively soluble, but less reactive.
Both are irritating, and both have a
characteristic odor. Because sulfur di
oxide is soluble, most of its absorption
during quiet breathing occurs in the
nose and upper airway, whereas most
of ozone’s absorption occurs at the
bronchiolar and alveolar level. Hence,
with an increased ventilatory rate and
mouth breathing, more sulfur dioxide
reaches the trachea, where it may cause
reflex coughing.8 More ozone reaches
the alveolo-capillary membrane, where
it may cause edema and impaired gas
diffusion.9 Exercise increases the res
piratory dose and redistributes the
total dose to lower portions of the res
piratory system. This has been illus
trated by experiments on dogs done by
Watanabe, Frank, and Yokoyama (Table
7).10 No doubt, similar gradients occur
in man.
The patterns of absorption, metabolism,
and excretion are quite different for
such pollutants as carbon monoxide gas
and lead particulates. Carbon monoxide
passes through the respiratory system
without modification, and most of it is
stored in combination with hemoglobin,
from which it displaces oxygen. Carbon
monoxide has a hemoglobin affinity
about 250 times that of oxygen, i.e.,
when the ratio of oxygen to carbon
monoxide molecules is 1:250, half the
binding sites in equilibrated blood will
be occupied by oxygen, half by CO.11
Carbon monoxide tends to occupy the
most labile binding sites on hemoglobin.
This diminishes the oxygen delivering
capacity, both by reducing the number
of oxygen molecules brought to the tis
sue and by impairment of release of
oxygen bound to hemoglobin.
Because most of the carbon monoxide
in the body is bound to hemoglobin, the
level of carboxyhemoglobin is a good
estimate of the body burden. Further
more, most of the carbon monoxide is
excreted in expired air, when the alveo
lar carbon monoxide tension is less than
that produced by the amount of carbon
monoxide in the pulmonary capillaries.
It follows that, after an appropriate
period of breath holding, usually 20
seconds, the expired air carbon monox
ide tension becomes a valid, simple esti
mator of the carboxyhemoglobin level.
Thus, the respiratory system not only is
the portal of entry and excretion of car
bon monoxide, but it may be used as a
tonometer to estimate body burden
without sampling blood or tissue. The
half-time for uptake or excretion of
carbon monoxide for adults is about
three to four hours (Fig. 2). Conse
quently, the level of carboxyhemoglobin
estimated from gas expired after 20second breath holding thus serves as
2
© American Lung Association 1975
an estimate of recent pollutant expo
sure, regardless of whether the ex
posures were to community air pollu
tion, occupational, or the personal
pollution of tobacco smoking.
The previous set of principles has been
applied by Deane to a study of Los
Angeles commuters.12 In nonsmokers,
the expired air samples averaged 6.3
ppm of CO before the morning commut
ing trip to downtown Los Angeles and
ll.Oppm after the trip. This is equiva
lent to an increase of about 1% in the
percent of hemoglobin bound by CO.
Linder conditions of traffic congestion,
a faulty muffler, or atmospheric stag
nation, the increase may be much
greater. Smokers get so much CO from
smoking that they start with a variably
higher value, about 15ppm, but even
they have an increase after commuting.
Lead, too, is a pollutant that tends to
accumulate in the body, although its
half-time is from months to years. The
body burden is a reflection of both
respiratory and gastrointestinal inges
tion.13 Originally, the contribution of
air pollution exposure was thought un
important, because the dose in food
and water, which was estimated at
about 300 n gm/day, was so much
greater than the 15-75 g gm/day dose
rate in urban areas from inspired air
(1-5 n gm/m3 x 15m3). This view has
been modified now that the effect of
particle size on respiratory deposition
is better understood and the absorp
tion ratios by the two routes are known.
About five percent of orally ingested
lead is absorbed (about 15 n gm/day
absorbed dose), whereas about 40 per
cent of the inhaled dose of submicronic
lead particles is retained (6-30 n gm in
urban areas). The larger particles im
pinge upon the airway high up and,
since they are usually insoluble, are
carried with the mucous blanket to the
pharynx and swallowed.
PERCENT CARBOXYHEMOGLOBIN
DURING AND FOLLOWING CARBON MONOXIDE EXPOSURE
IN HEALTHY SEDENTARY NON-SMOKING MALES
(Exposures to lOOppm for one, three, and eight hours)
14
1
2345
6789
Time in Hours
Source: Based on Stewart et al.2i
The relation of particle size to site of
deposition follows the physical laws of
mechanics and aerodynamics (Fig. 3).
So important is the particle size to air
pollution effects that size segregated
air pollutant monitoring is required be
fore effects of particulate pollutants can
be adequately evaluated.
Dose-Response Relationships
Between 1968 and 1971, a series of
documents and analyses focused on the
health effects of such individual pollu
tants as particulate matter, photochem
ical oxidants and ozone, sulfur oxides,
ESTIMATED AMBIENT CONCENTRATIONS OF OZONE
THAT WOULD DELIVER 0.26ppm TO THE
UPPER TRACHEA IN INTACT DOGS
Ambient Ozone Concentration (in ppm)
Oral Breathing
Nasal Breathing
High Flow
(35-46 liters
per minute)
■■"10
Source: Watanabe et al.
11
Fig. 2 Carbon monoxide absorption and excretion in healthy, sedentary, non-smok
ing males.
—--------------------- TABLE 1 ---------------------------
Low Flow
(3.5-6.5
liters per
minute)
10
0.93
0.39
0.41
0.29
carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen,
and hydrocarbons.14-19 These appeared
as so-called “criteria” documents. Sub
sequently, reports on other pollutants
and their health effects have been com
piled and published by the National
Academy of Sciences—the National
Academy of Engineering. Pollutants dis
cussed included carbon monoxide at
low levels, beryllium, asbestos, fluor
ides, manganese, lead, and polycyclic
organic material.
It is now becoming clear that attractive
as it may be from an engineering and
control point-of-view to consider each
pollutant separately, it is not practical
from the health sciences point-of-view:
the effects of individual pollutants on
health are less important than certain
commonly occurring pollution interac
tions. Of these interactions, the two
most important are that from sulfur
oxides and soot, and that from oxides
of nitrogen and hydrocarbons from
motor vehicle exhaust. The former
tends to produce acid sulfate aerosols,
which are not yet being satisfactorily
monitored, but which probably include
materials such as sulfuric acid mist and
zinc ammonium sulfate. Both are potent
respiratory irritants. The photochem
ical interaction of hydrocarbons and
oxides of nitrogen produces ozone,
which is being monitored, eye and
respiratory irritation, two characteristic
forms of plant damage, and impairment
3
-------------------------------------------------------------- TABLE 2-------------------------------------------
Jt
EXPECTED EFFECTS WHEN BOTH SMOKE AND SO2 EXCEED THE VALUES SHOWN
is
e.
a
Effect
Visibility and/or
Annoyance
Increased Respiratory
Symptoms
Exacerbation of
Bronchitis and
Emphysema
Excess Mortality and
Increases in Hospital
Admissions
Concentration
and Averaging
Time
80 n g/m3
Annual Geometric
Mean
100 p. g/m3
Annual Arithmetic
Mean
250 g g/m3
Daily Average
500 g g/m3
Daily Average
o
r
d
le
■e
Source: Based on World Health Organization.20 Measurement methods as prescribed by the British Ministry of Technology
!S
e
of visibility. This triad of community
symptoms in the presence of elevated
ozone constitutes the photochemical
smog syndrome. While ozone is a potent
respiratory irritant at the concentra
tions present in polluted air samples, it
cannot alone account for eye irritation
Much of the latter appears due to a
series of compounds newly named and
quite unstable when concentrated.
These are called PANs (peroxy acetyl
nitrates). Peroxy acetyl nitrate and
peroxy benzoyl nitrate are best known.
Formaldehyde is also thought to be
involved in eye irritation.
airway resistance occurs in bronchitic
patients.
Nitrogen Oxides
Elevated nitrogen oxide levels tend to
occur with photochemical pollution, but
few of the health effects can be directly
ascribed to oxides of nitrogen. Nitric
oxide, colorless, relatively inert biologi
cally, is the gas produced in high pres
sure combustion (such as occurs in the
gasoline engine) from fixation-oxidation
of atmospheric nitrogen. It is oxidized
to nitrogen dioxide, slowly in pure air,
more rapidly in the presence of photochemically activated hydrocarbons.
Nitrogen dioxide, an orange-brown irri
tating gas, is relatively insoluble, so
that when inhaled, much of it reaches
the alveolar level. At high doses (5500ppm), it causes a slowly evolving
pulmonary edema. Such exposures,
however, are found only in occupational
circumstances, not in community air
pollution. Because this latency makes
human experiments more hazardous,
and because at continuous levels
greater than about 0.5ppm, mice will
develop hyperinflation resembling pul
monary emphysema, few human experi
mental studies have been reported.
Dose-response relationships for hu-
Sulfur Oxides and Black Suspended
Matter
The World Health Organization Expert
Committee on Air Quality Criteria and
Guides for Urban Air Pollution,20 bas
ing most of its analysis on British, Dutch,
and Japanese data, concluded that
when both smoke (black suspended
matter) and SO2 reached the values
shown in Table 2 for the indicated
period of time, the four types of effects
shown would be expected. Note that
the measurement methods are those
prescribed by the British Ministry of
Technology and are not directly equiva
lent to U.S. methods.
Photochemical Oxidant and Ozone
At about O.lppm oxidant (most of which
is ozone) for one hour average, eye and
respiratory irritation is observed. In
creased frequency of asthmatic attacks
occurs above 0.2ppm oxidant for an
hour. Impairment of lung function in
exercising subjects can be shown at
ozone levels of about 0.4ppm for two
hours, aggravated by simultaneous ex
posure to SO2 at the same concentra
tion. Subjects without respiratory symp
toms but with a history of asthma and
bronchitis are more reactive than those
without a positive history. With increas
ing dose, the severity of symptoms and
duration increase.
At elevated oxidant levels observed in
Los Angeles, from about 0.1 to 0.4ppm,
more motor vehicle accidents occur,
performance of student cross-country
track teams is impaired, and increased
IS
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1
n
MASS MEDIAN DIAMETER - MICRONS
Fig. 3 Deposition in various portions of the lung and respiratory tract for various
particle populations.*1 Each of the shaded areas (envelopes) indicates the vari
ability of deposition for a given mass median aerodynamic diameter in each com
partment when the standard geometric deviation (<rg) varies from 12 to 4 5
microns, and the tidal volume is 1450 ml. Nasal-P stands for the nasopharyngeal
compartment, T-Bronchial for the tracheobronchial compartment and Pulmonary
for the alveolar compartment.
c
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i
c*
t
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I
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r
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c
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(
I
AtanVle *herefore not well defined.
At 0.25 to Ippm N02 for one hour, lysis
o rat lung mast cells will be produced,
and in the rabbit, alteration of struc
tural proteins of the lung occurs. This
thfte type of exP°sure that afflicted
the Apollo crew on re-entry after the
Apollo-Soyuz mission. The rocket fuel
nitrogen tetroxide is simply a double
nitrogen dioxide molecule.
Carbon Monoxide
The injurious health effects of carbon
monoxide are due to impaired trans
port of oxygen to the tissues. Especially
vulnerable is the heart muscle since,
compared to other organs, it extracts a
high proportion of the oxygen brought
to it by the blood. The effects are quan
titatively related to carboxyhemoglobin
levels in the blood. Increases of carbox
yhemoglobin of two percent or more
can impair oxygen transport sufficiently
to reduce the exercise capacity of per
sons with insufficient blood supply to
the heart, as, for example, in patients
with angina pectoris. At this level of
carboxyhemoglobin, similar effects oc
cur in persons with impaired circula
tion to the legs.
Effects also are observed in the central
nervous system. At a dose rate of
50ppm for 90 minutes, physiological
impairment of time interval estimation
has been shown. The methods for dem
onstrating this are exacting, and not
every effort to reproduce the finding
has succeeded in overcoming the self
correcting tendencies of the central
nervous system.
A major concern is with the possible
role of long-term carbon monoxide
exposure in causing atherosclerosis
and consequently coronary and periph
eral circulatory disease. Carbon mon
oxide has also been implicated in in
creasing the case fatality rate of
patients who are hospitalized with
myocardial infarction and may con
tribute to variation in daily mortality.
Other Pollutants with
Respiratory Effects
There is some evidence that odorous
pollutants affect the respiratory system
(near pulp mills, for instance, several
studies find increased respiratory
symptoms), but this is not their most
important effect.
Asbestos is primarily of concern be
cause of its occupational hazard, but
some cases of nonoccupational asbes
tosis, of pleural plaque, or of meso
thelioma of the pleura have been
reported in the vicinity of asbestos
plants and mines, both among family
members of asbestos workers and
others.
THE EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION ON
RESPIRATORY MORTALITY AND
MORBIDITY
As a result of atmospheric stagnation
in London, the Meuse Valley in Belgium,
the small town of Donora, Pennsylvania,
New York City, and Osaka, Japan, it has
been clearly documented that air pol
lution can increase mortality, especially
amongtheelderly and those with chronic
cardiopulmonary conditions.
In Great Britain, it has been shown that
excess mortality will occur when both
sulfur dioxide and particulate matter
are elevated. No increased mortality
has been conclusively shown in asso
ciation with elevations of photochemical
oxidant, although, as indicated pre
viously, symptoms and disease aggra
vation occur. The possibility of increase
in mortality in Los Angeles associated
with elevated carbon monoxide has
been reported.
While it has been established that air
pollution has an aggravating role in
chronic respiratory disease morbidity,
its effect on the cause of emphysema
and bronchitis is less certain. However,
such an effect is suspected on the basis
of epidemiologic work in countries other
than the United States. The suspicion
is especially great for the exposures of
children, some of which may occur in
doors, as well as to generalized com
munity pollution.
Lung cancer, which has a higher inci
dence in urban than in rural areas, has
been studied to determine whether the
John R. Goldsmith, M.D., was graduated in physics from Reed College in 1942
and from Harvard Medical School in 1945. He interned at the University of
Chicago, and after five years of practice in Oregon, had residency and fellowship
training in pulmonary physiology at the University of Washington at Seattle, folI wed by two years of fellowship in preventive medicine at Harvard. Since 1957,
has been in charge of studies of air pollution health effects for the California
Health Department. From 1964-1966, he served the World Health Organization
• Geneva as Environmental Epidemiologist. From September, 1973 until 1975,
’n was detailed to the National Cancer Institute, Office of the Associate Director
f Field Studies and Statistics. He is a lecturer in Epidemiology and International
Health at the Cardiovascular Research Institute, University of California Medical
Center, San Francisco.
5
urban factor might be air pollution. The
principal arguments that air pollution
is a causal factor in lung cancer are as
follows: polluted atmospheres contain
minute amounts of potent carcinogens;
there is a statistically important asso
ciation between indices of urban pol
lution and lung cancer rates; and
migrant groups from relatively polluted
areas to less polluted areas tend to
have higher cancer rates than are found
in the places to which they migrate. In
addition, workmen exposed to some of
the agents of polluted air have excess
cancer. And some of the pollutants in
urban air are also found in cigarette
smoke, which is strongly associated
with causation of lung cancer.
However, contrary to the view that air
pollution is the causal factor in excess
urban lung cancer, is the fact that the
urban-rural gradient in lung cancer is
not greatest in those places with the
greatest urban pollution. If exposure to
urban pollution increases lung cancer,
then the rates should be higher in life
time U.S. urban residents than in mi
grants to urban areas; in fact, they
are not. And the correlations of lung
cancer with measured pollutants should
be strongest in England, where lung
cancer rates are high and pollution has
also been very great. A positive correla
tion has been shown with population
density in many countries, but when
controlling for population density, no
association is found with pollution in
Great Britain. If the urban factor were
community air pollution, it should affect
women as much as men, but it does not
appear to do so. Thus, air pollution has
not been shown to be the causal agent
in the urban excess of lung cancer,
although it remains under suspicion.
In a recent report to the Committee on
Public Works of the United States Sen
ate, the National Academy of Sciences
and National Academy of Engineering
estimated that if all types of air pollu
tion were responsible for one percent
of urban mortality and morbidity, and
this were eliminated, it would imply the
reduction of about 15,000 in the annual
number of deaths. If this same logic
were applied to urban illness, it would
mean approximately 15 million less
days of restricted activity, or 7 million
fewer days spent in bed. The proportion
of pollution associated with motor vehi
cles was estimated as one-tenth to onefourth, leaving the remaining ninetenths to three-fourths associated with
smoke, sulfur oxides, and industrial
fumes.
The bounds of these limits are very
broad —0.01 to 10 percent of urban
health problems due to air pollution —
the estimates, therefore, have a sub
stantial amount of uncertainty. Never
theless, there is virtually no uncertainty
concerning the fact that it is the respi
ratory system, respiratory diseases,
and respiratory morbidity that bear the
brunt of air pollution’s adverse health
effects.
t
Compared to the disease and fatality
burden caused by cigarette smoking,
these are small effects. But they re
quire community, rather than personal,
decisions to abate them. To those ex
posed to irritating or harmful pollutants
on the job, the occupational pollutants
relative to community air pollution are
of overwhelming importance. Yet the
data available indicate that these types
of exposures tend to interact, one with
another, often in a more-than-additive
way. For instance, the cigarette
smoker’s health may be more harmed
by urban air pollution than that of a
non-smoker. The workman whose job
exposes him to irritating dusts and
fumes is often at greater risk of dis
abling respiratory disease when he
lives in an air-polluted neighborhood.
Thus, prevention of chronic respiratory
disease involves decreasing all three
types of exposure to inhaled pollutants:
cigarette smoking, occupational gases,
dusts, and fumes, and community air
pollution. Because of the interaction of
these exposures, it is inefficient to seek
to control one type and neglect the
others.
11. Goldsmith. J. R., and Landaw. S. A.: Carbon
monoxide and human health. Science, 1968
162, 1352.
REFERENCES
1. Goldsmith, J. R.: The new airborne disease
Community air pollution. Calif. Med.. 1970.
113, 13.
2 Ministry of Health of Great Britain; Mortality
and Morbidity During the London Fog of De
cember 1952, Reports on Public Health and
Related Subjects, H M Stationery Office, Lon
don, 1954, No. 95. Table 1. p. 2.
3 Fletcher, C. M.: Recent clinical and epidemio
logical studies of chronic bronchitis. Scand.
J Resp Dis., 1967. 48, 285
12 Deane, M.: Effects of carbon monoxide on Los
Angeles commuters, paper presented at 7th
International Meeting, International Epidemio
logical Association, Brighton, August. 1974
13. Goldsmith, J. R. and Hexter, A. C : Respira
tory exposure to lead; epidemiological and
experimental dose-response relationships.
Science. 1967, 158. 132
4 Hausknecht. R : Air Pollution: Effects Reported
by California Residents. California State De
partment of Public Health, Berkeley, Calif .
1959
14 U S. National Air Pollution Control Adminis
tration. Air Quality Criteria for Sulfur Oxides,
AP-50, U. S. Government Printing Office,
Washington. D. C., 1969.
Hausknecht, R : Population Surveys in Air Pol
lution Research, Bureau of Chronic Diseases,
California State Department of Public Health,
Berkeley. Calif., 1962
15 U S National Air Pollution Control Administra
tion. Air Quality Criteria for Particulate Matter.
AP-49, U. S. Government Printing Office,
Washington. D. C., 1969.
5 Aronow, W. S . Harris, C N.. Isbell. M. W..
Rokaw. S N , and Imparato, B.: Effect of free
way travel on angina pectoris. Ann Intern.
Med., 1972, 77. 669.
16 U. S National Air Pollution Control Adminis
tration Air Quality Criteria for Photochemical
Oxidants, AP-63, U S. Government Printing
Office. Washington. D C., 1970.
6. Holland. W. W., Reid. D. D.. Seltser, R . and
Stone. R. W.. Respiratory disease in England
and the United States Studies of comparative
prevalence. Arch. Environ. Health. 1965, 10,
338.
17. U. S National Air Pollution Control Adminis
tration: Air Quality Criteria for Hydrocarbons,
AP-64. U. S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D. C.. 1970
7 Air Conservation, the Report of the Air Con
servation Commission of the American Associ
ation for the Advancement of Science, No. 80
Washington. D C . 1965
18. U S. National Air Pollution Control Adminis
tration: Air Quality Criteria for Carbon Mon
oxide, AP-62. U S. Government Printing Office.
Washington, D C . 1970.
8. Nadel, J A., and Widdicombe. J. G.: Reflex
effects of upper airway irritation on total lung
resistance and blood pressure. J Appl
Physiol , 1962, 17. 861.
19. U S. Air Pollution Control Office: Air Quality
Criteria for Nitrogen Oxides. AP-84, U. S. Gov
ernment Printing Office. Washington, D. C..
1971
9. Young. W A , Shaw. D. B.. and Bates. D. V.:
Effect of low concentrations of ozone on pul
monary function in man, J. Appl Physiol.,
1964. 19. 765.
20 World Health Organization: Air in Health Haz
ards of the Human Environment. Geneva,
1972, p. 19.
10. Watanabe. S.. Frank, R . and Yokoyama, E •
Acute effects of ozone on lungs of cats. Am.
Rev. Resp. Dis., 1973, 108, 1141.
21. Stewart, R. D.. Peterson, J. E., Baretta, E. D..
Bachand, R. T., Hosko. M J , and Herrmann,
A A.: Experimental human exposure to carbon
monoxide. Arch. Environ. Health, 1970, 21, 154.
MW ©If I®
published five times a year by
AMERICAN THORACIC SOCIETY
medical section of
AMERICAN LUNG ASSOCIATION
1740 Broadway • New York, N.Y. • 10019
Vol. 4
No. 2
Editor/ALAN K. PIERCE, M.D.
Executive Editor/DONALD C. KENT, M.D.
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ON
POLLUTION
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JUNE 5, 1990
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Edited by: Mrs. J.P.Saulina Arnold for Tamil Nadu Voluntary Health Association
\Ne Acknowledge
Our Thanks
To The Following Publishers
• _
•
9
V
1990 Calendar on Pollutions
Produced by
Centre for Human Ecology, Bombay
Environment, Health & Development Information Kit
June 1988
World Health Organization, Geneva
Alternatives for Pollutions
Peace Newsletter, Central New York’s Voice
for Peace and Social Justice
July/ August 1989
The Politics of Environment
The Illustrated Weekly of India
May 6-12,90
Holistic Health Work Book
SAHAJ, Pune
2
PiUAMN ECOLOGY J
Humankind projects a bio-social entity on our planet. Hence there exists two systems of environ
mental relationships pertaining to wo/man. They are: 1. Human - nature system
2. Human - human system
Human being's absolute well-being/health is determined by two factors:-
technosphere of her/his own making, with all its
numerous ill effects, the most glaring of which is
a high incidence of diseases both physical and
psycho-social.
1. The availability of the optimum conditions
required for a person to exist as a healthy bio
logical being, i.e.pertaining to the natural envi
ronmental conditions - climatic, cosmic etc.
(that of the human - nature system)
Present day science and technological prog
ress has its harmful effects on the environments
and consequently on the overall health of the
populations in varying degrees in different coun
tries depending on the socio-economic and
political systems of each nation. A society can
control environmental factors and also help
facilitate maintenance of the ecological balance
if it has social, economic and political conditions
ensuring the fulfilment of the material and cul
tural requirements of the people.
2. The availability of the optimum conditions
required for her-him to exist as a healthy social
being, i.e.pertaining to the social, economic,
political and various other related dimensions
etc., (that of human-human system)
These two are inter-related. All global prob
lems of our time originate exactly from the
above mentioned two systems of environmental
relationships only.
Humankind's environmental relationships
(both natural and social) result in the existence
of different modes of social production and con
sequently of different social conditions which
arise from the nature of social systems and the
modes of social production. Hence the inter-re
lationships between persons and the environ
ments must be viewed within clearly defined
socio-economic and political systems of our
time.
Purpose of Human Ecology:
As mentioned earlier, only if human beings
are provided with optimum conditions pertain
ing to the natural and social environments can
an individual remain in this planet as an abso
lutely healthy being.
To determine the above mentioned condi
tions, the optimal ecological factors and to pro
vide them to every member of the human com
munity is a task of the society and can be termed
otherwise as ecological task. Hence the prime
purpose of human ecology is to find through
research into various interaction between per
sons and the environment, the optimal condi
tions necessary for persons to exist and develop
their physical and spiritual abilities- in order to
exist as healthy bio-social beings - the bio-social
collectives (societies) in relation to space and
time.
This can be achieved only in conjunction with
all branches of knowledge viewing them as one
integrated whole. In other words, Human Ecol
Problems emerge out in infinite variety that of
both nature and social environments. Studies
have proved that human beings are found to be
unable to adjust to the changes in the environ
ment and in the modes of life created by the hu
mankind. What really happens is a very slow
adaptation of persons to the environmental
changes that are taking place drastically and this
kind of slow adaptive mechanism gives rise to
what is known as bio-social disadaptation - the
failure of human beings to adjust both biologi
cally and socially to the modern modes of life,
with the rapidly changing environment, the bio
3
sociology and zoology. Different branches of
applied ecology are also involved - like agricul
ture, animal husbandry, conservation, forestry,
game and fish mangement, medicine, parasitol
ogy, public health and range management.
ogy takes or rather demands absolutely a sys
tematic view of all human knowledge put to
gether, for a relatively better understanding of
the reality around and responding accordingly/
adequately in relation to space and time, for the
maintenance of ecobalance - harmony between
persons and nature.
Most of the concepts of Human Ecology are
those of the individual disciplines concerned.
The concept that each person/individual and
each human community operates as an ecologi
cal unit that must possess effective, regulatory
mechanisms to maintain stability in its fluctuat
ing habitat, however serves to unify all branches
of enquiry concerned in any way with the rela
tions between persons and their physical, biotic
and social environments.
Thus Human Ecology is involved in various
branches of natural and social sciences. For
instance, physiology, nutrition, hygiene, psy
chology and climatology are basic to an under
standing of the ecology of the individuals. The
ecology of human communities involves an
thropology, botany, demography, economics,
geography, geology, history, political science,
"Every time something occurs in the natural world, some amount of energy ends up being
unavailable for future work. That unavailable energy is what pollution is all about. Many people
think that pollution is a by-product of production. Infact, pollution is the sum total of all the
available energy in the world that has been transformed into unavailable energy'. Waste, then, is
dissipated energy."
- Jeremy Rifkin
t=
NARMADA VALLEY PROJECT - A BIRD'S EYE VIEW
■ -LA .ix; ,,k ■ASTSJt-a- ---
r.-ar : --a
t.-=-~-r-x—--a.-
•
The Narmada Valley Project, having two major
dams proposed - the Sardar Sarovar and the
Narmada Sagar, along with more than 3,000
major and minor dams is one of the ambitiously
conceived projects in human history.
killed. The overall pressure on the remaining
forests will be more and might even lead to
further reduction of population of animals. The
World Bank report says- 'Successful relocation
of wild life is never easy and much death is
unavoidable.'
* Narmada Sagar is designed to irrigate 1,23,000
hectares of land and it will submerge 90,000
hectares. Also expected to generate 223 MW of
electricity.
* Fertile lands will be sacrificed for the construc
tion of canals. It is difficult to estimate the true
value of agricultural land, which is not just the
market value of the crops being produced. The
value of top soil on such land is of great impor
tance. It takes thousands of years to form just a
few inches of soil.
* The Narmada Valley Project will eventually
displace probably over one million people, and
will be The largest river basin population reset
tlement to date', according to the world bank
* Indirect ecological consequences of the dams
are more than the direct negative consequences.
* There are other problems too associated with
dams, like earthquakes, which cannot have viable
solutions. Narmada basin is classified as a zone
of moderate seismicity, with infrequent occur
rence of earthquakes.
* With the forests, hundreds of species of plants
and animals will disappear. The animals will be
lunning blindly to escape the rising water as a
result of the dam. Some will get trapped and
During the last two centuries nearly 30 earth
4
quakes have occured in that area.
* Around 500 million people suffer from water
washed diseases like trachoma. Waler washed
diseases life skin diseases, scabies, leprosy, eye
disease, trachoma, conjunctivitis are widely spread
over tens and scores of millions of people every
year.
Neglect of soil conservation measures has
resulted in rich top soil being washed away into
rivers, eventually get deposited into the reser
voirs of large dams, thus reducing the capacity.
* Another major problem is the health hazards
due to large irrigation projects - high incidence
of malaria, filariasis, cholera, gastroenteritis, viral
encephalitis, goitre and some other water borne
diseases are bound to occur.
* Approximately 160 million people suffer from
malaria-water insect related disease. Almost 200
million people suffer from schistosomiasis guinea
worm which grows to 80 cms long, emerging
through skin causing severe pain.
■ Studies have shown that large reservoirs cause
elevation of subsoil water in the nearby areas
resulting in the levels of fluorides, calcium, trace
metals etc. in soil sediments, thus resulting in
the emergence of diseases like fluorosis.
* Every hour between 1000 and 2500 third world
children under five die simply because of lack of
clean water.
* No river in India is safe for fish. In India 1-1
major rivers carry 85% of the surface run off,
their drainage basins cover 73% of the country
which has resulted in severe pollution of almost
all the major rivers - Canga, Yamuna, Narmada,
Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery.
WATER POLLUTION
rL-j.iJLik.-i xi-,rnB.T.xr”--rn ..................................■-i ri
Polluted water is one that contains all kinds of
disease causing impurities like microorganisms,
dissolved poisonous solid chemicals as well as
poisonous gases.
* Around 60,000 caracasses of cattle, dogs and
other animals are dumped into the Ganga every
year.
* Mostly all industries discharge waste, dump
ing directly into streams, rivers, lakes, sea as well
as open land. It also reaches ground water
sources like well by seepage.
* About 40,000 fully burned dead bodies and
ashes and 10,000 half burned dead bodies are
pushed into the Ganga every year.
* The main culprits are textile printing, dyeing
units, tanneries, coir processing industries, dis
tilleries and sewage.
SOLID WASTE POLLUTION
Solid waste pollution is caused by the indis
criminate dumping of different varieties of solid
wastes like, garbage, industrial and agricultural
waste, human and animal excreta etc., causing
direct, but slow and secondary harm to the
environment and living beings.
* Agricultural activities using fertilizers and pes
ticides around the water sources percolate down
or get carried by run off water and reaches the
water sources. These water-borne pollutants
seriously affect human life by entering into the
systems directly or indirectly through food ma
terial - plants and animals. .
* Mechanical industry wastes are scrap metal,
chips, sand and grit, oily sludges, rubber and re
jects.
* City refuse is increasing rapidly since the past
fifty years as a direct consequence of the popu
lation growth and increasing affluence.
* Waste collected from all sources are dumped
over a plot of land on the periphery of a town or
city, attracting disease bearing flies and rats. The
refuse containing all kinds of things when burned
* Typhoid, cholera, infective hepatitis (jaundice)
diarrhoea, dysentry, para typhoid, fever, etc. are
caused by micro organisims through water.
* Around 25 million deaths occur in the world
every year because of water-borne diseases and
half of them are children. About 6 million chil
dren under five die from diarrhoea every year
globally.
5
illnesses namely typhoid, paratyphoid, food poi
soning, diarrhoea, dysentry, viral hepatitis, gastro enteritis, round worm, tape worm, hook
worm, whip worm etc.
4 Propagation of flies - transmitting many
diseases like typhoid, diarrhoea, dysentry, chol
era, gastro-enteritis, amoebiasis, conjunctivitis,
trachoma, helminthic (worm) infestations etc.
produces poisonous gases like phosgene and
when it starts rottening it produces toxic gases
like methane, ammonia, sulphur dioxide etc.
* All these waste dumping attracts crows,
vultures and pigs to scatter the rubbish around
leading to further problems. Moreover, it con
taminates soil and even underground water-.
Bio-degradable refuse emanating from mar
kets, kitchens and gardens give rise to more illeffects.
Approximately every 10-12 years the pres
sure of chemicals on the natural environment
doubles, Solid waste pollution of all kinds cause
major environmental problems.
* Dogs, cats, cows, goats which roam on city
streets thrive on food remains in the garbage.
Rodents, bandicoots, cockroaches and an as
sortment of flies thrive on the putrefying matters
and multiply fast.
AIR POLLUTION
* Near airport, piles of garbage attract birds,
mostly kites and vultures, which causes serious
obstruction to aircraft movement. All major air
ports in India face the problem because of bird
hits.
Air pollution means any solid, liquid or gase
ous substance present in the atmoshpere in
such concentrations as may tend to be injurious
to human beings or other living creatures or
plants or property or environment.
* Potable water is polluted by rain water
seeping into the sub-soil water through deposits
of putrefying refuse.
* Generally the sources of air pollution are in
dustrialised plants and power stations burning
coal or crude oil, steam locomotives used in
railways, steamer and motor vehicles, motor
transport and internal combustion engines burn
ing petrol, diesel, kerosene, naphtha and other
fuels, large incinerators, domestic furnace using
cpal, kerosene, cowdung cakes and fire-wpod;
lighting ifi houses by burning vegetable oils,
paraffins, kerosene, coal ahd gases, miscellane2
ous, commercial and community activities like
pesticides usage and agricultural chemicals.
* Jaundice has become endemic in certain
parts of India owing to lack of sanitation and
pollution of drinking water.
Human exc'feta is a-major source of a lot of in
fections. The specific health hazards of improper
excreta disposal are:
1. Soil pollution-which results in contamina
tion of soil giving rise to diseases especially to
those consuming vegetables grown on such
soils.
* Major pollutants are sulphur and nitrous
oxides, carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulphide,
metallic fluorides, particles of dust, smoke, fly
ash, soot, organic phosphates, chlorinated hydro
carbons, heavy metals, particles and fumes of
lead, zinc, arsenic, uranium, beryllium dust,
argon, iodine, etc.
2 Water pollution - causes various intestinal
and allied diseases. The decomposing organic
matter and pathogenic agents in faeces are
causes of a large number of water-borne dis
eases - like hepatitis polio-myelitis, cholera,
typhoid, paratyphoid, baciliary dysentry, gastroentritis, diarrhoea, amoebiasis, giardiasis, round
worm, thread worm, hydatid disease, Weil's
disease, guinea worm disease, fish tape worm,
schistosomiasis.
* Air pollutants exhibit themselves as smog,
smoke, ash fumes, mists, dusts, odours and
gases.
* India consumes nearly 562 tonnes of fossil
fuels and combustibles every year, releasing
about 94 million tonnes of poisonous materials
in the atmosphere.
3 Contamination of foods occur through micro
organisms present in faeces causing food-borne
6
Burning of commercial fuel sources like coal,
diesel, petroleum, gas, petroleum refining op
erations and non-commercial fuel like firewood,
dry cattle dung, vegetable waste products, ref
use burning, together emit 33 million tonnes of
carbon monoxide, 68 million tonnes of sulphur
dioxide, 25 million tonnes of nitrogen oxides, 90
million tonnes of hydrocarbons and 100 million
tonnes of particulates in India.
Automobiles are one of the main sources of
pollution in major cities of the world. Indian
vehicles are seven times more polluting than
those in developed countries, 63% of the total
pollution is caused by vehicles. Automobiles
emit carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, nitric oxide,
formaldehydes and lead compounds.
LAND POLLUTION
Land or Soil pollution originate mainly from:
1. The unintended or incidental Pollution of Soil
with human-made chemicals; 2. The Spent ma
terial from mining, or Industrial processing, etc.
3. The discharge of sewage or waste water from
urban areas on the land used for agricultural
purposes particularly that of adjoining urban
areas and 4. The indiscriminate disposal of solid
waste (refuse).
* Agricultural and forestry activities are also
contributing to the pollution of soil from differ
ent sources. Various fertilizers, herbicides, pes
ticides, fungicides, soil conditioners and fumi
gants which are in use have destroyed the agri
cultural, horticultural and silvicultural soils. The
chemicals used pollute the soil completely and
even-pollute water sources.
* Various hazardous toxic chemicals getting
accumulated in soil reach water and all sorts of
food products, for instance, remnants of stable
pesticides like DDT, Lindane, Aldrin, Dieldrin
etc. appear to be bound to or absorbed on soil
particles which are made up of inorganic miner
als coated with organic compounds.
•
"
/
•' * Percentage of pesticide present in soil after
one year - Aldrin 26% Heptachlor 45%, Chlorodane 55% Lindane 65% Dieldrin 75% DDT 80%
* WHO estimates that one person every min
ute is poisoned in the third world by pesiticides.
* City refuse is increasing day by day causing
multi-dimensional pollution even contaminat
ing the soil and in the course of time the under
ground water.
* Altogether about 40-50 billion tonnes of
waste and rubbish are dumped on our planet
every year, destroying the land.
* Today an average Indian produces 0.4 kgof
refuse per day while an American produces
seven times more.
* Industrial solid wastes which get burned or
ignited get leached by rainfall destroying vast
areas of soil and pollution of surface or ground
water. The open cast mining of coal, the forma
tion of mountains of slag and the tailings from
mines are examples of solid industrial waste de
stroying the land.
* 50-60% of the land has been denuded of
forests, globally. About 60 billion tonnes of soil
is washed into the ocean every year.
* Globally, deserts created as a result of hu
man activities extend over 9 million sq km.
Natural desert and created deserts together
constitute 57 million sq km or 44% of the earth's
land surface.
* In India, out of the 329 million hectares of
land mass, almost 175 million hectares of land is
degraded. India is loosing forest cover at the rate
of 1.5 million hectares per year and 30-50 mil
lion tonnes of food grains are lost on account of
loss and destruction of top soil.
* Almost three-quarters of the developing
world's people still depend on agriculture for
their livelihood. The loss of soil in both quality
and quantity is perhaps the most ignored of all
environmental disasters.
* In the last 100 years, and estimated 5000
million acres of soil have been lost and de
stroyed, the equivalent of one quarter of the
earth's farm land.
NOISE POLLUTION
r r—rj.r--i.ur.ajr"."
- r.-xr-r—rr-a
Noise Pollution can be understood as an
* Loud noises greatly enhance the produc
tion of adrenal hormones and it also increases
susceptibility to the virus causing cancerous tu
mours. It also causes cardio vascular problems
such as heart diseases and high blood pressure
leading to cardiac disturbances, neuro-sensory
and social conflicts at home and at work.
unaceptable level of sound causing irreparable
damage to the human system.
* Sound is a form of energy and it is measured
in units called decibels (dB). The decibel scale is
logarithmic; so a noise level of 90 dB would by
ten times loud as 80 dB.
* Example, a whisper equals 20 dB, normal
speech ranges between 30-50 dB, street noises
-40-70 dB, car engines 90 dB, and a reviving jet
shoots upto 150 dB.
* Noise becomes direct threat to patients and
pregnant women. Studies show high incidence
of excessive menstrual flow among women and
also high rale of birth defects, premature and
still births especially among pregnant women
living near Los Angeles airport in U.S.A., the
Heathrow airport in U.K. and the Osaka airport
in Japan as compared to pregnant women who
live in quieter areas.
* Researchers claim that if the present noise
levels continue unchecked future generations
will be born deaf. Tens of thousands of urban
communities across the world are threatened
by noise assaults.
* In India, misused conical speakers, blaring
radio and TV sets, open air cinema shows (espe
cially in the late hours of the night) horns of
vehicles, loud noise-making fire crackers are
examples of our callousness towards other's
feelings.
* Textile mills, major industrial units, jets
zooming in and out of the airport comulatively
contribute toward noise pollution.
* Many pop stars are found to suffer from
partial deafness after 4-5 years in the business.
* All the noise sources described so far are
human-made. But nature itself is a major pro
ducer of noise, much of which exceeds the
accepted danger level. Thunderstorms, hurri
canes, earthquakes volcanic eruptions show
nature at her noisiest state and they are remind
ers that the faculty of hearing is essential to our
survival. Our environment is full of sounds many
of which are dangerous signals warning us to
pay attention.
RADIATION POLLUTION
* Radiation is a pollutant far more dangerous
than any other existing ones.
* Different sources are-cosmic radiation, com
ing from outer space, terrestrial radiation origi
nating from the radioactive substances con
tained in the earth's crust, human-made radia
tion like X-rays and other types of radiation used
for medical purposes, fall out from testing nu
clear weapons, radiation from nuclear reactors
and other industries using ionising radiation and
radioactive materials released in the course of
nuclear power production.
* The overall loudness of environment noise
is doubling every ten years which would be a
sinister threat to our health and well-being. The
effect of continued exposure is very pronounced
at 90 dB the upper limit prescribed by the Inter
national Standards Union. Exposure to this level
for 8 hours daily can cause permanent deafness.
At 93 dB the exposure should not exceed 4
hours: and at 96 dB the human ear can tolerate
it only for 2 hours.
* Damage due to radiation can lead to gene
mutation, resulting in abnormal and disabled
children, Genetic hazards of radiation are invis
ible, irreversible and unquantifiable.
* There is no safe level of radiation at all.
Actually no dose of radiation is so low that the
risk of cancer is zero.
* Noise not only is a chronic irritant but a se
rious health hazard capable of causing irrepa
rable damage to the physique and psyche of
human beings. It is more likely to reduce the
accuracy, quality of our work than the quantity.
* Animals feeding on vegetation are infested
with radio-active contaminants. Human beings
thriving on animal and plant nutrients get the
a
r
radio-active pollutants into bones, glands, tis
sues, leading to over all damage to the body.
leaks and physical damage to workers.
* More than 200,000 people died due to
atom bomb explosion in Hiroshima and Nagasaki
in August 1945.
1 A nuclear war will turn our planet into an
unhospitable place for atleast 25,000 years.
* Experts opine that within 5 km of Chernobyl
disaster site, victims stand a 50% chance of
survival and the survivors would have suffered
bone marrow and gastro-intestinal tract dam
age.
* Even at sites 10 km away from the plant,
grass and milk samples show the presence of
radium which has entered the aquatic system.
* Risk of cancer due to irradiation varies from
person to person, and differs with types of can
cer, age, sex, genetic inheritance, individual
characteristics and eating and smoking habits.
* People living in places between 5-10 km
away from site would have experienced nausea
and other symptoms. Within a range of 90 km
from the site, a smaller amount of radiation can
cause a significant increase in the incidence of
blood cancer and other forms of cancer during
the next 30 years.
* Studies show that children with allergies
have a 300% to 400% increased risk of dying of
blood cancer. A study in US reveals that the
incidence of multiple myeloma, a bone marrow
cancer doubled with a cumulative dose of only
4 rems, a dose lower than the currently specified
annual exposure limits.
* An estimated 4,000 small and big nuclear
accidentshave occured around the world. Most
have gone unreported.
- From 1990 Calendar on Pollution Produced by:
Centre for Human Ecology, Bombay.
* In India an estimated 300 incidents of a 'se
rious' nature have occured, causing radiation
The Shape of a Sustainable Society
Jobs
New and/or Expanded
Employment Purpose
Focus on
Energy Auditors:
Identify conservation potential
Save Energy
Wind prospectors
find new uses
Alternate energy
Agronomists
bring back balance of nature
by organic gardening
Produce food, feed,
and fibre
Foresters
reestablishing the water
table and rainfall
Reforesting the land
Solar architects
to use readily available energy
Develop all possible
uses of sun energy
Biogas technicians
to lessen the cost of
cooking gas, and replace
chemical fertilizers
Use as fuel and
fertilizer
Family Planning
Midwives
to stabilize population
as a social goal
New population
policy
Holistic Health Work Book, SAHAJ.
9
ENVIRONMENT, HEALTH
AND DEVELOPMENT
a
s
f
a
INTRODUCTION
The all pervasive nature of the environment we live in cannot be stressed adequately. The quality
of water that we consume for drinking or for personal and household tasks, the soil in which we grow
our food and on which we dispose waste material, the animals and plants around us, the air that we
breathe and the rural and urban setting in which we dwell or work determines to a large extent the level
of our physical, mental and social well being.
Over the ages, man and woman have been altering their environment by accident or by design, as
illustrated below:
DEVELOPMENTAL ACTIVITIES AFFECTING ENVIRONMENT
*
Energy
consumption
Uncontrolled
industrialisation
Technologica1
development
O
assn
Industrial
v/aste
Food
needs'
Urbanisat.on
Food
production
Consumption
oi natural
resources
Population
growth
Changuig
land use
Population
movement
National
deb: and
wealth
W7W
Econcm.c
production
National
trade
International
trace
• Source: The State of Environment 1984. The environment in the dialogue between and among developed and delveloping countries. United
Nations Environment Programme.
10
Environmental degradation undermines de
velopment and damages human health. Ill health,
on the other hand affects the work force, hin
ders development and leads to environmental
degradation. Environment, development and
health are thus closely interlinked with proper
development improving the environment, sus
taining development and increasing community
health, making possible sustainable develop
ment. The role of men and women in the main
tenance of a clean and healthy environment is
therefore indispensable.
URBANIZATION AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
Urbanization and industralization and the re
sultant influx of population has resulted in se
verely stretching the existing facilities such as
housing, water supply and waste disposal, roads
and transport system and basic services.
The domestic wastes and garbage in the
congested settlements cause insanitary condi
tions, as well as insect and rodent problems
giving rise to many illnesses and deaths. Indis
criminate spraying of insecticides, rodenticides
and pesticides often result in health risks. Unsat
isfactory housing, overcrowding, inadequate
excreta disposal, burning of wood, coal and
cowdung cakes for cooking pose severe health
problems. Industrial emissions and inappropri
ate disposal of wastes, create additional health
hazards.
Every one has a right to enjoy a reasonably
clean, safe and healthy environment in which to
live and work. Developmental activities must
.therefore be controlled and well planned and
steps ensured to see that waste products are
removed safely:
oped in a planned manner, segregating residen
tial areas from those meant for commerce and
industry.
HOUSING AND SHELTER
Shelter is one of the essential requirements
for human life. Uncontrolled migration from
rural to urban areas make housing a major
problem. Poor housing has been shown to be
associated with tuberculosis, streptococcal in
fections, rheumatic fever and rheumatic heart
disease. Houses must be so designed and con
structed as to allow adequate air and sun light to
enter and, at the same time, protect its dwellers
from the elements. Where fire-wood, coal, or
cowdung cakes are used for cooking, houses
must be provided with smokeless "chulahs"
and proper ventilation to let out the smoke from
the burning fire, thereby keeping the in-door air
clean. Residents should have access to safe
drinking water, waste disposal sitesand sanitary
latrines.
WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION
In most SEAR countries the supply of drinking
water has not kept pace with population growth.
Waste collection and disposal facilities are often
lacking. Contamination of sources of water supply
often occur as a result of insanitary disposal of
solid and liquid domestic wastes including human
excreta.
It is not uncommon for whole settlements
drawing water from public taps or open wells or
community handpumps forcing people either to
draw insufficient quantities of water or to go to
polluted water sources. Lack of adequate water
for washing and cleaning coupled with poor
sanitation lead to infection and reinfection through
the oral-faecal route. The provision of safe water
supply and satisfactory disposal of wastes is
therefore imperative for a clean environment
and healthy living.
PLANNING OF URBAN DEVELOPMENT
Rapid urbanization is reaching serious pro
portions in the developing world leading to,
among other problems, unhealthy living condi
tions, overcrowding, psychosocial stresses and
violence. Unplanned, hastily planed settlements
or squatter settlements are invariably deficient
in housing and essential services for healthy
living. Towns and cities must be therefore devel
DISPOSAL OF SOLID WASTES
Large volumes of refuse are produced by the
communities. Until the turn of the 20th century,
the generaly accepted way of disposal of do
mestic refuse was either to dump it into the
11
COMMUNITY health cell
mtFirstFloonS.. Marks'fload
3AWGAtOac - 560 001
tions covering the production, conveyance, dis
posal and accidental discharge of dangerous
substances.
courtyard of the house where it accumulated
and decomposed till it was finally carted away to
farms or other disposal sites, or throwing it out
into the streets where it dispersed. This, how
ever, encouraged the breeding of flies, insects
and rodents, which in turn, transmitted many
diseases.
(3) Introduction of new technologies
New technologies and industrial innovations
are being introduced all the time often without
due regard to safety. Legislation should promote
safe production technologies as well as the
recycling or proper disposal of waste.
KEEP OUR ENVIRONMENT CLEAN
Yet, the more new industries develop and
existing industries expand, the more the envi
ronment gets affected. Although environmental
issues have become matters of great concern,
the speed at which new technologies are intro
duced is rarely matched with measures to pro
tect the environment and the people.
(4) Site Selection
The selection of a proper site for an industry
vis-a-vis well-serviced housing is extremely
important. If carefully located, an industry will
not only present a minimum risk but will also
mean reduced distances for employees to travel
to work.
On the other hand, hazardous substances
produced by industry are being handled by the
puplic without being fully aware of their danger
ous side effects. Pesticides, for instance, are the
most important and most widely used hazard
ous chemicals in the Region. Their improper
application leads to thousands of deaths every
year.
(5) Health of the Workers
In the case of an industry the working envi
ronment is at least as important as its surround
ings. Workers have to be properly protected
against harmful factors (toxic fumes, dust, noise,
radiation, etc). The provision of first aid equip
ment and protective devices is not enough.
Safety will have to start at the source through
hazard control.
Albert Einstein once stated that "concern for
man himself and his fate must always form the
chief interest of all technical endeavour". If he
was alive today he would certainly realize that
concern for man and his fate would become
meaningless without concern for the environ
ment.
(6) Public Information
There is a general lack of awareness on the
part of both the public as well as the decision
makers. Health education and public informa
tion programmes should, therefore, include safety
aspects of the handling and disposal of hazard
ous substances and of industrial accidents.
In the case of industries it would mean care
ful consideration of a number of issues of far
reaching consequence:
CONCLUSION
(1) Policies and Planning
Again it will be politicians, policy and deci
sion-makers and planners who will have to take
the first step and formulate proper policies and
develop realistic plans for establishing and ex
panding industries.
(2) Legislation
Although some form of legislation mostly
exists it is usually inadequate or in need of
improvement or for strengthening procedures
for enforcement. It should typically include the
setting of standards and maximum allowable
concentrations as well as drawing up of regula
Never before in history have there been cities
as large as today's, doubling their size every 10
to 15 years. Never before have goods been
produced in such quantity and variety and never
before have our energy requirements been of
such proportions. In view of the fact that our
numbers and our demands are still increasing
we have to consider future steps carefully and
remember Einstein's words and act accordingly.
- WHO Information Kit Helath for all - All for Health
12
ALTERNATIVES FOR POLLUTIONS
instead of
Air freshener
•
Safer alternatives
Fresh flowers
set out an open box of baking soda
set out vinegar in a dish
General cleaner
Mix baking soda with small amount of water
Drain Opener
Use a plunger, mechanical snake or drain strainer Pour 1 /2c baking
soda into drain, followed by 2c boiling water. Prevent clogs: flush
drain with boiling water weekly
Furniture polish
Rub in a small amount of mayonnaise with a soft cloth
Mix 1 part lemon juice with 2 parts olive or vegetable oil and rub
with a soft cloth
Mix 3 parts olive oil and 1 part vinegar and rub with a soft cloth
Laundry detergent
Use washing soda or soap
Toilet bowl cleaner
1 /2c bleach and scrub stains with a pumice stone
Wood floor cleaner
Mix half oil and vinegar solution apply thinly and rub well
Use 11. baking soda and about one and a half liters of hot water for
painted wood and rinse with clear water
Fertilizer
Compost coffee grounds and tea bags - Do not use grass treated
with chemicals
Houseplant insecticides
Soapy water on leaves and rinse
Mix pepper in water and spray on leaves
Household insecticides
Ants won't cross a barrier of cucumbers or red pepper
Encourage spiders - they eat flies and mosquitoes
For cockroaches, spread 2 T. Flour,
LT. cocoa powder, 4 T. Borax around infested area
For flies, make flypaper by dipping brown paper in honey
CODE:
C - Cup
t - teaspoon
T - Table Spoon
Peace News letter, Central New York
13
The Polotfcs of Environment
OPERATION CLEAN-UP
Among the hundreds of things the environment ministry has activated, to the
annoyance of vested interests, are the following. Offered to give an idea of
what is happening. Whether Maneka Gandhi wins her batlies or not, these
will change the face of India in the nineties.
NATIONAL FORESTRY FUND
This will allow businesses to get a 100 per
cent tax exemption while contributing to
the greening of India. The money will be
given to tribals and NCOs across the land,
to start work immediately.
ENVIRONMENT COURTS
Special courts are being set up to give the
poor man hope for speedy justice against
multicrore factories that pollute the envi
ronment with impunity. Drafted by Justice
Bhagwati, the proposed act will take away
power from bureaucrats and politicians
and pass it on to the common man.
NATIONAL WASTE MANAGEMENT COUNCIL
This was set-up in March. Its main task is to
convert the 40 million tonnes of flyash that
lie in mountains near thermal power plants
into bricks, city garbage into energy, sew
age into fertiliser. The ministry has already
made the big cities buy plants that will
convertgarbage into fuel pellets, to replace
firewood.
ENVIRONMENT-FRIENDLY PRODUCTS
The ministry will set stringent standards for
all products in the market. Those which
meet these standards of production and
performance will be given this label of
excellence. Like the ISI mark.
DELEADiNGOF PETROL
Refineries are being persuaded to invest Rs
IIOO crores to making their petrol leadfree. India has the highest lead content in
its petrol, which results in immense and in
tense city pollution. The ministry is lobby
ing very hard to get foreign grants for this
investment.
SOLAR ENERGY COMMISSION
Since the energy sector is a major polluter,
the idea is to create decentralised energy at
the village level instead of multiplying mainstream producers. The ministry has asked
for this commission, to save vast sums of
money from being spent on dams and nu
clear reactors, cut down on pollution, solve
the energy problem at the grassroots level.
BAN ON HARMFUL PESTICIDES
The most widespread form of pollution in
India is through pesticides. Food, fruit, water,
nothing is safe. Eight chemical pesticides,
of which DDT, BHC, Aldrin and Malathion
are the main criminals, have been isolated.
Plans are now afoot to replace them with
safe biopesticides.
PUBLIC LIABILITY INSURANCE
When a leak occurs or large-scale poison
ing results from an accident in a chemical
plant, be it a maker of paints or pesticides
as in the case of Bhopal, the guilty com
pany holds up payment for years by litiga14
\
tion. This legislation will make it manda
tory for all such factories to take out a
heavy public liability insurance, to be paid
within 48 hours of the damage.
HOTELS IN GOA
Action has been taken against a large num
ber ofhotels in Coa, which encroached on
the beaches in flagrant violation of the
laws. They are now being forced to break
down their illegal structures and conform
to the environment laws governing seaside
resorts.
BAN ON ANIMAL SYMBOLS
Tlie law ministry has been persuaded to
ban the use ofanimal symbols in elections,
to\prevent political parties from playing
ar und with the lives of the animals used
du ring campaigning.
CREATING WOOD SUBSTITUTES
To conserve forests, the ministry is aggres
sively pursuing the use of wood substitutes
in all areas. Jute for packaging. Concrete for
railway sleepers. Agricultural waste and
wild plants like water hyacinth for paper.
Artificial wood for furniture. Wherever
possible, wood is being replaced by substi
tutes.
WILD LIFE AMENDMENT ACT
A c abinet note has been circulated, sug
gesting ways and means to more strongly
apply this act and punish those who violate
it.
NO SMOKING IN PUBLIC PLACES
Against much opposition, the ministry has
successfully inspired a ban on smoking in
many public places. This will soon come
into effect.
Rumours insist the minister is proposing to
attack tobacco growing itself- by proposing
a freeze on land use for tobacco cultivation
and a strong incentive programme to divert
farmers to other crops.
ENVIRONMENT CLEARANCE FOR PROJECTS
The ministry has proposed amendments to
the Environment Protection Act that will
make it statutory for all public and private
sector units to get environment clearance
before going on stream. If implemented,
this will make the environment ministry
even more powerful than what it has be
come today.
NATIONAL ZOO AUTHORITY
Seeing the terrible state ofzoos everywhere,
the idea has been mooted to form a Zoo
Authority of India, under the Wildlife Pro
tection Act, that will manage all zoos in dif
ferent parts of the country. Meanwhile, all
roadside zoos are being closed down.
BAN ON BVO
BVO (brominatedvegetable oil), an emul
sifying agent in citrus - based soft drinks
was banned internationally a decade back.
But many soft drink makers in India were
happily using the cancer-causing chemi
cal, ignoring the consequences. This sum- •
mer, no softdrinks with BVO will be on the
shelves, the ban has been enforced for the
first time, at the insistence of the environment ministry.
NO TRADING IN BIRDS AND ANIMALS
Efforts are being made to stop the illicit
trade in birds and animals. Raids have been
conducted in many cities to stop such
businesses and the public is being edu
cated to not encourage them by buying
animal skins, bones, ivory from those who
catch wild creatures illegally.
POLLUTION BY MOTOR VEHICLES
Anti-pollution measures against motor
vehicles are being strictly enforced for the
first time. Cars, two-wheelers not adhering
to the standards prescribed are being fined
heavily and may even by yanked off the
road, to send the message home. ■■
NATIONAL RIVER ACTION PLAN
The proposal is to set up a national river au
thority, which will plan a policy for water
use and waste water management at a na
tional level.
15
- From The Illustrated Weekly of India
May 6, 1990
Toward a New Sodefty
A network is already there of people around the world who have chosen a voluntary simple
life style. To start living a simpler life style, we must shift away from the ecologically faulty
system we now have, to what we'll need for an ecologically oriented economic system.
Now We Have an Ecologically
Faulty System
What Well Need for An Ecologically
Oriented Economic System
VALUES
Growth, big is good,
Complex Technology,
Maxi mu m Prod uctio n
Planned Obsolescence
Steady State
Small is beautiful,
Intermediate Technology
Adequate Production
Minimised Consumption
Equilibrium, Conservation
Frugality', Durability
LIFE STYLES
Keep up with the rich,
Conspicuous Consumption,
Nuclear Family
Desire For Highest Possible Income
Eat for taste and fashion
Simplicity,
Communal Living
Greatly Reduced Consumption
Delight in Living With Minimal
Income and Possessions
Eat for nutritious value
PLANNING
Mostly by Business Firms
to Maximise their Profit
and Economic Growth
Developed through Democratically
controlled bodies and aimed at
Governing Production by
Social and Ecological Criteria.
CAPITAL
Maximum Accumulation of Capital
Through search for Maximum
Profit, Maximum CNP and
Quantity of Capital Strock
Capital Investment Rate Set Equal
to Depreciation Rate.
Production For Social Use Rather
Than Private Profit.
Minimize GNP and Maximise Quality
of Capital Stock.
RESOURCES
Used In A Wasteful WayUse Rale Increasing
Exponentially.
Planned Obsolescence leads to
Very' High Resource Consumption.
Unnecessary Duplication Leads
to Wasted Material and Time
Drastic Reduction in Resource Use
Per Unit of Industrial Production.
Products Built for Durability,
Repairability, Recycling.
Minimal "Throughput."
Goal of Waste Elimination, e.g.
Instead of Several Competing
private drug companies making
almost identical products with
enormous advertising outlay, have
a few regional drug companies
making standardized drugs.
From: Holistic Health Work Book, SAHAJ, Pune.
16
CEtt
Sai^^g' "\:^s^sosd
'”>•^0^7
Health Effects
of
Air Pollution
A STATEMENT
BY THE
AMERICAN THORACIC SOCIETY
Published by
American Lung Association
1740 Broadway • New York, N.Y. 10019
FORMERLY NATIONAL TUBERCULOSIS AND RESPIRATORY DISEASE ASSOCIATION
Reprinted from
The American Review of Respiratory Disease
Vo]. 108, No. 3, September 1973
SUMMARY
When considering the effects of a pollutant or
combination of pollutants on man, we must re
alize that such an exposure can result in pre
cursors of illness, physiologic change of unknown
significance, and a pollutant burden in a larger
proportion of the population than that which is
Piade overtly ill. We must also keep in mind the
fact that chronic, long-term exposures may act
insidiously and that it may be extremely difficult
to relate the exposure to the resultant disease.
In addition, there may be other competing fac
tors, such as cigarette smoking or other tobacco
usage that may overwhelm the effect of a pol
lutant or that may act synergistically with the ex
posure. The relative importance of many of these
interactions still needs to be worked out.
than that in the blood. Conversely, it will be
absorbed via the same route if the pressure is
reversed. The major sources of carbon monoxide
arc internal combustion engines and cigarettes
and other tobacco products. Evidence is accumu
lating that indicates that when carboxyhemo
globin is 5% or more, alterations in physiologic
function can occur. These include alteration in
light sensitivity of the eye. More importantly
there can be interferences in oxygen uptake by
heart muscle at 3-5% carboxyhemoglobin. This
latter may account for the increased incidence
of myocardial infarcts in heavy cigarette smokers.
The primary standard of 10 mg/m3 or about 8
ppm as a maximal 8-hour value is probably more
stringent than is necessary since such exposures
would probably produce 1.4-1.0% carboxyhemo
globin, which is about twice what is normally
present. The one hour standard of 40 mg/m3
(34 ppm) is probably reasonable with some safety
factor even for those with myocardial disease.
Sulfur Oxides and Suspended Particulates
It is probably advisable to consider these two
pollutants together, as their major source is the
burning of fossil fuels (coal and oil), even though
the precise extent of their interaction is not en
tirely known. There is evidence that sulfur oxide
can be converted to sulphuric acid (H2SO4) or
ro other sulfates. It may be that the particles
^)lay a role in this conversion to what is a more
toxic substance (H2SO4) than sulfur dioxide.
The importance of other sulfates and their ef
fect on human health still needs more research.
The present primary standards for sulfur diox
ide and particulates appear to be close to the
no-effect level. As more long-term studies are
completed, it may well be that in the future
these levels should be reduced in order to have
some safety factor.
Oxidizing Type of Air Pollution
This represents a complex mixture of compounds
that require ultraviolet rays (sunlight) as the
energy source to activate the chemical interac
tions. The resultant compounds are the sub
stances that cause irritation of the eye, nose, and
throat. Some of the compounds involved are ox
ides of nitrogen and hydrocarbons from the in
ternal combustion engine and ozone that is pro
duced as a result of the activity of ultraviolet
radiation. To date, no increase in mortality has
been associated even with episodes of relatively
high levels of pollution due to these compounds.
Studies on long-term effects are needed, as the
levels of ozone and oxides of nitrogen have
reached levels in Los Angeles that have been
associated with increased susceptibility of mice
to bacterial infection, and men have shown re
ductions in the diffusing capacity of their lungs.
The primary standard for photochemical oxi
dant is 125 /zg/m3 as the maximal one-hour
value. This seems to be a reasonable value. The
Carbon Monoxide
Carbon monoxide is a normal metabolite. It will
normally be excreted via the lungs if the pres
sure in the ambient air (or alveoli) is lower
The American Thoracic Society is the medical
section of the American Lung Association.
3
primary standard for nitrogen dioxide is 100 ^g
m3 as the annual arithmetic mean. More research
is needed to substantiate this value as it is based
essentially on one study which should be con
firmed. Hydrocarbons per se do not seem to be a
problem bur rather their degradation products
resulting from photochemical reactions and the
irritant substances produced. The primary stan
dard for hydrocarbons has, therefore, been predi
cated on their potential to produce these by
products, and it has been set at 125 /ig/m3 as the
maximal concentration from 0600 to 0900. This
also seems to be a reasonable value although
more research will be needed to rule out pos
sible long-term effects.
plicated as producing disease in non-occupationally exposed individuals. Cadmium accumulates
in the kidney, and it is believed to be a factor
in producing hypertension because of its effect
on the kidney. Further research is needed to
confirm this. Lead may come from a variety of
sources; there have been instances in which soil
has been contaminated with lead and small chil
dren have been poisoned. Arsenic is probably the
least toxic of this group but it, too, has been
involved in an episode of community air pollu
tion that resulted in considerable dermatitis in
the children. It does therefore seem prudent to
control the emission of these substances to the
levels proposed.
Other Substances
Certain other materials, such as asbestos, arsenic,
beryllium, cadmium, and lead do not have levels
as primary standards. Instead, these substances,
all of which can have devastating effects, arc
controlled by emission standards in order to minimize the exposure of general populations. As
bestos and beryllium have been definitely im
Special Note
The Council of the American Thoracic Society
acknowledges this contribution of Benjamin G.
Ferris, Jr., M.D. The summary is abstracted from
an extensive review of the literature prepared by
Dr. Ferris at the request of the National Air Con
servation Commission. Single copies of the review
document arc available upon request.
CHRISTMAS SEALS, BEQUESTS, AND MEMORIAL GIFTS
FIGHT LUNG DISEASE
Distributed by your local Christmas Seal association
Published by the American Lung Association
IT’S A MATTER OF LIFE AND BREATH
#3511
4
12/73
TNVHA NEWSLETTER
SUPPLEMENT MAY 1990
23
SIRUVALLUR ROAD, PERAMBUR, MADRAS 600 011
_ COMMUNITY HEALTH CELL
WL(First FloorJSt. Marks Roarf
BANGALORE.560 ooi
ENVIRONMENT
&
HEALTH
NEWS AND INFORMATION FROM VARIOUS SOURCES
PUBLISHED TO CREATE AWARENESS & IMPART
INFORMATION AMONG READERS.
Edited by: Mrs. Saulina Arnold, For Tamil Nadu Voluntary Health Association, Madras.
WE ACKNOWLEDGE
OUR THANKS
TO THE FOLLOWING PUBLISHERS
World Health Organization
News Letter, April 1990, Geneva.
"Environment"
News Paper of Central New York
August/September 1989.
"City Edition"
Syracuse, New York, July 31, 1989.
LWF Mission Notes
December 1989, Geneva.
For Articles and Book Review
SCALA
A Periodical from the Federal Republic of Germany,
September/October, 1987.
CONSUMER
Publication of Department of Health and Human Service
Public Health Service, Food and Administration
Rockville, Md 20857
Office of Public Affairs, USA.
2
1990 WORLD HEALTH DAY MESSAGE
Message from Dr. U Ko Ko, Regional Director
W.H.O. South-East Asia Region
Never before in the history of the human
race has humankind faced the kind of ecologi
cal dangers that it is now confronted with.
Population explosion, uncontrolled urbaniza
tion and industrialization have brought in their
wake widespread pollution of air, water and
land as well as deforestation, desertification,
accidents involving chemicals, and the danger
of extinction of some plant and animal species.
In the name of progress, man seems to have
thrown caution to the winds. All that matters is
the perceived benefit in the short-term.
need of international concerted action to stem
the tide that seems all set to engulf the world.
It is to underscore, once again, the very direct
links between man and his environment that
WHO has chosen environment and health as
its theme for World Health Day this year.
The increase in air and water pollution,
giving rise to the greenhouse effect, depletion
of the ozone layer, rising sea level, respiratory
and water-borne diseases, and the host of
other problems related to rapid urbanization
and industrialization need urgent action, not
so much to undo the harm and has already
been done, but to prevent further damage to
the world’s ecosystem.
Fortunately, since these problems are
largely man-made, there are workable solu
tions at hand as well. But these can be arrived
at only through coordinated global actions.
However, the message for an urgent solution
is loud and clear: Unless something is done
now there may as well be no tomorrow.
As the Director-General of the World
Health Organization, Dr. Hiroshi Nakajima has
said, “We must alert everyone to the dangers
of an unhealthy environment and to improve
health and preserve humankind".
Numerous reports by Commissions and
environmentalists have clearly highlighted the
OVERVIEW^
Throughout the history of our civilization
doomsayers have never been in short supply.
Our age has even found it trendy to be pessi
mistic. But it is no exaggeration to say that one
of the few unifying factors in today’s world,
cutting across social and political systems, re
ligions, continents and nations, is a growing
concern for environmental health and protec
tion of the Earth.
with a capital D has two faces: nations and in
dividuals may become richer, but factories and
cars pell environmental danger. The world
wide “green” movement is evolving very rap
idly from a fringe faction into a major force on
the international scene. There is a very good
reason for this. Not only the quality of life but,
in the long-run, the very survival of the species
depends on safeguarding our planet. Global
environmental problems seem to be taking
over from nuclear war fears as the world’s
It was only in the second half of this
century that it dawned onus that Development
3
urban malaria is yet another vivid example of
the fact that developing countries, populations
are much more exposed, not only to the ele
ments, but even more so to whole host of
maladies which can be called diseases of
poverty.
biggest headache.
We can only guess how many millions
today all over the globe endure a precarious
existence in shanty towns, inner city slums,
refugee camps and squatter settlements. Their
“planet” is a long, long way from being a
healthy one. The lack of safe water and sani
tation encourage a host of diseases-typhoid,
cholera, hepatitis, poliomyelitis, dysentery,
amoebiasis.
In the countryside itself all is not well.
Over intensive agricultural production has
dumped potentially dangerous levels of ni
trates and other chemicals into the soil and
thence into the water. High-yield harvests can
only be sustained by covering plants and soil
with ever greater amounts of fertilizers and
pesticides. Meanwhile, weeds and insects are
developing resistance to these chemicals, thus
defeating the multimillion dollar efforts that go
into research and production of commercial
pesticides.
The fuel burned in the earth by about half
of the world's population as the major source
of domestic energy results in between 400 to
500 million people suffering from severe in
door air pollution. Scarce food, overcrowding,
perpetual stress, alienation-all this creates
fertile conditions for severe mental health
problems; suicide is no stranger in the slums.
The agricultural sector in developing
countries is geared predominantly to local
needs. There are some notable exceptions,
however, in the form of traditional export crops
such as coffee or cotton. These gobble up the
lion's share of the pesticides which reach the
developing countries-merely one-fifth of the
global production.
Crippling burden of infectious disease
and malnutrition is a new set of non-communicable diseases commonly associated with hasty
industrialization and the indiscriminate use of
chemicals.
Malnutrition, that eternal sign of poverty,
is one of the most persistent of the health
problems of the urban poor.
The bad news is that, in one form or
another, global climate change is coming. The
good news is that we know about it and can
and must benefit from that knowledge. Every
little effort helps! This is what WHO means
with its slogan for World Health Day 1990:
Water is essential to life. It is also a major
medium for disease transmission including
typhoid and cholera. People from the industri
alized North for whom diarrhoea is just an un
pleasant holiday experience find it hard to
grasp that in the Third World five million chil
dren die every year from diarrhoeal diseases.
The major villain of this global tragedy is un
safe water.
OUR PLANET - OUR HEALTH
Think globally - Act locally
The sheer scale of water-borne diseases
is truly staggering. Poliomyelitis, guinea worm
infection, malaria, yellow fever, dengue, river
blindness, schistosomiasis - these are just a
handful of the more commonly known ones.
The bad news is that, through out the tropics,
matters are getting worse, not better. Malaria
and other vector-borne diseases previously
confined to the countryside have followed the
rural to urban migrants and found ideal breed
ing grounds in the city slums. Emergence of
As we move into the last decade of the
century, environmental issues are taking on a
new importance on the world's agenda. Back
in the 17th century the English poet, John
Donne, wrote: “No man is an island entire of
itself.” Today, we can add “No country is an
island entire of itself.” We are all under a cloud,
and it is a cloud of our own making.
- From World Health Organization News
4
UNDERSTANDING THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT
By Suzanne D. Latonde
Since 1950 the over-all temperature of
the planet has gone up by almost 1 *F. Scien
tists attribute the temperature rise to the “green
house effect".
tion of the water in the oceans occurs, thus
forming clouds. Clouds produce rain which
cools the earth and lowers its temperature.
The so-called carbonate-silicate geo
chemical cycle also recycles CO2, removing it
from the atmosphere, storing it in rocks, and
finally allowing its release through volcanic
eruptions.
A greenhouse occurs when a layer of the
atmosphere, 6 to 12 miles from the ground,
warms while the stratosphere above it cools.
The presence of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the
atmosphere is blamed for 50% of the warming.
Three other gases also contribute to the prob
lem: methane produced in wood burning and
the raising of rice and cattle; nitrous oxide
which comes from caremissions, and CFCs
which also cause ozone depletion.
NASA scientists point out that the “earth
has always had a moderate climate primarily
because its cycling mechanism increases the
amount of CO2 in the atmosphere when the
surface cools and reduces the amount when
the greenhouse temperature rises” (p.90 ibid).
These same researchers point out that the
present warming is linked to the burning of
fossil fuel which cannot continue for more than
a few hundred years before the planet’s re
serves of oil and coal are eliminated." They
predict that after this warming period (brief in
view of the earth’s life) the CO2 levels will again
fall.
Since the beginning of the Industrial
Revolution 70 parts/million of CO2have been
added to the atmosphere mostly through the
burning of coal and oil. More recently, one of
nature’s largest consumers of CO2, the tropi
cal rain forest, is under attack with 27.2 million
acres destroyed.
How does carbon dioxide effect the
atmosphere?
Other scientists do not share this opti
mistic outcome of the greenhouse effect. In
stead, they foresee the possibility of a rise in
the oceans because of the melting of the polar
ice cap and, as a consequence, coastal cities
throughout the world will be covered by the
oceans.
“CO2, like water and certain other sub
stances, is a greenhouse gas: it allows sun
light to pass through it, but it absorbs infrared
radiation (heat) that rises from the plant and
re-radiates part of this heat back to the sur
face.” (p.90 Scientific American, Feb., 1988)
Scientists theorize that the earth's "COs
levels have probably fluctuated in response to
surface temperature” (p 92, ibid.). The planet
has several separate means of adjusting its th
ermostat. For instance, when the earth and its
atmosphere are warmer, increased evapora
Only time will tell, if there is no change in
the current CO2emission levels, which theory
is correct.
Several Gases are responsible for the
Greenhouse Effect, the most important being
carbon dioxide (CO2) which is released by the
burning of coal, oil, and natural gas. Also, the
loss of much of our planet’s forests results in
less O2 in the atmosphere. Other important
Greenhouse gases are Methane, Nitrous Oxide,
various Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC5) and
- Central New York
Environment - August/September, 89.
5
which convert sunlight directly to electricity,
has dropped by a factor of 10, and the world
market of Photovoltaic Cells has grown 50fold. Solar Collectors in California now supply
electricity to utilities at competitive prices. Wind
power is another renewable energy source as
is Geothermal power (power generated from
Earth's interior). Biomass (wood and vegeta
tion) could supply part of U.S. energy needs. It
could be burned to produce heat and electric
ity or be converted to alcohol to fuel cars. Nu
clear power does not produce greenhouse
gases however chronic problems of safety,
cost, management, and disposal of radioac
tive wastes have not been resolved. If we are
to save our planet, we must move away from
the use of fossil fuels and toward greater
energy efficiency and widespread use of re
newals.
ground-level ozone, all of those concentra
tions have been observed to be increasing in
our atmosphere.
The Union of Concerned Scientists
strongly suggests a World Wide prohibition of
CFC’s, long-lasting, man-made chemicals that
are used in refrigerators, air conditioners,
insulating foams, aerosol sprays and solvents.
Another necessary step is to stop the World
Wide destruction of forests. When trees are
cut and burned, they release carbon dioxide as
well as methane and nitrous oxide.
The primary solution of this dilemma of global
warming is to cut the use of fossil fuels. We
must increase our efforts to use energy more
efficiently. A promising approach to energy
conservation is cogeneration, which is the use
of waste heat or fuel from industrial processes
to generate electricity. Cogeneration currently
produces about 2% of electricity. Solar Energy
is becoming a more practical source of energy.
Since 1976, the price of Photocoltaic Cells,
City Edition, July 31, 89
(Syracuse, N.Y.)
ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION - SN A NUTSHELL
Q. What will happen if the ozone layer be
comes thinner?
than it is, and life on earth, as we know it, would
not be possible. Great uncertainties surround
the exact consequences of the extra global
warming from the build-up of greenhouse gases,
but it could well pose the greatest environ
mental threat in history.
Global warming will develop and cause mas
sive flooding as sea levels rise. Climates will
change and animal and plant habitat will be de
stroyed. Increased ultra-violet light in the at
mosphere will cause skin cancer and start to
kill microscopic life in the food chain, which
would ultimately affect humankind.
Q. Does coal fires contribute to the Green
house Effect?
Yes, coal plus carbon dioxide into the atmos
phere and this contributes to global warming.
Q. What is Greenhouse Effect?
The greenhouse affect occurs when certain
gases mainly, carbon dioxide, ground-level
ozone, chlorofluoro-carbons(CFCs) and ha
lons, methane and nitrous oxide build up in the
atmosphere. These gases trap some of the
heat emitted by the earth increasing the earth’s
surface temperature and altering the global
climate and all the natural and human activities
that depend on it. Without a certain amount of
this nutural and human activities that depend
on it. Without a certain amount of this natural
warming, the earth would be above 60 colder
Q. Why are eco-friendly products so ex
pensive?
They are more expensive to produce. Wash
ing powder serves as a good example. One of
its main ingredients is phosphate. It both sof
tens washing water and removes dirt and
fabric. Phosphates are detrimental when dis
charged into rivers. To replace phosphate in
detergent and maintain standards, manufac
turers must use two costly products. Hence
higher costs, passed on to the consumer.
6
&
Q. Why aren’t solar, wind or tidal energy
more popular?
Planting trees help, but the amount needed to
combat the current planetary threat is colos
sal. A forest the size of Australia would be
needed. The answer to the greenhouse effect
is to stop the causes. Re-forestation has to be
part of a major, multifaceted package.
It should be possible to offer a 1970 European
standard of living to the entire world by using
the renewable energy sources listed above.
However every nation would be obliged to
spend billions of dollars before this could be
achieved.
Jr
Q. What are nitrates? What are the health
problems caused by nitrates in water?
Q. Are diesel-run cars the cleanest?
Nitrates are chemicals used mostly in agricul
ture. Plants absorb only some of the nitroge
nous fertilizers, and the residue ends up in
rivers, streams and often tap water. Nitrates
are not the only problem. Water can also
contain lead, chlorinated solvents and pesti
cides. Experiments suggest that nitrates in
water may cause cancer.
No. In the past diesel was cleaner than petrol,
and it’s true that it is lead-free, but petrol has
improved and now diesel is considered envi
ronmentally second rate. Cars also burn en
ergy and encourage fuel consumption.
How th*'greenhouse effect'work*
OIOAS !tj*r
LM r Mt*
IA<
h*rr"tj i»'Urrto*el
t*d>*t>on
□
Atc-t
pare am ot t*e
•narpf ia »*e*ci*a beta
tnto apace
□
Buremg o» ’cti3 tua a a*VJ
datc/aa'a^ lAC/eaao cart-on
kn CM atmoapAera.
to IN a are c>Jc<o*'.voreo'toorta
(ryr'-’uda pa mi uatd th a;--*y car.a,
ftMgaranta, iM InaiXaGona) and 'mV.am
landUa. la.—-ng. t.-«j awanpa)
Q. What is acid rain? What damage does it
□
Moat of ma »-n'a
ant’gr retchaa
o.e (art*.
□
do?
It’s caused by the burning of fossil fuels; wood,
coal and oil in hoes and industry, and nitrogen
oxide from car exhausts. The sulfur and nitro
gen oxides enter the air, float upwards into the
atmosphere and eventually fall again as rain,
mist or snow. They very often fall hundreds of
miles from their place of origin, which is why
one country’s pollution can become another’s
environmental nightmare. Massive damage
has been done to forests and woodlands. But
acid rain also acidifies lakes, killing fish and
fauna; attacks the surface of the oceans; and
acidified agricultural land, causing farmers to
use even more chemical fertilizers to main
crop yield. It attacks stonework, particularly on
vulnerable old building.
Toother, lhaie
QAtaa Ic/n a
Uanaaf .h.’.h
uapa anarg/,
thua wa»r».Ag tra
Earth.
Q. Are cars converted to unleaded petrol
environmentally-friendly?
Unleaded petrol is only a first step. Without a
catalytic converter cars still emit chemicals
harmful to the environment.
Q. Why do countries continue to cut down
rain forests when they know the damage
it’s doing?
Developing nations have many problems and
environment isn’t always top of agenda. They
have weak economies and huge debts to
repay. Rain forests are a source of income.
Wood for timber is sold to the industrialized
nations. For example Japan buys 40 per cent
of all tropical wood for chopsticks. Cattle grazed
on cleared land can be sold as beef.
Q. It is true that some flower bulbs are
stolen from the wild?
Yes. The biggest exporter is Turkey. In the last
10 years they’ve exported 71 million anemo
nes, 20 million cyclamen, 111 million winter
aconites. In only one year 30 million snow
drops were exported. Countries including
Portugal, Spain, Yugoslavia, India and Japan
are involved in this trade and large areas of
land are being stripped of their native plants.
Q. If trees help to combat the build-up of
greenhouse gases, why aren’t more
planted?
From: LWF Mission Notes, December 1989
7
BOOK REVIEWS
OZONEMANIA
“My Adventures in the Ozone Layer” by S. Fred Singer, in National Review
(June 30, 1989), P.O. Box 96639, Washington, D.C. 20077-7471.
In fact, says Singer, the ozone hole may
have other causes. It may, for example, be a
temporary phenomenon related to cycles of
solar activity.
Moreover, he argues, the evidence link
ing increased exposure to the sun’s ultraviolet
rays to human illness is suspect. One scientist
frightened a U.S. Congressional committee in
1987 by reporting that malignant melanoma
(skin cancer) had increased by 100 percent
since 1975. True enough. But the scientist
neglected to point out, among other things,
that skin cancer has been increasing sharply
since 1935, long before the ozone hole ap
peared.
Singer is suspicious of the motives of the
scientists, government bureaucrats, and dip
lomats who are fanning the ozone panic. The
scientists get more research grants and public
attention; the bureaucrats get more power; the
diplomats get more diplomacy.” For all in
volved there is of course travel to pleasant
places, good hotels, international fellowship,
and more.” Until we better understand that
science behind ozone depletion, Singer con
cluded, some controls on CFO production are
prudent. But a complete ban would be costly
and premature.
Last year's global environmental men
ace was the “greenhouse effect.’’ This year's
is the “hole” in Planet Earth’s ozone layer,
which screens out the sun’s ultraviolet rays.
But is a little premature to stock up on sun
block yet, suggests Singer, an environmental
scientist at the University of Virginia.
The “hole” is the planet’s stratospheric
ozone layer was discovered over Antarctica by
British scientists in 1985. Alarms were sounded,
international conferences held, and in 1987
the world’s industrial nations agreed under the
Montreal Protocol to begin reducing produc
tion of chlorofluorocarbons (CFOs). These are
the industrial chemicals, used in refrigerators
and air conditioners, in plastic foam-blowing,
and in electronic cleaning equipment, which
are said to be responsible for the missing
ozone.
“The case against CFCs is based on a
theory of ozone depletion, plausible, but quite
incomplete,” says Singer. In March 1988, the
National Aeronautics and Space Administra
tion (NASA) released, amid much fanfare, a
study of ozone trends over 17 years. It re
ported that ozone was disappearing even faster
than theory predicted. “This could mean that
the theory is wrong, or the trend is spurious, or
both,” observes Singer. But NASA cited it only
as a cause for greater alarm about CFCs.
From: L WF Mission Notes, Dec. 1989
DO COMPUTERS KILL?
“The Hazards of Electromagnetic Fields: Video-Display Terminals” by Paul Brodeur,
in The New Yorker (June 26,1989), 25 W. 43rd Street, New York. 10036.
Almost one out of every 15 white-collar
workers in the USA uses a computer or word
processor with a video-display terminal (VDT).
Few of these users know that “they are being
exposed to potentially harmful magnetic fields
emitted by their machines”.
8
So writes Brodeur, in the last of a ihreearticle series on the hazards of various kinds of
electromagnetic radiation.
Complaints about eye problems caused
by VDTs began cropping up during the 1970s
among the first heavy users of computers telephone-company operators and newspa
peremployees. In 1980, matters took an even
more serious turn when it was learned that lour
of seven pregnant women in the classified
advertising department of the Toronto Star
gave birth to children with birth defects. In May
1981, more reports of birth defects and mis
carriages prompted a U.S. Congressional panel
to hold hearings. Government and industry
' specialists reassured the Congressmen that
VDTs emit several kinds of radiation, including
x-rays, all harmless. In the radio spectrum,
they said VDTs radiate in the very low fre
quency (VLF) range, not known to have any
biological effects. The controversy died down.
But clusters of birth defects kept occur
ring. In October 1982, a Czech emigre bio
physicist in Canada, Karel Marha, revealed
that VDT’s also emit extra low frequency (ELF)
radiation, and noted that the East Bloc coun
tries had strict standards for VDT emissions.
In Madrid, Dr. Jose M. R. Delgado found that
chicken embryos exposed to pulses of ELF ra
diation, similar to those emitted by VDTs,
suffered abnormalities. The experts who testi
fied before Congress in 1981 had lacked
-
° (
----- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
equipment capable of detecting ELF emis
sions. The U.S. and Canadian press reported
none of this.
And so it went on. Every new study
pointing to hazards was dismissed by other
experts, or in the case of important research
sponsored by IBM in 1984, Brodeurcontends,
was misrepresented by corporate spokesmen.
The Reagan administration delayed a govern
ment research effort. Newspaper publishers
arid editors, who employees were among the
most often affected, imposed a virtual “black
out” on VDT stories.
That began to change last year, when
Kaiser Permanent released a study showing
that pregnant women who worked with VDTs
for more 20 hours per week were 80 percent
more likely to suffer miscarriages than other
women. But many in business and govern
ment continue to deny that a problem exists,
Brodeur says, fearful of the costs and disrup
tions of remedial efforts.
He believes that a crash program of
research is needed to determine if VDTs damage
fetuses, eyes, or possibly cause cancer. Pre
ventive measures need to be taken before the
findings are in. Not to act now, he says, would
make users of the nation’s 30 million VDTs
“test animals in a long-term biological experi
ment.”
From: L WF Mission Notes
----------------- --
------------------------ ---------- -
---- JTMTWiftK.!----E---
WANTED: A NEW NORTH-SOUTH ETHIC THAT DEMANDS
ECOLOGICAL JUSTICE
By Jose Ramos Regidor
Today it is no longer possible to speak of
separate crises because it is slowly dawning
on us that they are all profoundly related. In
deed, the most significant contemporary
movements that have arisen to challenge
specific manifestations of injustice all share
the same origin: opposition to the current de
velopment model.
Third World liberation movements, the
workers' movement, the ecology and peace
movements all sprang up as a criticism of the
current model of development. The following
article calls fora new ethic that would embody
both social and ecologicaljustice. Regidor is a
Spanish theologian and author. His article first
appeared in the international documentation
service (IDOC.)
From their specific perspectives, the
9
present development model holds out hope
that they will overcome their historical antago
nism. This will demand that each movement
overcomes its tendency to become absorbed
in its own project. Instead, each must evaluate
the significance of the problems being ad
dressed by the other movements in order to
discover the connections between the struggle
for socioeconomic and political justice on the
one hand, and peace and care of the environ
ment on the other. From their own specific
cultural perspective and fromtheirown unique
experiences, each must help to forge a culture
where liberation of the poor majorities is pos
sible. Where peace can flourish and where the
earth’s resources are cared for and preserved. •
workers' movement, Third World liberation
movements, the peace movement and the en
vironmental movement all critique that modelbut for different reasons.
The workers’ and Third World liberation
movement criticize the current model because
it is not capable of producing wealth without at
the same time exploiting people and marginal
izing the great majorities of the world from
participation in the very “development” it cre
ates. These movements chronicle the injus
tice, alienation, dependency, hunger, misery
and death the development model brings in its
wake.
The peace movement criticizes the model
because the production of wealth creates a
structure of military-industrial dominance that
promotes an arms race now capable of de
stroying all life on the planet (i.e. the nuclear
bomb and chemical and biological weapons).
This movement argues that the military-indus
trial state produces a society dominated by
violence and ever-increasing militarization.
Under this system, democratic institutions are
progressively weakened.
Today, the environment is recognized to
be as important as peace and justice; the
struggle for life and the battle against the prin
cipalities and powers of death. In fact, the vio
lence that attacks human life in the form of in
justice and oppression is rooted in the same
violence that is unleashed against nature at
tacking the entire biosphere. This creates in its
wake an environmental devastation that af
fects not only the human beings alive today,
but endangers the survival of future genera
tions.
The ecology movement criticizes the
development model because it cannot pro
duce wealth without also producing pollution
and environmental destruction. Environmen
talists charge that, sooner or later, production
of pollution will outstrip production of actual
wealth, and they warm that if continued it may
destroy life on this planet.
The link between these forms of violence
is sparking the growing awareness that, be
sides the right to socioeconomic justice, all
humans have the right to ecological justice.
This expanded sense of justice allows new in
sight into wrongdoing, allowing us to speak of
the sins of ecocide (destruction of the ecosys
tem), geocide (devastation of the earth) and
biocide (annihilation of the planet’s life-sys
tems). This new ethical awareness places
these atrocities alongside the sins of homi
cide, genocide and ethnocide.
It is important to see the common roots of
these movements in their criticism of today’s
development model. Though, historically, they
have had a profound mistrust for each other
and in some cases have maintained that their
movements were antagonistic to each other.
This results from their different histories.
Each emerged from very different experiences;
from different social and geographical set
tings, with theirown unique struggles based on
their own analysis and their own plans for
solving the problems.
This broader definition of justice calls for
a heightened awareness of the species-an
awareness of the responsibility of the present
generation to assure the survival of humanity
on earth. This heightened awareness demands
that we struggle to end all injustice to individu
als and groups, and exacts a commitment to
Yet, the very fact that they all criticize the
1
10
care for the earth in so that the survival of
future generations is guaranteed. Such an
awareness will see the close connection be
tween social justice on the one hand and
ecological justice on the other.
can thus be extended to include not only
individuals and peoples presently living on
earth, but also to entire future generations who
are now in danger of inheriting a depleted,
polluted earth which may not support their
existence because of what is being done today
by us—their forebears.
The German philosopher H. Jones pro
posed this maximum as a key principle or im
perative for a new ecological ethic: Act in a way
that the consequences of your actions are
compatible with the permanence of human life
on earth.
Today’s ecological crisis is a worldwide
phenomenon, although there appears to be
more awareness of the problem in the North
where the ecological movement originated.
Yet, although the South is just as affected by
the depletion of the earth’s resources, if not
more so, it would be wrong to impose Northern
ecological categories and analysis on the South.
First, because the ecological culture in the
North expresses the environmental crisis of a
society characterized by a certain well-being,
even affluence. As such, it often ignores or
dismisses as irrelevant the dimension of social
justice that is central focal point of struggle for
the South’s poor majorities.
In the new ethic, permanence of life on
earth in all its social, cultural and environ
mental diversity necessarily becomes the prin
ciple that guides and structures both private
and public behavior. This new imperative calls
for the development of a new hierarchy of
values, a new praxis and new parameters for
acceptable behavior.
Just as insights for the social sciences
deepen our commitment to social justice in
that they help us to understand the mecha
nisms of oppression and exploitation and point
the way to solutions, so too will the insights of
the natural sciences help us to unmask the
root causes of environmental destruction. They
will also point to new ways of living, producing,
consuming, even thinking, not based on the
domination of nature by humans and certain
individuals, peoples or social sectors by oth
ers.
Second, because the ecological prob
lemdoesnot reflect thecultural experiences or
the history of exploitation of Southern peoples.
This has caused many political leaders among
the South’s indigenous, black and campesino
peoples to reject the environmental issue as a
“luxury” only for the industrialized countries
with the time and money to invest in protecting
endangered species of animals, birds, insects
and plants. There is, however, a growing
awareness and acceptance of the existence of
another ecological stance that expresses the
connections between environmental degrada
tion and the whole question of social and eco
nomic inequality. And that focus is being taken
seriously by these leaders in the South.
Just as a more profound sense of social
justice has led ethicists to speak of social sin,
so too will this new sense of ecological justice
lead to a sense of and condemnation of eco
logical sin. This term pinpoints the responsibil
ity of everyone for the environmental degrada
tion that chips away at the permanence of
human life on earth, now and in the future.
More and more voices are being raised
pointing to the organic link between the de
struction of the environment and socioeco
nomic and political injustice. These voices call
for a new language capable of reflecting that
link.
Ecological sin takes the option for the
poor, the central ethical principle of liberation
theology, and carries it further by including the
earth’s future generations, our descendants,
who may be forced into a less than dignified life
because of our damage to the earth.
This much needed synthesis was no
where more evident than in the life and death
of Francisco “Chico” Mendes, the rubber
The biblical command Thou shall not kill
11
ality with which one must commune. In this
sense, the relationship with the land forms part
of the very essence of a people’s cultural
identity. When the invaders arrived 500 years
ago, a process that continues today, they
plundered the active inhabitants’ lands, taking
from them not only their economic basis of
survival, but the deepest roots of their cultural
identity.
tapper from the Brazilian Amazon, killed in
December 1988 by landowners, angry that he
organized tribal peoples and fellow rubber
tappers to dispute their claims to the rain
forest.
Mendes stood for that synthesis in two
ways. First, through the proposal for a land
reform in the Amazon that would use the rain
forest without destroying it. (just before he was
killed, Mendes was instrumental in bringing
rubber-tappers and the local indigenous tribes
together in an umbrella organization to fight for
the survival of the Amazon against further
incursion by plantation owners and cattle ranch
ers.) He insisted that the survival of both
groups depended on the survival of the rain
forest and vice versa.
This destruction of the land is thus closely
connected to the economic and cultural de
struction of America’s indigenous peoples.
Through the past five centuries of conquest,
ethnocide and ecocide went hand in hand.
The rubber-tappers’ experience, and
especially Mendes’ murder, has brought this
dimension of exploitation to light on a global
level. Chico Mendes lived the synthesis be
tween a Third World culture and language that
calls for indigenous and workers’ rights, re
spect for human rights and an end to exploita
tion by large landowners and the ecological
language of the North, and the unifying ele
ment in that synthesis is concern for the land.
Second, his proposal to establish “stra
tegic reserves” within the Amazon, which would
be off-limits to everyone except the native
inhabitants and the rubber-tappers who farmed
the rain forests ecologically, was one that
came from the local people themselves based
on their own experience, their own analysis
and their own traditional culture.
Today’s ecological crisis forces us to
recognize that land is a limited resource. But it
cannot be the object of unlimited exploitation.
Any synthesis in the struggle to protect the
environment will have to deal with the central
ity of the land question. Only by understanding
the relationship between the land and indige
nous peoples, the land and settlements of
black people, the land and the campesinos will
we be able to comprehend the vast transfor
mation that has made land into a commodity.
This is at the root of the present-day depletion
of resources, environmental devastation and
pollution.
Mendes and his movement are notable
because theirs is one of the few success sto
ries of organized tribal peoples who asserted
their right to control over their own destiny-a
role denied them throughout the past 500
years, since the conquest of the Americas. It is
a contribution by Southern peoples to a new
ecological culture that embodies the point of
view of the South yet is able to establish a
dialogue with the North.
Another central theme emerging from
Mendes and the rubber-tappers’ struggle is
their concept of the land. For indigenous peoples,
the land can never be reduced to a commodity
to be brought and sold; rather it is a living re
UlU
husa
From: L WF Mission Notes, Dec. 1989
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Health For All by 2000 AD
THROUGH PEOPLE'S ACTION FOR HEALTHY
ENVIRONMENT AND EARTH
12
i,
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A NEW WaY Or THINKING
Using Nature as a Model, Lessons for Politicians
By Evelyn Rossberg
The unusual environmental philosophy
of the biochemist and environmental researcher
Frederic Vester has stunned the experts and
interested the layman. Like no other, the pro
fessor from Munich knows how to show com
plicated global interrelationships in an under
standable and convincing way.
Why shouldn’t we learn from an enter
prise which hasn’t gone bankrupt in four million
years? This is the question asked by the Mu
nich biochemist, environmental expert and
ecologist. Frederic Vester. He finds the an
swer in the land, in the sea and in the air. For
him the Earth itself serves as an ideal techno
logical and management model, it is one huge,
highly efficient enterprise.
It cannot be said that we have not proved
to be willing pupils of mother nature in the past.
With some success we have industriuosly
imitated what we have seen: for example, the
form and structure of plants has served as a
model for roof design, and certain aspects of
communication, for instance, fight orientation
and reducing interference, were used by dol
phins, bats, mosquitos and other creatures
long before man thought of them. However,
there is one great difference: nature’s biotech
nology is considerably better developed and
much more energy efficient than anything
which man has tried to produce. “How does
nature use these technologies?” asks Profes
sor Vester, “how does it manage to make do
with so little energy and to continually recycle
all its material? For hundreds of thousands of
years the material available has consisted of
about two billion tons of organic matter and
every year about ten per cent of its is con
verted. How can nature manage to do this
without having energy problems and problems
of waste? In nature there is no form of absolute
central control. What we find is self-regula
tions, a kind of free market economy; there are
no central structures whatsoever, everything
is decentralised. This already provides some
answers to the question of how nature man
ages to function so well. Nature’s organisa
tional forms are not only incredibly. Using
nature as a model profitable, they also practi
cally predetermine what will happen in the
future. And because we know that they func
tion in nature, we know that they really do
work! This must show that mankind has the
chance to enter a new, natural-technological
era which is different from the one which came
before.”
This, however, will mean having to leave
the well’trodden path. Where it would lead us
is all too clearly shown by the present state of
our planet. Over 4,000 million people have
been responsible for the fact that in the last
hundred years approximately 30,000 plant
species have died out or are on the point of
extinction and of the around 12,000 species of
birds and mammals over 1,000 are endan
gered and 200 are already extinct. In the same
period homo sapiens as a species has in
creased its consumption of raw materials tenfold
and there has also been a twentyfold increase
in the use of energy. However, this is not all:
the Earth’s fertile layer of soil is getting thinner
as a result of highly intensive use. At the same
time the total area of useable land is also being
reduced - as a result of building and pollution
as well as erosion and the formation of des
erts. All this is happening while mankind is
continuing to grow at an alarming rate: there
will be six thousand million of us by the year
2000. However, the Earth is not growing too...
Seen in this way, it would appear almost
suicidal that nature’s self-regulatory powers,
COMMUNITY HEALTH CELL
(First Floodsc. Marks R<nmJ
BANGAtQRE - 5C0 001
The use of new technologies
The use of environmentally less harmful technologies
would result in further advantages for man and the
environment and would encourage the development of
new ideas by farmers
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The path towards a form of technology
which serves nature rather than working
against it
Tho natural cycle, above, and nature's equilibrium have been upset by
human interference. The excessive use of agricultural fertilizers and in
dustrial waste have changed the situation, centre. A new interactive
cycle, below, could be achieved by implementing appropriate measures.
15
which have functioned for millions of
years, were not recognised earlier,
researched and sensibly used. How
ever, if this is to become possible in
the near future, the main thing re
quired at the present time is a much
more widespread awareness of global
interrelationships. And this is exactly
what Frederic Vester is trying to do.
As professor dealing with “the inter
dependence of technological and social
change” at the Federal Armed Forces;’
University in Munich he instructs to
morrow’s decision-makers in “inter
active thinking”, a method of thinking
involving global interrelationships,
interactive rules and feedback proc
esses similar to the pattern of na
ture’s biological networks. For years
he has also been trying to explain his
inter-disciplinary approach to politi
cians and managers. He also does
similar work with his organisation,
“Studiengruppe fur Biologies and
Umwelt GmbH”. What is characteris
tic about Frederic Vester’s work is the
fact that in preparing a project he
goes far beyond the narrow area to be
investigated, records the connections
with other fields, examines the differ
ent repercussions, looks very care
fully forcomplex indirect relationships
and then makes them an important
part of his project. He juxtaposes the
convergent cause-and-effect pattern
used in the sciences with his own
form of “interactive thinking”. Never
theless, he does not regard himself as
a revolutionary. He is an “evolution
ary”, someone whose thought pat
terns are simply bound up with ele
mentary life processes - and thus also
with his original
subject area,
biochemistry. For Frederic Vester the
key to the future is “a cybernetic form
of economy, life and technology”. This
involves cooperative technology,
symbioses and recycling as well as
theoretical. Frederic Vester’s form of interac
tive thinking involving cybernetic systems can
also be learnt in the form of a game. In the
words of the author the prize-winning and
completely new kind of game for adults is “ex
tremely popular”. It is a game with a kind of
cardboard computer with which a country called
“Kybernetien” can be controlled. It is called
“Okolopoly” and it is a vest-selling game in
which the results can be surprising. If you
intervene at one end of the board, you can
suddenly find that the move not only has
effects on that spot, but the repercussions
travel further afield. “Through the whole sys
tem! And suddenly the effects of your action hit
you hard from an unexpected position al
lhough you haven’t done anything bad at all,”
explains Frederic Vester.
energy chains and repeated reuse to make
later repair and treatment superfluous. Frederic
Vester’s trial projects in the Federal Republic
of Germany and Switzerland now already
demonstrate what cybernetic technology could
look like. One of these projects is a sewage
works in Wiesloch not far from Heidelberg.
The sewage works cooperates with eight rural
districts. Dung and liquid manure is collected
from local farmers by the lorry load. The efflu
ent is transported to the decomposition tower
where it is processed into biogas.
Professor Vester is convinced that with
out intact ecosystems even industry cannot
function. His criticism is predominantly aimed
at “enormous mono-structures and central
ised administrative bodies; it is aimed at their
‘throw-away’ technology and their depend
ence on ever increasing production, which in
evitably leads to unemployment. Criticism is
also valid in relation to their size which makes
them too big for individuals to deal with as a
unit, and also because of their enormously
high input of energy and much too high output
of environmental pollution, social problems
and stress. These are developments wf uch we
do not find resulting from the technologies
used by nature.” Professor Vester does not re
gard technology itself to be the problem. Prob
lems are created by its inappropriate scale and
its ill-considered use within existing organisa
tional structures. In contrast to many others,
for example, he is very far from condemning
micro-electronics. It is rather the opposite: as
“a basically ecological technology” involving a
minimal use of space, energy and materials he
is quite prepared to make room for it in his
overall plan. For those who find all this too
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A new game, on which he is currently
working, also promises a few surprises. This
time the hum? n being as an organism will itself
correspond to the country of Kybernetien.
Twenty years of intensive cancer research will
interact with the global situation and the words
of an Iroquois wiseman who said, “it is difficult
to make a tumour understand that basically
what it regards as success is suicide.”
Professor Vester also regards the way in
which mankind establishes itself and expands
with ever more residential estates, infrastruc
ture and mono-cultures to be tumours within
nature’s global framework. In Frederic Vester’s
opinion only if mankind again comes to see its
role in relation to the system as a whole, “is
there any real chance of finding a cure.”
From: SCALA, A Periodical from The Federal Republic of
Germany, Sep-Oct 1987.
X.
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Earth Day April 22
|
To Promote Heroic Responses and to Launch the 1990s
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Radiation: Benefit vs. Risk
by Valorie A. Britain
The benefits of radiation are for the most
part taken for granted by society. Radiation is
being used at increasing rates to provide more
and better products, services, and conven
iences. But there is much that we do not know
about radiation. This article explains what
radiation is and how it holds the potential for
risk as well as benefit.
Every day, each of us make numerous deci
sions involving the benefit-risk principle.
Research: Radioactive isotopes and lasers,
for example, are valuable research tools. These
and many other radiation sources have led to im
portant scientific advances in medicine, agricul
ture, and industry. Even greater advances are sure *
to come.
Does a benefit derived from driving a car
outweigh the danger of an accident?
Does the rick of a financial loss from an in
vestment exceed the possibility of a profit9
Do the economic benefits of a new factory in
a community outweigh the possible health hazards
from air pollution?
Communications: Microwave radiation in a
particular has enabled advances in communica
tions that allow for the rapid transmission of infor
mation throughout the United States and the world.
Television and radio transmitters and radar equip
ment are examples of communications systems
that are dependent on microwave energy. Lasers
also are making contributions in the field of com
munications.
Throughout life we constantly weigh benefit
against risk and strive to increase the balance in
favour of the benefits.
To understand how FDA carried out its re
sponsibilities in regulating radiation-emitting prod
ucts, it is important to understand this concept of
benefits and risks. As with other products regu
lated by FDA, radiation-emitting devices must perform
so that the benefits from them will outweigh the
risks. FDA’s job is to do everything possible to
minimize these risks.
Atomic power: Nuclear reactors have be
come sources of powerfor industry, homes, farms,
and transportation systems. Many other useful
applications of nuclear energy are being devel
oped.
Household conveniences: The light bulb,
fast-cooking microwave oven, and ultrasonic cleaner
are examples of radiation at work to provide home
conveniences. Although the light bulb has been
around for many years and is hardly thought of as
a radiation source, the microwave oven and ultra
sonic cleaner are relatively new items which utilize
the potential that radiation offers.
The Benefits
The benefits associated with the use of
machines and materials which produce radiation
are many:
Medical diagnosis and therapy: The lives of
many thousands of persons are saved or made
longer, and better health is assured for additional
millions each year, through medical and scientific
techniques which use a variety of radiation-pro
ducing machines and radioactive materials to de
tect and treat diseases. These radiation-producing
machines include x-ray, diathermy, ultrasonic, laser,
and ultraviolet equipment.
What is Radiation?
Explain the hazards of radiation is a far more
difficult task than describing its benefits. As a
starting point, the term radiation should be defined.
17
relationship between amount and effect is not
known. There is not yet clear agreement as to
whether a threshold exists below which no harmful
effects can be either produced or expected.
Radiation is energy moving through space
as invisible waves. The frequency of these wavesthat is, the number of waves per second-helps to
determine radiation characteristics and how radia
tion can affect people.
The effects of radiation are categorized as
either somatic or hereditary.
Somatic effects directly affect the health of
the person exposed to radiation.
Frequency also is a basis of classifying ra
diation as x rays, light, infrared rays, or micro
waves. The frequency scale from least energetic to
most energetic is called the electromagnetic spec
trum.
Sound, although sometimes considered part
of the electromagnetic spectrum, is really the re
sult of mechanical vibrations. These vibrations
also move as waves, but require matter such as air
orwateras a mediumfortheirtransmission. Sound
also has a spectrum, from extremely low fre
quency to very high frequency.
Hereditary effects occur in the genes of
reproductive cells of the exposed individual, and
may harm the health of future offspring. Genes are
the “biological blueprints” that determine inherited
There are two principle categories of radiation—
ionizing and nonionizing. Ionizing radiation such as
x ray has the ability to strip electrons from atoms,
creating electrically charged ions capable of dis
rupting life processes. Nonionizing radiation lacks
the ability to create ions, but may disrupt body
processes through other mechanisms. Microwaves,
light, and sound are classified as nonionizing radia
tion.
Somatic effects may appear soon after ra
diation exposure or many years later. They may
appear after acute exposure-radiation delivered
in a short period of time-or after chronic expo
sure-radiation received frequently or continuously
over long periods of time.
Most of what is known today about the
effects of radiation on humans is the result of
exposures to large amounts of radiation-some
harmful such as a burn from a sunlamp, and some
helpful such as the destruction of cancerous cells
during radiation therapy. Not as much is known
about the effects of small amounts of radiation,
such as those to which everyone is subjectednatural background radiation and emissions from
radio transmitters, for example. In particular, we do
not know definitely whether there is an amount of
radiation below which injurious effects will not oc
cur.
The short-term effects of acute, high-level
ionizing radiation exposure are well known, having
been studied In humans and experimental ani
mals. These may include nausea, fatigue, blood
disorders, Intestinal problems, a temporary loss of
hair, and skin burns. At high enough doses, even
death can occur.
From the standpoint of public health signifi
cance, possible long-term effects of low-level ra
diation on large populations Is cause for concern.
However, relationships between exposure and long
term effects are difficult to establish, partly be
cause the effects are similar to those of diseases
which may not be radiation related, and partly
because the effects may not appear until years
after exposure.
Adverse health effects on people from expo
sure to ionizing radiation are believed to have a
direct relationship to the amount of radiation re
ceived. Experts believe that any level of ionizing
radiation has a potential for causing some biologi
cal damage. That is to say, there is no known
amount of ionizing radiation below which it can be
said that an adverse health effect may not occur.
Therefore, it is prudent for those responsible for
protecting public health to assume that even small
amounts of radiation present some risk of injury.
As regards nonionizing radiation, we have
some information on short-term acute effects and
long-term chronic effects. For example, acute ef
In the case of nonionizing radiation, the
18
fects on the skin and eye, primarily burns, have
been observed from exposures to all types of
nonionizing radiation. Under certain circumstances,
microwaves have been associated with the pro
duction of cataracts and temporary sterility. Some
central nervous system effects have been re
ported to result from exposure to microwaves. In
other areas, chronic exposure to ultraviolet light
has long been associated with the production of
skin cancer. Tissue destruction and interference
with nerve impulse transmission are among re
ported effects of ultrasound. Loss of hearing is a
well-documented effect of intense sound.
before possible biological effects can be estimated.
Even then, the effects of exposure to radiation on
the eventual well-being of an individual may be im
possible to predict.
The kind of radiation to which a person is
exposed-whether ionizing or nonionizing or, within
these categories, whetherx or gamma rays, micro
waves, or light—is a key factor in assessing the
chance of biological harm. This may be illustrated
by the various kinds of eye damage which radiation
has been shown to produce in animals. Animals
exposed to microwaves may develop early cata
racts. Exposure to certain energy light may cause
retinal damage.
How Radiation Affects People?
Although scientists do not completely under
stand how radiation interacts with living things,
most agree that radiation acts primarily on the cells
in the body and on the complex chemical proc
esses occurring in them.
The amount of radiation absorbed or taken in
by the body is most important in determining what
effects it will have on the body. Generally, the more
radiation received, the greater the effect.
In addition, a given quantity of radiation may
produce less of an effect if divided into a number of
smaller amounts administered over a long period
of time, than if it were given in a single exposure.
This is usually because of the cell’s ability to repair
itself.
The cells of the human body are highly
specialized, each with a predetermined task to
perform. Like other harmful agents, radiation can
disturb the balance in a cell so it can no longer
perform its function. If enough cells are affected,
processes of the entire body may be disrupted. If
radiation harms the reproductive cells, this dam
age may be passed on to future generations.
The portion of the body irradiated, in terms of
both area and location, is an important factor in
evaluating the possibility of a biological effect. In
genera-!, the larger the body exposed, the greater
the probability of overall damage to the organism.
The location of the Irradiated part is also important.
The human body is able to repair some
radiation damage to cells and cell processes.
However, many scientists believe that radiation
injury repair is never complete, and that some cell
damage always remains. If cells are subjected to
constant or repeated radiation, damage may accu
mulate and cause disease.
In the same individual, a wide variation in
susceptibility to radiation damage exists among
different types of cells and tissues. In general,
rapidly dividing cells appear to be more sensitive
than nondividing cells, and nondifferentiated cells
appear to be more sensitive than highly special
ized cells.
Radiation acts differently on different people.
A wide variation in sensitivity to radiation exists
among individuals, organs, and even cells.
The way in which radiation is applied is
another factor in determining biological damage.
The most important aspects are (1) the kind of
radiation, (2) the amount of radiation, and (3) the
specific parts of the body exposed.
Consumer Protection
In 1968, Congress enacted the Radiation
Control for Health and Safety Act to protect con
sumers from the hazards of radiation-producing
electronic products. Under the Act, the Food and.
Drug Administration’s Bureau of Radiological Health
Each of these factors must be considered
This chart indicates the electromagnetic spectrum, from the least energetic to most energetic.
power
Radio-Television
Microwaves
Infrared
Visible Light
Ultraviolet
X Rays
* ovens
" Sunlamps
* Lasers
* radar
Least
Energetic
19
Gamma Rays
conducts an electronic product radiation control
program to assess the biological effects resulting
from all types of radiation exposure, evaluate ra
diation emissions from electronic products and
conduct research to minimize exposure, and set
and enforce radiation safety performance stan
dards.
The Bureau makes continual checks to as
sure that its efforts are such that the potential of
radiation for service to humankind can be realized
with a minimum risk of harm. As new radiation
producing electronic products are developed, FDA
will see to it that they too are safe for consumer
use.
In conjunction with its regulatory efforts, the
Bureau carried out specialized programs to reduce
unnecessary patient exposure during diagnostic xray examinations and nuclear medicine proce
dures by encouraging improved practices among
health practitioners and ancillary personnel and by
developing new techniques. It also conducts a
limited radioactive materials control program for
materials not under the jurisdiction of the Atomic
Energy Commission.
The Atomic Energy Commission controlsthe
use of certain radioactive materials and nuclear
power production. The Environmental Protection
Agency is, in general, responsible for environ
mental radiological health protection.
Great strides are being made to reduce the
exposure of the public to unnecessary radiation.
Valorie A. Britain is a technical writer in FDA's
Bureau of Radiological Health.
Safe Use of Medical X Rays
Many people associate any mention of radiation with x rays taken by their physician or dentist.
This is not surprising when one realizes that an estimated 130 million people undergo some kind of
x-ray examination each year in this country. This represents over 90 percent of the U.S. population’s
exposure to man-made radiation.
However, some x-ray examinations are unnecessary and can be avoided. To make sure you
receive an x-ray only when necessary:
* Don’t decide on your own to have an x-ray examination such as at a mobile unit for detecting
tuberculosis. FDA opposes the continued use of TB x-ray screening programs because there are
safer and more effective means to diagnose TB, and because the mobile x-ray units used often ex
pose patients to more radiation than is necessary.
• Don’t insist on an x-ray when you visit your doctor or dentist. Let him be the judge of whether
you need one. A doctor or dentist, to satisfy your insistence, may comply with your request for an xray examination, even when he doesn’t think you need one.
’ Tell your doctor and dentist about previous x-rays. They may be able to obtain and use them.
There are times, however, such as before surgery or during treatment, when a practitioner may need
new x-rays even though others have been taken recently.
’ Women who are pregnant or who think they could be pregnant should tell their physicians.
Radiation may affect the fetus, and knowledge of possible pregnancy may affect the doctor's decision
as to whetherto use x-rays or not. However, if your doctor says you need an x-ray, even though you’re
pregnant, have it taken.
* In the case of males of reproductive age or younger, including children, the physician orx-ray
technician should be asked about the possibility of protecting the reproductive organs with a special
lead shield for x-ray examinations that might expose the reproductive organs to the direct beam. Such
examinations usually involve the lower abdomen, lower back, or hip areas. (Protecting the reproduc
tive organs of the female patient is technically far more difficult and if often impossible because cov
ering part of the abdomen with lead shielding can obscure needed diagnostic information on the xray film.)
From:
CONSUMER, Sept. 1981
KINDLY READ AND PASS ON THE MESSAGE
Collected & Edited by: Mrs. J.P. Saulina Arnold for TNVHA
20
THE EARTH IS PRECIOUS
In 1884, the "Great White Chief” in Washington made an
offer for a large area of Indian land and promised a
"reservation" for the Indian people.
Chief Seattle's
reply, published here in full, has been described as
the most beautiful and profound statement on the
environment ever made.
How can you buy or sell the sky, the warmth of the Land?
The idea is strange to us.
If we do not own the freshness of the air and the sparkle of the
water, how can you buy them?
Every part of this Earth is sacred to my people.
Every shining
pine needle, every sandy shore, every mist in the dark woods,
every clearing and humming insect, is holy in the memory and
experience of my people.
The sap which courses throughout the trees carries the memories
of the red man.
The white man's dead forget the country of their birth when they
go to walk among the stars. Our dead never forget this beautiful
Earth, for it is the mother of the red man.
We are part of the Earth and it is part of us.
The perfumed flowers are our sisters; the deer, the horse, the
great eagle, these are our brothers.
The rocky crests, the juices in the meadows, the body heat on the
pony, and man - all belong to the same Family.
So when the Great Chief in Washington sends word that he wishes
to buy our land, he asks much of us.
The Great Chief sends word he will reserve us a place so that we
can live comfortably to ourselves.
He will be our father and we will be his children.
consider your offer to buy our land.
But it will not be easy.
So we will
For this land is sacred to us.
This shining water that moves in the streams and rivers is not
just water but the blood of our ancestors.
If we sell you land, you must remember that it is sacred, and you
must teach your children that it is sacred and that each ghostly
reflection in the clear water of the lakes tells of events and
memories in the life of my people.
The water's murmur is the voice of my father's father.
The rivers are our brothers, they quench our thirst. The rivers
carry our canoes, and feed our children.
If we sell you our
land, you must remember, and teach your children, that the rivers
are our brothers, and yours, and you must henceforth give the
rivers the kindness you would give any brother.
We know that the white man does not understand our ways.
One
portion of land is the same to him as the next, for he is a
stranger who comes in the night and takes from the land whatever
he needs.
The Earth is not his brother, but his enemy, and when he has
conquered it, he moves on. He leaves his father's graves behind,
and he does not care.
He kidnaps the Earth from his children and he does not care.
His fathers' grave, and his children's birthright, are forgotten.
He treats his mother, the Earth, and his brother, the sky, as
things to be bought, plundered, sold like sheep or bright beads.
His appetite will devour the Earth and leave behind only a
desert.
I do not know. Our ways are different from your ways.
The sight of your cities pains the eyes of the red man.
But perhaps it is because the red man is a savage and does not
understand.
There is no quiet place in the white man's cities. No place to
hear the unfurling of leaves in spring, the rustle of an insect's
wings.
But perhaps it is because I am a savage and do not understand.
The clatter only seems to insult the ears. And what is there to
life if a man cannot hear the lonely cry of the whippoorwill or
the arguments of the frogs around a pond at night? I am a red
man and do not understand. The Indian prefers the soft sound of
the wind darting over the face of a pond, and the smell of the
wind itself, cleaned by a midday rain, or scented with the pinon
pine.
The air is precious to the red man, for all things share the same
breath - the beast, the tree, the man, they all share the same
breath.
The white man does not seem to notice the air he breathes.
Like
a man dying for many days, he is numb to the stench.
2
But if we sell you our land, you must remember that the air is
precious to us, that the air shares its spirit with all the Life
it supports.
The wind that gave our grandfather his first breath also receives
his last sigh.
And if we sell you our land, you must keep it apart and sacred,
as a place where even the white man can go to taste the wind that
is sweetened by the meadow's flowers.
So we will consider your offer to buy our land.
If we decide to
accept, I will make one condition: the white man must treat the
beast of this land as his brothers.
I am a savage and do not understand any other way.
I have seen a thousand rotting buffaloes on the prairie, left by
the white man who shot them from a passing train.
I am a savage and I do not understand how the smoking iron horse
can be more important than the buffalo that we kill only to stay
alive.
What is man without the beasts? If all the beasts were gone, man
would die from a great loneliness of spirit.
For whatever happens to the beasts, soon happens to man.
things are connected.
All
You must teach your children that the ground beneath their feet
is the ashes of you grandfathers. So that they will respect the
land, tell your children that the earth is rich with the lives of
our kin.
Teach your children what we have taught our children, that the
earth is our mother.
Whatever befalls the Earth befalls the sons of the Earth.
spit upon the ground, they spit upon themselves.
If men
This we know: The earth does not belong to man; man belongs to
the earth. This we know.
All things are connected.
4k
Whatever befalls the earth befalls the sons of the earth. Man
did not weave the web of life;
he is merely a strand in it.
Whatever he does to the web, he does to himself.
Even the white man, whose God walks and talks with him as friend
to friend, cannot be except from the common destiny.
3
We may be brothers after all.
We shall see.
One thing we know, which the white man may one day discover - our
God is the same God. You may think now that you own Him as you
wish to own our land; but you cannot. He is the God of man, and
his compassion is equal for the red man and white.
This Earth is precious to Him, and to harm the Earth is to heap
contempt on its Creator.
The whites too, shall pass; perhaps sooner than all the other
tribes.
I
•
Contaminate your bed, and you will one night suffocate in your
own waste.
But in you perishing, you will shine brightly, fired by the
strength of the God who brought you to this land and for some
special purpose gave you dominion over this land and over the red
man.
That destiny is a mystery to us, for we do not understand when
the buffalo are all slaughtered, the wild horses are tamed, the
secret corners of the forest heavy with scent of many men, and
the view of the ripe hills blotted by talking wires.
Where is the thicket?
Where is the eagle?
Gone.
Gone.
The end of living and beginning of survival.
4
STRATEGIES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH ACTION,
*
A note for discussion at the MFC mid-annual Meet, Patiala
25-29 Julv, 1985.
DHRUV MANKAD
A)
INTRODUCTION
Environmental Health is a term having a wide scope, encom
passing the relationship between health and habitat, air, water,
work place and so on.
Although the theme has been discussed since long, the
Bhopal tragedy has brought it into sharp focus. Milder versions
of Bhopal have been occuring frequently but the actions taken
have been in the form of spontaneous protests by local people
in the affected area. Many times, investigative journalists
have brought such issues to light e.g. plight of villagers around
ACC cement factory at Sevaliya in Gujarat or the Grasim episode.
Later, after some local action, interest has died down. It is only
after Bhopal that a planned action at'all India level is taking
place.
There was’ a time when the capitalistic industrial development
encroached upon the lives of the workers only - both at the
workplace and in the homes which were not very far away from the
factories. But the over expanding, blind industrial development
during the present phase of capitalism, has spread its tentacles
over the lives of all but the highly privileged few, both in Urban
as well as rural areas. Thus Occupational health has been subsumed
by Environmental Health and the effects of the nature of industrial
development on health is no longer a concern of the workers only.
Though., the analysis of the problem and the solutions offered,
would differ from class to class. But, any such moveriment would
certainly pose certain basic questions regarding the rate and the
nature of present industrial growth.
B)
STRATEGIES ADOPTED BY THE PEOPLE
People have always reacted spontaneously against encroachments
by alien element^son their ways of life. A brief overview of
strategics used may help in formulating future strategies.
1) The working class, looked upon as merely a tool in the
production process, has always been the first one to bear the brunt
of the effects of a new technology.
I
»
i) One of the most successful health movement of workers
was the Black lung movement of coal miners of the USA. Loy Rego,
writing in SHR ls3 puts down the reasons for its success as -
a) the workers, strength vis-a-vis the mine owners for
coal is a key item.
b) public sympathy.
c) capacity of the workers to shut down mines.
All this was possible because of the mass nature of the
movement as reflected by the fact that many folk songs were written
on the work lines.
ii) Even when the position of .the working class was weak,
partially successful actions have been initiated. For instance, a
newspaper report in a local daily in Gujarat regarding the plight
of workers in slate-pencil industry spurred a social worker to file
a writ petition in the Gujarat High Court. The report filed by the
Committee appointed by the HC forced the State Labour Department to
make surprise checks which controlled some of the problems of lime
dust. ■
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•
A
I
2) Growth of industries in the rural areas under the guise of
t
decentralization has meant a direct threat to the rural people as
wej.1 as to the agriculture. Farmers too, have successfully fought
this encroachment.
i) In Sevaliya in Gujarat, around 14,000 formers were
affected by cement dust from the
ACC• cement
Factory. After serveral
•
•
years of memoranda-giving and lobbying, adopted a strategy of
no-tax campaign and they gheraoc-d the management of the factory.
As a result, a precipitator was immediately installed. The workers
of the factory were sympathetic to the farmer/sX demands but were
afraid that they would lose their jobs if they joined the struggle
and therefore kept, out of it.
ii)
The famous case of Chipko Movement of Ga^hwal is well
known. The women .of Chamoli and other villages in Garhwal, in a
unique fashion, protested against senseless destruction of forests
J
by^Contractors by embracing the trees. But in lesser known incidents,
women have adopted novel ways to protest against cutting of
/
trees. In 1978, women of Bhuyander village in the Chamoli region,
stole the axes of men from nearby villages who had come to cut the
trees and refused to return till they agreed to go back.
* 3) As pointed out earlier, the anarchic capitalist development
*
I
of industries now, threaten to destroy the lives of ordinary citizens,
mainly of those living in and around cities.
Citizens too,have adopted various strategics to comb^f this menace
i) A Citizens Anti Pollution Committee was formed in 1975 in
I
n^-^Goa against the air and water pollution by/2uari Agro Chemical Indus
tries. It took out a morcha in protest but to no avail. Latter? three
political parties supported the Committee and a threat was given by
the All India Port and Dock Workers1 Federation to boycott unloading
3/-
of raw materials for the B^rla.factories at various ports. The
company had to bow down and it paid compensation to farmers and
provided clean drinking water facilities to the affected villages. A
water treatment plant was also installed.
ii) At Mavoor in Kerala, Gwalior Rayon discharged effluents into
the once clear Chaliyar River,beginning from 1948. Fish died,skin
infections spread. In 1963 people protested but promises given then
were/forgotten. The protests persisted during 1965,1967,1968, and
1973. Finally in 1978-79, Kcrala Shastriya Sahitya Parishdd brought
out a report which concluded that the problem persisted because of
the callous in'” of the factory management to employ the available
know how of effluent treatment. In 1979, in a massive agitation,
people broke down a Company erected bund to protect its own water
intake. Thus, it was forced to lay a pipe line to dump the effluent
f
in a far away brackish water-stretch.
iii) Citizens of Ward 12 in Ratiam had moved a local trial court
I
to direct the Municipal Council to construct proper drainage for
the locality ./(The State High Court affirmen' the trial courtsj>order,
the Municipal Council approached the Supreme Court. It turned down
the plea and directed the Council to carry out the work. In his
judgement. Justice V.R. Krishna Iyer observed that the citizens could
"use the law and call the bluff of the municipal body’s bovine
indifference to its basic obligations.”
C)
ALL T
INSTANCES SHOW A CERTAIN COMMON PATTERNS' :
1) Mass actions are almost always successful, even when only
d) partially. They also have the advantage of the heightened environ^
P'lental health concern being passed down the generations and across
geographical areas as evinced by the Black Lung Movement and (The
Chipko Movement.
2) Actions against industries by the citizens are more likely
to succeed if the (Workers of the if the industry concerned as well
as other allied industries are directly involved. This is shown
the case of Zuari -Agro Chemicals. On the other hand,/workers are
more likely to succ
* /
in their struggle for better work environment c/
they acquire the sympathetic participation of all the affected
people as is seen in the Black Lung Movement.
3) While dealing with Government bureaucracy and (industry .
executives, mere rhetoric and agitation is not adequate. Sometime^.
information made public/wields power. For- this it becomes important
that scientists are involved.
4) An educated population having the support of (Scientific
information might be able to carry out a sustained struggle for better
J environment as is seen in the case if Gwalior P-yon, Mavoor. In
I
In contrast to this in another Birla owned factory at Amlai the
.
f
gr
movement of local villagers only petered out after the managem'ent
gave some flimsy promises. In the former case, the people admit that
support of KSSP was vital for the movement.
5)
Women have a direct stake in protection of forests• They
are easily-mobilised for such .actions, thanImen, who sometime are
"
a
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n
in favour of contractors in order to protect their jobs,Chipko and
other movements, in Chamoli region pointy to:such a situation# .
D) ’ From the ongoing’account, it is clear that it is possible to
’
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select one or more from several--strategies used, to' make an
<*
•
'
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Environmental Health Action sustainabTe and'successful•
in a ‘planned,
-) Ji?formation Gathering and Disseminating s D
p£
conscious manner or in an unplanned,"unconscious and experiential
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manner, this is the first and a vital step in the right'direction.
It helps to make people cohc/rned ‘ conscious of the problem and
£
•
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•
.
. .
.•
breaks .’the ice for the people to speak out.
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*
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First, lobbying could also serve the
2) Lobbying"etc sabove purpose.
,4
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Moreover
the-existing
democratic
institutions
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should be utilised.'. Lobbying of legistators, and political parties
is a useful strategy for gaining support from ‘within’. Although
there is always the possibility of opportunist politics entering
*
the movenment in this way, but if one guards aginst it consciously
and if the decision making is democratic enough, it could be
combated.
3) Publicity and Public opinion building.
. Due to widespread experience of environmental piracy by
various industries, people are becoming sensitive to environmental
issueSo are the Government bodies, bureaucracy and the executive.
,
Wide publicity in the existing media-news-papers and magazines—has
its impact.
•
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•
With the tradition of public interest litigations
/
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_
*
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,
I
w
•
, .
’
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picking up in our judicial process, even newspaper reports are now
being converted into writ(Petitions by various High Courts and
the Supreme Court.
.
. ,
Legal Actions s-
Actions can be initiated against
environmental offenders under the Prevention of Pollution Acts,
%
Factories Acts and other acts governing the worker management
relationships,
’Municipalities Acts (as in Ratlam case) and
finally-as writ petitions in the State Hj_gh Courts and the Supreme
Court invoking the Fundamental Rights and the Directive Principles
enshrined in our Constitution, Though the efficacy of such actions
is limited, but if nothing else, they serve the purpose of ' ’
-<lxighlinghting the issue. This strategy is particularly useful for
citizen’s actions and workers of unorganised section of workers
having little strength vis-a-vis the industry and the State,
5) Direct Actions s Whether the aggrieved are workerst farmers
or ordinary citizens, men or women, this form of protest works
best if properly organised and properly carried out. The success
depends upon the strength and ability of the aggrieved to be able
to hit the concerned at the ulace where it hurts most. It could
take the form of a strike action in a key industry (as in Black
Lung Movement ) prevention of movement of key raw materials and
finished products,
(as it happened in Gwalior Rayon case.) No tax
campaigns (as in ACC Sevaliya case) or simply creating a bad image
pf^the offending industry’s high selling product.
I____
Certain Problcm Areas ? While surveying the environmental
’ill health*
and
actions
against
it,
one
comes
against
certain
1
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tangles defying pat solutions s
/
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I
1) It istcommonly observed that if aggrieved citizens plan
actions against an offending industryf the workers and their '
I
*
- T.UoS are either disinterested or actively against such movements
for the fear of losing jobs, in case the industry is forced to
*
•
•
close down.
In such a case, it is' imperative on the part of the aggrieved
party to explain to the workers their problems and also to include
in their demands, the demands of compensation and alternative
employment for the workers in case the- industry in c loosed down
partially or wholly. This may ensure
the involvement of the
workers.
2) I-u is a common belief that lack of safetv measures, nonimplementation of safety rules and compensation laws in case of
a.cci ci c n
r occupational health hazard are highly prevalent in the
unorganised industries. Under the guise of decentralization this
sector has mushroomed during the past few years. But, given its
nature, the workers have little strength to fight it. They can do
so only at the risk of unemployment or even losing their livesK
'-^While the sLonger,more organised workers enjoy a better work
environment. ,f
J
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•9
i)
First, o,ne needs to oxmine this belief. .
a) y/inc workers would be- considered as organised workers. A
survey of 11 coal mines totalling 9643 workers showed the prevalence
rate of all categories of pneumocoios’is as 10.8%. A survey of
7,653 underground miners with 5 or more years of sendee in the
Kolar C Gold fields revealed the incidence of silicosis to be as
high as 43.8%.
6/-
p.c-
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b) Accident rate i^ ^6oal mines during 1977 was 0.47 fatal accir "
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dent and 4.33 seriously injured persons per 1000 persons employed.
Textile workers arc also an organised section of/working class.
Injuries reported for 1978 in textile factories were 54.32% of total
reported injuries in the industries during the year. While it employs
on an average 26.62% of total no.of workers employed.
This shows that the quality of work environment for the organi
sed working class is also no good. That for the unorganised working
class would certainly be deplorable9
ii)
Even then, it is true that unorganised workers have 0very low
strength vis-a-vis their managements and the State. Therefore, they
are unable to initiate actions on
their own. They need greater
outside support and help than does the organised working class.
iii) NQw, the question arises, as to whether in the existing situa
tion in India where the environmental health movement is in its
infancy, it is better to support a stronger section- where chances of
success are high or to take up the cause of those workers whose needs
are greater but chances of total success are low
.
\
(1 3
,
The answer could be in.-affirmative to both in part. I-t would be
Vi
-
predent to aim for total success taking directs with the organised
and enlightened sections of workers possession some leverage. On the
other hand low key actions like publicity,lobbying and legal actions
?.rould ensure partial successes for the p^orke^ unorganised section
of the working class.
ROLE OF GROUPS LIKE MFC. - Qeing what it is,MFC can be locked
upon chiefly as a resource group. I-t could provide on its own or by
directing to people who could take up the technical aspect of an
••
•
environmental health problem.
1) Carrying out Studios s Zmy movement, strong or weak,spontane
ous or planned would need solid information base if it is to have a *
lasting impact. MFC could undertaken studies in the field of the
impact of the environmental degradation on health.
$
2) Publicising the issues- MFC members could write in popular
press, in nodical journals etc. about the environmental health issues,
thus publicising it and lending it credibility.
)
3) Direct medical intervytion s As in Bhopal,under extraordinary
circumstances in case of an environmental disaster, MFC could
ilitation
by providing medical relief and ’long*term rehab
op an ongoing people’s movement.,
****************
****************
Ar *
r ******** *
****** k
.1
c(
K
Neu bcih?
j 1 V rtf?»v (
p C fn
»- >
Health workers are‘aware of the link
between safe water supplies and
excreta disposal and the prevention of
diarrhoeal
diseases,
but
the
.installation of these facilities only
provides half the answer. Of equal
importance is teaching people how to
use them. When is handwashing most
important? How do you maintain safe
water supplies? This insert provides
practical information on hygiene
behaviour at family and community
level before, during and after the
installation of water and sanitation
facilities.
Safe water from wells
To
protect
well
water
from
contamination you can:
• construct a wall around the well with
a platform and drainage facilities.
This will help to prevent soil from
falling into the well and waste water
from draining back into it;
• only use one bucket to draw water
from the well and keep this bucket
clean;
• if possible, keep the well covered
when it is not being used;
• take care that the rope of the bucket
cannot get dirty with soil and
contaminate the water;
SAFE WATER
• make sure that your hands are clean
when using the bucket;
To be sure that the water we use for
drinking is safe, contamination must
be prevented:
• bathe, and wash clothes, away from
the well so that waste water cannot
drain back into the well;
1. At the water source and in the
water delivery system (wells, pipes,
taps etc).
• keep surroundings clean and animals
away from the well.
These points are also equally
important for wells where handpumps
are used to lift the water instead of
••
2. Between collection and use.
buckets. Handpumps need to be
properly operated and maintained to
guarantee a permanent supply of safe
water.
Build a fence around the well or tap to keep out animals.
Produced by Dialogue on Diarrhoea, AHRTAG, 85 Marylebone High Street, London W1M 3DE, U.K.
WATER AND SANITATION
• if possible, empty and clean the
household water storage container
daily;
• keep household water storage
containers covered, and do not allow
children or animals to drink from
them;
• allow no one, especially a child, to
put their hands into the storage
container;
• pour water out of the water storage
container without touching it, or use
a clean long-handled dipper to take .
the water out;
• use clean cups or mugs for drawing
and drinking the water.
Safe water from public taps
Tap water can be from a spring water,
groundwater or surface water source.
To ensure that this water is safe to
drink, make sure that:
• the intake (water- source) area,
piping system and storage tanks are
protected from contamination by
human and animal, agricultural and
industrial wastes; or
• the water is adequately treated
before use (although treatment may
not be very feasible in some
communities).
Also:
• keep the taps clean;
• clean the area around the tap daily;
• clean (and Unblock if necessary) the
drains regularly so that waste water
can drain away;
Other ways to stop water from being
contaminated include:
• asking a person living near the tap to
look after it;
• building special facilities at some
distance away from the water source
for bathing and washing clothes;
• making a fence around the tap to
keep O’it animals;
o building special ditches or troughs
away from the tap for cattle and
domestic animals to drink from.
• prevent the area around the tap from
getting muddy;
• repair cracks in the concrete;
• bathe and wash clothes at some
distance away from the drinking
water tap;
• keep cattle and other animals away
from taps.
Prevention of contamination
between collection and use
Water may become unsafe at any point
between collection and use. Clean
water can easily become contaminated
when:
o it is touched by dirty fingers;
• it is poured into a dirty container;
• dirt or dust gets into the water from
the air if the container is uncovered;
• dirty cups are used.
Points to remember:
• wash hands before collecting and
carrying water;
• make sure the container for
collecting the water is clean;
• carry water in a covered container if
it has a large opening (e.g. if it is a
bucket or basin). This will also help
to prevent the water from spilling
during the trip home (although a
loose lid will not prevent spilling)
and make sure the cover is clean;
SAFE WASTE WATER
DISPOSAL
Safe waste water disposal from taps
and after domestic use is very
important. Stagnant pools of water and
muddy places around houses and water
collection sites are a health risk and
can attract mosquitoes.
• clean and unblock drains near public
taps regularly so that waste water can
always run away;
• throw away domestic water waste or
dispose of it in a soakagc pit.
In dry areas where water is scarce.
domestic waste water could be used to:
• water vegetables and fruit trees;
• water domestic animals;
• clean latrines.
Produced by Dialogue on Diarrhoea, AHRTAG, 85 Marylebone High Street, London W1M 3DE, U.K.
WATER AND SANITATION
PERSONAL HYGIENE
Good personal hygiene can prevent or
reduce the incidence of diarrhoea, skin
and eye diseases and body lice. One
way to improve personal hygiene is to
have plenty of water near people’s
homes.
This can be used for:
• washing hands after defaecation;
® washing hands before preparing and
eating food;
• washing the faces and hands of
children;
e bathing or body-washing;
° regular washing of the hair;
° washing of clothes and bedclothes;
© cleaning teeth.
Washing, especially hand washing,
should be done whenever possible with
soap. Where soap is not available for
bathing, substitutes such as ash, clean
sand, a flat stone, or a clean cloth to
rub the body, could be used.
The importance of handwashing
Handwashing after defaecation will
greatly help to reduce the risk of
disease transmission.
In areas where anal cleansing with
water is practised, the promotion of
handwashing
may create fewer
problems than in areas where other
cleansing materials are used. When
anal cleansing is done with water it
means that at least some water is
available and that handwashing may be
integrated more easily as a part of
defaecation practice.
Handwashing can help to reduce the risk of disease transmission.
DOMESTIC HYGIENE
To prevent disease transmission:
• make sure that water containers,
dippers and cups are clean to prevent
the contamination of drinking water;
• wash cooking pots, dishes, eating
utensils, carefully after each use. A
rack drainer (to keep items above
the ground) in the sun above a
soakaway may be the best place to
drain and dry washed articles. The
water from washing can be emptied
into the soakaway (waste water
soakage pit);
• control flies not only by burying
faeces and use of pit latrines but also
by covering food and safely disposing
of domestic waste;
• cover, bury or burn domestic waste
. to deter flies and rats.
Produced by Dialogue on Diarrhoea, AHRTAG, 85 Marylebone High Street, London W1M 3DE, U.K.
(
WATER AND SANITATION
EXCRETA DISPOSAL
Safe excreta disposal is as essential as a
safe water supply in preventing the
spread of disease.
Where there is no latrine
If there is no latrine available, it is
important to dispose carefully of faeces
by burying - dig a small hole before
passing stools (as far away as possible
from houses, paths, animals and small
children, and at least 10 metres away
from the water supply), and cover with
earth to prevent contact from flies and
animals. Avoid going barefoot to
defaecate, and do not allow children to
visit the defaecation area alone.
a convenient distance from the house
made for them to use for defaecation.
After each time it is used the faeces
should be covered with soil. Another
hole can be made when the first one is
full. Another possibility is to get the
child to use a potty, or to defaecate
onto paper or a large leaf, which can
then be put in the latrine.
Choosing a latrine
Flush system or drop system?
Locating a latrine
Children and excreta disposal
A common belief in many societies is
that the faeces of babies and children
are less harmful than those of adults.
In fact the faeces of babies and young
children are just as dangerous as those
of adults. It is therefore important to
dispose of these faeces in a safe way.
A latrine should be at least 15 metres from
all wells, springs, rivers, or streams.
If children are too small, or are too
scared of the squat-hole, to use a
latrine, a separate children’s latrine
could be built or a hole in the ground at
• If possible, the bottom of the latrine
should be more than 1.5 metres
above the highest groundwater
table. If the bottom of the latrine is
likely to be close to, or reach down
into, the groundwater, then build it
downhill from the water source. If
you cannot place the latrine
downhill, then it should be built at
least 15 metres away from all houses,
wells, springs, rivers or streams.
• A latrine site should be dry, well
drained and above flood level.
• The latrine should be close to the
home, if it is too far away, it is less
likely to be used.
0
US I A I LUSH SYS IL\t
trot r i lush i airim >
If the answer to these questions is YES,
select a flush system. If the answer to one of
the questions is NO, choose a drop system.
LATRINE COMPARISONS
LATRINE
Rural
application
Urban
application
Cost to
build
Ease of
construction
Water
requirement
Best anal
cleaning
material
Hygiene
Fertilizer
production
Pit
latrine
suitable in
all areas
1
not in high
density
suburbs
low
simple — except
in wet and rocky
ground
none
any
moderate
can do
VIP
Latrine
Suitable in
all areas
not in high
density
suburbs
low
simple — except
in wet and rocky
ground
none
any
good
not easilv
not
suitable
high
requires skilled
builder
water source
near privy
water
good
no
Pour
flush
latrine
•
suitable
•
•
Produced by Dialogue on Diarrhoea, AHRTAG, 85 Marylebone High Street, London W1M 3DE, U.K.
WATER AND SANITATION
Latrines
A latrine is a safe place to pass stools
and urine, but only when:
• it is properly built;
• well maintained;
• cleaned every day; and
• there are no flies.
A good latrine should fulfil the
following conditions:
• it should not contaminate the
surrounding area:
• there should be no contamination of
surface or ground water which can
enter springs or wells;
• there should be no need to handle
fresh faeces;
faeces should not be accessible to
flies, animals or other people;
• there should be minimal bad smells;
• the methods used to build latrines
and maintain them should be simple
and inexpensive;
• it should be safe and attractive for
children to use;
•' it should be designed in such a way
that it is culturally acceptable.
Types of latrines
Pit latrine
The pit latrine consists of a hole in the
ground bridged by a floor slab or
squatting plate, around which a hut is
build to provide privacy. A cover, with
a long handle, can be used to prevent
flies from entering the hole.
The pit latrine should be about 3
metres deep by 1 metre wide and the
sides should be strengthened with
sticks, stones, or bricks to prevent
collapse.
When the pit is two-thirds full, it
should be filled in with earth, and a
new pit dug nearby. The liquids from
the old pit will soak into the soil, and
the solids remaining will become
harmless after two years and can be
dug from the pit and used as fertilizer.
VIP latrines
Good
ventilation
is
important.
Problems of bad smells and flies can be
reduced if a vent pipe is installed. This
should be at least 300 mm (0.3 metres)
above the highest point of the hut,
(except for conical roofs, where the
vent pipe should go to at least the
height of the apex). The movement of
air across the lop of the pipe will create
an up-draught, drawing up smells from
the pit, and trapping any flies under
the mesh at the top of the pipe.
The mesh should be inspected every
month to make sure it is properly
secured, and that spiders' webs, flies
and other debris are not blocking the
vent pipe. These can be cleared by
pouring water down the pipe.
Pour flush latrine
Acknowledgements
A) The pour-flush latrine has a
squatting slab which is specially made
to include a water seal trap, set into the
floor. Excreta is flushed down a short
length of pipe from the water seal trap
with a small amount of water. The pit
itself should be open lined at the
bottom to allow the escape of liquids,
while the top section should be
waterproof.
B) Two pits can be dug side by side and
connected to the latrine by a ‘Y’
junction. One arm of this junction is
sealed at first, so that only one pit fills.
When this pit is full, it is sealed and the
second pit is used. By the time this pit
is full, the contents of the first pit can
be dug out and used as fertilizer. The
advantage of this type of latrine is that
it includes a water seal trap, so that
fly-breeding in the pit, and odours are
avoided.
The information contained in this
insert is based on material from:
• Cairncross S., Feachem R., Small
Excreta Disposal Systems. Jan 1978.
Ross Bulletin No. 8. (LSTHM).
• IRC. Making the Links, Guidelines
for
Hygiene
Education
in
Community Water Supply and
Sanitation. July 1984.
• IRC - WHO Collaborating Centre.
Practical Solutions in Drinking Water
Supply and Waste Disposal for
Developing Countries. Tech. Paper
Series No. 20.
• Kilama W., Winblad U., Sanitation
Without Water. 1985. TALC.
• Pacey A., Rural Sanitation: Planning
and Appraisal. 1980. Intermediate
Technology Publications.
• VITA,
Village
Technology
Handbook. 1981.
Produced by Dialogue on Diarrhoea, AHRTAG, 85 Marylebone High Street, London W1M 3DE, U.K.
RESOURCE LIST
SOURCES OF INFORMATION
AND EQUIPMENT
• African Medical & Research Found
ation (AMREF), P.O. Box 30125,
Wilson Airport. Nairobi, Kenya.
• Blair Research Institute, Ministry of
Health. P.O. Box 8105, Causeway,
Harare. Zimbabwe.
• Centre for Agricultural Mechanisation
and Rural Technology (CAMARTEC),
P.O. Box 764. Arusha. Tanzania.
• EARTHSCAN, 3 Endsleigh Street,
London. WCl. U.K.
o ENDA TIERS MONDE, B.P. 3370.
Dakar. Senegal.
® ENSIC, P.O. Box 72461, Asian
Institute of Technology, Bangkok,
Thailand.
• Environmental Liaison Centre, P.O
Box 72461. Nairobi, Kenya.
• Global Water Film Library, Suite 500,
1629 K Street. NW. Washington. D.C.
20006. U.S.A.
• Imperial College, Department of Civil
Engineerins. University of London,
London, SW7 3BU, U.K.
• Intermediate Reference Centre for
Community
Water
Supply
and
Sanitation (IRC), P.O. Box 93190. 2509
AD, The Hague. The Netherlands.
• Intermediate Technology Development
Group,
Myson House,
Railway
• Kenya Water for Health Organisation
(KWAHO), P.O. Box 61470, Nairobi,
Kenya.
1002, Arlington,
U.S.A.
• Water and
Developing
Virginia
• World
Health
Organisation
P.O. Box 49, St Albans, Herts AL1
4AX, U.K.
• TOOL, Enirepotdok 68a/69a, 1018 AD
Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
4. 1985.
FILMS & AUDIOVISUALS
(Slide set).
Development Education Kit No. It,
1981, UNICEF.
A
Handle on
Health.
(Testing,
Manufacture and Design of Low Cost
Handpumps.) 16mm film. 27 minutes.
1985. IDRC.
For Want of Water. VHS, 28 minutes.
£13.00 (inc. p & p surface mail). Shell
Film Unit, Shell Centre. London, SE1|
7NA.U.K.
Global Water Film Library. Extensive
library of films and videocassettes on
water and development.
Prescription for Health. English and
French. 16mm video, colour, 23
minutes. 1983. IDRC.
A
Water ' in the
Ihps? Community
Participation in Third World Drinking
Water Sanitation and Health. 1983.
IRC.
Directory
of
Sources
of
Information and Documentation on
Community
Water
Supply
and
Sanitation. 1983.
IRC. Hand Pumps. Technical Paper
• Teaching Aids at Low Cost (TALC),
Pit Latrines, Guidelines for the
Selection of Design Options. TAG Paper
Southern Cross Trading Estate, 1
Oldlands Way. Bognor Regis. PD22
9SA.U.K.
Chauhan S.K. et al.. Who Puts the
Environmental Engineering
(NEERI),
Nehru Marg,
Overseas
Manpower Development Group, James
House, 27 London Road. Newbury,
Berkshire, RH13 1JL, U.K.
• Ptace Corps, Information Collection
and Exchange. 806 Connecticut Ave,
NW, Washington DC 20525, U.S.A.
Document No. (ETS/83.8) 1983. WHO.
Winblad U & Kilama W., Sanitation
Without Water, 1985. TALC.
World Bank/International Bank for
Reconstruction. Ventilated Improved
BOOKS/MANUALS
Advisory Group Working Paper. No. 1.
World
Bank/International
Bank
Reconstruction.
Council,
Guidelines for Planning
Community Participation in Water
Supply
and
Sanitation
Projects.
CH-1211. Geneva 27. Switzerland.
Development, Development Infor
mation Centre, Washington, DC 20523,
U.S.A.
Water
1986.
Whyte A.
(WHO),
Development of a Self-Help Water
Supply Programme. 1982. Technology
• National
WHO. Women, Water & Sanitation.
University of Technology, Lough
borough. LE11 3TU. U.K.
• World Bank, Water Supply and Urban
Development Department, 1818 H
Street, NW, Washington DC 20433,
U.S.A.
• National Demonstration Water Well
Project, US Agency for International
Nagpur 440 020, India.
No. ETS83.9.
Waste Engineering for
Countries
(WEDC),
Tropical Medicine. Keppel Street,
Gower Street. London, WC1E 7HT,
U.K.
• National
Institute
WASH. Information Exchange/Roster
of Organisations Related to Water
Decade. 1983.
WHO. Operation and Maintenance Eight questions to ask. 1983. Document
22209,
Earthscan.
Curtis, V.. Women and the Transport of
Water. 1986. Intermediate Technology
Publications.
Glennie C., A Model for the
• London School of Hygiene and Tropical
Medicine (LSHTM), Department of
Paper 22, IRC.
• Water and Sanitation for Health Project
(WASH), 1611 N Kent Street, Room
Environmental Health Engineering in
the Tropics. 1983. John Wiley & Sons,
Sciences
Division, P.O. Box 8500. Ottawa,
Ontario. Canada, KIG 3H9.
Women in Water supply and Sanitation
(Roles & Realities). 1985. Technical
Arlington, VA 22209, U.S.A.
• WASTE, Consultants on Appropriate
Technology, Crabethstratl 38f, 2801
AN, Gouda, Netherlands.
• WATER AID, 1 Queen Anne’s Gate,
London, WC1H9BT, U.K.
King Street. London. WC2E 8HW,
U.K.
Research
1984. Palais de Nations, CH-1211,
Geneval 10, Switzerland.
Van Wijk-Sijbesma C , Participation of
• Volunteers in Technical Development
(VITA), 1895 North Lynn Street,
• Intermediate Technology Publications, 9
• International Development
Centre
(IDRC),
Health
Solar
Disinfection
of
Drinking Water & Oral Rehydration
Solutions. Guidelines for Household
Application in Developing Countries.
United Nations, 1 U.N. Plaza, New
York, NY 10017. U.S.A.
• University of Birmingham, Department
of Civil Engineering, P.O. Box 363.
Birmingham, B15 2TT, U.K.
Bush R.E., Well Construction (Hand
dug and Hand Drilled). Peace Corps.
Cairncross S. and Feachem R..
Terrace, Rugby. CV21 3HT, U.K.
UNICEF.
• UNICEF, Water and Environmental
Sanitation Team, and United Nations
Development
Programme
(UNDP),
Drop
of
Water.
Water Supply and Sanitation for
Developing Countries. An international
source list. 1987. Bernadette Carney.
WHO.
NEWSLETTERS
IRC Newsletter. IRC.
Decade Watch. UNDP.
Water Aid News. WATER AID.
ENFO.
Environmental
Sanitation
Series 10. 1983.
Mara D.. The Design of Ventilated
Improved Pit Latrines. TAG. Technical
Note
13.
1984.
World Bank/Internalional Bank for Reconstruction.
OXFAM. W'ater Packs Manuals.
Pacey A & Cullis A., Rainwater
Information Centre (ENSIC).
Waterlines. Intermediate Technology
Publications.
Waterfront. UNICEF.
World Water. Thomas Telford House,
1 Heron Quay, London, E14 9XF, U K.
Harvesting (The Collection of Rainfall
and Run-off in Rural Areas). 1986.
Intermediate Technology Publications.
' ■
■ —
-----
■ --------
—
Produced by Dialogue on Diarrhoea, AHRTAG, 85 Marylebone High Street, London W1M 3DE U.K.
Bi SZWGA
3EEEM WIL
This is an extract of a feature by Sadanand Kanavalli in
The ILLUSTRATED WEEKL Y OF INDIA (Magazine Sec) March 9-10 ’91.
The Ecological consciousness
that the
Life Environment
Awareness Foundation (LEAF)
is spreading
amongst the youth of India,
is the commendable effort
of one man
and his vision,
says Sadanand Kanavalli.
ur Environment is sinking fast
because of man's mindless
exploitation
of
natural
resources. There is no dearth of people
who keep on preaching, that the need
of the hour is to make the entire
population ecologically conscious. But,
there is one man, H. P. Yatish, who has
put his nose to the grindstone and has
been greening children by catching
them young.
O
This he does through Life
Environment Awareness Foundation
(LEAF) he founded in 1982, the only
one of its kind in the country, or may be
in all the world.
At an International Environmental
Conference held in Bangalore in April
last year, a lady from Italy had exhibited
Information regarding what was her
organisation’s effort to educatechildren
ecologically. And to our surprise, we
found that LEAF has long been doing
much better on a much wider scale and
very systematically, too.
Jungle Craft: Interpretation of tracks & signs in the jungle
LEAF is a non-profit organization
dedicated to the promotion of
Environmental education. It has a
network of LEAF Nature Clubs (LNCs)
at the grassroot level, which are a
happy blend of an Educational and a
Recreational Club.
Through LNCs, LEAF puts through
various programmes for Ecological
understanding.
They
provide
opportunities for direct interaction with
Nature, helping individuals experience
its richness and wonders and thereby
developing a harmonious relationship
with Earth and its denizens.
The programmmes and techniques
are based on Learning Through
Discovery.
The
DISCOVER
NATURE
Programs are carefully planned and
Training in Camp Craft: Tent'pitchifig by participants at a Wilderness Camp
are a system by themselves.
here is no dearth of people who
preach that the need of the hour Is
to make the entire population
ecologically conscious. But there is
one man who has put his nose to
the grind stone.
it is not mere knowledge that is aimed at, but action
flowing from that knowledge towards a Sustainable
Earth.
From modest beginnings, LEAF has come of age. It
launched its first LEAF Nature Club in 1985-86 with just
a single unit of 60 members of St. Francis Xavier Girls'
High School, Bangalore. The following year, LNCs were
started in Basaveshwara Girls' High School,
Rajajinagar and Udaya Education Society's Co-ed
Schools Vijayanagar.
LNCs were started in 9 schools in 1988-89 plus the
first outside-Bangalore LNC at far-off Shirahatti in
Dharwad district. Now LEAF has spread its wings wide
and in 1989-90, the year just gone by, there were 17
schools with membership totalling 900. More and more
schools are approaching LEAF on their own to open
LNCs.
But Yatish is an efficiency bug. Whatever he does
must be pucca. He doesn’t want LEAF to be an empire
which has expanded beyond its capacity to administer.
Nevertheless, there are plans to reach out to Dharwad
and, with that as a nucleus, to North Karnataka. Before
going outstation, he insists on a small band of
Volunteers.
The man, the mission
P Yatish, 33, a Chemical Engineer, is a dynamic
workoholic. He just lives LEAF. On an average, he
rides 70 kms everyday on various LEAF errands. Son
of late H K Panditaradhya, who retired as Chief
Engineer, Yatish began as a wildlife photographer and
wildlife camp organizer. From April to November in
1985, he organized 34 wildlife camps for the general
public, students and rural youth.
H
He soon realized that these camps in the nature of
holiday tours lead nowhere. Yatish started thinking
seriously of Continued Environment Education and
the idea of LEAF Nature Clubs dawned on him. Ever
since, he has been at it, blending all his energy, time
and resources to this cause.
For a living he has his own Safaritan, a unit arranging
about 20 wildlife camps a year for foreigners and
Indians at wildlife centres in Karnataka and in
Mudumalai in Tamil Nadu. Through his contacts with
foreigners he is associated with international
organisations like Care For The Wild and Zoocheck.
Yatish has gathered round him a committed band of
like-minded workers. Among them are Dr Mewa Singh,
a wildlife academic; Rita Thomas, an Economics
Lecturer in a Junior College; Dasharath Singh, a
school teacher; K R Anand, a Officer in Life Insurance
Corporation; Shantha Manohar, a Sales Officer at
Keonics; Uday Shankar, a Drip Irrigation Consultant.
Study and exploration of a Cave in wilderness
And of course, there is Jayanthi, wife of Yatish, who
is the Coordinator at LEAF Headquarters. She joined
as a staffer and has ended up as a life partner. They
make a made-for- each-other couple with a one-year
old son Akash, whom they have already taken to many
a Camps. That way, he could go into the record books
as the youngest camper ever.
He trains the Volunteers first in all
the skills needed and then commences
stetting up a LNC.
Each LNC is a self-governed and
self-supporting unit with a Committee
comprising of President, Vice
President, Secretary & Joint Secretary,
elected from amongst themselves and
a Teacher Coordinator from the staff of
the institution and a Coordinator from
LEAF.
The Program
I
LEAF offers a variety of outdoor
activity to suit different needs from
school children, teachers and others.
There are a series of well-graded
camps arranged regularly for LNC
members.
.^1?
• Basic Nature Camp of 2 days
d a night for beginners, the minimum
age being 10, is held on weekends
throughout the year at HKP Outdoor
Nature School - Hulkunte. Beginning on
Saturday afternoons, it ends on Sunday
evenings.
• Those who qualify at the Basic
Nature Camp - their performance is
closely observed to ascertain their
abilities and involvement - are eligible
for the (2nd level) Nature Education
Camp or the Wilderness Camp of
three days and two nights.
The Nature Education Camp is held
for children below 13 years. And the
Wilderness Camp is held for children
over 13 years at Hulkunte, the ancestral
homestead of Yatish, where he has
developed the HKP OUTDOOR
K N Rajaram of LEAF & Lt. Cdr. Bhat (Retd.) with two participants (in the front)
during GETHNAA’s River Rafting from Srirangapatna to Shivana Samudra
NATURE SCHOOL. Here camps after
camps are held during Summer,
Dassera and Christmas vacations.
• Those who have successfully
attended the Wilderness Camp qualify
for the (3rd level) Adventure Camp
and Wildlife Study Camp of four days
and three nights held at the Blu Lagoon
Island on Cauvery river, at Bandipur /
Nagarhole National Parks or in the
Western Ghats.
• Holiday Courses: The Discover
Nature Course (for juniors)&
Adventure Course (for seniors) of 10
to 15 days are held during the Summer
holidays.
HKP Outdoor Nature School’s Senior Instructors Jayanthi & Dasharath Singh
with LEAF Volunteer C K Bhargavi (extreme left) preparing lunch in Jungle
• Educators’ Course
offers
School Teachers an atmosphere of
outdoor school and gives them a fresh
approach, new skills and a new
perspective.
One may wonder how all this is
possible. But LEAF has an excellent
track record. It has conducted 24
workshops, 28 short courses on Wildlife
Ecology, more than 150 camps and 250
Field Outings for Bird Watching.
THE STRUCTURE
BASIC LEVEL:
Basic Nature Camp
Leadership Camp for
Nature Club Leaders
WILDERNESS LEVEL:
Wilderness Camp
Nature Education Camp
Volunteer Training Camp
on Interpretation
ADVENTURE LEVEL:
Adventure Camp
Wildlife Study Camp
Adventure Physical
Efficiency Trg. Camp
TRAINING LEVEL:
Wildlife Study Exchange
Program
Discover Nature Course
Adventure Course
ADVANCE LEVEL:
Himalayan Trekking &
Adventure program
Map Reading, Survival techniques,
Time Control plans, Energy
conservation, Selection and Care of
equipment, Tent Pitching, Shelter
building, Fire-making, Cooking,
rationing of Camp Food, Sanitation
in the field, Team spirit, Community
Living, Bird Watching, Animal Beha
viour, Jungle Craft &, above all,
ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS.
Last year the Ham (Amateur Radio)
hobby was introduced at a few LNCs. It
has a desk top publishing unit to
undertake its publications: LEAFLET.
Discover Nature newsletter; other
books viz., CAMP CRAFT, HAM
GUIDE, Guidelines & Techniques for
Environmental Interpretation and
study material for the campers. It also
makes and markets Wildlife Stickers &
LEAF Volunteers are trained in
Outdoor/Camping
Skills
&
Jnterpretation techniques
THE CONTENT
These camps are not holiday
packages. They offer rigour, challenge,
self-discipline and self-help. Groups of
20 to 30 girls and boys trek, climb, camp
and study Nature. They are
accompanied by 3 to 5 instructors.
They travel by soft routes so that no
trace remains of their trekking&
camping, which enables the
succeeding campers to enjoy the route
afresh.
A wide array of things are taught
through joyous discovery: Selection of
No-trace-campsites, Back Packing,
Learning through Games: Elephant Country Walk enhances sensory
perception (other than sight) in examining the environment
Youngsters return home from
camps ecologically wiser and confident
about meeting the challenges of life.
They develop leadership qualities and
a well-rounded personality. In fact,
LEAF has lived up to its name in
creating
Life Environment
Awareness.
Greeting Gards, the proceeds of which 7
are used to fund its activities.
LIFE ENVIRONMENT
A WARENESS FOUNDA TION
LEAF HQ.
Raja Mahal
Ph 343
26 A
Vilas.
323
27.
9th Mam.
Bangalore 560030
Cable:
WILDERNESS
Besides camps, LEAF organizes
seminars and workshops, quiz and
elocution competitions for children.
.
Field Exercise to understand the effects of a water body on the Training on Obstacle Course improves
physical efficiency & coordination
surrounding temp. & first hand interaction with pond & its environs
HKP OUTDOOR
NATURE SCHOO
<
Affiliated to LIFE ENVIRONMENT AWARENESS FOUNDATION
) riPKP ONS
AWO
SA NG AUO^i
1985
1990
COMPLETES
FIVE YEARS
INTRODUCTION
The HKP Outdoor Nature School is
the only one of its kind in the
country, providing opportunities for
special adventure in experiencing the
richness and wonders of outdoor life
and learning through it. It is a light,
refreshing way of getting in touch and
sharpening the perception.
9W'
|V!W
The program and technique are based
ojjDiscovery approach. These are
dWgned to increase individual’s
awareness and understanding of
Nature.
The DISCOVER NATURE program run
by HKP ONS is a Sustaining
Environmental Learning Program for
school children. It provides an in-depth
understanding of basic ecological
principles by using innovative
techniques and unique approaches.
WHO CAN USE THE DISCOVER
NATURE PROGRAM ?
Primarily designed for children, to
whom discovery activities are
particularly valuable, the DISCOVER
NATURE PROGRAM may also be
used as a unique method for adults.
J^OOVER NATURE programs are
very relevant to children in field study,
and also to teachers in primary and
secondary schools where an
understanding of ecological concepts is
important.
WHO ARE WE ?
Since 1985, we have taught wilderness
skills, bird watching, conservation and
leadership to school children. Our
programs range from weekend outings
to two weeks in length. Groups of 10 to
20 children both girls & boys in the age
group of 10 to 18 years travel with 3 to
5 instructors. They trek, climb & camp,
studying Nature.
We go by soft paths, travelling in a
manner which will have the least impact
on the environment. We believe this
minimum-impact camping is essential
to the preservation of Nature. Thus we
teach children to leave no trace of their
presence so that those who follow can
enjoy the same environment with the
same Sense of Discovery.
coping with the weather, taking care of
each other. Our outdoor “class rooms”
change as our skills grow. Experience
teaches us judgement about the safest
route, brings out the capabilities of our
partners, provides confidence to
encounter hazards etc.
On a DISCOVER NATURE Program,
haversacks, ropes, binoculars, tents
and camping kits are important. Every
course/camp includes the Discover
Nature syllabi - the skills and
information essential to low-impact
wilderness camping. We teach our
participants to be safe and
knowledgeable users of the wilderness.
By the last day of a camp, we will have
explored important new ideas, had
some unexpected adventures, and
observed Nature intimately. Our
participants will have become safer,
more skilled, more observant
wilderness campers.
Environment Education is our priority,
and we belive that the best ecological
understanding comes through
experience. We explain, demonstrate
and immediately practise new skills.
We give our participants responsibility
in the wilderness, the relationship
between action and result is vivid and
satisfying.
We hope that our children will carry their
knowledge home, spread word about
conserving our Nature and lead
exciting, safe outing independently.
Our goal is to provide them the skills to
make that possible.
Come Discover Nature with us.
WHAT WE DO ?
DISCOVER NATURE IS
During the program, participants
gradually take charge of the day’s
activities and, as a team, they become
increasingly alert at route finding,
camping without damaging the land,
" What I hear, I forget;
"What I see, I remember
"What I do, I know"
25® n
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wjsc^-wosS,
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to?-572 137. '
THE EARTH IS PRECIOUS
In 1884 , the ’’Great White Chief” in Washington made an
offer for a large area of Indian land and promised a
’'reservation" for the Indian people.
Chief Seattle's
reply, published here in full, has been described as
the most beautiful and profound statement on the
environment ever made.
How can you buy or sell the sky, the warmth of the Land?
The idea is strange to us.
If we do not own the freshness of the air and the sparkle of the
water, how can you buy them?
Every part of this Earth is sacred to my people.
Every shining
pine needle, every sandy shore, every mist in the dark woods,
every clearing and humming insect, is holy in the memory and
experience of my people.
The sap which courses throughout the trees carries the memories
of the red man.
The white man's dead forget the country of their birth when they
go to walk among the stars.
Our dead never forget this beautiful
Earth, for it is the mother of the red man.
We are part of the Earth and it is part of us.
The perfumed flowers are our sisters; the deer, the horse, the
great eagle, these are our brothers.
The rocky crests, the juices in the meadows, the body heat on the
pony, and man - all belong to the same Family.
i
i
So when the Great Chief in Washington sends word that he wishes
to buy our land, he asks much of us.
The Great Chief sends word he will reserve us a place so that we
can live comfortably to ourselves.
He will be our father and we will be his children.
consider your offer to buy our land.
But it will not be easy.
So we will
For this land is sacred to us.
This shining water that moves in the streams and rivers is not
just water but the blood of our ancestors.
If we sell you land, you must remember that it is sacred, and you
must teach your children that it is sacred and that each ghostly
reflection in the clear water of the lakes tells of events and
memories in the life of my people.
The water's murmur is the voice of my father's father.
The rivers are our brotherst they quench our thirst. The rivers
carry our canoes, and feed our children.
If we sell you our.
land, you must remember, and teach your children, that the rivers
are our brothers, and yours, and you must henceforth give the
rivers the kindness you would give any brother.
We know that the white man does not understand our ways.
One
portion of land is the same to him as the next, for he is a
stranger who comes in the night and takes from the land whatever
he.needs.
I
The Earth is not his brother, but his enemy, and when he has
conquered it, he moves on.
He leaves his father's graves behind,
and he does not care.
He kidnaps the Earth from his children and he does not care.
His fathers' grave, and his children's birthright, are forgotten.
He treats his mother, the Earth, and his brother, the sky, as
things to be bought, plundered, sold like sheep or bright beads.
His appetite will devour the Earth and leave behind only a
desert.
I do not know. Our ways are different from your ways.
The sight of your cities pains the eyes of the red man.
But perhaps it is because the red man is a savage and does not
understand.
There is no quiet place in the white man's cities.
No place to
hear the unfurling of leaves in spring, the rustle of an insect's
wings.
But perhaps -it is because I am a savage and do not understand.
The clatter only seems to insult the ears.
And what is there to
life if a man cannot hear the lonely cry of the whippoorwill or
the arguments of the frogs around a pond at night? I am a red
man and do not understand.
The Indian prefers the soft sound of
the wind darting over the face of a pond, and the smell of the
wind itself, cleaned by a midday rain, or scented with the pinon
pine.
The air is precious to the red man, for all things share the same
breath - the beast, the tree, the man, they all share the same
breath.
The white man does not seem to notice the air he breathes.
Like
a man dying for many days, he is numb to the stench.
2
But if we sell you our land, you must remember that the air is
precious to us, that the air shares its spirit with all the Life
it supports.
The wind that gave our grandfather his first breath also receives
his last sigh.
And if we sell you our land, you must keep it apart and sacred,
as a place where even the white man can go to taste the wind that
is sweetened by the meadow's flowers.
So we will consider your offer to buy our land.
If we decide to
accept, I will make one condition:
the white man must treat the
beast of this land as his brothers.
I am a savage and do not understand any other way.
I have seen a thousand rotting buffaloes on the prairie, left by
the white man who shot them from a passing train.
I am a savage and I do not understand how the smoking iron horse
can be more important than the buffalo that we kill only to stay
alive.
What is man without the beasts? If all the beasts were gone, man
would die from a great loneliness of spirit.
For whatever happens to the beasts, soon happens to man.
things are connected.
All
You must teach your children that the ground beneath their feet
is the ashes of you grandfathers.
So that they will respect the
land, tell your children that the earth is rich with the lives of
our kin.
Teach your children what we have taught our children, that the
earth is our mother.
I
Whatever befalls the Earth befalls the sons of the Earth.
spit upon the ground, they spit upon themselves.
If men
This we know:
The earth does not belong to man; man belongs to
the earth.
This we know.
All things are connected.
Whatever befalls the earth befalls the sons of the earth.
Man
did not weave the web of life;
he is merely a strand in it.
Whatever he does to the web, he does to himself.
Even the white man, whose God walks and talks with him as friend
to friend, cannot be except from the common destiny.
We may be brothers after all.
We shall see.
One thing we know, which the white man may one day discover - our
God is the same God. You may think now that you own Him as you
wish to own our land; but you cannot.
He is the God of man, and
his compassion is equal for the red man and white.
This Earth is precious to Him, and to harm the Earth is to heap
contempt on its Creator.
The whites too, shall pass; perhaps sooner than all the other
tribes.
Contaminate your bed, and you will one night suffocate in your
own waste.
But in you perishing, you will shine brightly, fired by the
strength of the God who brought you to this land and for some
special purpose gave you dominion over this land and over the red
man.
That destiny is a mystery to us, for we do not understand when
the buffalo are all slaughtered, the wild horses are tamed, the
secret corners of the forest heavy with scent of many men, and
the view of the ripe hills blotted by talking wires.
Where is the thicket?
Where is the eagle?
Gone.
Gone.
The end of living and beginning of survival.
4
VOLUNTARY HEALTH ASSOCIATION OF KARNATAKA
---- »■[—.------- ■ -m-
•< '*
«• •
•
•
*r—-»
•
Report of the Workshop. ..’CLEAN ENVIROi^iENT!. .hale in connection
with AGBM on 15.6.1996 at National Institute ,o_f. Personnel
Ma,n^ementwl>_3anqalcro
0 ,XJM- -
The Programme began with invocation song by Ms,Amrutha,
followed by welcome speech by Fr.Patrick.Rodrigues.
ihe
theme- of the- Workshop was introduced by Mr,S.M.Subramanya
Setty.
Sri.K.V.Bengeri9 Chairman of Karnataka State Pollution
Control Board inaugurated the programme and Key note address
•was delivered by Mr.Sridhar, I.A„S. Transport Commissioner
and Dr.Channabasavanna. Director, NIMHANS presided over the
function.
Mr.Ramakrishna, Administrator spoke on Health
.
Implications of Water Pollution.
Jr.Anand, ENT Surgeon spoke
on Health implications of Air Pollution.
Fr.Patrick Rodrigues in his welcome address outlined how
these various pollutions effect our health with live examples
by correlating bad weather with the pollution saying ’The bad ■
health may dampen only our spirit, bad environment will
effect physically, mentally and spiritually’.
He expressed
his happiness of the efforts of Voluntary sectors since they
form a vital organ in the d^'^lcpment: where health is very
essential and right of each individual specially the children s
of today are citizens of tomorrow ,7 who neec riexichy life.
The introduction of theme was done bv Mr.S. M.Subramanya Setty.
He opined Annual General Body Meeting is business .session of
VHAK.
It creates a platform where the participants from ali
over the Karnataka will be enriched with adequate knowledge
and skills and sharing the experiences., regarding’ the
happenings at global
situation.
Since the WHO theme for
this year is 'Clean Environment- VHAK Board members felt
it would be most appropriate to choose tne above subject
during its AGBM.
Every year most important and essential
Programmes were
issue was selected and deliberated on*
proposed to the Member Institutions
whi.ch will be more
ideal and suitable and would become the part of programme
for the ensuing year.
He expressed his happiness for the
gradual increase in number of Member Institutions from
I
20 to 171 over the period of
years..
•
J!
Shri K. 7.Beng-^r?., Chairman of Kar:nut£fic'. .t.a
Control Boaro, in hrs inaugural vx-tljn,
Pollution
outlined the
..close relation between ’Health and Polluter ’ o
Various
’ .
2
types of pollutions like Air, Water, Dr-.-r., Soil and Solid
waste ultimately lead
to gaseous pollution and under ground
water pollution, definition and norms of the pollutants
beyond which lead
to the ill health of an individual.
He
said State pollution Control Soard staff would have more teeth
in checking pollution in collaboration with Forest Department,
Transport department and Municipal Corporation.
Whereas
Bangalore City Corporation had been issued civil , notice to
dispose of garbage expeditiously.
The BCC had promised to
clean up the city by removing the garbage during 1996-97.
•Industrial units producing hazardous wastes has been asked
to store them scientifically.
The wastes would be disposed
off once an efficient and fool-proof technology was developed.
While the SPCB exercised control over the polluting Industrial
units it had no say in vehicular emission, he lamented, and
added that individual notices have been sent.to industrial
units for n»t adhering to the pollution control norms.
■
while he admired Transport Commissioner Mr.Sridhar for the
effort taken by his department in conducting 'Clear air •
campaigns’,
He mentioned pollution from vehicles was
the
major form of pollution plaguing Bangalore, ano two-wheelers
had to share the blame for the rising pollution.
the vehicles in the city confirmed to the
the cumulative effect was higu,
a position to absorb it fully.
Even if all
pollution standards,
the atm^^hore was not in
The SPCB had tried to
determine the ambience of the air by installing monitoring
units to measure it in several parts of Bangalore City.
He
assured that the Board too would make efforts to ensure that
the residents of the City breathed clean air.
9
The Transport Commissioner, Mr.B.L.Sridhar, IAS delivered-
Key Note address by congratulating VHAK for the exclusive
subject, which is most essential, vital and crucial to
every individual, irrespective of her/his life.
-He voiced
saying that man being an intelligent animal masters over
others and thus with the quest for knowledge, science and
development, his struggle with the nature perpetuates
enhancing him to indulge in research in every field of
science.
It applies even to the field of environment also.
He said that studies conducted in Bangalore had proved
that the quality of air had deteriorated and vehicular
pollution was one of the major causes for this.
The rise-
in the number of vehicles in Bangalore and other parts of the
r
While there
state had led to a steady increase in pollution.
were only 1.39 lakh vehicles in Karnataka in I960 it went up
to 4 lakhs in 1980.
14.3 lakhs in 1990 and had touched 22.5
By 2,000 A.D< , the number of vehicles in the
lakhs in 1996.
Similarly, the number
state was likely to touch 30 lakhs.
of vehicles in Bangalore had gone up from 78,000 in 1976 to
3.6 lakhs in 1986 and by the end of the year was likely to
••
•
touch '10 lakhs.
Many of the pollutants, particularly, matter emitted from
vehicles were heavier than air, and settled down at a height
of about three to four feet from the ground.
This would
affe.ct children most, since they breathed the air at that
level, he said.
Regretting the steady rise in suspended
#
•
•
w .
*
particulate matter.in Bangalore, he said on Mysore Road the
peak value of Sulphur dioxide was four times the permissible
limit for residential areas and two times the permissible
limit for Industrial areas.
Mr.Sridhar shared that the Transport Department had taken
The honking
steps to check noise pollution in the city.
horns not only contributed to the noice pollution but also
disturbed the concentration of other road users.
In secural
cases, the-use of air and musical horns had led to accidents.
He siad the department had taken up a continuous clean air
programme by involving Voluntary Organisations, students and
The aim of the programme is to educate
environmentalists.
•
* *.
I* ✓
..
.
I
**
•
• *
V • .
the people about the need to keep the environment clean.
♦
Mr.Ramakrishna, Administrator Environment Training Institute
speaking on water Pollution opined that water is one of the
basic necessities for the life. .Man cannot afford it,
•
■
without exploring, water resources like river, streams., .etc. ,
'
I
.
I
I
•
•
*
•Therefore he cannot pollute it.
,
■
Water is polluted due to
various Industrial activities and urban waste especially
sewage waste, solid wastes and garbage- etc. ,
since we
lack in the proper treatment of these pollutions i.e.
•
•
improper sewage disposal and poor sanitary conditions are
main causes for water b'orne ■ diseases which affect the
«
people, due to water borne poisons and the sources of same.
•
are as followsi
*
•
•
x
•
•
*
•
’
•
<
f
„
Toxic substances leached from mineral formations such
as fluorapatete.
. ?
4
. *
Phyto toxins manufactured by specific algae
*
Heavy metals dissolved from water works structures.
*
Poisonous compounds contained in Industries and
household wastes.
*
Radio active substances from Nuclear plants
*
1esticides leaching water bodies from agricultural
fields.
I
Flourine, Selenium, Arsenic acid, Boron are some of the
Natural contaminants.
Drinking water is the store house of infectious both in
I
rural and urban/semi ur^an areas but in urban, added to
this, the other forms of common modes of transmission of
infections are:
*
*
I
•.
•
.
A
1.
Througa water cress or shell fish harvested from or
stored in sewage polluted water.
- Typhoid, Paratyphoid, Bacillary dysentry and
infectious hepatetis.
2.
Through vegetables and fruits contaminated by faeces,sewage or sewage sludgei
- Typhoid, Paratyphoid, Bacillary dysentry, Parasitic
worms and Infectious hepatitis.
3.
t-
Through exposure to soil contamination by human
exereta
Hook worm
The impact of ^ater pollution on an individual begins when:
.
t
1.
• /
•
.
Sewage waste/industria 1 waste is let into the flow of
river.
For eg. Survey conducted in Bangalore reveals
80% of vegetables like Kaddish, Carrot, Cabbage
(suppose to be more nutritive) grows in sewage water
which is let into the Arakavathi river.
If these
vegetables eaten raw it leads to number of health
• •
problems .•
i '
*
2.
*
*
f fl
If the organism feeds ;on Organic waste it multiplies
tremendously by exploding, which is responsible for
number of diseases.
’Shifting of water pollution is not a solution’,
rather it
leads to water pollution problems.
Solid waste and garbage shifted from one place to other place
is of no use.
Hence, it is unscientific method, after it
dries the most concentrated pollutants flow into the undergound water.
This polluted underground water is very
difficult to dilute it.
Therefore it is essential to take
up preventive measures while treating the solid waste,
has to be done scientifically.
This
Apart from scientific method
there are conventional method and cost effective.
for eg.
Oxidation is a low cost method which requires less energy
i.e. it needs just photosynthetic action.
Since India is progressing in the field of science and
technology and Industrial sector, it cannot be said that
India is developed, until and unless it takes up intensive
measures in controlling various pollutions with broader
perception on Health for the Society.
Till now in Karnataka
only in 8 places Sewage treatment plants are installed.
Mr.Ramakrishna assured that shortly Pollution Control Board
is proposing to start in other parts of Karnataka.
In
Bangalore Sewage Treatment plant is constructed in 3 places.
Therefore training of
But it is not maintained properly.
the public, Government and NGO is essential.
The responsibility of Clean environment does not solely
depend on the Government and Non-government organisations
alone, it needs public co-operation also,
Awareness and
change in their attitude towards ’Clean Environment’ is
necessary.
(Cleaning the house alone is not sufficient but
maintaining the clean environment is important).
For eg.
In other countries like Denmark, Scotland people donate
generously to build sewage treatment plants whereas in
India people donate to build temple.
Hence Mr.Ramakrishna’s
*
plea to the people is to co-operate with KSPC3 in maintain
ing ’Clean Environment’,
’Our city is our temple’, so, he
appealed to donate for building sewage treatment plant
rather than for temples.
The study of United Nations Environment Project (UNEP)
gives the following statistics in water, sanitation and
health:
* In developing countries unsafe water is responsible for
80% of diseases and 33% of Deaths.
6
* 15 per 1000 children born in the developing country die
before he/she reaches 5th birthday from Diarrhoea caused
by drinking polluted water.
* There are 1.2 Billion people suffering from diseases caused
by polluted water or transmitted by inadequate/poor sanita
tion.
* Our 2 Million Tonnes of human excreta
is produced daily in
cities around the world, less than 2% is treated and the
rest discharged in water courses.
9
* -j'ater borne diseases account for more than 4 million infant
and child deaths per year in developing countries.
The speech on Health Implications of ^ir, Pollution was
addressed
by Dr.Anand, eNT Surgeon.
Dr.Anand mainly
concentrated on the causes of Allergy due to different
allergants.
Allergy is one of the common diseases affecting about 15-20%
of the total population, especially in urban areas.
Children
and younger adults are the common victims of this disease.
The incidence of this disease has been gradually increasing
over the last one or two decades.
The common
allergic
diseases are Allergic Rhinitis affecting the nose, Allergic
Conjunctivitis affecting the eye, Allergic Pharyngitis affecting
the throat, Allergic Laryngitis affecting the voice box,
Allergic Tracheitis affecting the main wind pipe, Bronchial
Asthama,
Allergic Otitis media affecting the middle ear,
Atopic Dermatitis causing eczematous skin lesions, Urticaria
causing hives on the
skin and Angio-Oedema causing diffuse
swelling of the skin and mucous membrane.
A susceptible individual and an allergen rich environment
are the two fundamental requirement for anybody to develop
an allergy.
Susceptibility is mainly genetically transfered.
If there is no history of allergy among parents, it is
estimated that there is a 10% risk for a sibling to develop
an allergy.
If one of the parents has an allergy, the risk
goes upto 2Ozo.
could be 40-45%.
like asthma
If ooth parents have an allergy, the risk
If both parents have same type of -allergy
in both or dermatitis in both, the risk could
be as high as 70-75%.
First year of life is the period when
most of allergic sensitization happens and the first three
•» »
7
months in one’s life is the most crucial period, it is
learnt.
The causes or the environmental Motors can be divided into
two major categories viz., ^asic allergens and Aggaravating
factors.
Basic allergens can be further classified into different
groups.
Some substances can act as contact allergens
causing Contact Dermatitis.
Metals, Chemicals, Medicines,
Cosmetics, Fabrics, Plastic, Epoxy & Latex are some such
examples.
Some substances act as Injectant allergens.
Injectable medicines, Contrast Dyes and Honey bee sting
are some such examples.
There are ingestant allergens.
Various foods can act as such allergens.
Though any
substance can become an allergen, nuts, oil seeds, egg,
pulses, milk, wheat, chocolate and sea food are common
examples.
Apart from foods,' food additives, colouring
agents, preservatives and orally ingested drugs can act
as allergens.
Airborne group of allergens are the most important and
predominant allergens especially in respiratory allergy.
They can be further classified, into extramural allergens
present inside a living house.
Among the extramural allergens, though fungi present in
the air can act as allergens, they are uncommon, "plant
pollen grains are the predominent allergens.
Anemophilous
plants, the pollen grains of which are very tiny and nonsticky, disperse tneir pollen grains by means of wind.
These are microscopic in size and gain easy entry into the
respiratory tract to cause allergy.
Grasses like Bermuda,
Imperata, Pennisetum, Zea mays, Weeds like Partheenium,
Amaranthus, Chenopodium, ^anthium and trees like Cassia
siamea, Prosopis juliflora, Holoptelia and Albizia are
some of the common causes of allergy.
Among cr.e intramural allergens, fungal spores would be
present inside a dwelling house but more Than
them, house
dusr is cue commonest substance complained to oe as a cause.
House dust is a complex substance of various organic and
inorganic material.
There is a microscopic insect called
House Dust Mite wnich is tne major allergenic component of
the house dust.
The mites, their dead or alive parts and
faecal pellets cause allergy.
Mites are abundantly present
in ill ventillated unclean houses and rapidly multiply in
humid months.
Pets like dogs and cats can cause allergy.
Similarly the cockroaches can cause allergy.
Aggravating factors are not the basic causes.
or precipitate an existing allergy.
They aggravate
Various other dusts,
smokes, fumes, smells, infections, worm infestations,
hormonal and emotional disturbances can aggravate allergies.
Air pollution with increases green house gases caused by
industry and traffic emissions has been the main cause of
concern during the recent years.
Allergies specially
related to respiratory system, get easily aggravated by this.
Apart from medical treatment to provide symptomatic relief,
allergy patients are evaluated in detail in allergy
immunology clinics.
Allergy tests are done to determine
the causative allergens because they differ in different
patients.
Counselling to avoid the exposure is done for
such allergens which can be avoided.
For airborne allergens
which cannot be avoided, immunotherapy is done to immunise
the patients on a specific line.
A concerted effort must be made to cleanse
our neighbourhood
of unwanted weeds, smoke, dirt and garbage and health
friendly trees and plants
must be cultivated, preserved and
restored where necessary to control the menace of increasing
allergy-, in the population.
A open nouse discussion was held which was chaired
Dr.Bhavani Belvady, President, VHAK
There was good
interaction.
Vote of thanks was proposed by Mr.Premanand N.fhambi
Hon.Secretary of VHAK to one and all.
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P Mri c-i
Strategy
for Environmental Education
An Approach for India
Kartikeya V. Sarabhai
Centre for Environment Education
Ahmedabad 380 054, India
Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the North American
Association for Environmental Education. Washington. D.C.,
U.S.A., September 27 - October 2. 1985.
The ideas and programmes discussed in this paper have been
generated through discussions with my colleagues at the Cen
tre for Environment Education, Ahmedabad.
Strategy
for Environmental Education
An approach for India
India today is engaged in an enormous development effort. Dur
ing 38 years of independence we have concentrated on building
the country's economic infrastructure and dealing with problems
of political and linguistic integration. Modern medicine, has
brought down death rates faster than education can bring down
birth rates. The country faces a critical population problem. The
population has doubled over the past 40 years, now standing at
over 750 million people, roughly one-seventh of mankind. New
technology, especially the development of high yielding varieties
of seeds, has kept the country’s food production ahead of its
population. But many of the gains are far short of expectations.
The combination of a rapidly growing population and a fast
deteriorating environment has denied the expected benefits of
growth to a majority of our citizens. The country’s forest
resources are being rapidly depleted. The needs of housing and
industry have taken some of the most fertile lands away from
agriculture or forestry. The disappearance of tree cover is most
acutely felt in our hilly regions, especially in the Himalayas.
Precious topsoil is being eroded and floods have had devastating
effects on the plains. The disappearance of tree cover in the cat
chment areas of major dams has led to increased silting reduc
ing the life of the reservoirs. The wildlife situation in the coun
try came very close to disaster and we would have lost several
important species had action not been taken in time.
Four thousand five hundred years ago, the Indus Valley civilisa
tion could boast of the first city that had a well-planned drainage
system. Today, unfortunately, we cannot say the same thing
about many of our towns. Water-borne diseases are a major com
ponent of the country’s health problems. Industrial growth has
not been without a heavy toll, Bhopal being the worst of it. Most
of our cities have pollution levels far in excess of what is accep
table. The working class and urban poor are particularly badly
hit, both in their work environment and in the places where they
live — usually around the factories. India’s rivers, so integrated
with our culture and considered in many ways the ultimate
cleanser, are themselves choking from effluents discharged into
them.
In 1972 at the Stockholm Conference, Prime Minister Indira
Gandhi proposed the framework for an environmental policy that
would be consistent with the problems of development that a
country such as India faced. Over the last decade India has been
initiating programmes to bring environmental considerations in
to development plans. Legislation has been passed for the pro
tection of wildlife and forests as well as for the control of pollu
tion both of the air and water. Policies on land use have received
increasing attention. Several non-governmental agencies have
highlighted local environmental problems. Action Groups sprang
up as environmental awareness grew. Programmes aimed at
school children, including the formation of Nature Clubs and
organising of nature camps, developed during these years. In
1980 the Government of India set up a Department of Environ
ment to act as the focal agency for planning, promotion and coor
dination of environmental programmes in the country. The new
Department started supporting a number of agencies in the field
of research and monitoring. A few pilot projects aimed at creating
environmental awareness were also begun. But the attainment
of such awareness at the national level was possible only if a con
certed effort was made using several agencies, both governmen
tal and other, working together to form a network.
The task before the Department was stupendous. It was clear that
the only way in which environmental considerations could get
integrated with development plans was through widespread
awareness about the environment and of man’s role in shaping
it, for better or for worse.
Environmental consciousness, sensitivity, and values need to be
built up at all levels. Legislation without awareness and educa
tion cannot be effective. True understanding of the environment
has to start at the school level; but simultaneously a wider com
munity, both urban and rural, has to become aware. There is a
need for special programmes focussing on specific target groups
such as decision makers. The network of agencies that can tackle
such a problem will have to involve schools, voluntary agencies,
government departments, extension agencies, and teacher
training and other educational institutions. In order to manage
2
'
)
such a programme there is need for a sustained effort at
generating innovative programmes, developing appropriate
educational material, testing and monitoring the effectiveness
of the programmes, training personnel, researching and prepar
ing basic reference material, using existing media of communica
tion and experimenting with traditional as well as new media.
One of the strategies of the Department of Environment was to
set up “Centres of Excellence” for research, training and educa
tion — centres that would play a pivotal role in strengthening
the country’s infrastructure and thereby its ability to deal with
these issues. The Centre for Environment Education was propos
ed under this programme.
There has been a tradition in India, started by the Atomic Energy
and Space Agencies, of building institutions around people rather
than the other way round. The Nehru Foundation for Develop
ment had through its institutions, the Vikram A. Sarabhai Com
munity Science Centre, VIKSAT, and the Centre for Health
Education, Training and Nutrition Awareness (CHETNA), built
up groups engaged in developing innovative educational pro
grammes and material, conducting teacher-training programmes
and using the audio-visual and mass media in the fields of
science, mathematics, health, nutrition, and environmental
education. These institutions had many experiences that could
be shared amongst them and there was an obvious synergetic
advantage which could be utilised for environmental education.
The Nehru Foundation’s associated activities, Sundarvan, a small
animal and snake park, and Darpana, a centre for performing
arts, brought in other opportunities that could prove very useful
in devising an environmental education programme. The Cen
tre for Environment Education was established in August, 1984
as an associated activity of the Nehru Foundation for Develop
ment with support from the Department of Environment, Govern
ment of India. Sundarvan became part of the new Centre.
Starting with a core group of 18 people taken from VIKSAT, the
Centre, along with Sundarvan, envisages a staff of about a hun
dred people whose skills would include communication, design,
subject expertise, training, technical and support functions. At
VIKSAT an effective model of working together in terms of inter
disciplinary groups to generate programmes on environmental
3
education had been developed. We are trying to retain this
method of working together though the institution is growing and
its tasks are becoming more complex. This is in recognition of
the fact that different professional skills and backgrounds are re
quired in order to develop a successful programme. Typically a
group would consist of a subject expert, a person familiar with
the target group, a designer, and a writer. The Centre is organis
ed into the following groups:
Children’s,
Urban,
Rural,
Graphic Design and Visual Communication,
Exhibit Design,
Writing,
Reference and Resource, and
Sundarvan — a nature discovery centre.
)
During its first year the Centre has planned and begun working
on a number of programmes, while recruiting staff and
establishing the requried facilities. The current programmes of
the Centre can be broadly classified into the following seven
areas:
(1) Children’s Programmes
(2) Sundarvan Programmes
(3) Urban Programmes
(4) Rural Programmes
(5) Interpretive Programmes
(6) Publications/Exhibits/Films and TV Programmes
(7) Training Programmes
Children's Programmes
There are over 625,000 primary and middle schools and about
50,000 secondary schools in the country, with a total enrolment
of over 110 million students. They range from the sophisticated
urban schools with modern equipment and facilities to single
teacher schools in rural areas where children in four grades or
more share a classroom. Instruction across the country is in over
20 languages.
In some ways any attempt at developing uniform educational pro
4
K/
grammes and material for a country so diverse is bound to run
into difficulties. While it might work in one region in one set of
circumstances, it would be inapplicable in another. On the other
hand, an attempt at studying, analysing and developing material
for the different situations of Indian schools would mean that the
Centre would only be able to design for a few such situations.
Therefore, we are exploring a different concept of design.
The saree is a designed piece of clothing worn all over India. Over
the years very beautiful designs, patterns and textures have been
printed and woven into the Indian Saree and yet, several thou
sand years of Indian history has not tried to stitch the saree. It
is worn in many ways and fits all sizes. It is equally good for work
ing, dressing up or sleeping in. The final effect is the combined
effort of the person who designs the cloth and the person who
wears it — of the designer and the user. This is a very different
concept from that of designing, say, a well-stitched dress. The
garment either fits or doesn’t fit and, where it fits, leaves little
room for the wearer to be innovative in its use.
Our educational designing would have to be somewhat like the
saree, more a tool than a finished product, a tool that comes alive
in the hands of each teacher, its application being the combined
effort of the designer and the user. •
How does one translate this concept into educational media? We
were recently working on designing an educational activity
around a pond. A chart with an illustration of the pond is used
with this activity. An attempt at preparing a ready chart, however
beautifully done, had problems. It looked like one pond but not
at all like the next one. One approach being developed is to make
sheets with illustrations of individual elements like insects,
shrubs, birds, fishes, trees, people, cattle, etc. The making of the
chart using these elements and adding to them where necessary,
rather than just using the chart, would become a classroom ac
tivity. The elements would be selected to show a category rather
than a specific species. The chart made in the classroom would
now not only look more like their own pond but the preparation
of it would itself be an effective observing and learning activity.
Another question that the Centre faced was to seek appropriate
media that would be cost-effective in an Indian context. We could
5
consider educational material at a variety of levels — from
material for each student to classroom material, to school
material, to material for a cluster of schools, or to an even larger
unit. If there were 50 students in a class, one had to think whether
preparing 50 copies of single-use student material at say Rs. 21each was going to be more effective or classroom material that
might cost Rs. 300/- and last at least three years; whether it was
better to give teaching aids or only instructions as to how to make
them. At the Vikram A. Sarabhai Community Science Centre at
Ahmedabad, a mathematics teaching aid was developed for
primary school children. The gadget might have been much too
expensive had an attempt been made to manufacture and sell
it as a finished product. Instead, the centre decided to develop
a booklet and a teacher-training programme on how to make the
teaching aid using low cost material. The programme was very
successfully implemented at a number of schools.
There is another aspect to the dissemination of teaching aids
which needs mention. The way the school system in India is
organised today, many teaching gadgets end up locked in cup
boards. The material are alien to the teachers, who are afraid that
if they lose or break any part of the gadget, they will not be able
to replace it. They thus end up not using it at all. Teaching aids
developed by the teachers and students themselves do not have
this problem and have better chances of being used.
A third aspect that we have to consider is the logistics of work
ing in so many languages. We have decided that we would like
to try out pur educational programmes nationally right from the
beginning rather than develop them based on one region. We are
therefore experimenting with printing the graphic material in
large quantities and letting the teacher or a State level organisa
tion put in the words through less expensive printing techniques
or in some cases by hand.
The Centre has decided to focus its attention over the next few
years on standards V to VII (age group 10 to 12). We felt that at
this middle school level, children would have acquired basic skills
and concepts in language, mathematics, and science and at the
same time were not so pressurised with examinations that the
teacher would be unwilling to participate in new educational ac
tivity. Later we would expand our programmes and develop
6
material for both the primary standards I to IV and secondary
school VIII to X.
Testing such educational material is a difficult task for, not be
ing a product, its treatment will vary from situation to situation.
Its effectiveness depends as much on the teacher as on the
material. Teacher training thus becomes an important compo
nent for the effectiveness of the Centre’s Programmes. At the first
level, which we call lab testing, we bring students to.the Sundarvan facility and the educational staff try it out themselves.
At this level we are concerned mostly with the question of
whether it works, whether it is interesting and how long it sus
tains children’s interest at different age groups. At the next level
a programme is tried in 10 schools around Ahmedabad. This con
stitutes our first trial with teachers conducting the programme.
We study the variations in the programme in different situations.
At this stage we are trying out the programmes in three
languages — Gujarati, Hindi and English.
The Centre is in the process of developing a network of 1,000
schools across the country. These schools are being selected on
the basis of their motivation and record of interest in innovative
educational work. They may have started a Nature Club, have
participated in one of the many programmes of the Department
of Environment, be associated with the voluntary agencies deal
ing with education or have worked in areas other than environ
ment and shown their interest in innovative ideas. Teachers from
these schools will participate in teacher-training programmes and
will receive the educational material developed by the Centre.
This will then be tried in their school but, as mentioned earlier,
not in a passive way, but through the active involvement of the
teacher. In this sense this part of the process is not merely a trial
but is very much a part of the development process itself. Over
a few years, it is hoped that each of these schools will itself
become a centre generating new ideas and, acting as a lead
school, spread them to schools around it. NGOs and government
agencies working in the field of education, such as the National
Council of Education, Research and Training (NCERT), and the
State institutions of education will also be intimately involved
at this stage of programme development and trial.
Motivated groups of students have formed Nature Clubs in many
7
parts of the country. The World Wildlife Fund-India has played
a pioneering role in establishing Nature Clubs and running
Nature Camps. Five regular camping programmes are being run
— one each in a desert, a marine park, a scrub forest, a dry
deciduous forest and in the hills. These programmes have prov
ed very effective in firing the imagination of children and in in
culcating love for nature. There is a need now to go beyond this
level and to add a deeper understanding of the environment
amongst the students and to develop skills of studying and ap
preciating the environment. The Centre is developing educational
material for use at such camps and by students who have joined
Nature clubs. The Centre itself plans to develop a Young
Naturalists’ Club for students who want to do small research pro
jects in their own environment. Activity sheets, observation
cards, and guidebooks and handbooks are being developed. Such
students in the future could form a core const!tuencv for anv en
vironmental action group or programme. For places where
Nature Clubs do not exist, the Centre is also preparing material
on how to form Nature Clubs and training programmes for Club
Organisers.
Sundarvan Programmes
Some 54,000 people visited a week-long snake show organised
in Ahmedabad in October 1978 by the Vikram A. Sarabhai Com
munity Science Centre in collaboration with the World Wildlife
Fund-India and the Madras Crocodile Bank. Seventy volunteers
talked to the visitors about snakes and their importance in the
ecosystem, answering questions based on the many myths and t
beliefs that surround this animal. The tremendous success ot this
show and others held around the country demonstrated the
potential of using snakes to begin an enquiry into nature. It
underlined the need tor a pei manent facility where one not only
could see animals but understand them.
In the wake ot this experience. Sundarvan was established in
1979 as a small animal park with a modest collection of snakes
and small animals that children could get quite close to. In the
first tew years, the park has attracted visitors of all age groups.
School groups have eome (oi gener al and specific programmes.
Sundarvan has paitteqxated m making documentaries for televi
sion on themes related to animals Regular snake shows are ar
I
ranged and at times a new animal has been on display. Film
shows on wildlife and nature are held over weekends. Snake
shows have also been held in rural areas around Ahmedabad.
Q
Sundarvan today is part of the Centre for Environment Educa
tion. The park facilities are being developed with new animals
and birds. The selection is being made on considerations of the
educational value of the enclosure rather than whether the
animal is exotic or a novelty. Emphasis is being laid on creating
natural viewing situations in the park. Mango trees and a pond
have attracted fascinating birds. The pond was our first attempt
at creating a natural viewing situation. Another shallower pond
is being built for wading birds.
The Centre is initiating a programme for young naturalists in the
age group 13 to 19. With the growth in Nature Clubs, it was felt
that there is a need for programmes for the motivated students
involving more detailed and focussed observation of the environ
ment. Simple research projects are being drawn up and these will
be sent to students who Join the Young Naturalists’ Club from
all over India. Through correspondence and a newsletter these
programmes will be communicated to the network of students
who will be able to write back their experiences to be shared with
others.
A
Sundarvan gets several calls from in and around Ahmedabad
from people who have spotted a snake and want it caught rather
than killed. Usually there is a crowd gathered when the snake
catcher arrives and it forms an ideal occasion to inform people
about snakes in general and the snake caught in particular. A
simple pamphlet on snakes is distributed.
In a more formal sense an outreach programme of taking small
animals to schools is being developed and the initial trials using
frogs, mice, turtles and non-venomous snakes have been very
successful. A series of educational flip charts and other teaching
material have been developed to aid this programme. This
outreach programme can be undertaken at several centres in the
country. We are contacting agencies that would be interested in
taking up such a programme and training their educational staff
in conducting it. The flip charts are being made with the illustra
tion screen printed and a guide for writing-in the text in the local
language.
9
We are trying to utilise the existing snake charmers in the coun
try to present a more scientific view of snakes without, of course,
making their show less entertaining. A rural snake show with
a mobile exhibit using snake charmers as extension staff is be
ing developed.
Urban Programmes
The urban environment in India is characterised by phenomena
common to cities in most large developing countries. Foremost
among these is the high growth rate of population. This is due
as much to natural increase as to rural-urban migration resulting
from the incapacity of the impoverished countryside to support
an increasing j pulation on a narrow resource base. The familiar
stresses attendant
n this phenomenon — overcrowding,
slums, inadequate services, an informal sector all but fugitive
from the law providing marginal employment to a sizeable pro
portion of the population, environmental pollution — are com
pounded by some features unique to India.
To overcome these formidable problems it is necessary to create
an educated opinion among all segments of the urban popula
tion who are affected by the situation or are in a position to in
fluence the course of urban development. Towards this end, over
the past few years, we have been running an urban programme
trying to focus people’s attention on planning issues that have
a major environmental implication and on areas where action
was called for. By running a magazine, using the popular press.
organising public seminars and workshops, and through a mobile
exhibit, we have tried to create an awareness both at the com
munity level and amongst decision makers and administrators.
Our experience has shown that while people understand the
issues, there remains a basic credibility problem. There are many
who think that there are no alternative ways of planning. Many
feel that cost factors for any such environmental programmes
would be prohibitive. There are those who think that the dif
ference would, at best, be marginal. Under these conditions, it
was felt that we needed to talk in terms of specifics, highlighting
cases where environmental improvement has been achieved. As
a follow-up of this, we are working on creating demonstration pro
jects in which a communication intervention can lead to a ma
jor environmental improvement of the area and can be used as
10
an example at the national level. Seven such projects have been
selected. These deal with problems such as urban open spaces,
development of waterfronts, the environment of the market place,
the environment of the urban poor, and the preservation of a
monument within an urban area. The national relevance of the
project would not be in terms of the solution adopted but rather
in terms of the approach. Relevant Government and voluntary
agencies are being identified for each project. Communication
material is being developed aimed at the local community and
the relevant decision makers. Once the project can be successfully carried out, a much wider reaching communication effort
would be undertaken. A national level seminar is being organis
ed on some of these issues inviting people from other towns and
cities to share their experiences and give details of the demonstra
tion project.
At a very different level, an urban awareness programme in the
form of activities titled “Know Your City” is being developed for
use in schools.
Rural Programmes
With increasing population, rural India faces a major shortage
of natural resources on which the life of the village depends.
Firewood and fodder are two areas where the stress is particularly
severe. The increasing pressure on these resources leads to
overutilization making the long-term problems even worse.
Overgrazed lands become susceptible to erosion leading to lesser
production of fodder in every successive year.
Efforts at both increasing production and making more efficient
use of available resources are required. Many techniques have
been developed but their dissemination is slow and at times does
not lead to the desired result. The government has launched
several schemes which remain unknown to the intended
beneficiaries. Many innovative programmes started by NGOs re
main confined to the small cluster of villages where the agency
works.
The Centre’s rural programmes aim at developing effective com
munication strategies for the dissemination of environmentally
sound technologies, processes and programmes. There is a large
11
network of voluntary agencies as well as government field
organisations in the country. The Centre’s strategy is based on
working with this network and developing communication pro
grammes that can be used by the existing network rather than
attempting to directly communicate with the end-beneficiaries.
Two specific programmes have been selected for the initial years.
Both these deal with the severe shortage of fuelwood and fodder
in the country. Several versions of a smokeless chulha (a wood
burning stove) have been developed in India and tried with vary
ing degrees of success. The chulha is stated to reduce the require
ment of fuelwood by about 40 per cent. However, in many places
where it has been introduced, women complain that while it
reduces smoke, the chulha increases the requirement of fuel. The
problem has to do with developing the right design for the right
application. Initially, two pilot communication programmes are
being carried out, one in an area where chulhas are to be in
troduced, and the other where they have already been introduc
ed and certain problems relating to their use have to be dealt
with.
India has vast areas of land which have been laid waste through
overexploitation. The country has given the development of
wastelands a major priority and a Wastelands Development
Board has been set up at the national level. This is another area
where most of the technical problems have been solved. But the
logistics of involving people in planting fuelwood species is
preventing rapid greening of these areas. The Centre, in col
laboration with VIKSAT, is collating information on a variety of
basic and functionally pertinent topics such as how to form a cooperative, what tree to plant, how to find finance for the project,
etc.
While natural resources have rapidly deteriorated, the position
is particularly critical for people who live in and around a sanc
tuary or a national park. With such areas coming under ‘protec
tion’ the entire resource base of many of the people Hying around
these areas has become out of bounds to them. For tribals who
have been relocated outside such areas, there is the further pro
blem of adjusting to a new environment. This has created hostili
ty between the tribals and villagers on the one hand and the park
authorities on the other.
12
A programme directed at bringing about a new relationship
would consist of identifying the existing needs and available
resources, exploring possibilities of augmenting these resources
and modifying the needs, evolving educational components to
create awareness about the need for the sanctuary, and manage
ment of the sanctuary and tourism so as to benefit the people
of the surrounding areas.
A pilot project is being developed around a wildlife sanctuary in
Rajasthan.
Interpretive Programmes
India has over 200 national parks and sanctuaries, over 2,000
important historical and cultural monuments and about a 100
botanical and zoological gardens. Many of these have become im
portant places of interest. During a visit, people want to know
more about what they see and this is the right moment to im
part environmental messages. An interpretive programme that
can make people understand the various aspects of the place and
their relationship to the surroundings is an important method
of creating environmental awareness amongst the general
community.
o
It is very important to understand the spirit in which the visitor
comes to see a park or a monument and to evolve educational
components which do not seem to be an imposition. The pro
grammes involve identifying the right message and selecting an
appropriate medium for it. The visitor must feel that the infor
mation provides answers to the questions in his mind.
Earlier, as VIKSAT, the group developed an exhibit area for the
Gir National Park and educational material for the Bandipur
Sanctuary and other tiger reserves in the country. The group had
also worked closely with the National Museum of Natural History,
New Delhi, in developing Take Home Labels. Today we are engag
ed in developing interpretive programmes for the Kanha National
Park in Madhya Pradesh and the National Zoological Park in New
Delhi. These are being developed in collaboration with the U.S.
National Park Service.
One of the most challenging tasks in this project is the develop13
ment of suitable material that can stand the onslaughts of
weather and at times vandalism. The media will include pam
phlets, road-side guides, exhibits at museum and waysides,
signage, audio-visuals and other non-print media.
More than a million people visit the Delhi Zoo every year. The
programmes undertaken in this park will enable visitors to gain
a better understanding of the animals in the Zoo and the role that
the Zoo plays in the country’s conservation efforts. The work in
volves designing and fabrication of a signage system, wayside
exhibits, an illustrated information folder, a handbook and a
visitor centre.
The interpretive programme for the Kanha National Park is be
ing developed as a model for such facilities at national parks and
sanctuaries. This visitor centre will be housed in an old dak
bungalow, built during the British period. Part of the exhibit area
will be on the research in the national park. This will not only
show the results of the research but will also try to elaborate on
the process by which these results were obtained. For instance,
an exhibit describes what a tiger eats through displaying the
method of collecting the information. Other media designed for
Kanha are a roadside guide, a handbook, a tabloid, pocket cards
and wayside exhibits.
Publications/News Service/T V Programmes
There is a great dearth of basic reference works and popular
books on environment and related subjects focussing on the In
dian context. The Centre has, therefore, taken up a programme
of publishing a series of handbooks and field guides and books
specially designed as supplementary reading for students. The
rst twelve of these — on the birds, mammals, trees, etc. of Guare being published in collaboration with World
i e Fund - India . A series of four illustrated books on India’s
natural resources is also being published. With increasing env ronmental awareness there is need today to provide informa.
an ^nterested person can do to participate fruitfully
^onse[yatlon movement. To meet this need, the Centre proLnt ° pub isb catalogues providing comprehensive and rele
ant access information. The first of these is an Indian Wildlife
14
\
While a dozen national dailies and periodicals have been giving
increasing coverage to environment-related stories in recent
times, the vast majority of Indian newspapers in different
languages pay little attention to the environment. One reason for
this is that there is no centralised agency in the country which
regularly supplies environmental news and articles to the press.
The Centre has, therefore, started an environment News and
Features Service. Through this service we provide authentic in
formation to over a thousand dailies and periodicals in the country. Much of this information is a bye-product of the various programmes of the Centre. The service offers a weekly package of
news, features, articles and photographs.
The Centre will be establishing basic audio-visual facilities next
year and will be developing programmes in the non-print media.
Television is becoming a major medium of mass communication
in the country. Special educational telecasts have also commenc
ed. The centre has proposals to develop a regular programme on
environment for television.
Training Programmes
The Centre’s overall approach is to work through existing net
works. This would involve working with teachers, 'members of
voluntary bodies, field workers of government agencies, educa
tional staff at national parks and sanctuaries as well as at
museums and zoos. In order to make any such programme suc
cessful, training programmes are essential. At present, the Cen
tre envisages training workshops of about five days each. But
besides the function of training and making people familiar with
educational material developed by the Centre, the programmes
will be very useful as a forum for the exchange of ideas and ex
periences. The people trained by the Centre, in turn, become
another network that will be useful in disseminating ideas on en
vironmental education, programmes and material throughout
the country and getting feedback on programmes carried out.
Conclusion
I have tried to outline the strategy for environmental education
that is being developed by the Centre for Environment Educa
15
tion at Ahmedabad to fulfil an important function at the national
level. The basic components of this strategy are:
1. To help national networks for environmental education and to
work with the existing networks both for the purpose of
development and trial which can be a simultaneous process;
2. To use both modem and traditional media and to experiment
with innovative communication ideas for the promotion of en
vironmental awareness;
3. To develop educational material intended for widespread use v
in a way in which the user can adapt it to particular situa
tions. In this sense, to develop the material more in the form
of a tool rather than a finished product;
4. To develop for implementation through centralised agencies
programmes which may be in the form of very clearly defined
projects and programmes with a large training component for
the relevant educational staff;
5. To use existing situations and develop interpretive progra
mmes around them;
6. To use successful environmental programmes and build
communication strategies around them and to develop
demonstration projects where, through a communication
intervention, a major environmental improvement can be
shown;
7. To demonstrate the efficacy of communication programmes ,/
in terms of the requirements of diffusing specific technologies
and processes.
There are many experiences and approaches from all over the
world that are relevant to the Indian situation. Whenever I have
discussed with colleagues from various parts of the world, aspects
of their programmes, one becomes all too aware of how global
some of the underlying issues are. We would, therefore, welcome
suggestions, comments and inputs in terms of experiences and
insights as well as in terms of specific ideas as we develop
material for India.
16
Centre for Environment Education
Nehru Foundation for Development
Ahmedabad 380 054, India
Draft II
Trw
Empowering the Eco-system people
*Need for India to also pursue a
village oriented agenda
Published by
Foundation for Revitalisation of Local Health Traditions
No.50, MSH Layout, 2nd stage, 3rd main, zknandnagar, Bangalore 560 024.
It cannot be denied that the initiative for the biodiversity
convention was a northern initiative, one inspired by two compelling
needs:
First, a sense of insecurity due to the precarious nature of the
planet's ecology (caused in the first place almost entirely by the
western model of unsustainable development); and second, a desire to
have access to the South's rich bio-genetic resources.
The South has reacted to the North's agenda by asking for financial
compensations to conserve its tropical forests and has demanded
transfer ofthe North's bio-technology on favourable terms.
The North has accepted some of the South's demands after hard
bargaining and negotiations are still going on...
Amidst all these feverish negotiations on biodiversity conservation
and its high-tech utilisation, we in the South seem to have paid
insufficient attention to the fact that millions of our people have been
traditionally using biodiversityfor a wide variety ofpurposes.
Many of these traditional uses have a contemporary relevance for
the present and the future as they are likely to represent the most
ecologically sound, safe and sustainable ways of using our
bio-resources.
India's own agenda in biodiversity conservation should not be
merely to see on what financial terms access to our bio-genetic raw
materials should be granted but also to engage very seriously in the
revitalisation of our traditional sciences and technologies.
The revitalisation of indigenous knowledge systems related to
biodiversity may not be India's only agenda beyond the Biodiversity
Convention, but it should certainly be one of the majorfocal points
in the interests of our eco-system people.
1.0 Scope of the village-level bio-resources
DOCUMENTATION FORMAT
The Bangalore meeting acknowledged the .practical fields of
people’s knowledge of biodiversity, for example: biodiversity used in
medicine, weather forecasting, animal husbandry, food and nutrition,
agriculture, fisheries locating ground water and minerals, vegetable
dyes, fibres, craft, cultural practices, etc. People's profound knowledge
of conservation & ecology was also noted.
The participants appreciated that no “single” questionnaire for
documenting local knowledge could ever do justice in recording the
wide spectrum of local know-how of biodiversity. So the meeting
accepted that it was realistic to only design a common, or ’baseline’
format. Other specialised formats could be built upon the baseline
format depending on the nature of special interests involved.
However, the baseline format should give an overview of the
diverse bio-resources known to a village, general information on their
multiple uses and on local conservation practices related to these
resources..
2
2.0 Purpose of Documentation
The Bangalore meeting affirmed that the CR should serve a
number of purposes:
2.1 Direct benefit to the Village Community
It would act as a record of local knowledge for the use of present
and future generations of the village community itself. There is an
urgent need to document these traditions as there has been a steady
erosion of traditional knowledge of biodiversity and its uses from
previous generations to the present and the trend seems to be
continuing.
2.2 Revitalisation of local knowledge
The CR documentation could serve as a preliminary basis for
revitalisation of local knowledge by enabling agencies concerned with
linking biodiversity and cultural diversity to:
a. Recognise the range of local knowledge
b. Reward outstanding traditional knowledge / skills /techniques
conservation practices
and
c. Confirm and promote sound local traditions in various fields.
d. Promote inter-community transfer of knowledge for capacity
enhancement
*
I
It was, however, observed that a revitalisation program could
not end with mere baseline documentation of local knowledge of
biodiversity but would need to undertake several other creative
and practical steps for conserving both biodiversity and cultural
diversity.
3
2.3 Guideline for conservation action and protection
of local rights
The baseline documentation could also alert conservationists about
the need for conservation action for a resource that is under threat and
for protection of local rights over the use of resources that are essential
for the basic needs of the community.
2.4 Guideline for development and utilisation
of bio-resources
This kind of village-level documentation across a region could also
draw notice to the ‘use-value’ of a resource (quantified in money
terms) to the local community, so that purely market-oriented plans
and strategies for development of bio-resources could be avoided and
community interests could also be kept in view.
2.5 Protection from Piracy
Finally, the baseline community register could also be used to
protect local biodiversity and local knowledge from being privatised
by commercial interests who may file patents on modified products,
processes and biological materials that were designed and built upon
local resources and knowledge. The Bangalore meeting took note of
the fact that there are hundreds of examples of the knowledge of
tribals, farmers and other communities being commercially exploited
without acknowledgement or compensation and that this piracy may
continue, especially in the light of the recent GATT provisions
permitting the patenting of life forms.
4
0
3.0 Status of Community Register in
BIODIVERSITY LEGISLATION
The Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India,
which also participated in the Bangalore Meeting, is examining how
the village-level community register can be used as an instrument to
protect traditional knowledge of bio-resources. It is currently engaged
in finalising a comprehensive legislation on biodiversity within the
context of which this register could be used.
It is expected that under the new legislation material transfer agree
ments will need to be entered into for commercial use of all Indian
genetic materials. Access shall be provided only to organizations from
countries which have changed their IPR laws to incorporate provisions
for identifying (a) source of biological materials and (b) source of the
traditional knowledge based on which a new application or modified
product has been designed, and (c) evidence that informed consent and
due compensation and fees has been paid for use of the biological
material and or the traditional knowledge about the bio-material.
5
4.0
Access to Community Register
It was noted that in the Indian tradition, knowledge of bio
resources has generally been considered to be of sacred value and
therefore not for sale.
It was observed that such knowledge has been freely accessible for
non-commercial uses, although some aspects of traditional knowledge
are closely guarded for various reasons and thus restricted in terms of
their free transmission.
I
The Bangalore meeting visualised that the information documented
in the village-level community register would reflect the above
mentioned cultural attitudes of the people with regard to sharing of
their knowledge.
Members felt that whereas their should be no attempt to
change the cultural values and attitudes of the people with respect
to sharing and access to their knowledge, it was absolutely
necessary to find ways in which commercial users could be
prevented from privatising knowledge that belongs to the public
domain.
It was expected that the bio!diversity legislation which the
Government of India is contemplating would take care of the danger
of misuse.
Even with respect to non-commercial use it was felt that it was
very important to always acknowledge the traditional sources of
information and give them due recognition.
It was thought.necessary to encourage & promote public
awareness & mobilisation to guard against misuse without creating a
paranoia.
More importantly it was considered necessary to enhance
local capacities to put together, maintain and use the register.
6
5.0 Community
iodiversity Fund
The Bangalore meeting endorsed the idea of a “community
biodiversity fund”, which could be used to reward conservation
practices & outstanding traditional knowledge and skills.
It was observed that it would be very difficult to exclusively
attribute knowledge of a particular resource to any particular village or
ethnic community or individual in the absence of rigorous survey of
the complete distribution of the particular resource or knowledge.
Thus, it was advised that whereas the community register should
certainly record the knowledge of individuals and particular
communities, exclusiveness of such knowledge would need to be
carefully ascertained.
In the context of rewards and compensation for traditional
knowledge and resources it was strongly felt that this fund should not
be managed & administered only by government, but involve
representatives of community organisations and other non
government institutions.
The question of whether there should be one national fund or
state level funds also needed consideration.
Sources of bio-diversity funds suggested were: taxes/cess on
biological products, royalties from bio-diversity industry using
traditional knowledge & resources etc.
The bio-diversity fund allocations would need to be governed
by transparent guidelines based on just and fair principles.
7
6. Summary Of Discussions At The Bangalore
Orientation Camp
1.
Biodiversity loss alongside loss of associated cultural
diversity is proceeding at a rapid pace The reasons for biodiversity
loss are better understood and range from evolutionary losses to
more recent losses that are caused due to habitat losses in the course
of an unsustainable development process.
2. The reasons for loss of cultural diversity are less well
understood. There are a number of factors responsible and loss of
bio-diversity is only one of them. It is also due to the Euro-centric
outlook and policies of the Indian establishment which has hitherto
looked down upon all forms of indigenous and traditional
knowledge.
3. It was recognised that Traditional Knowledge flows in two
streams. One stream is the folk or the prakrit stream which is purely
empirical. It was noted that folk knowledge of biodiversity is eco
system and ethnic community specific and therefore is very rich and
diverse. The other stream is the samscrit or codified stream which
has sophisticated theoretical foundations very different from that of
western knowledge systems.
4. It was recognised that a lot of folk knowledge could therefore
be validitated and understood in terms of the codified indigenous
knowledge systems. It was however, appreciated that modern
scientific knowledge systems may also be able to explain the
rationality of folk knowledge and therefore scientific and
technological pluralism was necessary to promote sustainable
utilisation patterns of bio-diversity.
8
5. It was recognised that traditional knowledge of biodiversity
is important not merly because it is a part of our heritage but
because it may be of great practical importance and contemporary
value.
6. It was appreciated that traditional knowledge of biodiversity
is not something stagnant but is essentially dynamic and
evolving. There are for examples of local communities having
found out the use of exotic species that have been recently
introduced or having adapted some modern technology to suit a
local need.
7.
It was recognised that biodiversity can best be
documented by looking at its presence in the diverse elements of
the landscape and not only in conspicuous landscape elements
such as forests. Thus biodiversity may be seen in landscape
elements like agricultural fields, plantations, backyard gardens,
hedges, quarries, mines, road sides, river banks, swamps, water
falls, ponds, coastal belts etc.
9
ACTION AGENDA
7.0
DECISION to carry out nation-wide
FIELD-TESTING
It was decided to field-test the draft in collaboration with network
members and their grassroots field associates and field programs in
specific locations all over the country. 127 organizations have
indicated willingness to field test the CR in 134 villages across
18 states.
7.1 Co-ordination of the field-testing exercise
World Wide Fund for Nature(WWF), New Delhi, Centre for
Ecological Sciences (CES), Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore &
Foundation for Revitalisation of Local Health Traditions (FRLHT),
Bangalore, were made responsible for co-ordinating the field-testing
program.
7.2 Community Register Field-Testing Secretariat
The Bangalore meeting requested FRLHT to continue as the
Secretariat for the Community Register till the Field-Testing program
was completed. The Community Register Secretariat’s address is C/o
FRLHT, 50 MSH Layout, Anandnagar, Bangalore -560 024,
Tel: 3336909, 3330348, Fax. 3334167, Email: ravi@frlht.emet.in
All communication from field agencies for participating in the field
test may be sent to this address.
7.3 Last date for field agencies to send in the field tested
CR Format
30th June 1995
7.4 Financial support for field-testing
No financial support is available for conducting the field test. The
field-testing is expected to be carried out by each agency in at least
ONE village in a particular taluka. Since this exercise is only for field
testing the format it is not necessary to carry out extensive surveys.
10
8.
Next steps
1.
It was decided that after the field testing the Community
Register format would be suitably revised. It may be necessary to
prepare an illustrated manual as a guide for the Community Register
Format.
2. It was recommended that the Ministry of Environment should be
asked to give a commitment to publish the Community Register
format in regional languages for distribution to field agencies all over
the country as the suggested format for documenting community
knowledge of bio-resources in the villages of India.
3. It was decided to encourage and identify nodal agencies in every
state to take up the responsibility to train field workers in the state for
building village level Community Registers.
4. It was strongly felt that while Ministry of Environment and
Forests should ensure a role for the village community register in its
biodiversity legislation, in the meanwhile, grass-root organisations
should take initiative to build up community registers in
thousands of villages and use them for revitalisation of local
traditions, sharing and exchange of knowledge with other local
communities and for protecting their knowledge from misuse by
commercial interests.
List of resource persons who contributed to
the Bangaiore orientation camp
Prof. Madhav Gadgil,
CES, IISc. Bangalore
Mr. Ashish Kothari,
IIPA, New Delhi
Ms. Seema Bhat,
WWF-India, New Delhi
Prof. Kailash Malhotra,
IS I, Calcutta
Dr. S.K. Ghosh,
Director, ZSI, Calcutta
Mr. B.S. Somashckar,
FRLHT, Bangalore
Prof. A.K. Chacravarthy,
UAS, Bangalore
Mr. John Wash,
READS, Bangalore
Mr. Muneer Alavi,
Rural Communes, Bombay
Mr. Darshan Shankar,
FRLHT, Bangalore
Mr. B. Maj u radar,
FRLHT, Bangalore
Prof. Subash Chandra,
CES, IISc., Bangalore
Mr. K. Sethuraman,
Ministry of Environment and Forest,
Government of India, New Delhi
LIST OF ORGANIZATIONS WHO ARE PARTICIPATING
IN THE NATION-WIDE FIELD-TESTING PROGRAM OF
THE COMMUNITY REGISTER
AIK YA
377, 42nd cross, Jayanagar. 8th Block,
Bangalore - 560 082
AYUSHYA
Veroor P.O., Changanachcrry - 686 104
Kottayam Dist., Kerala
ACADEMY OF DEVELOPMENT SCIENCES
Kashele P.O., Karjat Tq.
Raighad -410 20, Maharashtra
)
ASSOCIATION FOR SARVA SEVA FARMS
ASSEFA Coordinating Office, Manohar Dham,
Dattapur, Wardh, Maharashtra - 442 001
AUROVILLE ACTION GROUP
Shakti, Auroville, S. Arcot Dist,
Tamil Nadu - 605 101
ACTION FOR COMMUNITY. ORGN.,
REHABILITATION & DEVELOPMENT
9/36 Rajagopalapurma, Accord House,
Health Camp, Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu-643 211
BAPUJI INTEGRATED RURAL DEV. SOCIETY
Ramgopal Circle, Huliyar - 572 218
Chikkanaikanahally Tq., Karnataka
AGHARKAR RESEARCH INSTITUTE
Botany Group, Plant Science Division
Agarkar Road, Pune - 411 004, Maharashtra
BHUVANENDRA NATURE CLUB-INDIA
Sri Bhuvanendra College, Karkala-574 104
Karnataka
AGRINDUS INSTITUTE
Banwasi Seva Ashram, Govindpur (Via Turra)
Soncbhadra - 231 221, Uttar Pradesh
B1KASHKARMEE SAMANAYA SAMITY
Vill + PO Shilda, Midnapur Dist
West Bengal-721 515
AHMI AMACHYA AROGYA SATHI
At: Post: Taluk: Kurkheda
Gadchiroli dist.. Pin -441 209, Maharashtra
BIORAMA TRUST
Ganapathipalayam Post., Udamarpct Tq.
Tamil Nadu - 642 122
AMERICAN COLLEGE
Department of Botany, Madurai-625 002
Tamil Nadu
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
Hombill House, Dr.Salim Ali Chowk
Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay - 400023.
Mahrashtra
ANKURAN
PO-Dt. Chalra, Hazaaribagh dist, Bihar - 825 401
'""X
•
ASARA & SEVAK
Association of social action & rural activities
Rampuri Camp. Chamorshi Road
Gadchiroli - 442 605, Maharashtra
ANTHYODHAYA SANGH
P.B. No.216, 7-A, Mission Hospital Road.
Woraiyur, Trichy-620 003
AROGYA VIKAS PRAKALPA
Kcshava Shilpa, Kempegowda Nagar.
Bangalore-560 019, Karnataka
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
BNHS Field Station, 10/129 C-4, Yelumalayan Road.
Gudalur P.O. - 643 212, Nilgiri Dist.. Tamil Nadu
C.l M.H.
PB No. 7102, Ramanathpuram PO
Coimbatore - 641 045, Tamil Nadu
CENTRAL INSTITUTE OF INDIAN LANGUAGES
Ministry of Human Resource Development
ARTCHED - ASSOCIATION FOR RURAL & TRIBAL Department of Education. Govt, of India
HEALTH ECOLOGY DEVELOPMENT
Manasagangotri. Mjsorc-570 006, Karnataka
Nutshell. Convent Road. Kodaikanal - 624 101
Tamil Nadu
CENTRE FOR ENVIRONMENT AWARENESS
2D. Ambassy Apartments. Opp. A C. Market,
4. Shakcspeer Sarani, Calcutta - 700 071
CENTRE FOR EXPERIMENTAL LEARNING
Al Village:Narangi. post.Donwat,
Off Khopoli-Pen Rd., KhalapurTq.
Raiead-410 202, Maharashtra
CENTRE FOR TRIBAL AND
RURAL DEVELOPMENT
PB No 1, Ealamanna,
Mangorangc - 643 220, The Niligiris Disl
CENTRE OF WILDLIFE & ORNITHOLOGY
Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh - 202 002
CHETNA
Lilavatibcn, Lalbhai’s Bungalow
Civil Camp Road, Shalibaug, Ahmcdabad - 380 004
COORG ORGANISATION FOR RURAL DEV
PO Box No. 23, Kushalnagar - 571 234
Karnataka
DEVELOPMENT ACTIVISTS CATALYSTS
Shreekshetra Unnayan Samiti, At/P.O. Shilda, Dist.
Midnapur-721 515, West Bengal
DHARAM1TRA
Gopuri Marg, Gitai Nagar, Wardha-442 001
ECO FARM
C/o. Padma vilas, 7C 24/461
East Thampanoor, Trivandrum - 695 014
EDUCATION FOR WORKERS DEVELOPMENT
Valparai Road. Angalabuichy - 642 007
Coimbatore dist., Tamil Nadu
EKATMA SAMAJ KENDRA Ml RAJ
Dr. Ambedkar Road, (High school Road)
MIRAJ-416410
FRIENDS CIRCLE
25/43/1. Vinob Nagar. Sagar-577 401 Karnataka
GOA UNIVERSITY
Department of Botany. Bampolin (PO)
Goa - 403 302
GOKUL PRAKALP PRAT1SIITHAN
2150. Juvckar House. Behind Ram Mandir
Ratnagiri - 415 612, Maharashtra
GRAM VIKAS SANSTHA
Pauni. Bhandara Dist., Maharashtra -441910
GRAMIN SHRAM1K PRATISHTHAN
“Harishrudha" Barshi Road, Near Hotel Oshulamcgh,
Budhoda. Tq. Ausa. Lathur Dist.
GRAMONNATI SANSTHAN
Gandhinagar. Near Narang Kutti.
Mahoba- P.O., Pin - 210 427, Hamirpur Dist.
GREENS INDIA
Kothamangalam P O , Emakulam Dist
Pin - 686 691, Kerala
HERBAL FOLKLORE CENTRE
B - 23, Vaikuntapuram. Tirupati - 517 502
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF YOUTH WELFARE
134, Shivaji Nagar,Nagpur - 440 010
IRULA TRIBALS WOMEN’S WELFARE SOCIETY
P.B. No. 23. Thandarai (Thirukalikundram Road)
Chinglepet-603 001
JANARTH
P B. 127, 19, Samadhan colony. Behind High Court
Aurangabad - 431 001
JA1 HIND COLLEGE OF ARTS, SCI. & COM
MERCE
Deopur, Dhule - 424 002, Maharashtra
JANSEVA MANDAL
Korit road, Nandurbar - 425 412, Maharashtra
JAWAHARLAL NEHRU COLLEGE
Pasighat, P.O. Hill Top, Arunachal Pradesh - 791 103
JOHAR
Dudhani, Dumka PO, Dumka Dist, Bihar - 814 101
KALPAVRIKSHA
CI7/A. Munirka, New Delhi - 110 067
KERALA SASTHRA SAHITHYA PARISHATH
Integrated Rural Tech. Centre,
Mundur P.O.-678 592. Palghat Dist.. Kerala
KHA-MANIPUR YOG.A & NATURE CURE
ASSOCIATION.
Anandasing Yoga & Nature Cure Research Hospital
P.O. Kakching Bazar, Manipur - 795 103
KONGUNADU ARTS & SCIENCE COLLEGE
174. Ramalinga Road. R.S.Puram
Coimbatore - 641 002. Tamil Nadu
KR1BHC0 INDO-BRITISH RA1NFED FARMING
PROJECT,
3rd Hr. 48-49, Agarwal Society
Mandava Road, Dist Panchmahals
Dahod-389 151, Gujarat
NATIONAL BOTANICAL RESEARCH
INSTITUTE
Div. of Taxo., Herbarium & Ethnobotany
Rana Pratap Marg, Lucknow - 226 001
Uttar Pradesh
LA YA
C-2. RAMS. MIG 180. Lawsons Bay Colony
Visakhapatnam - 530 017
NATIONAL INS. OF RURAL INTEGRATED
DEV.
"
45 A, Marina Apartment Comd
Juhu Tara Road, Bombay-400 049. Maharashtra
LALBHA1 GROUP RURAL DEVELOPMENT FUND
Arvind Mills Premises. Naroda Road
Ahmedabad - 380 025, Gujarat
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF NATUROPATHY
Bapu Bhavan, 6, Ramabai Ambedkar Road
(Old Tadiwala Road), Pune - 411 001
LB & SBS COLLEGE
Sagar - 577 401, Shimoga (Dist.)
Karnataka
NATURE CLUB
M6/20. KSHB colony, Malaparamba
Calicut-9, Kerala
MADURA COLLEGE (AUTONOMOUS)
Dept, of Zoology.Madurai - 625 001
NAVDHANYA
A-60, Hauz Khas (Grd Fir.), New Delhi-110 016
MAHAN SANGH
Hilpatna, Berhampur - 760 005
DL Ganjam, Orissa
NEHRU MEMORIAL COLLEGE
Sullia - 574 239, Dakshina Kannada,Kamataka
MAHARASHTRA AROGYA MANDAL
Bhimashankar project
PO. Narodi, Ambegoan Tq.
Pune - 410 503, Maharashtra
NILGIRI WILDLIFE AND ENVIRONMENTAL
ASSOCIATION
C/o Dist. Forest Office (North Division)
Mount Stewart Hill, Udhagamandalam - 643 001
Niligris
MAHAROGI SEWA SAMITI
Anandwan-442914. DisLChandrapur, Warora
MANONMAN1AM SUNDARANAR UNIVERSITY
Sri paramakalyani Centre for Env. Science
Tiranelveli - 627 412. Tamil Nadu
MAR ATHANASIUS COLLEGE
Department of Zoology,
Kothamangalam - 686 666. Kerala
MEDICAL MISSION SISTERS
Sclud P.O. Utai via.. Durg Dist.
Madhva Pradesh - 491107
MYRADA GULBARGA PROJECT
Kamalapur. Gulbarga Tq.. Gulbarga dist.
Karnataka - 585 313
NAROTTAM LALBHAl RURAL DEVELOPMENT
FUND
Anandji Kalyanji Blocks. Opp: Arvind Mills
Naroda Road, Ahmedabad - 380 025
NIRMALA COLLEGE
Dept, of Zoology. Muvattupuzha - 686 661
Kerala
NSC SCIENCE COLLEGE
Gokhale Education Society
Department of Statistics
Nasik Road. Nasik - 422101.Maharashtra
PADMA RAMADAS MEMORIAL TRUST (R)
Basavani P.O. Thirthahalli Tq.
Shimoga dist.,Kamataka - 577 432
PADMASHRI V1KHE PATIL COLLEGE OF
ARTS. SCI. & COMMERCE.
Pravaranagar. A/P.Loni - 413 713
Shrirampur (Tq.), Ahmednagar
PARAMPARIK BASTAR SHILPI PARI WAR
Bhelwapadar. Para, P.O. Kondagaon
Dist. Baslar-494 226. Madhya Pradesh
PAR I SARA SAMRAKSHANA KENDRA
Hulemalgi Building,Chowki Math. Sirsi-581 401
PATNA UNIVERSITY
Environmental Biology Laboratory
Department of Zoology, Patna - 800 005. Bihar
‘ PEERMADE DEVLOPMENT SOCIETY
P.B.No 11. Pecrmadc. Idukki - 685 531,Kerala
PEOPLE’S ORGANISATION EDUCATION AND
TRAINING SOCIETY (POETS)
1/103. Bazaar StreeLParadarami - 632 003
Gudiyattam Tq.. Tamil Nadu
POORNAPRAJNA COLLEGE
Department of Botany, Dakshina Kannada Dist
Udupi - 576101, Karnataka
PRAKRUTHI
Seegenahalli, Mulbagal - 563 131, Karnataka
RURAL COMMUNES FOUNDATION
Shop No. 16. Rajdipak Complex
Plot No. 114, Opp. Dr. Rohit Joshi (Clinic)
Silvassa - 396 230
RURAL COMMUNITY HEALTH & DEV PROJECT
Post Box No 38. Holdsworth Memorial Hospital.
Mysore - 570 021, Karnataka
RURAL MEDICAL INSTITUTE
Mayeng Lamjao B P.O, Languid Dong (KAK)
Manipur-795 103
S.D.M COLLEGE
Dept of Geography, Honnavar
Uttar Kannada - 581 334, Karnataka
S.I.B.S.
H & R.D. Department, PB. No. 20
Anandagiri, Bangarapct - 563 114, Karnataka
SAHAYOG SOCIETY FOR PARTICIPATORY
RURAL DEVELOPMENT,
Heera Dungri, Almora - 263 601, Uttar Pradesh
PRAKRUT1: CENTRE FOR ECOCEMTR1C DEV
AND PEOPLE’S ACTION (CEDAP)
L/l 14, Swatantray Senani Nagar
New Wadaj. Ahmedabad - 380 013
SAHYADRl SCIENCE COLLEGE
Shimoga - 577 203, Karnataka
PRAYOG
Huladenahalli Post, Via. Tyekal
Malur Tq. - 563 137, Karnataka
SAVE FOREST MAKE HOME FOR WILDLIFE
5, Bhabanath Sen Street, Calcutta - 700 004
West Bengal
PROGRESSIVE FRIENDS CIRCLE
Mukhed. Nanded Dist-431 715, Maharashtra
SCOTTS CHRISTIAN COLLEGE
Department of Botany
Nager Coil-629 001, Tamil Nadu
RES. AND ACTION IN NATURAL WEALTH
ADMINISTARATION (RANWA).
505, Shanlwar Peth. Pune - 411 030
RESEARCH FOUNDATION FOR SCIENCE.
Technology and Natural Resource Policy,
105. Rajpur Road. Dchradun - 248 001
Uttar Pradesh
RUGN/V SEVA PRAKALP
2141. Brahmanpuri. Miraj-416 410. Maharashtra
RURAL COMMUNES
70. Ilnd Floor. 1st Marine Street
Bombay-400 002. Maharashtra
SELF EMPLOYED WOMEN’S ASSOCIATION
SEWA Reception Center. Opp. Victoria Garden,
Bhadra, Ahmedabad - 380001. Gujarat
SEVA MANDIR
Udaipur - 313 001. Rajasthan
SHRI KADASIDDHESHWAR ARTS COLLEGE AND
H S.KOTAMBAR SCIENCE INSTITUTE,
Hubli - 580 031. Karnataka
SOCIAL CENTRE
Market Yard Road. Ahmednagar-414 001. Maharashtra
SOCIO ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT TRUST
Dreamland,-A & P:Kerwadi. Tal.Palam
Dist. Parbhani, Maharashtra 431 720
SREE NARAYANA COLLEGE
Department of Zoology
Kollam - 691 001, Kerala
VIMOCHANA DEVADASI PUN ARV AS ATI
SANGHA, Athani, Belgaum dist, Karnataka
591 304
SRINGER1 NATURE ADVENTURE CLUB
JCBM College Quarters, Snngeri-577 139
Chikmagalur Dist, Karnataka
VISHWA MANDAL SEVASHRAM
Shirpur, Dt, Dhule, Maharashtra - 425 405
STATE COUNCIL FOR SCI.. TEC & ENV.
Indira Bhavan. Shimla-171 001, Himachal Pradesh
T.BG.RL
Sandhan. B-104, Manumarg, Tilak Nagar,
Jaipur - 302 004, Rajasthan
)
T.B.G.R I.
Karimancodc PO, Palode
Thiruvananthapuram - 695 562, Kerala
THE RURAL EDUCATION SOCIETY
Ghataprabha, Gokak Tq. Belgaum Dist
Karnataka
UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES
G.K.V.K Campus, Bangalore - 560065, Karnataka
UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES
Dharwad, Forestry Degree Programme
Banavasi Road, Sirsi - 581 401, Karnataka
UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT
Dept of PG Studies & Research in Botany
Calicut University P.O., Pin - 673 635, Kerala
_
‘ *
VIGYAN ASHRAM
Pabal, Pune Dist. - 412 403
VIGYAN SH1KSHA KENDRA
Vigyan Samachar Sansihan. Civil Lines
Banda - 210 001. Uttar Pradesh
VIKASANA
No. 350. Kuvempu road. Tarikcra - 577 228
Chikamagalur dist, Karnataka
VIVEKANANDA GIRIJANA KALYANA
KENDRA
Chamrajanagar. B R Hills - 571 441
Yelandur (Tq.), Mysore (Dist), Karnataka
VOLUNTARY HEALTH ASSOCIATION OF
INDIA
Tong Swasthiya Bhavan, 40, Institutional Area,
Near Qutab Hotel, New Delhi - 110 016
WESTERN GHATS BIO-DIVERSITY
CONSERVATION NETWORK
The American College, Madurai - 625 001
WESTERN GHATS BIO-DIVERSITY
CONSERVATION PROGRAM
A.V. Baliga College of Arts and Science
Department of Zoology. Uttar Kannada
Kumta-581 343, Karnataka
WESTERN GHATS BIODIVERSITY
INVENTOR
M.G.M. College, Dept, of Statistics
Udupi - 576 102, Karnataka
WORLD WIDE FUND FOR NATURE-INDIA
Sikkim Field Office. Opp. NCC office
Tadong, Gangtok, Sikkim-737 102
WYNAD SOCIAL SERVICE SOCIETY
P.B.No 16. Mananthawady
Wynad - 670 645, Kerala '
ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA
M Block. New Alipore
Calcutta - 700 053. West Bengal
Page 1 of 2
Community Health Cell
From:
To:
Sent:
Subject:
"India Resource Center" <amit@iac.ora>
"India Resource Center" <amit@igc.org>
Thursday, May 15. 2003 2 58 AM
Monsanto, Unilever Use Child Labor in India
WHATS NEW ON INDIA RESOURCE CENTER
Building Global Links for Justice
<http://www.IndiaResource.org>
May 14, 2003
Note: CorpWatch India is undergoing transition. It is being renamed the
India Resource Center and is now a project of Global Resistance. Our
mission remains the same and our new contact details are provided below.
AGRICULTURE
Monsanto, Unilever Use Child Labor in India
http://www.corpwatchindia.org/zissues/PID.jsp?articleid=4023
Major corporations, including Monsanto, Unilever, Syngenta and ProAgro, are
making large-scale use of hazardous forms of child labor in cotton seed
production in India. A report commissioned by the India Co mu iltee of the
Netherlands documents the abuses and also marks the beginning of a campaign
to combat the use of child labor.
IN THE NEWS
http://www, corpwatchindia. org/news/PNR.j sp
♦U.S. Challenges Europe's Biotech Crop Ban in WTO
♦Royal Dutch Shell to Enter India with 2,000 Petrol Stations
’Unilever’s Mercury Waste from India Heads for US
♦Alang Shipbreakers Face AIDS Crisis
’Unilever Denies Child Labour Link
♦India Rejects Bt Colton and GM Mustard Co Hill ercialization
* World’s Wettest Area - Cherrapunji- Dries Up
♦High Tech Workers Exploited in Australia
* World Bank Asks Delhi to Raise Water Prices
BULLETIN BOARD
ht t p;//www, corpwatchindia. org/bulletins/PBR.j .sp
^Fuelling Poverty - Oil, War and Corruption
’Study Shows Failure of Bt Cotton in India
India Resource Center
7404 Potrero Avenue, CA 94530. USA
Email: amit@igc.org
Web: httpJ/vvww,IndiaResource.org
India Resource Center -- "Building Global Links for Justice"
s)s-
1
5/15/03
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Thursday. July 24. 2003 11:23 AM
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PUBLIC LECTURE
Atmospheric Brown Clouds: South Asian and Tropical Impacts
by
1‘iui. v . ivauiauatuau
Scnpps Institution of Oceanosraphv. University of California. San Diego. USA
The Indian Ocean Experiment (TNDOEX) provided one of the best and
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Apollution haze laver
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This lecture summarizes 1NDOEX findings on the South Asian haze and
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me worid: and then illustrates, with model studies, the unique
vulnerability of the South Asian and tropical hydrological cycle to the
radiative forcing by die absorbing aerosols within the haze layer.
Date : 28 July 2003 (Monday)
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Indian institute of Science
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ENVIRONMENT. POLLUTION AND HEALTH
1. ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION ARE TWO INTEGRATED, INSEPARABLE
ENTITIES INTERDEPENDENT AS FAR AS THEIR IMPACT ON HEALTH IS
CONCERNED,
2. IT IS RATHER VERY SAD AND PATHETIC TO SEE EVERY MORNING THE
SAFAI KARMA CHARIS AS THEY ARE CLASSIFIED, HANDLING BARE FOOT
BAREHAND THE ENORMOUS VOLUME OF GARBAGE, HAND GLOYES AND
LONG SHOES MUST BE PROVIDED.
3. SPILLING OF THESE ON THE ROADS BY THE LORRIES TRANS PORTING
THEM IS MORE HAZARDOUS THAN THE MOST HAZARDOUS MEDI/HEALTH
CARE WASTES WHICH ARE CONFINED TO THE HOSPITAL ENVIRONS.
4. ABOUT FIVE PERCENT OF MEDICARE WASTES ARE HAZARDOUS. MEDICAL
INSTITUTIONS AND HOSPITALS UNDER GOVERNMENTAL VOLUNTARY
AGENCIES HAVE BEEN SO FAR MANAGING DISPOSAL THEIR OWN.
5. IT IS MOST HEARTENING THAT MOST OF THESE ENJOY EXCELLENT
INFECTION FREE RECORD THOUGH LOCATED IN HIGHLY POPULATED
LOCALITIES.
6. MORE HAZARDOUS IS THE FORCED INVOLUNTARY INHALATION OF
SMOKE, DUST, NOISE AND VARIOUS POLLUTANTS BY THOSE ON TWO
WHEELERS PEDESTRIANS, TRAFFIC REGULATING POLICE ON THE ROADS
OF CITIES.
7. FUNDING OR MANDATORY REGULATIONS ALONE HAVE NEVER IN THE
PAST, OR AT PRESENT OR IN FUTURE CAN IMPROVE THE ENVIRONS.
8. IT IS FUTILE TO BLAME THE CIVIL AUTHORITIES OR GOVERNMENTS FOR
ALL THE ILLS IF THE SOCIETY AND PEOPLE ARE EVASIVE AND AVOID
PRACTISING BASIC HYGIENE AND CLEANLINESS.
9. MORE THAN THE INPATIENTS OR OUTPATIENTS AND MEDICARE STAFF
AND THEIR PROCEDURAL WASTES, ATTENDANTS AND VISITORS OF
PATIENTS ARE MAJOR CONTRIBUTORS TOWARDS THE EVER INCREASING
VOLUME OF NON HAZARDOUS WASTES IN AND AROUND HOSPITALS,
NURSING HOMES AND MEDI-HEALTH CARE CENTRES.
10. ENVIRONMENTALISTS AND POLLUTION CONTROL AUTHORITIES AT ALL
LEVELS MUST EVOLVE STRATEGIES THAT ARE COST EFFECTIVE,
REALISTIC, FEASIBLE IN DAY TO DAY PRACTICE. THIS VERY OBVIOUSLY
INVOLVES INTEGRATED INTERDISCIPLINARY INTERDEPARTMENTAL
COORDINATION AND TEAMWORK INVOLVING POLICE, TRANSPORT,
HEALTH CARE AUTHORITIES AS WELL.
121
11. THE URBAN. SEMIURBAN, RURAL ENVIRONS ARE VERY WIDELY
DIVERGENT AND REQUIRE DIFFERENT APPROACHES, IN FACT COMPARED
TO THE URBAN SITUATION, WHERE NEARLY FORTY PERCENT OF THE
POPULATION LIVE UNDER PATHETIC SUB HUMAN CONDITIONS. IN THEIR
DWELLINGS AND HUTMENTS, THE SEMI URBAN AND RURAL SCENARIO IS
BETTER, HOWEVER UNDER. GROUND DRAINAGE AND FILTERED WATER
SUPPLY NEED ATTENTION IN THESE AREAS.
12. AS FAR AS MEDICAL WASTES ARE CONCERNED, SEGREGATION IS THE TOP
PRIORITY FACTOR. THIS MUST BE DONE ON SITE. IN ANY
HOSPITAL/NURSING HOME, ONLY IN CERTAIN AREAS, MAJOR PORTION OF
HAZARDOUS WASTES ARE GENERATED. THIS FORMS ABOUT FIVE
PERCENT
OF TOTAL MEDICARE
WASTES, A
WELL-MANAGED
SEGREGATION AVOIDS CONTAMINATION HAZARDS.
13. ALL WASTES CAN BE DISINFECTED AND STERILISED BEFORE THEY LEAVE
THE PREMISES. INCINERATORS APPEAR INEVITABLE AND UNAVOIDABLE
FOR DISPOSAL OF CERTAIN WASTES, SOME OTHERS MAY GO FOR
RECYCLING SO A LOCALISED AS WELL AS CENTRALISED APPROACH WILL
BE NEEDED.
14. A CONSORTIUM APPROACH IS THE ANSWER IF WASTES DISPOSAL IS
UNDERTAKEN ON AN INTEGRATED BASIS. THIS INVOLVES VERY HIGH
INITIAL NON RECURRING EXPENSES FOLLOWED BY SIZABLE ANNUAL
RECURRING ONES.
15. IMPLEMENTATION OF RECOMMENDATIONS IS A REALLY FORMIDABLE
CHALLENGE AND INVOLVES A VERY LONG TIME DELAY DUE TO THE VERY
WIDE RANGE OF HURDLES, BOTTLENECKS BARRIERS ONE IS BOUND TO
ENCOUNTER DUE TO VERY OBVIOUS REASONS.
Prof.T.G.KRISHNA MURTHY,
Vice Chairman, Board of Examiners,
Paramedical Courses, CEP-AICTE,
UVCE Campus, KR Circle, Bangalore-560 001.
Tel: (080) 222 66 22 Fax: (080) 223 46 12
HRC Technologist
24, Shanti Kutir,
15th Cross, 4th Temple Street,
Malleswaram,
Bangalore-560 003.
Tel: (080) 334 15 59
Secretary,
Clinical Engineering Society,
31/32, Crescent Road,
Bangalore-560 001.
Tel: (080) 226 11 35
Fax: (080) 226 52 98
HEALTH SCIENCES TECHNOLOGY
EDUCATION AND TRAINING - THE NEED
1.
Human Resources Potential has to be developed based on the needs in the
Urban, Semiurban, Rural areas.
2.
Socio Economically Backward who are talented, after their 10 or 10 + 2
courses must get an opportunity to nurture and harness their potential based
on their aptitude.
3.
It becomes a mandatory duty in all democratic nations to provide education
and training at a reasonable costs.
4.
It is most desirable to locate these centres in the semiurban - rural areas, as
far as practically feasible
5.
Considering the affluence of 10 to 15 percent, medical, engineering
education is beyond the reach of majority of talented youth, even merit
seats are not accessible in view of the escalating fees.
6.
Capitation/management seats in engineering, medicine, nursing, pharmacy,
dental are almost exclusively meant for the very highly affluent.
7.
Considering the sad and pathetic situation after more than 50 years of
independence, strategies have to be evolved to improve the knowledge base
and placement potential of those who are less lucky.
8.
Health sciences technology education and training at the graduate level ( 6
semesters + 2 of internship). As initiated by S.R.M.C & R.I, Chennai could
be a model for being initiated at some selected medical institutions all over
the nation. Such a course is within the reach of some of the middle in come
group.
Note by:
Prof.T.G.KRISHNA MURTHY,
Vice Chairmn, Board of Examiners,
Paramedical Courses, CEP-AICTE,
UVCE Campus, K R Circle, Bangalore - 560 001.
Tel: (080) 222 66 22 Fax: (080) 223 46 12
HRC Technologist
24, Shanti Kutir,
15th Cross, 4th Temple Street,
Malleswaram,
Bangalore - 560 003.
Tel: (080) 334 15 59
Secretary,
Clinical Engineering Society
31/32, Crescent Road,
Bangalore - 560 001.
Tel: (080) 226 11 35
Fax: (080) 226 52 98
APPENDIX
HEALTH REHAB CARE IM O DATA
Population
Handicapped
Elderly (Above age of 62 years)
Medical Colleges (attached Hospitals,
500-1000 beds)
Major Hospitals (500 beds & above
upto 2000)
Referral centres of clinical excellence
(100 to 500 beds)
Specialist Medical Institutions
(100-500 beds)
District Level Hospitals (150-300 beds)
Rural Hospitals/Community Health Centres (30-100 beds)
Primary Health Centres (5-10 beds)
Community Health Sub-Centres
Bed Population Ratio
Total Number of Hospital beds
980 Million
98 Million
30 Million
175
1500
200
100
550
2500
30,000
1,50,000
1: 1300
8,00,000
Note by:
Prof.T.G.KRISHNA MURTHY,
Vice Chairmn, Board of Examiners,
Paramedical Courses, CEP-AICTE,
UVCE Campus, K R Circle, Bangalore - 560 001.
Tel: (080) 222 66 22 Fax: (080) 223 46 12
HRC Technologist
24, Shanti Kutir,
15th Cross, 4th Temple Street,
Malleswaram,
Bangalore - 560 003.
Tel: (080) 334 15 59
Secretary,
Clinical Engineering Society
31/32, Crescent Road,
Bangalore - 560 001.
Pel: (080) 226 11 35
Fax: (080) 226 52 98
HUMAN RESOURCES POTENTIAL DEVELOPMENT
ROLE OF CEP-AICTE
As integrated interdisciplinary interdepartmental team work approach spanning various
levels based on the actual needs of the Urban, Semi Urban, rural areas are almost an
inevitable mandatory, necessity.
The process of Education and Training is a continuous one to update the knowledge
base of working professionals which, in turn, enable them to improve their placement
potential and earner. From the certificate level through diploma onto the degree, PG and
doctoral levels, a phased step ladder for those with aptitude and urge to come up. This
process very obviously takes them from the low tech level onto medium and to high
tech levels. Programmes like CEP, CME, QIP enhance the quality of education and
training both in basic disciplines as well as integrating interdisciplinary areas.
Irrespective of the extent of utilisation, the knowledge base at the urban, semi Urban,
rural areas must be updated by organising workshops, seminars, short term courses by
way of winter and summer schools in the semi urban & rural areas as well. It must be
conceded those living in rural areas are also endowed with intellectual intelligence,
harnessing this HR Potential is the challenge to leaders who must be dynamic,
innovative open minded, broad based to accommodate a very wide range of diverse
viewpoints to optimise utilisation.
Integrated interdepartmental interdisciplinary teamwork integrating the advancements in
the fields of medicine, engmeenng, Science and technology to benefit humanity by
evolving cost effective strategies to meet the Urban, semi Urban, rural needs,
Implementation needs KARMAYOGIS with HUMANISM and OPTIMISM, at every level
of the hierarchy. Both the Governmental and non-goVemmental agencies have to be
partners in meeting the gigantic challenge of human welfare in the largest democratic
nation in the world, which is also very unique for its multilingual, multi religious
population which is approaching the 1000 million mark with nearly 10 percent
handicapped and 3 percent elderly. Affluence ranges from 10 to 15 percent and nearly
80 percent living in semi Urban or rural areas. An autopsy of the past 50 years and a
biopsy of the present enables one to apply realistic, feasible, need based correctives to
improve the quality of human life at various levels.
Preventive and promotional measures need top priority in view of the ever escalating
modem Medicare costs. Holistic Medicare approach
utilising other systems of
Medicine and wide range of techniques need wider utilisation. Besides, rehabilitation of
handicapped and elderly, mobility, transportation, accessibility, need vefy urgent
attention from the humanism angle. Safety, standardisation, Calibration, operation,
maintenance aspects are an inevitable part of any programme. To ensure quality,
approval, assessment, accreditation are a mandatory necessity. A planned scientific
approach is a MUST for optimising HRP development and utilisation. Funds alone can
never ensure quality. Social participation is inevitable to achieve time-bound techno
social humanitarian targets. For the Socio- economically backward, the courses on
computers , management, engineering topics, paramedicals approved by CEP-AICTE
will be of immense value for the youth of the nation in the Semi-urban and rural areas
to improve their knowledge base and thereby placement potential. This coaid be the
:2 :
basic step for those with intelligence and aptitude to progressively improve their level of
education and training by various available means. One must be very cautious about
mushroom growth of centres which practice deception. Course contents, duration, fee
structure has to be standardised . In view of the rather sad and pathetic conditions
actually prevalent in the rural areas, reduced tuition fees must be charged. HRP
development strategy lies in guiding and assisting the intelligent teenagers with
aptitude to come up by inspiring and encouraging them to develop their inborn
potential resources. A lot depends on the rural youth response and the leadership in
the rural areas to overcome traditional barriers. We can be optimistic and hope for the
best.
Medical and Engineenng educationists committed to promote interdisciplinary training
programmes must join hands to promote setting up of paramedical education centres in
the Semi Urban and rural areas to enable the Soci- economically backward youth to join
these Courses after their 10 or 10+2 studies. The Directors of Health, Medical Education
, Health Science Universities can closely interact with the CEP-AICTE in evolving
strategies to develop standardised cumcula, duration, fee structure on a national level.
Depending on the needs, various levels of Courses have to be planned to suit the
Urban, Semi Urban rural needs. This interaction is inevitable in view of the Science,
Engineenng, technology components essential for these.
Note by:
Prof. T G KRISHNA MURTHY
Vice Chairman, Board of Examiners
Paramedical Courses
CEP-AICTE
UVCE Campus, K R Circle, Bangalore 5600 001
Tel: (080) 222 6622 Fax: (080) 223 4612
HRC Technologist
24, Shanti Kutir
15lh Cross, 4th Temple Street
Malleswaram
Bangalore 560 003
Tel: (080) 334 1559
Secretary
Clinical Engineering Society
31/32 Crescent Road
Bangalore 560 001
Tel: (080) 226 1135
Fax: (080) 226 5298
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ACTIVITY REPORT, 2002
ries, strategies, meals, languages and cultures.
Ten years ago, I was preparing for a trip to South Africa
Our second effort involved sending Ravi Dixit down
where I was to meet toxics and environmental justice
activists and further discuss the ideas of what was to become to South Africa to work with groundWork in preparation
for their Corporate Accountability Week held during the
SAEPEJ. Now, a decade later, our strong relationship with
groundwork in South Africa has resulted in two important World Summit on Sustainable Development in
Johannesburg.
collaborative projects. The first was Project X-Change, an
This year further allowed us to focus on our education
environmental justice youth exchange where we brought
al materials: we developed an environmental justice cur
five young South African activists to the U.S. Under the
riculum with accompanying case studies and videos. We
l^^ner of " building bridges for global environmental jus
are also in the process of completing our video on Project
tice”, this effort highlighted our dedication to training the
X-Change. You can read more about our activities and
next generation of leadership and forging the linkages to
their counterparts in the U.S. We traveled over 3,000 miles educational materials in this report.
— Heeten Kalan, Director
by mini-van visiting impacted communities and sharing sto
Caroline Ntaopane, a Project X-Change participant from the Sasolburg Environmental Committee, seen here leading a WSSD
protest this past September, shared the following with us prior to returning to South Africa, "I am going to use everything I
learned. I’ll go back home without a regret, but with confidence and fresh ideas."
From May 18 ro June 8, 2002, five young South African activists visited communities of color around rhe U.S. as a part of Project X-Change, an
environmental justice youth exchange. The South African youth met youth of color organizing for environmental and economic justice to learn
from the struggle for justice in the U.S. and also to share their organizing experiences in South Africa. The seven stops included Boston
(Massachusetts), Jackson (Mississippi), Cancer Alley (Louisiana), San Antonio (Texas), El Paso (Texas), Los Angeles (California) and rhe Bay Area
(California). Along the way, they had rhe opportunity ro stop at the Grand Canyon and appreciate its beauty.
"Everyone has the right to an environment that is not harmful to theirdiealth or well-being; and io have the environment
protected, for the benefit of present and future generations."
‘
- South African Bill of Rights
— VOODOO
Project X-Change: Building Bridges for Oiobal Environments! Justice
We have all heard that the ‘children and the youth are from South Africa, who told us about how serious
things were in their neighborhoods and how it was even
the future,' but what are we doing to prepare young
people to not only be the future, but also to change it? worse there, I realized that EJ is not just a Boston thing,
or even a U.S. thing but it is global.
If we hope for a better future for our children and t
From Boston we flew to Jackson, MS, where we
their children, we must support young people fighting
for social change today. Youth must be an integral part met with veteran civil rights and anti-apartheid activist
Hollis Watkins. We spent the next few days exploring
of any movement to ensure that movements future.
the Mississippi Delta and learning more about cotton
Project X-Change was envisioned with the future of
spraying, redistricting and educational reforms there.
the environmental justice movement in South Africa
and the U.S. in mind. From May 18 to June 8, 2002, The South Africans went bowling and horse riding for
the first time during their Mississippi stay.
five young South African environmental justice
We began our 3,000 mile road trip from Jackson to
activists toured to meet with U.S. environmental jus
Baton Rouge where we explored issues
tice groups from Boston to San
of forced resettlement by chemical com
Francisco. The South African del
panies, the export of mercury waste
egation represents communities
Borden Chemicals, and the confluence
fighting oil refineries, mining pol
of corporate and state power.
lution and water pollution.
From Baton Rouge we drove to San
Representing Sasolburg, Secunda
Antonio where we heard from commu
and Soweto, these five young
nities impacted by the polluting Kelly
activists brought a long history of
Air Force Base, the implications of its
social justice activism to Project XChange. In addition they brought
closure, the health effects of the lead
the culture and struggles of South
smelter and the slaughterhouse, the
Africa to help young people in the
struggles of the former women workers
U.S., many of whom know little
at the Levi’s plant and the living wage
about the history of apartheid and
campaign of the elected schoolboard.
the liberation struggle, understand
We also spent a day making the connec
the connections between the U.S. Project X-Change with Southern
tions with artists who paint murals to
Echo, (l-r) Seipati Mokoka, Hollis
and South Africa.
document community’s history while
Project X-Change kicked off Watkins, Caroline Ntaopane, Thulisile sending strong political messages.
Ngcobo, Patrick Duma, (seated) Elisa
Genaro iopez, an organizer with the
at a SAEPEJ/ACE event in Boston Hlongwane & George Ross.
where young and old activists came
\
Southwest Workers Union shared hi^\
together to celebrate, share and have fun. The next few insights'with us at a recent conference, “The personal
days in Boston included: tours of Roxbury and the
connections between different organizations and nations
South End; learning about diesel buses in Dudley
was an important part of the exchange between South
Square; and becoming acquainted with the African
Texas and South Africa. We heard frc^m real people
Meeting House and the Underground Railroad.
about their struggles in South Africa and learned first
Thulisile Ngcobo captured the sentiments of the
hand that the struggle against environmental racism.is
group when she explained, “I was surprised to hear
global, whether fighting against multinationals or the
about rhe racism and the [toxic] dumping in Dudley
military.” Elisa Hlongwane, moved by the resilience of
Square, because when they advertise the USA on tele
local activist Yolanda Johnson, added, “I won’t forget
vision [in South Africa] they only show the best parts. San Antonio. The people there taught me that to be
But the thing that impressed me was that the ACE
united is the best thing.”
youth have worked hard and have achieved a lot
We then crossed Texas to El Paso where we were
because some dumping sites were cleaned up. I think I taken on a tour of the U.S. border with Ciudad Juarez,
need to work as hard as they do.”
Mexico, along with members of the Southwest
David Noiles, a youth leader with ACE, was quick Organizing Project who drove down from Albuquerque.
to make the connections after he spent a few days with Here thousands of migrant workers cross to come and
the South Africans. He said, “The exchange changed
work in the U.S. From the end of July to September,
my perspective on EJ because before when I thought
during the intensive chili picking season, the Border
about EJ I only thought about what was going on in
Patrol mysteriously disappears while Mexican workers
Roxbury and in Boston. But after meeting the youth
come over to fill the jobs in the chili fields. Chili pickers
—■=o o 0 0 o
get paid 55 cents for a 15 pound bucket of
chilies. This region of the U.S. produces
more than one third of all the chilies used
in the U.S. hot sauce market. After the
season is over, the Border Patrol makes its
presence felt once again. We also spoke to
onion pickers, some of whom were
descendents of the Brasero Program,
about their working conditions. The
Brasero program was established after
W.W. II to bring some of the best
Mexican agricultural workers to the U.S.
At least five million Braseros came over to
the U.S., destroying Mexico’s agricultural
base. Ten percent of their wages were
r^n out to be paid to them upon their
rWarn to Mexico. This money has never
been paid back.
En route to Los Angeles, we made a
brief stop at the Grand Canyon where we
hiked parts of the southern rim. In Los
Angeles, we toured. Long Beach and
Wilmington, home to dozens of oil
aging. We also learned about how young
activists from the Mission and
Chinatown are working and acting
together in San Francisco. We were
shown single resident occupancy build
ings and experienced their plight, even
if it was for a brief moment, when we
got stuck in an elevator in one of these
buildings.
Project X-Change ended in the Bay
Area with a wonderful send-off orga
nized by PODER.
“The Send-Off event at PODER
made me feel at home, especially the
Aztec dance group, who prayed to the
ancestors for our safe journey back to
South Africa. I was amazed that their
culture was so similar to our African
culture,” exclaimed Patrick Duma.
Teresa Almaguer added the follow
ing observation, “I loved the time that
we got to spend living with the young
people from South Africa, because we
were able to ask each other
questions and break down
stereotypes about the U.S.
and South Africa. We learned
that our people and commu
nities in the U.S. and South
Africa are both" messed up by
environmental racism. We
also learned how much our
cultures have in common.
We shared our traditions of
Seipati Mokoka from Kliptown giving Ravi Dixit a tour of
drumming, singing, and hon
her neighborhood in September, 2002. Inspired by the Xoring our ancestors and we
Change, she is organizing toxic tours of her area.
learned how similar we are,
even though at first we didn’t know it.”
refineries and polluting industries. We
After an exhausting but invigorating
learned about the youth struggles in
three weeks, the delegation returned to
Huntington Park and the role they played
in stopping a new powerplant from being South Africa. On his most recent trip s
there, Ravi Dixit met with all the partic
built. We saw the school next to the
ipants to follow up on their activities
chrome plant and learned about the seri
and explore ways for SAEPEJ to support
ous effects of chrome poisoning. We wit
their work. We will provide resources
nessed first hand the discrepancies in U.S.
for them to periodically convene in
society by visiting Skid Row, a homeless
South Africa and continue to encourage
community, and Rodeo Drive.
From Los Angeles, we flew to the Bay communication with their new friends
and allies in the U.S.
Area where we learned about gentrifica
tion and displacement in the Mission
District and about the oil pollution in
/
To learn more about Project X-Change visit:
Richmond. The struggles, in both those
http'.Hsaepej. igc. org/xchange. html
communities were inspiring and encour- •
Corporate Accountability Week
As the world focused its attention on the
World Summit on Sustainable Development
(WSSD) in Johannesburg at the end of August
2002, groundwork hosted a Corporate
Accountability Week to highlight the human
rights and environmental abuses of multina
tional corporations, many of whom were spon
sors of the WSSD process. This Corporate
Accountability Week brought together interna
tional NGOs and local grassroots groups to
share knowledge and experiences of corporate
abuse on the local and international level. The
week culminated with a statement, signed by
over 60 organizations, to the WSSD process
calling governments and the UN to hold cor
porations accountable for their abuses against
people and the environment.
The Greenwash Academy posing with win
ders of the Greenwash Awards after the
ceremony in Johannesburg, South Africa.
I
The week was Rill of panel discussions, work
shops and presentations with topics including:
‘communities challenging Shell,’ climate jus
tice,' ‘genetic engineering,’ and ‘the Bhopal
principles.’ Sponsoring organizations included
the South African Exchange Program on
Environmental Justice (SAEPEJ), Third World
Network, Friends of the Earth International,
Environmental Monitoring Group,
EarthRights International, Greenpeace,
Earthlife Africa, CorpWatch, and Corporate
Europe Observatory.
In addition, the Greenwash Academy
(hosted by groundWork, CorpWatch and
Friends of the Earth International) hosted their
award ceremony for companies who pretend to
be friends of the environment and leaders in
the struggle to eradicate poverty while destroy
ing the environment and social conditions of
the local people. Some of the winners included
Shell for Lifetime Achievement, the United
States of America for Best Supporting
Government and South Africa’s own Sasol for
Best Picture for their billboard proudly stating:
"We put as much into the community as we
do in our petrol." Has anyone checked their
benzene, xylene and sulfur dioxide levels lately?
Second People of Color Environmental Justice Leadership Summit, Washington, D.C.
Ravi Dixit talks about the link
ages between South Africa and
the U.S. during a Summit II
workshop on Trade and
Globalization.
The Second People of Color
Environmental Justice Summit held in
Washington, D.C, from October 16 to
21, 2002 celebrated the U.S,
Environmental Justice movement and
its accomplishments. SAEPEJ’s U.S.
Coordinator, Ravi Dixit, was invited to
speak at the workshop on Trade and
Globalization. Here he shared his most
recent experiences with the Corporate
Accountability Week held during
WSSD in South Africa. We also took
this opportunity to solicit reactions
about the Summit and the youth
exchange from Project X-Change U.S.
host organizations attending the gather
ins.
SAEPEJ with members of Alternatives for Community and
the Environment, Southwest Workers Union, Border
Agricultural Workers Project, Southwest Organizing Project,
Communities for a Better Environment, PODER and Chintjg
Progressive Association at Summit II.
"
)
/
Nev/ Teaching Tool: South African Environmental Justice Curriculum
In preparation for Project X-Change, we compiled rhe South African Environmental Justice
Curriculum (shown on right) for the U.S. and South African participants. The curriculum is made
up of three sections focusing on 1) the history of South Africa, 2) apartheid and the environment,
and 3) environmental justice in South Africa today The last section examines three case studies with
accompanying videos. This is a great teaching tool for all age groups. Please contact us if you want to
purchase the curriculum. We will also have a video of Project X-Change available for sale in early
2003.
South African
Environmental
Justice Curriculum
£'v
ftfcnta
saepej
'
- -----------
;
South African People and Environments in the Global Economy, a series published by groundwork 0)
Published to coincide with the World Summit on Sustainable Development held in South Africa this past August, this series of five booklets gives
an environmental justice perspective on challenges for sustainable development in South Africa. The booklets report from several fronts of the
struggle we call development. They look at how South Africa has adopted critical aspects of international governance, at whose interests are
served, and at the impacts on people and their environments. They indicate that, while another world is possible, it is not being built in South
Africa. The booklets cover issues relating to development policies, voluntary agreements, privatisation of basic sendees, genetic engineering and
farming, and dependence on the petrochemical industry. These booklets can be downloaded in pdf format from groundwork’s website:
www.groundwork.org.za
SAEPEJ thanks the following foundations for their generous support:
Public Welfare Foundation, Mitchell Kapor Foundation, South Africa Development Fund, Samuel Rubin Foundation,
Lawson Valentine Foundation, Jessie B. Cox Charitable Trust and the United Church of Christ.
We are also grateful to all the individuals who provide various resources for SAEPEJ. We thank the following U.S.
organizations that made Project X-Change a success: Alternatives for Community and the Environment, Southern
Echo, Louisiana Environmental Action Network, Southwest Workers Union, Border Agricultural Workers Project,
Communities for a Better Environment and PODER. We acknowledge the incredible support we get from Judie Blair
and the South African Development Fund. Thank you!
Visit our website saepej.igc.org, call us at 617/522-0604 or email saepej@mindspring.com
n Environme
ground®
ocumen
imited
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of Critic Resource
Conten fe
INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................................... I
GLOBALISATION: A SYSTEM FOR ENTRENCHING ENVIRONMENTAL RACISM.........3
Reflecting on thepresent struggles in Nigeria............................................................................. 3
Reflecting on the history ofenvironmental racism in the USA................................................... 4
The Maquilladora experience....................................................................................................... 5
Environmental racism in South Africa......................................................................................... 6
TELLING OUR STORIES: EXPERIENCES FROM THE GROUND...................................... 7
Industry and Urban Planning....................................................................................................... 7
Mining.......................................................................................................................................... 10
Toxic Dumps................................................................................................................................ 11
Displacement: Dams and Agriculture........................................................................................11
ENVIRONMENTAL RACISM: A SYSTEM SUPPORTED BY GOVERNMENTS................ 13
The Australian Experience.........................................................................................................13
Struggles ofindigenous peoples in the USA............................................................................. 14
South Africa: A practical experience........................................................................................ 15
TURNING THE TIDE ON ENVIRONMENTAL RA CISM: THE IVA Y FOR IVA RD.............. 17
Mechanisms and strategies to halt and reverse environmental racism.................................. 17
Globalisation and thefuture ofenvironmental racism............................................................ 19
Future challengesfacing civil society in the South.................................................................. 19
CLOSING ADDRESS................................................................................................................ .. 1
Cover photograph by Richard Pratt
Children in Madagascar
^^©^©gQS©^
Bobby Peek, groundwork, South Africa
The Speak Out is being held in advance of the World Conference Against Racism (WCAR) and will feed into
both the NGO Forum and the governmental proceedings.
The concepts of environmental racism and environmental justice have their origins in the U.S.A, but respond
to a global phenomenon. With these concepts people of colour around the world recognise our common
experience and can build links across race, class and gender lines. Many of the pioneers of the movement are
here and this meeting, with people from eleven countries, comes out of working these debates over the past two
decades. We welcome you to South Africa.
These concepts were introduced to South Africa by Dana Alston, a pioneer of the movement, at a conference
hosted by Earthlife Africa in 1 992. Reflection and debate on environmental justice in South Africa has resulted in
its formal adoption as a principle of law.
Dana Alston told us: "The people who benefit the most from technological and industrial development do
not have to bear as much of the burden. That is the centrepiece of the injustice, not only for people of colour in
the USA, but throughout the world"
At the heart of the experience of environmental injustice is the abuse of power. Poor people, and particularly
people of colour, live in damaged environments which damage their health. So the struggle for environmental
justice is a struggle about relations of power. This is the common theme to the range of diverse struggles against
various forms of inequitable development, from shrimp farming to uranium dumping, that we will hear about
today, x.
-Speak Out - groundwork -
@/7D^@/7Defamg7 ODV7^©^DO)@Z7Di?(§7// rGWifeffi©
i*.
Session U : Panel discussion on the origins, status and future
of environmental racism in the period of globalisation.
Moderator: Bobby Peek
Reflecting on the present strvg&jOes in Nigeria
Nnimmo Bassey, Environmental Rights Action, Nigeria.
Oil was discovered in Nigeria in 1908 and commercially exploited from 1958. Local people were at first
optimistic. They thought they would get |obs, schools, hospitals, electricity and other modern services. They did
not get electricity but they did get light. The flares burn 24 hours a day so there is no night. And air, earth and
water are polluted destroying people's livelihoods from farming and fishing. Now fish are imported to the region
but people have no money to buy them.
The people wanted to talk to the companies and to the government. We ask for a chance to say that there
must be a better way things could be different but are met with the dialogue of guns. We use culture singing,
dancing and waving leaves as a weapon of resistance and are accused of being prejudiced and violent We are
killed but have no right to cry. Our environments are destroyed and we have no right to complain.
On November 1 0, 1 995, Ken Sarowiwa was executed because he said people have rights. And the people
of Ogoniland have taken the right to resist and driven Shell from their land. Others are learning from That
example of standing together to resist evil. Yet even still there are oil spills in Ogoniland and people are killed on
the instruction of Shell in Ogoniland.
Local child protesting against pollution in South Durban calls for a Truth
and Reconciliation Commission on industrial pollution
-Speak Out - groundwork. -
The companies involved in Nigeria are the global giants such as Shell and Chevron. They are driven by
profit and the growing rate of consumption in Northern countries to take from places where people have no
voice. They want crude by crude methods. They want it cheap. So pipelines with a 20 year design life are not
replaced and burst pipes are frequent.
Our struggle is to control our resources so we can look after our environment. But it is the companies that in
fact control our resources and they do it under military cover. So we say, "When you buy a litre of petrol, you buy
a litre of blood."
Itef/ecting ©Ji? the history of environmental racism in the
Robert Bullard, National Black Environmental Justice Network, USA.
Environmental racism is located in any policy which disadvantages people based on colour, whether
intentionally or not. To understand it, we must understand the roots and legacy of racism. The roots lie in an
ideology of freedom: Free land - stolen from the indigenous people; Free labour - stolen from slaves, Free men the white men who could vote; Free enterprise - and there is no such thing. The legacy is about the relation of
people to labour, land and services housing, education, health care.
The elements of environmental racism are:
■
Unequal participation: Authorities take longer to act, and act less decisively when people of colour
make demands than when white people make demands.
’
The rights of companies are given precedence over people's rights: Companies can go into
communities of colour claiming to provide jobs. Risk assessments are done to justify the trading of
people's health and environments for profit. We say they have no right to kill us and are closing the
loopholes in environmental protection. In response, companies are moving off shore so we need
global action.
•
Corporate welfare: Companies are subsidised to kill us. Louisiana is one of the poorer states but still
finds enough money to subsidise toxic industries.
“
Residential segregation: Race still talks about where you are allowed to live and toxic industries are
sited where people of colour live. This is not just about private companies. The US military is the most
toxic of industries and has left a trail of toxic death all the way to the Marshall Islands.
•
Unequal economic opportunity: Children of colour grow up with toxic poisons and their schools are
often located on closed dumpsites. There is a link between what you learn and what you earn. Lead
poisoning, for example, takes away children's mental capacity and therefore their future earning
capacity.
- groundwork -Spcqk Out -
I
Unequal enforcement: The US has the best environmental protection laws in the world, but when it
comes to people of colour, they are not enforced. Government is now rolling back the basic protections
and rights that we have won. The Supreme Court has ruled that it is not enough to show a consistent
pattern of abuse but intent to abuse must be shown.
The National Black Environmental Justice Network is a response to an emergency in the US. It is the
emergency of a community under attack. Black people have pushed the civil rights movement and the
achievements of that movement are under attack by a conservative racist movement.
The US is the richest nation on earth, but people of colour are constituted as the South within the North. The
global movement for environmental justice emerges out of struggle and that struggle is also the struggle for
economic justice and for social justice. When we visit each other we can see* the same enemy. We are still
learning but we are moving forward.
The Maquilladora experience
Teresa Leal, Southwest Network on Environmental and Economic Justice, USA and Mexico
I am from an indigenous group whose land straddles the metal border between Mexico and the USA. On
either side of the border, I am constantly asked, "Where are you from?"
The Maquilladora industries are assembly plants located in an autonomous industrial zone on the Mexican
side. These industries were accused of creating environmental, labour and social problems and so relocated in
Mexico but only just across the fence. The products are now labelled: Made in the USA, assembled in Mexico.
There was 58% sub-employment in the area, so no one questioned it when they arrived. Since then, we have
experienced:
■
Economic extortion: One week's wage in Mexico is equivalent to one day's wage in the US but the price
of the goods remains the same.
•
Double standards on gender: Women constitute 75% of the labour force because, in a macho society,
they can be predicted to make for a docile labour force. Many of them are single parents but no
provision is made for child care. Children left without adult care givers for much of the day take to the
streets and form gangs.
•
Pollution: The original agreement was that assembled goods would be returned to the US together with
the wastes. The wastes in fact remain behind, poisoning our soils and water.
’
Inadequate infrastructure: The population has grown but the infrastructure and services have not.
Housing is unaffordable and people have to squat.
-Speak Out - groundwork - 5
Resistance was difficult because the unions were corrupted and people became fatalistic. But the North
America Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) sparked immediate opposition in the border area and in the South with
the Zapatistas. This was not coordinated but was an existential response. NAFTA described globalisation as we
were already living it. It describes an open door for free trade but it is a Dutch door with the top half open and
the bottom half closed by the militarisation of the border. Now the Maquilladora concept is being expanded with
a new fast-track process for a free trade agreement covering the whole of the Americas.
We need to share our experiences to develop a people's response to globalisation by the transnational
companies. We need to be able to defend the quality of our lives and our environments.
EnvirGnmenf&B r&ciisBm Iin South Africa
Heeten Kalan. South African Exchange Programme on Environmental Justice, U.S.A.
Growing up in South Africa, my thinking on environmental issues was based on a definition given by others. It
was about wildlife and wilderness and had no human component. Linking the American and South African
experiences has led to a changed definition.
South Africa created a system of Bantusians to justify crowding the African majority of the people onto 1 3%
of the land while not providing any service infrastructure. The system was designed to provide cheap migrant
labour for mining capital. In the cities black townships were created downwind and downstream of pollution
sources. People lived in the shadow of power plants but did not get electricity. Worker health and safety was
neglected and 50,000 people have been killed on the mines so far. South Africa was also a militarised society
and people are now claiming back land which has been seriously contaminated by the military.
There are strong US links to this history. The US and South African officials collaborated on the creation of
Native American reserves and Bantustans. American companies have been involved in dirty industries for
example, American Cyanamick exported toxic waste to Thor near Durban and American vanadium mining
companies poisoned people and land near Brits in North West Province. And the American experience of
environmental racism is repeated in the location of toxic wastes near Black communities, for example at Aloes in
Pori Elizabeth where contaminated water seeps into people's houses.
South Africa's new Constitution gives people the right to a clean and healthy environment but government is
dragging its feet on these rights. They are also creating Industrial Development Zones where, in the name of
creating jobs, the Maquilladora experience will be repeated. They have ignored the words of Albie Sachs, a
noted fighter for liberation, who said, "When we breath the air of freedom let us hope tnat we do not choke on
hidden fumes."A.
It;
6 - groundwork -Speak Out -
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Session? 2: Participants related stories from around the world under four thematic headings.
Moderators: Nmmmo Bassey and Heeten Kalan.
DmdlusQiry and Urban Planning
Desmond D'Sa, South Durban Community Environmental Alliance. South Africa
The South Durban basin is home to 285,000 people and numerous industries, located in five 'industrial
belts'. It is repeatedly claimed that people followed industry into the area, but this is false. Industries were located
next to people in the '50s on land taken from local market gardeners. The industries include two large oil
refineries, major chemicals manufacturers and chemicals storage facilities. A toxic landfill servicing these
industries has been closed down but not rehabilitated. Local people suffer from high levels of respiratory illnesses
and cancers. Apartheid planning forced racial segregation of South Durban's communities. Recent planning
exercises have concluded with proposals that would result in the removal of people. The SDCEA is organising
across these divisions to speak out on environmental justice at local, national and international levels.
Apartheid planning located the Black township in
an area surrounded by chemicals industries.
- Ike Ramatesela, Local Councillor, Sasolburg, South Africa
-Speqk Out - groundwork - 7 -
Ike Ramatesela, Local Councillor, Sasolburg. South Africa
Apartheid planning located the Black township in an area surrounded by chemicals industries Residents
suffer high levels of child mortality and respiratory illnesses. Workers suffering occupational diseases are
retrenched and sent home to die. There is high unemployment and people are too poor to afford medicines. In
while areas, industry maintains pollution monitoring but claims there is no money for effective monitoring in
black areas. Recent action linking wealthy whites living on a polluted water frontage with black residents resulted
in industry withdrawing social responsibility funding from a local environmental organisation.
Alex Persent, Secunda, South Africa
Black people used to live in Secunda, which was called Driefontein. When the Sasol refinery industry was
developed, black people were relocated downwind at Embalenhle. Secunda became a white town. Embalenhle
is now surrounded by mines and adjacent to the local dump. The fence is not maintained and children have
access to the dump. The older people do not understand the environmental issues and environmental
organising is supported mainly by the youth.
Jose Luis Guevara, Accion Ecologica, Ecuador
Esmarelda is a poor region suffering from a man-made disaster. A massive infrastructure of pipelines, storage
facilities and refineries has been built to service the oil industry. Fires and spillages are frequent and illegal waste
dumping common. A new pipeline and a 3.5 million barrel oil storage are being planned. The people are left in
poverty and suffer a range of ailments with cancer affecting between 35 and 40% of the population. The state has
done nothing to defend people and believes that, because we are poor and black, we have no right to protest or
organise. So we are demonstrating that we do have these rights. We are organising against the new developments.
We are organising in defence of our rights io life, to respect and to a healthy environment.
Pamela Chang, Asian Pacific Environmental Network (APEN), USA
APEN is located in the Bay area of Richmond, California, where 350 polluting industries including such
giants as Chevron are located next to communities of colour including Asians, Native Americans and African
Americans. APEN's strategy is to build a multi-racial movement linking with the poor of the Pacific Islands. Asian
people in the US are constructed as homogenous Chinese' and there is a myth that they have 'made it1 through
hard work in the land of opportunity. Many are in fact refugees from US aggression in South East Asia and the
Pacific Islands. There are seven distinct tribal groups from Laos alone, forced out as a result of the Vietnam war.
As one Laotian woman told me, "The bombs were less frightening than what we have here. The bombs killed you
instantly. Here death stalks you through your life."
8 - groundwork -Speak Out -
Lyn Pinder, Youth Warriors Express, USA. •
Environmental issues facing the people of colour in urban Baltimore include lead poisoning, asbestosis and
the impact of drugs. The poor live in areas defined as having no value. This is now changing with gentrification
crowding out the poor from housing. The Warriors have linked with the North East Environmental Justice
Network to connect with the resources and solidarity of the movement.
Susana Almanza, People Organised in Defence ofthe Earth and its Resources, USA.
We were once all brothers and sisters under the sky and we were led by our parents, mother earth and father
sun. In Austin, Texas, our community of Native and African Americans took on 6 of the 7 oil giants and shut them
down. They had taken land and contaminated it. Emissions exceeded the allowable limits by 750 times in the
case of benzene. The community suffered high rates of cancer and miscarriages. We organised using our bodies
and minds against their dollars. We realised that our vote is not our voice, but that our voice is our vote. We
showed that it is possible to defend the lives our children, our ancestors and our parents. Through organisation
we become brothers and sisters again.
Margaret Williams, Citizens Against Toxic Exposure, USA
In Pensacola there are few places where people of colour can live. When I grew up my parents earned 25
cents an hour and we lived first next to a fertiliser plant and then next to a creosote plant. We did not associate our
common ailments with the pollution until government ordered an emergency clean up. They dug out 260 tons of
contaminated soil, dumped it in a heap and covered it with plastic and left the hole. We wasted long years
writing to authorities. We tried finding lawyers but they refused to take our case. We tried finding doctors to treat
us but there are no specialists in environmental diseases. Finally we had the ground in our yards tested and a
number of chemicals were found over allowable limits. Now we have negotiated relocation.
"The state has done nothing to defend people and believes that,
because we are poor and black, we have no right to protest or
organise. So we are demonstrating that we do have these rights.
- Jose Luis Guevara, Accion Ecologica, Ecuador
-Speak Out - groun4VVork - 9 -
Troy Prince, Concerned People Against Asbestos, South Africa
In Kurumon there are more than 80 old asbestos dumps located next to the homes of thousands of people.
But it is not only in the dumps. It is in our houses, our schools, our playgrounds, our water, our air. Since '87,
1 0,000 South Africans have been diagnosed with asbestosis. There is no medicine for it. We must just wait for
death.
The biggest mining company was UK based Cape Pic. British asbestosis sufferers took Cape to court in
'97 and were compensated with R 300m. Our case will now be heard in 2002 Bringing the case has been a
slow process and 1 50 claimants have since died including my parents.
ThuliMakama, Yonge Nawe, Swaziland
In Swaziland we have only recently become aware of the human dimension of the environment. We thought
it was just about trees and animals and did not relate our illnesses to pollution Companies have taken
advantage of our lack of awareness. Recently there was an explosion at a coal mine where toxic wastes were
being stored. The mine is 75% owned by Koch, a giant US company. In the US, similar claims are settled for
millions of dollars. In Swaziland there has been no compensation and the company had not renewed its
mandatory insurances. Three days after claims were made, the company filed for provisional liquidation.
Yaluritja Isaacs, The Sovereign Union ofAboriginal Peoples ofAustralia
In the name of creating jobs, Australia has supported mining companies, led by Rio Tinto Zinc, in bulldozing
sacred sites, changing river courses and exterminating species. The mining companies developed a 'native
policy' which has been declared racist by the United Nations but which the Australian government still wants to
work with. The Australian industry is now moving into Indonesia, claiming it will clean up the mines there. But
there is no reason to think they will treat black people in Indonesia different from the way they treat black people
at home.
"In Swaziland we have only recently become aware of the human •
dimension of the environment. We thought it was [ust about trees
9
and animals and did not relate our illnesses to pollution."
- Thuli Makama, Yonge Nawe, Swaziland
10 - groundwork -Speqk Out -
Peace Dlamini, South African Reparations Movement, South Africa
The people of Soweto are no better off now than they were before the ‘94 elections. We are told development
is coming, but it does not come. In the meantime, the mines are polluting the water of the Klip River and
government does not want to take on the big mining companies. We are passionate about this country. We
destroyed apartheid and our next fight is to remove the mining waste land dams.
Jenice View, Just Transition Alliance, USA
Just Transition is an organisation that brings together workers and communities on the front line. There is a
history of racism in US unions just as there is in US companies. But workers and communities are both affected by
companies thar disregard their rights. At the Arizona Portland Cement Company, workers were without basic
contracts for four years and the local community has suffered pollution for 40 years. The municipality ran an
environmental education campaign resulting in joint action against abuse. At San Antonio, Texas, the Kelly Air
Force Base closed. Workers and the local Mexican American community formed an alliance to clean up the base
and provide sustainable jobs.
Toxic Dumps
Bheki Thusi, Yonge Nawe, Swaziland
The dumping and incineration of medical wastes is creating severe consequences for people living
downwind and downstream and for waste pickers. The hospitals and clinics have been irresponsible in having no
proper controls or systems in place. The Swazi authorities have failed to develop waste management systems and
cannot provide coherent information.
Kenneth Bradshaw. Concerned Citizens Against Defence Depot, USA.
The US military is one of the largest, richest and most powerful organisations on earth. It is also one of the
biggest polluters but conceals its pollution behind security legislation. It has mismanaged a secret chemical
weapons dump at Memphis for 40 years and is responsible for losing a number of nuclear warheads.
Dams and Agriculture
O'Brein Gcabashe, Earthlife Africa, South Africa.
Construction of the Inanda Dam outside Durban was proposed in 86. The people to be displaced by the
dam were promised other land. When they had to move, there was no other land. They were promised
compensation and R 5.6 million was paid out to the chief, but the families who lost land saw none of it. The dam
was built to supply water to Durban, but those living next to it have still not got clean water.
-Speak Out - groundwork - II -
Sandile Ndawonde, Greater Edendale Environmental Network, South Africa
The Henley Dam, built 80 years ago to supply water to the white city of Pietermaritzburg, is now
decommissioned. Its primary use appears to be to regulate water to an annual canoe marathon from
Pietermaritzburg to Durban. The abandoned water works has become a dangerous playground for children.
During floods in 87, for fear of a dam burst, water was released damaging black houses. Down stream 1 0 km of
the river is canalised through the white city. During a flash storm in '95 the flood water was channelled through to
flood the black township of Sobantu downstream of the canalised section. The communities are calling for the
demolition of Henley, the waterworks and other engineering works, and rehabilitation of the catchment.
Modesto Segura, Accion Ecologica, Ecuador
Ecuador has one of the largest wetland systems in the world and this is an eco-system of global importance.
Government has sold 99 year leases on wetland areas to shrimp companies for $11.11 a hectare. The people
who live in the wetlands and depend on them fortheir livelihoods were not consulted and were dispossessed by
the deals. For them, sustainability is a matter of life. With support from Accion Ecologica, Greenpeace and other
environmental organisations they have made a claim against the state and held a march in Quito demanding
rights. Government has now made a declaration granting the wetlands to the communities.
Carlos Marentes, Border Agricultural Project, USA
Mexican migrant farm workers feed the most powerful country on earth but their interests are largely ignored.
This labour force is about 5 million strong and includes about 1 00,000 minors. They do not have the right to
organise and annual earnings average $6,000, about a third of the lowest paid US wage, and 6 out of 1 0 do
not have a house. They deal with dangerous chemicals in the fields and suffer from a range of ailments,
particularly skin diseases. Toxic chemicals cross the border to Mexico freely and rural Mexican communities are
also being poisoned. We are fighting for a changed agricultural system that does not use dangerous chemicals
so as to protect the lives of farm workers and rural people. 1
"... there is no reason to think they will treat black people in Indonesia
different from the way they treat black people at home."
- Yaluritfa Isaacs, The Sovereign Union of Aboriginal Peoples of Australia
-12 - groundwork -Speak Out -
[by ^©wemm©^Qs
Session 3: Panel discussion on the role of governments in environmental racism.
Deborah Robinson, International Possibilities Unlimited.
The Australian Experience
Ellie Gilbert and Yularitja Isaacs, The Sovereign Union ofAboriginal Peoples ofAustralia
There are 500 Aboriginal nations and 350 distinct languages sun/iving in Australia despite successive
policies of genocide and assimilation. The Australian government now faces two legafproblems:
■
The Marbo judgement on land rights found that Australia's claim to sovereign title based on the
assumption of 'terra nulius' implying that there were no prior native rights is without legal basis;
•
Australian courts have only been able to dismiss an Aboriginal charge of genocide against the Prime
Minister on the basis that there is no domestic lav/ against genocide. This puts Australia in breach of UN
human rights conventions to which it is a signatory. Australia should therefore be excluded from the UN
system.
As a result, Australia has refused to sign a trade agreement with the European Union which contains a
standard human rights clause. In response to this we have called for a boycott of Australian wine and are
considering a sports boycott. Government delegations to the UN exclude Aboriginal people and, together with
the US and Canada, Australia is attempting to head off a UN declaration on indigenous rights on the basis That it
would lead to the fragmentation of the state.
-Speak Out - grounjVVork - 1S -
Pbotogrqpb by Tony Carnie
Manny Pino, Rose Henry and Torn Goldtooth from the USA at the World Conference Against Racism in Durban.
Within the UN system, we are calling for recognition of indigenous peoples as sovereign peoples with the
right to determine their own future. The effect would be to give us a majority over the colonising nations that
control the UN. For this reason it has been footnoted in the draff UN declaration that the word 'peoples is not a
legal term.
We are now focusing on the perpetrators and have established an Aboriginal Diplomatic Camp outside
Australia's parliament. We burn fires there continuously to focus the spiritual energy to attack the negative
spirituality of the colonisers. We believe that indigenous people have the recipe for living with and healing the
Earth, our Mother.
Struggles off inaHSgetnous peoples hi the UIS&
Tom Goldtooth, Indigenous Environmental Network, USA
Indigenous people resisted the centenary celebrations of Columbus because we saw no reason to celebrate
the invasion and occupation of our land. The US is a colonial government of occupation and its instruments are
- 14 - groundwork -Speak Out -
the church, the military and the lawyers. We believe that there is no difference between the state and the
corporations. Each feeds and nurtures the other.
When governments are not held accountable by the people they serve, the door to oppression is opened. In
the US, corporate control of Congress makes it harder for the people to hold government to accounr.
International trade agreements signed at the expense of national sovereignty also make it harder for people to
hold governments to account. The possibility of protection is threatened by the World Trade Organisation. We
believe that civil society must regain control of governments if we are to have progress.
There are 550 indigenous nations recognised by federal lav/. Despite this, we still struggle for effective
recognition of our rights. We face common problems with toxic dumping, clear cutting of our forests and military
contamination of our lands. The people themselves have been contaminated and PCBs and dioxins are showing
up in breast milk. We face the same problems as other people of colour and are now linking with African, Asian
and Mexican Americans around the concept of environmental justice.
The present laws do not protect us and are discriminatory. The standards developed in the Clean Air Act and
the Clean Water Act are not about clean air or clean water. They are about acceptable levels of contamination
and are ad|udicated in risk assessments designed to calculate the trade of their profit against our health. These
lav/s and these assessments do not consider our spiritual values or our values of identification with the land. We
are now calling for a Seven Generation Precautionary Approach to put development into the perspective of that
time scale.
South Africa: A practical experience
Thabo Madihlaba, Environmental Justice Networking Forum, South Africa
South Africa presents a peculiar situation. We now have democratic
rule and a government led by black
%
people, so how can it be possible to talk of entrenching racism in that context? People in South Africa were
dispossessed of land by force. With democratic elections in '94 we were promised a better life for all . A land
reform process was announced and 70,000 claims for restitution have been made. Seven years later, only
1 2,000 claims have been settled.
Our Constitution gives people the right to a clean and healthy environment but this right is made subject to
economic development. Economic development is now interpreted in terms of government's neo-liberai macro-
economic policy which was applauded by the World Bank. We have developed good policies in a number of
areas, but they do not deliver because their intent is undermined in the context created by economic policy.
So the democratic government still seems to be promoting an imperialist agenda. We now need a 180
degree turn around. We need to unite to fight globalisation. L
-Speak Out - qroun^Work - I?
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Sessuosu 4: Panel discussion on the work of reversing environmental racism.
Moeflercrtor: Chris Albertyn
Mecficmisms and s&ratiegies V® haltt and reverse environmental racism
Bobby Peek, groundwork. South Africa
The World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) takes place in Johannesburg next year. Should we
be thinking 'Rio+101 or Johannesburg-30'? 30 years ago the Stockholm Conference on the Human
Environment put the relationship between environment and development on the agenda. Since then the poor
have got poorer, women are more vulnerable, industrial pollution has got worse and, in places like Burma,
corporations are profiting from slave labour.
Africa thought Local Agenda 21 (La21), agreed at Rio in '92, would prove the panacea for their problems.
But A2 1 has put in place a process for industrial self-regulation, to coincide with globalisation advanced through
the international economic governance regime, and has led to more deaths from industrial accidents. In South
Durban, proposals for relocating people came directly from an A21 process. Globally, the process has led to the
UN sponsored Global Compact1 which has 9 principles including one on human rights and one on sustainable
development. Shell, responsible for human rights violations in Nigeria, was invited to join the process. South
African utility Eskom, a proponent of nuclear energy, was invited to join the process. So the perpetrators are
invited to make decisions in the chambers of world democracy. Here in South Africa, the President has convened
a Business Council to advise him but there is no comparable Community Council.
«< Local resident of I7mlazi, one of South Africa's biggest townships,
protesting against toxic landfill sites in l/mlazi community
Speak Out - groundwork - 17 -
Photograph by SAPEG
International visitors on toxic tour during World Conference Against Racism, August 2001
The Business Council for Sustainable Development recently took out advertisements to the affect that we
should trust them and they will develop the world for us. But the resistance of the Ogoni and the Zapatista did not
coincide because of any globalised internet links. The link between these struggles is the abuse of corporate
power in the process of 'developing the world'. And this is also the root cause of the resistance at Seattle and
Genoa. Will Johannesburg be next?
Resistance needs to be built on communities creating their own democracy in their communities, not on
cutting deals or brokering power. We need to build it on gender equity, on sharing resources in resisting
polluters, on sharing and reflecting on our experiences. Academics should contribute through developing an
alternative research agenda, one which investigates the problems faced by communities and workers and which
builds on the concepts articulated by communities and workers. And finally, we should note that the age of mass
demonstrations is not over. We need to hold our governments, the UN system, the institutions of global
economic governance and the corporations accountable for human rights
environmental rights.
ndWork -Speak Out -
lor economic, social and
@O@foallisati©n and the future ©ff environmental racism
Atherton Martin, Dominica
We suffer pain in three areas. There is the pain of the spirit and we need to hear more about that. We have
allowed it to be set aside and we are hurt through our separation from the ancestral spirit. There is the pain of the
body where we are hurt by the impact of abuse. There is the pain of the earth, the water systems and forest
systems, the location of our ancestral links, the places where we try to learn and pass on our learning to our
children.
We are told that There Is No Alternative (TINA). But it is from the way in which we deal with these three areas
of pain that we will find the alternatives. We need to convince ourselves in spirit, body and place that we can
create alternatives, that we can find the strength to turn away from TINA. We need to find who we are to find the
way because it is we who are the source of our own power.
The recent Summit of the Americas proclaimed democracy while selling it off to TINA. It proclaimed .
accountability but does not say accountability for whom or for what. It is an abstract accountability. What is not
represented in the documents of the summit, or in all the UN documents, is dignity the dignity of people and
places. So we dissect ourselves. We move away from our ancestral roots onto a path of destruction rather than
construction.
The new concept of democracy is not new. It is about neighbourliness and caring and the challenge is to
translate that into economic policy. It is not a democracy of speaking on behalf of, but is about facilitating
exchange between people between women, between farmers, between workers for learning and earning.
And we should not be frightened by words and concepts. We should take them back to our roots. 'Technology'
is not the invention of corporations. Our people had renewable energy long before they came upon it. 'Tourism'
is about exchange. It is corporate tourism that wedged people apart to make it profitable for them. We need to
find the ways in which it is profitable for us by bringing people together.
Finally, for myself, I live in a forest from where I see the mountains and the sea. I did not understand it until very
recently, but it is from the forest, mountains and sea that I draw strength. If they die, I die. This is an elusive force
and it is good that it is so, otherwise it would be separated out, packaged and sold back to us. This is the force of
our spirit and, with eyes wide open, we must reconnect with it.
[Future challenges facing civil] society in the South
Daniel Tailliant, Centro de Derechos Humanos y Medio Ambiente, Argentina
We need to think how we can work inside the system as well as outside it. And we need to understand that we
-Speak Out - groundVVork
19 -
hove taken important steps in reversing environmental racism. The subjects of environmental rights are
governments and corporations as well as victims and we need to understand that, in their own terms,
governments and corporations have rights and obligations which can be used in defence of people's rights.
Human rights have only recently been inserted into the environmental debate. Previously the debate was
exclusively about land degradation or species loss. The link is not obvious to the agents of government because
they work in compartments dealing with limited sections of any particular system. It is the task of NGOs to serve
as the translators, to show how decisions on health, sanitation, waste management or industrial location relate
human to environmental rights.
We need to participate both at the private and public levels. We ourselves, as consumers, have ignorantly
bought goods produced in ways which contravene human rights and the ignorance of politicians is a reflection
of our own ignorance. Educating ourselves and then others is the key to linking human and environmental rights
on the radar screens even of global institutions such as the World Bank. And it must be backed by exposing
abuses.
Tools such as ElAs have been developed to measure the impact of proposed projects. In World Bank
projects, ElAs are often relegated to a brief section at the end. They function to rubber stamp the project and look
only at the environmental impacts, not human impacts. We need to demand more rigorous thinking and
processes. We need to show where there is discrimination where people are excluded from participation. And
participation needs to be informed. People cannot be expected to have expertise in relation to proposed
projects.
The use of judicial instruments has also neglected the relationship between human and environmental
rights. NGOs wishing to assist victims of abuse need to understand how to use the law to help people claim
economic, social, cultural and environmental rights. Within the Inter-American system we have had some
success in presenting environmental degradation cases as human rights cases. We are also working to bring US
corporations to court in the USA for what they do in other countries. As we look at new initiatives such as the
Global Compact, we need to talkabout binding codes on human rights and how they can be enforced.
In summary, an agenda for participation in the system would comprise these points:
Building awareness within civil society
Sensitivity to the needs of vulnerable groups
Familiarity with environmental law and its links with human rights law
Participation in the public arena
Informed participation in planning processes
Education directed at governments and corporations
Insisting on rigour in the use of tools such as ElAs
ii
- 20 - groundwork -Spe^k Out -
il.
Closing Address
Professor Fatima Meer
To go forward, we need an ideology and an ideologue. We have religious systems to refer to but we have
been converted by Adam Smith, the ideologue of Capital, to being people without souls. Through his invention
we have been cut into classes those with rights to consume and those without rights. And this invention has been
overlaid on the invention of Christ, that all humanity is equal. Thus Calvin preached, "The sign of my grace is on
those who are wealthy, and the sign of my curse is on those who are poor." We need to go back to our diverse
religious teachings. Adam Smith is part of the rationalist approach that does not admit God. They need to say,
"You are only body." And they say it because they get profits from our bodies. There is no profit in the soul.
We are not just victims of the neo-liberals. We are victims of ourselves because it is we who have listened to
them. The colonisers persuaded us that they knew the truth. They brought us the choice of Capitalism or
Marxism, each proclaiming itself as the only answer. If we are to overcome the globalises, we the oppressed and
the marginalised must unite. We must not allow our issues to be cut up into discrete problems such as poverty or
environment or justice. We need to get back to our own prophets and the modern prophet to whom I would
commend you is Ghandi.X.
Why Environmental Jms^dc© m Som^Od Africa?
Millions of South Africans drink contaminated water, work in unsafe mines and live
in areas filled with hazardous waste. This is the legacy of racist and inhumane
apartheid policies. Many of the nations poorest communities have been used as
dumping grounds by multinational corporations leading to serious and often deadly
health issues.
In South Africa, thousands of miners die annually because of hazardous condi
tions. More than 42,000 workers have died as a direct result of mining accidents since
the mining industry began in South Africa. Many more continue to die not only from
accidents but from mining-related diseases caused by exposure and inhalation of toxic
substances. Farm workers are forced to spray crops with banned pesticides like DDT
without protective clothing. In everyday South Africa, rural women walk approxi
mately six miles to find fuel-wood and fresh water and children play among landfills,
swim in heavily contaminated waters and breath in a toxic soup of chemicals. This is
the ugly face of environmental racism and injustice in South Africa.
The new democratic Constitution states that every South African is entitled to a
clean and healthy environment. The National Environmental Management Act of
1998 set out the principles of equity, participation and accountability to address envi
ronmental injustices. While these rights exist on paper, the reality on the ground is a
different story. New and effective legislation has yet to materialize. Two factors are
pertinent here:
1. In the late 1990s, South Africa shifted its economic policy from people-centered
development to a one of macroeconomics with an eye toward international invest
ment and private sector growth. This represents a major shift in rhe philosophy that
had characterized the struggle against apartheid and the vision of the new demo
cratic government. As a result, community development has suffered — particularly
in rhe poorest and least-developed communities where environmental hazards are
often present.
2. In recent policy developments, the government has stated it will not police, regu
late or monitor the environment. The role of self-regularion is left to industries and
corporations and to the communities they pollute. As a result, civil society bears the
burden of ensuring its constitutional rights to a healthy environment.
We strongly believe that management of the environment by civil society is the best
route to redressing the damage that exists and prevents further degradation of resi
dential communities. Thus, there is an urgent need for civil society to be given the
capacity to step into this new role of monitor and enforcer of environmental laws.
There is also an urgent need to empower young activists to become the next genera
tion of EJ leaders.
Face ©f EErDVDErtrDomrDODDftaiD toeiism
The
In order to implement and maintain the racist policies of apartheid, the apartheid
regime created 'bantustans' and residential townships. Corporations were given free
rein to locate their industrial sites near these areas to access a cheap supply of labor.
In addition to the hazardous working conditions, industrial plants have polluted the
air, soil and water, thus poison
ing the lives and environment of
millions of black South Africans.
The situation today has not
improved
as
many
South
Africans are forced to contend
with outdated apartheid-era leg
islation affecting their environ
ment and health:
• The ‘bantustans’ policy had
placed 87 percent of the coun
try’s population (all black) on
13 percent of the land.
Children in South Durban play on a site heavily
contaminated by lindane, an industrial toxin.
• South African gold mines extract large quantities of uranium as a secondary prod
uct, thus exposing nearby black communities to cancer-causing radium and radon
which commonly leak from uranium mine wastes.
Communities living next to the five major oil refineries are continuously exposed
to a hazardous toxic soup including high levels of benzene, sulfur dioxide, toluene
and xylene.
An unexpected release of toxic gases, a common occurence, clouds the South Durban basin.
• In July 2001, Shell and BP’s leaking underground petrol pipeline in residential South
Durban resulted in a leak of over I million liters of petrol forcing many families to
be relocated.
• The community of Aloes, outside of Port Elizabeth, continues to be exposed to die
various smells and leaks from the three adjacent toxic landfill sites that surround them.
• Former workers at the U.S.-owned Vametco Mine outside of Brits are suffering seri
ous illnesses from vanadium exposure while the company continues to deny any link
between their former jobs and their current health problems.
• In 1987, 85 percent of South Africa’s commercial energy was derived from coal,
resulting in accelerated exploitation of coal seams through strip mining and pro
ducing some of the worst air pollution in the world. Current air pollution laws do
little to change this practice.
Between 1978 and 1983, 780 of the 3,500 workers at the Penge (Asbestos) Mines in
the Eastern Transvaal had contracted asbestosis.
• In Mmafefe, a region of the Lebowa homeland, a health project report document
ed that 603 out of the 1724 houses in rhe village, 7 of the 12 schools, and many
churches were made from asbestos brick and plaster.
• In the Mngweni River, which flows into the Valley of the 1 housand Hills, Thor
Chemicals is responsible for mercury concentrations 1,500 times the level at which
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency declares materials toxic. Thousands of
barrels of mercury waste, some of it from U.S. companies Borden Chemicals
(Louisiana) and American Cyanide (New Jersey), sit on the Thor property waiting
for some form of disposal.
AfowJ SAEPEJ
Founded in 1993, the Boston-based South African Exchange Program on
Environmental Justice (SAEPEJ) focuses on the effects of toxics and the deteriorat
ing environment on the health and daily lives of communities in South Africa, and
aims to bridge communities in the U.S. with their counterparts in South Africa
around environmental justice. We provide resources to South African community,
developmental, labor and environmental groups in order to address the neglected
environments in which South Africans live, and assist in the building of a strong envi
ronmental justice movement which will net-
r
work closely with the U.S. and other interna
tional movements.
SAEPEJ s goal is to provide technical assis
tance to South African counterparts in order to
enhance their capacity to confront current and
future environmental injustices. After years of iso
lation from the international community, it is
essential for the country to establish strong and
meaningful linkages with the international com
munity. More often than not, communities in the
U.S. are faced with the same pollution, the same
polluters, and the same health effects as their
counterparts abroad. Therefore, SAEPEJ empha
sizes exchanges on lessons, strategies, and victories
emerging from the South African and U.S. move
ments for peace and justice so that communities
Members of the Bucket Brigade grab a
sample of South Durban air for testing.
can come together and confront the crisis in a unified and organized approach.
We have a strong track record of exchanges between the U.S. and South Africa
along with experience working on campaigns, in conjunction with our South
African partners, on vanadium mining, oil refineries, toxic landfills, water pollu
tion, and asbestos.
SAEPEJ has also developed a South African Environmental Justice Curriculum
that details rhe history of apartheid and makes the link to the current environmental
and health problems there. Please contact us to find out how you and your organiza
tion can obtain a copy.
To find out more contact us at:
gAEPEJ
555 Amory Street
Boston, MA 02130, USA
Tel (617) 522-0604
Fax (617) 522-5511
Tax-deductible contributions are welcomed.
saepej@mindspring.com
http://www.igc.org/saepej
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From:
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R*nfwUbjcct:
"tSG india <esg(g/bgi.vsni.nei.in>
<sochara@blr.vsnl. net in>
Thursday( July 17, 9003 1:46 PM
Screening or SHORT FlL?w1 on KALI RIVER 19 July2903, SELECT BOOKSTORE, BANGALORE
Environment Support Group
Pr
Select Bookstore
welcome you
,-x
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VAT I
a short iiL ii in Kannada
produced by
Parisara Samraks
hana Kendra. Sirsi
ii
Date: 19th July 2003
Time: 5.30 pm to 7.00 pm
Venue: Select Bookstore. Brigade Road Cross,. Bangalore
Background:
On W’orid Environment Day, 5th June 2003, Kaii Bachao Andoian, a network of tribal
and village communities affected bv
over 6 maior
dams,z a nuclear Anewer Aplant
•*
•/
and pollution from the Daadoli Paper Mills, gathered to protest the unending
pressure on the Kali River, there is now a proposal to build another dam. by
Murdeshwar Power Corporation, that will submerge the last flowing stretch of
inis 185 kms.
ii
iong river, even as pollution continues unabated due to untreated
effluent discharge from West Coast Paper Mills. Earlier (his month, a serious
incident of pollution has resulted in the death of a newborn baby, renal failure
of a 27 vear old vouth and gastrointestinal infections of over 50 tribals of
Kariampally village near Daadcli.
*
V
«■>
•11
No other river has come under such intense pressure in the name of "development"
as the Kali. Over 32,000 acres of thickly forested Western Ghais region of Uiiara
Kannada district in Karnataka has already been lost due to submergence because
of dams across the river. Furthermore, as is the case everywhere in India, very
little has been done to compensate the displaced communities over the decades.
KALI BACHAO ANDOLAN. launched in February this year, is intent on ensuring that
II
it
no more
dams are allowed on this river. The campaign
also intends to end (he
pollution of the river by the Dandeli Paper Mills and the illegal and rampant
sand mining that is ruining landforms along the river.
7/17/03
Page 2 of 2
ii
kali, the film,
exposes the wondrous beauty of this region, and the callousness
of the Goyeminent and industries in mining the rich biodiversity and liveliness
oi the river.
i xcasc do attend the Screening of the film, and participate in a discussion thereafter.
We would be happy if you would inake a minimi in contribution of Rs. 20/- towards
this campaign and help us in this initiative. The proceeds would be support
towards the victims fighting for life, affected by the polluted waters.
L-ontact Details:
Environment Supj rt Group, S-3, Rajashree Apartments, 18/57,1st Main Road, S.R.K.Gardens,
Jayanagar, Pannergb^tta R.oad, Bangalore-560041. Telefax: 91-80-6341977/6531339/6534364.
Emaii: esg@bgi.vsni.nci.m <mailU>:esg@bgi.vsnl.net.in>
Parisara oamrakshana iCcnaxa, xlulonialgi Building, Ohowkimath, Six si (u tiara Kannada
District). Karnataka 581401. lei: 91-8384-425139/425039: Fax: 91-4435450/427839:
za.a
■a—
PS5VP1 Phnt’osvi $ Rao Fnvirotunent Support Group
7/17/03
Page 1 of2
Msin identity
From:
"ESG India" <esg@bgl.vsnl.net.in>
To:
<sochara@vsni.com>
Sent:
Subject:
Friday, August 29, 2003 4:52 PM
RADIO CITY BANGALORE (91FM) DISCUSSION ON"FOREST CONSERVATION AND
MANAGEMENT’ 31 August 2003, 6-7 pm
Radio City Bangalore. 91 FM is coordinating an hour long discussion on "FOREST
CONSERVATION .AND MANAGEMENT’7 Sunday, 31 August 2003, 6-7 pm.
i he discussion will involve participation of:
Mr Ram Mohan Rav
Principal Chief Conservator of Forests and Chief Wildlife Warden, Karnataka Forest
Department Previously was the Chairman and Managing Director, Karnataka Forest
Development
Corp
x
i and me Managing
G7 GJ Director Jungle
GJ Lodges
GJ & Resorts Ltd..i Bangalore
Nil Leo Saldanha
Leo F. Saldanha is Coordinator of Environment Support Group (ESG), a non-profit
campaign, research, training and advocacy initiative, that he started in Bangalore.
in 1996. He is a trainer on environmental law issues and various NGO training
programmes. Recently spoke at the Second Distinguished International Lecture
Series on "A Challenge for the 21st Century: Economic Development and Environmental
Protection" organized bv the Iowa Centre for Human Rights.* USA.
You are welcome to call in your questions to Mr. Darius of Radio City 91 FM,
Bangalore Station at: 2121971 or Pager: 9604091091.
Thank you and best regards.
Decpa S
Environment Support Group
>-3, Rajashree Apts.
13/57,1st Main, SRK Gardens
Bannerghatta Road. Jayanagar
Bangalore 560041
Tel: 91 -80-6341977/6534364
Email: esg@bgl.vsnl.net.in
Website: www.e-sgmdia.org (gening there..)
ESG is a non-protit organisation working on various issues of environmental and
social justice. We welcome your voluntary support and monetary contributions.
Financial contributions to ESG are eligible for tax exemptions u/s 80 G of the
Income Tax Act If you wish to know more details about our work, please email/call/write
io us for a Brochure of ESG.
If you wish to be removed from this mailing list, kindly email us with the subject
unsubscribe (please allow two weeks for the unsubscribe request to be acted upon).
9/1/03
poverty elimination
and the environment
A 6M b Vi A/j-
5 US7ZI Aftup/
Executive summary
1.
This paper looks at the ways the international
environmental, rather than simply dealing with the
community might attempt to meet the International
consequences of poverty.
Development Target for the environment, as part of the
wider goal of sustainable development.The International
4.
Development Tirget states that “there should be a current
should be seen as processes not new plans.They should
national strategy Jor sustainable development in the process of
seek to ensure that strategic planning takes account of
implementation in every country by 2005, so as to ensure that
sustainable development issues.They can be compatible
current trends in the losses of environmental resources arc
with other initiatives such as the World Bank’s
effectively reversed at both global and national levels by 2015".
Comprehensive Development Framework and the Poverty
The paper argues that development will not be sustainable
Reduction Strategies which are being adopted in several
without effective management of the environment, and
countries, if these initiatives successfully incorporate the
that equal attention needs to be given to the three
principle of sustainability A convergence of the three
social, economic and environmental pillars of sustainable
initiatives is both possible and desirable. Work is currently
development. It emphasises the need to take a longer-
proceeding in the Development Assistance Committee
term perspective, particularly relevant when dealing
(DAC) of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation
with environmental problems and issues.
and Development (OECD) on developing criteria to assist
:
2.
Most environmental trends arc adverse, with
National strategics for sustainable development
in determining whether a country has successfully
incorporated considerations of sustainability in its.
significant detrimental impacts on the health and
development policies and programmes.The UK and the
livelihoods of poor people. The costs of environmental
European Commission are leading this work. It will be
degradation arc large and should be routinely included
completed in the first half of 2001. It is proposed that the
in estimates of real gross domestic product.The mam
!
international conference planned for mid-2002, ten years
causes of environmental degradation are unsustainable
after the Earth Summit’at Rio, should focus on the extent
consumption, particularly of the rich, both in developed
to which countries have effective sustainable development
and developing countries; market failures, which cause
processes in place.
goods and services related to the environment to be
systematically undervalued, and therefore partly result
5.
in unsustainable consumption; and poor-and ineffective
Target are looked at primarily from a poor country
governance, which leads to the environment being
perspective. Opportunities for reducing poverty and
relatively neglected and not integrated into the
simultaneously protecting and improving the environment
development of national policies and programmes
are described. Emphasis is placed on working with the
A longer-term perspective is required, to take advantage
poor and on improving often weak and ineffective
of environmental opportunities, or to rake account of
systems of governance. Mainstreaming environmental
environmental costs or impacts.
considerations into country policies and programmes,
Actions to meet the International Development
and encouraging the private sector and civil society to
3.
There are many misconceptions regarding the
take similar action, are both important.There are many
links between poverty and the environment.This paper
opportunities to meet local environmental priorities while
argues that progress towards meeting the International
also contributing to global concerns, such as the build-up
Development Tirget can make a significant contribution to
of greenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere. The UK
a sustainable reduction in the number of people living in
will contribute to this international agenda through its
absolute poverty.The poor suffer disproportionately from
bilateral programme and the established relationships it has
increasing environmental degradation.They are particularly
with a range of multilateral institutions. It will also work
susceptible to the impacts of natural disasters. Nevertheless,
to ensure policy coherence in the UK and within the
they are prepared to invest in the environment if they see
European Union.
tangible benefits and the potential for economic
improvement.There should be a greater focus on the
6.
underlying causes of poverty, which are often
for the target. It requires two related but different kinds.
More attention needs to be given to the indicators
This reflects the fact that the target combines the
Executive summary
implementation ot national strategies for sustainable
level or sub-national level as appropriate.Two global
development with the reversal in the loss of environmental
indicators are taken as proxies to measure global
resources.The most appropriate indicators will vary from
trends: the size of the hole in the ozone layer and the
country to country.“I hey should be identified at a national
concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
1. Target statement
This paper examines the effective management
1.4
Introduction
and protection of the world's environment, encapsulated
1.1
In a report issued at the end of 1998, the
m the International Development Target which states
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the
that “there should be a current national strategy for sustainable
World Bank and the National Aeronautics and Space
development in the process of implementation in every country
Administration1 summarised why the environment is
by 2005, so as to ensure that current trends in the losses of
important and should not be considered in isolation.
environmental resources are effectively reversed at both global
“The Earth’s physical and biological systems provide humans
and national levels by 2015".
with essential goods and services. A set ofphysical, chemical ami
biological processes link global environmental problems so that
1.5
changes in one have repercussionsfor others. Actions taken to
in the United Nations conferences which took place in
meet human needs have local, regional ami global consequences.
the 1990s.The specific environment target stems from
The same drivingforces - population size, consumption levels
the UN Conference on Environment and Development
and choice of technologies — underlie all global environmental
held in Rio de Janeiro m 1992.The Conference also
problems. All people affect the environment, and vice versa,
agreed Agenda 21, a programme for global sustainable
but the rich have a disproportionately higher impact and
.
development., as a blueprint of action into the 21st century.
I
the poor tend to be the most vulnerable to the effects of
environmental degradation".
They were brought together m the document issued
,
’
by the Development Assistance Committee of the
I
!
1.2
The International Development Targets originate
This paper does not look at the overall state of the
;
world's environment. It concentrates on the International
i
development to be sustainable, taking due account of
|
impacts on the environment. Environmental outcomes
j
Special Session also decided that "by 2002, the formulation
ami elaboration of national str.v. cgies for sustainable development
I
Development Target and in particular the need for
OECD in 1996. In 1997. the UN General Assembly
which reflect the contributions vid responsibilities ot all interested
parties should be completed in .:'d countries, with assistance
provided, as appropriate, throufi international co-operation".
are inextricably linked to the actions of people, firms and
public and private institutions. For development to be
The target is complex. It combines general
1.6
truly sustainable, the environmental dimension must be
sustainable development issues with the environment,
mainstreamed2 throughout the policies and programmes
without really making a distinction between them.
of countries.
I
It is the first target against which progress will be formally
measured.
Achieving sustainable development
The sustainable development target
•
1.3
The target is especially challenging for two
1.7
In 1987, the Brunddand Commission3 defined
I
i
reasons:
□
sustainable development as “development which meets
for sustainable development) in addition to the final
c
the needs of the present without compromising our ability to meet
those of the future".The UK’s own national strategy for
sustainable development4 defines sustainable development
as “a better quality of life for everyone, now and for generations to
come". Both these definitions make clear that poverty
reduction and better management of the environment is
it includes the intermediate output (national strategies
outcome (reversal of loss of environmental resources).
□
relative to most of the ocher targets, progress is
particularly hard to measure. Sustainable development
strategies are processes.Their assessment will require a
qualitative judgement.The reversal of environmental
degradation is defined broadly and there is very
central to sustainable development.
* P/vtcrtuij’ cur planet, securing ourfuture, UNEP, US NASA,World Bank, November 1998.
-The dictionary’ definition of the “mainstream” is the “prevailing trend of opinion, fashion”. It is used throughout this paper as a proxy for the attributes ol
integration, awareness and promotion.
'Our avhnion future, World Commission on Environment and Development 1987.
* Improving the quality of our life, DETR., May 1999.
'Shaping the 21st century, the contribution of development co-operation, OECD 1996.
10
DF'D - friober 2000
Target statement
■ limited data available to measure progress. In addition,
□
the environmental resources of each country will
orienting the strategy to focus on process and
outcome;
differ, so there is no international blueprint for
□
building country/local ownership;
the best indicators.
□
building on existing processes and strategies;
□
adopting a comprehensive approach which integrates
«
Sustainable development strategies arc an
1.8
important input to achieve the target of reversing the
economic, social and environmental dimensions;
□
loss of environmental resources. But many other actions
ensuring effective monitoring, learning and
improvement;
are also clearly required.These include private sector
□
setting targets and priorities; and
initiatives, changes in technology and adherence to
□
strengthening capacity.
obligations set out in multilateral environmental
These principles describe a set of desirable
agreements. In addition, sustainable development
1.12
strategies, given their broader remit, should address
processes and outcomes, yet allow for local differences.
more than environmental resources.
They do not represent a checklist of criteria to be met.
There is nothing new in them - many are entirely
consistent with basic good strategic planning. But
National strategies for sustainable
development
The DAC definition6 of national strategies
1.9
for sustainable development is that they are “u strategic
and participatory process of analysis, debate, capacity
strengthening, planning and action towards sustainable
development".The key words are process and sustainable.
The UK White Paper defines them as “(he main vehicle for
integrating pro-poor economic growth with social improvemem
and a responsible approach to environmental managemem".
experience show's that they are seldom delivered in
incentives and
1practice.The challenge is strengthening
J
securing commitment to change.
k
1.13
New country-level planning frameworks offer
a significant opportunity to put these principles into
practice.The Comprehensive Development Framework
and Povertv Reduction Strategies, and the National Visions
developed by some countries encompass a number of
them and demonstrate a signuicant convergence of
approach between the country-led frameworks and the
criteria for sustainable development strategies.
1.10
A national strategy for sustainable development
represents the policies, plans, processes and actions
1.14
that a country is taking to move towards sustainable
the attempt to integrate all development efforts being
development.This could be a single umbrella strategy
piloted by the World Bank - seeks a better balance in
(drawing together initiatives in different areas) or the
policy-making by highlighting the interdependence
aggregate of a range of co-ordinated, existing strategic
of all elements of development - social, structural,
planning approaches. It is neither an environmental
human, governance, environmental, economic, and
action plan, nor is it a separate, stand-alone strategy.
financial. It emphasises partnerships among governments,
The Comprehensive Development Framework -
donors, civil society, the private sector, and other
Strategic planning for sustainable
development: emerging consensus
1.11
Each country will need to decide how to develop
development actors. It also stresses country ownership
of the process.
1.15
Poverty Reduction Strategies8 (which need to
its own strategic processes for sustainable development.
be developed to gain access to multilateral debt relief
But there is growing international consensus on some
and concessional lending) also incorporate a number of
of the key principles. They include:
the above principles.The strategies”... should be countrydriven, be developed transparently with broad participation of
■
putting people at the centre, particularly the poor;
elected institutions, stakeholders including civil society, key donors
■
securing high-level political commitment and an
and regional development banks, and have a clear link with the
influential lead institution;
agreed international development goals (targets)."
''Assisting developing countries with the formulation mid implementation of national strategies for sustainable development: the need to clarify DAC targets and strategies.
DCD/DAC(99) 11. March 1999.
‘Eliminating world poverty, a challenge for the 21st century, DFID, November 1997.
""Development Committee Communique".April 17.20(H).
DFID - October 2000
11
Target statement
1.16
In order to integrate sustainability into these
planning process to draw together existing plans and
frameworks, particular attention will need to be devoted
policies and ensure the commitment to the principles
to those principles where commitment m the past lias
of sustainable development.
been weal; or non-existent. The challenges include
ensuring that frameworks address the structural causes
origin; balance short-term priorities with long-term
The international development target and
the elimination of poverty
sustainability; and are truly country-led.
The linkages
of poverty, including where these are environmental in
1.18
1.17
Country examples for Ghana, Bolivia, Uganda and
The achievement of both the interim and final
target would make significant contributions to poverty
the United Kingdom are set out in more detail in Annex 1.
elimination. Effective sustainable development processes (
They show the diversity of approaches consistent with
should help poor people pursue sustainable livelihoods.
sustainable development strategics. Apart from the UK,
They create opportunities for marginalised and vulnerable
none of the other country examples is labelled as a strategy
groups to participate in decision-making affecting their
for sustainable development.This is not important. The
livelihoods and promote pro-poor economic growth and
critical issue is the strengthening of a country’s strategic
sound environmental management.They also encourage
transparency, accountability of governance structures and
Box 1: Poverty and the environment some misconceptions9
institutions which are more responsive and accountable to
the needs and priorities of poor people.
New evidence challenges a number of entrenched assumptions about poverty-environment interactions.
*
Most environmental degradation is caused by the poor.
Globally, most environmental degradation is caused by the non-poor as the consumption levels of the poor are still low
relative to the rich.
>
Poverty reduction necessarily leads to environmental degradation.
Studies have failed to show a common pattern in the relationship between poverty and resource use.The linkages
between poverty' and the environment are complex and require context specific analysis - there is no simple causal
relationship.There is sufficient evidence to show that the generalisation that poverty reduction and concern for the
environment are incompatible does not hold true.
The poor are too poor to invest in the environment.
The conventional wisdom has been that poor people are too impoverished to mobilise resources for enhancing the
environment. In some cases this is true. However, numerous experiences now demonstrate that when incentives are
favourable, even the poor can mobilise enormous resources, particularly labour.
The poor don’t care about the environment.
There are numerous examples to show poor people often value the environment strongly, both as a resource base, and for
cultural, aesthetic and religious reasons.
Poor people lack the technical knowledge for resource management.
It is often assumed that a lack of technical knowledge is a key constraint to poor people’s management of natural
resources. Indeed, when poor people move to areas with new ecological regimes, or when something happens to change
the balance under which their old technology developed, a period of adjustment is required. However, poor people are
often blamed for tilings that are not their fault. For example, shifting cultivation has been blamed for destroying the
environment, yet in some circumstances it is the most sustainable agricultural practice. Also, evidence is increasingly
showing that poor people have an enormous store of what is sometimes termed indigenous technical knowledge, such as
the use of medicinal plants, water harvesting structures, fishing sites and so on, but this knowledge is often undervalued or
completely ignored. More research is needed to fully appreciate the logic of poor people’s management practices.
9Attacking poverty while protecting the environment: towards win-win policy options, John Ambler,July 1999. Background technical note produced for the United
Nations Development Programme/European Commission poverty and environment initiative.
12
DFID - October 2000
target statement
1.19
Reversing the losses of environmental resources
1.23
In developing their own environment strategy, the
has a direct impact on poverty elimination.The vast
World Bank have come to similar conclusions.'"The links
majority of poor people in developing countries,
they establish between poverty reduction and improved
particularly those living in rural areas, rely on natural
environmental outcomes relate to improvement m the
resources for their livelihoods. The state of the
health of poor peoples; enhancing the livelihoods of poor
environment, therefore, has important implications for
people who depend on natural resources; and reducing the
them. 1 he existence of more productively and sustainably
vulnerability of poor people to environmental risks, such
managed natural resources from which poor people can
as natural disasters.
derive sustenance and income is an important element
in reducing rural poverty.
1.20
Reducing emironmental hazards due to unsafe
water, air pollution, inadequate sanitation and waste
disposal is also central to poverty reduction, particularly in
urban areas Poor people, especially women and children.
are disproportionately affected b\ the health problems
caused by these hazards.They are affected directly through
ill-health, accidents, injury and premature death and
indirectly though the consequent loss of income or their
livelihood
1.2 i
A clear distinction should be made between
Policy implications
1.2-1
The poor arc inherently more vulnerable to
general environmental problems, and a number of specific
environmental problems (for example, indoor air pollution.
soil degradation) affect the poor disproportionately.Two
major conclusions flow from this;
general environmental improvements arc likely to
benefit rhe poor;
policies which address those environmental problems
which affect the poor disproportionately will have a
strong pro-poor impact.
environmental change and environmental degradation.
The Litter is defined in this paper as processes likely to
cause long-term or irreversible damage to livelihoods.
Scope for achieving the international
development target
especially those of poor people.There will always be
National strategics for sustainable development
an element of subjectivity in assessing when change
should be m implementation by 2005 and in place as early
deteriorates to degradation, or indeed where the
as 2<)<i2.The UN conference scheduled for 2002. 10 vears
9
thresholds are foi irreversible damage. But concern for
after the Rio conference, should be used to encourage all
the environment is not incompatible with development.
countries to focus on the target. However, it is not vet
The key is effective planning and management of
agreed what criteria wall be used to assess whether an
environmental change.
effective strategy is in place.The UK and the European
Commission are jointly leading a DAC task force which
1.22
The poor have identified security as one
will, in co-operation w'ith representative developing
of their key concerns. Poor people-are particularly
countries, assist in formulating such criteria. Results from
exposed to sudden natural shocks (for example, floods)
the task force will be available in early 2001. It mav be
and longer term trends of environmental degradation
sensible to formally review the interim target towards the
(for example, declining soil fertility).The resulting
end of 200|, immediately prior to the Rio+10 conference.
vulnerability translates into declining and insecure
Given that most developing countries will have formulated
incomes and the sudden loss or gradual erosion of the
Poverty Reduction Strategies by this stage, it is important
asset base of the poor. Enhancing the security of the
that they reflect sustainability principles.
poor, therefore, has a key role to play in eliminating
poverty. The consideration of environmental issues in
I.2«»
development processes and interventions can help address
applicable to all countries, the indicators to measure trends
current trends of environmental degradation and prevent
in emironmental degradation have been agreed (see
new adverse trends to which the poor are vulnerable.
section 6).There is some uncertainty as to whether the
It can also mitigate against and reduce the impact of
target means adding to environmental resources by 2015 or
extreme and sudden natural shocks.
simply slowing the rate at which such resources are
The target is complex.Although they will not be
,m eiwiroiiiiieut >n<inyy for the If oihl Hank Group: ,i progress report .mil Jis.ihsiou di.il'i. May 2< ><»(>.
Target statement
depleted. Environmental indicators are often difficult and
costly to identify and collect. National trends are generally
more important to countries than global trends.
Aggregation of environmental indicators is very difficult.
But the trends in most individual indicators are negative,
and have been deteriorating for some years. Without
radical changes in the choices that people make, whether
brought about by changes in technology; governance or
other means, current trends in losses will not be reversed
by 2015. Some of the more important changes that could
be made are outlined in this paper.
1.27
Appropriate national and local indicators and
criteria should be developed as part of the process.This
is the approach taken in the UK in our own sustainable
development strategy.Ten ‘headline' indicators" have
been developed which give a broad overview of trends.
A further 150 indicators focus on specific issues and
identifv areas for action.
Links with other targets
1.28
Environmental concerns and issues must be
integrated into development policies and programmes.
It follows that there are close links with the strategies
for meeting other International Development Targets.
There arc obvious svncrgies between the environment and
economic targets, particularly with respect to the potential
opportunities that sound environmental management
presents for sustainable growth These must be explicitly
taken into account when forecasting over a 15-20 vear
time horizon.
1.29
This paper also highlights the importance of
appropriate institutional and governance frameworks
which emphasise transparent and accountable decision
making, coupled with secure property rights, linking to
strategies on gender equality, effective governance and
human rights. Effective environmental management is
crucial to targets for water and sanitation. A healthier and
safer physical and social environment is one of the key
requirements if developing countries arc to attain the
international health targets. Universal primary education
will broaden opportunities for raising environmental
awareness ..nd respect for others.
''The headline indicators relate to the components of sustainable development, i.e. maintaining high and stable levels of economic growth and employment;
social progress which recognises the needs of everyone; effective protection of the environment; and prudent use of natural resources
14
’’.".'D
T200
2. Present position: the challenge
2.2
Introduction
The environment is under threat.The demands
2.1
placed on it to provide resources for human activity and to,
absorb wastes have grown rapidly with rising population
and increasing per capita consumption. Attempts to address
environmental problems have achieved mixed results: Box
2 secs out some of the environmental successes and failures
of the last 30 years. Annex 2 gives brief details of the main
multilateral environment agreements.
Inadequate protection and conservation of the
environment has led to substantial direct and indirect
impacts on health and livelihoods and increased the
vulnerability of poor people throughout the world.
The most pressing environmental problems experienced
vary greatly from region to region, and country to country,
and defy single global solutions. Many environmental
■problems are causing damage far beyond their local sites
of origin; others, such as climate change, constitute a
global threat. In addition, new environmental problems
are emerging. This section considers these problems
Box 2:
Some environmental successes
and failures12
and highlights dominant trends and challenges that
need to be tackled in aiming to meet the International
Development Target.
Successes
□
The Grst international steps — the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and its Kyoto Protocol
- have been taken on global climate change.
□
The public is now much more concerned about environmental issues. Popular movements in many countries are
forcing authorities to make changes.
□
Voluntary action taken by many of the worlds major industries is reducing resource use and eliminating waste.
Increasingly, it is recognised that what is good for the environment can also be good for business.This may do much
to reverse trends for which industry itself was originally largely responsible.
□
Governments in developed regions have been markedly successful in reducing air pollution in many major cities.
c
Deforestation has been halted and reversed in parts of both Europe and North America.
□
Local Agenda 21 initiatives have proved effective in developing and implementing sustainable policies that involve
both communities and political agencies.
□
The ozone layer is expected to have largely recovered within half a century as a result of the Montreal Protocol.
Failures
□
Global emissions of CO? reached anew liigh of nearly 23,900 million tonnes in 1996 - nearly four times the 1950 total.
□
Some 20% of tropical forests was lost from 1960 to 1990.
□
Losses to biodiversity have always occurred as a result of human activity but the process is accelerating more than ever
before.
□
Studies suggest that if present consumption patterns continue, two out of every three persons on Earth will live in
places or countries without adequate water by 2025.
□
More than half the world’s coral reefs are potentially threatened by human activities, with up to 80% at risk in the
most populated areas.
□
Exposure to hazardous chemicals has been implicated in numerous adverse effects on humans from birth defects to
cancer. Global pesticide use results in 3.5—5 million acute poisonings a year.
n
Some 20% of the world’s susceptible drylands are affected by soil degradation, putting the livelihoods of more than
one billion people at risk.
'-Global Environmental Outlook’, 2000, UNEP. September 1999.
DFID -
2000
15
i'ri
.Cl!
!'<?■:
c
by climate change. Around one billion people arc affected
Environment and health
2.3
by problems caused by the use of traditional biomass fuels
Environmental factors arc responsible for almost
(for example, dung, charcoal, crop residues, wood) for
a quarter of all disease in developing countries. The poor,
particularly women and children, are most aflected by
cooking and heating.They are exposed to high levels of
indoor pollution from cooking and heating with
environmental health problems.The most important
inefficient fuels in poorly ventilated areas. Estimatesis
hazard, particularly for urban populations in developing
suggest that indoor air pollution contributes to acute
countries, is faecal contamination of water and food
respiratory infections that kill some four million infants
due to poor or non-existent excreta disposal systems
and children a year and decreases the overall health and
and inadequate hygiene, compounded by unreliable and
life expectancy of millions more women and children.
unsafe domestic water supply15. As indicated m Table 1,
The World Health Organisation (WHO) has declared
approximately 90% of the burden of diarrhoeal disease
indoor air pollution one of the four main risk factors
is attributable to environmental factors. Improving
for ill-health globally, and a major maternal and child
access to clean water and sanitation is the most
health problem in the developing world.
significant environmental priority for the poor
in developing countries.
2.5
Table 1. Environment and the burden of disease14
In many newly and rapidly industrialising regions
of the world, urban populations are in double jeopardy,
facing traditional environmental health problems as well
as emerging problems associated with industrial pollution
and economic growth. In Bangkok alone, the annual cost
.!(W
116,696
Acute respiratory infections
99,633
Diarrhoeal diseases
;•
60
90
of air and water pollution is estimated at $2 billion16.
Inefficient collection, storage and disposal of municipal
and hazardous wastes results in the spread of disease and
localised pollution. Rural populations also suffer exposure
Vaccine preventable diseases
71,173
10
Tuberculosis
38,426
10
Malaria
31,706
90
Unintentional injuries
152,188
30
million agricultural workers may be poisoned each year,
Intentional injuries
56,459
n.e.
and hundreds of thousands die17
Mental health
144,950
10
Cardio-vascular disease
133,236
10
Cancer
70,513
25
Environment and livelihoods
Chronic respiratory diseases
60,370
.50
2.6
Total diseases
975,350 ■
33
livelihoods of the rural poor in developing countries is soil
Other diseases
403,888
n.e.
degradation, estimated to affect some 1.9 billion hectares
1,379,238
23
of land globally and the livelihoods of more than one
Total all diseases
’’This equates to the full years ot lite lost as a result of disease, including
an adjustment for the effects of disability.
n.e. - not estimated
2.4
There arc other significant hazards. Ninety per
to hazardous chemicals. Poor farmers and farm workers
often use pesticides without training or protective clothing
and arc often unable to read instructions. As many as 25
One of the mam environmental threats to the
billion people. Many of the areas in which the rural poor
live are fragile and can easily be rendered non-viable by
small changes in their ecology.
2.7
Deforestation continues at high rates in certain
cent of the global burden of malaria, which is estimated to
developing countries. As a result, communities are often
kill one in twenty children under five years of age in sub-
deprived of valuable forest resources such as wood
Saharan Africa, is attributable to environmental factors.The
products, food and medicine.This is in addition to the
spread of diseases such as malaria will also be exacerbated
serious impact on nutrient recycling, soil stabilisation and
Proposals for dealing with this issue are set out in rhe companion DFID paper on Addressing the ivater crisis: healthier and more productive Hues for peer people.
'The global burden oj disease: a comprehensive assessment of mortality and disability from diseases, injuries and risk factors in 1990 and projected to 2020. Harvard School
of Public Health. Murray CJL Lopez AD. eds, 1996.
''Rural energy and development: improving energy supplies for 2 billion people. Work! Bank. 1996.
'The environment in rimes of crisis:Asia and donors after the 1997 financial crisis, Peter Dauvergne, AusAID.
Human Development Report. 1998, UNDP.
DFID - October 2000
Present position the challenge
local and global climate change. Degradation of coastal
has tripled when compared with the 1960s, while the rate
areas is leading to the destruction of ecosystems, such as
of economic losses associated with them has increased by
mangroves and coral reefs, which arc important for the
a factor of almost nine during the same period18.The
sustainability of fish stocks and coastal protection. One of
frequency and severity of extreme weather events is likely
the worlds greatest ecological disasters is the drying up of
to increase as a result of climate change. Natural disasters
the Aral Sea in Central Asia as a result of centrally planned,
now have a far greater and disproportionate impact upon
poorly conceived irrigation schemes.
the poor, because a growing proportion of them live and
work in places that are more vulnerable to disasters.
2.8
Biodiversity losses arc increasing as a result
In its annual report, the Red Cross estimates that 1998
of both natural and human phenomena. Some of the
was the first year in which the number of refugees from
highest rates of change arc in developing countries.
natural disasters exceeded those displaced as a result of war.
Rapidly growing populations are placing ever greater
Environmental stress alone rarely leads directly to conflict.
demands on ecosystems as are increases in natural,
It usually contributes indirectly to conditions - political,
resource-based exports.
social or economic - in society which result in, or
exacerbate, conflict. However, environmental degradation
2.9
Almost all population growth in the world is
currently taking place in areas where freshwater is in short
supply. Increasing demand threatens the quantity, reliability
and quality of water supplies Over-abstraction of surface
can escalate into violence. Examples include severe water
shortages, widespread desertification, health-threatening
toxic contamination, and refugee flight from
environmental wastelands.
waters and groundwater is common, river flows arc often
drastically reduced. Problems include falling water tables,
vegetation and habitat loss, siltation, subsidence and salt
Regional environmental problems
water intrusion in coastal aquifers.The problems arc
compounded by pollution of ground water and surface
waters.This further constrains water use options, can
create or worsen health problems and leads to additional
degradation of river and lake ecosystems.
2.11
The wide range of environmental problems
occurring throughout the world is testament to the
complexity of the interactions taking place between
human populations and their environment. Although there
arc many recurring themes, experience has shown that
there are few, if any, solutions that will work everywhere.
Environment and vulnerability
2.10
Poor people are vulnerable to the effects of natural
disasters and the impact of conflict on their lives.The
Solutions need to be carefully tailored to the specific
circumstances of the country or region if they are
to be sustainable.
number of major natural catastrophes over the past decade
Box 3:
Regional environmental problems
Africa
Major environmental problems include deforestation, soil degradation and desertification, declining biodiversity and marine
resources, and deteriorating water and air quality. Land degradation is a key factor in constraining food production to levels
below the current average rate of population increase. Sixty -five per cent of agricultural land in Africa has been affected by
soil degradation since 1950. Crop yields in Africa could be halved within 40 years if degradation of cultivated land continues
at present rates. Fourteen countries are subject to water stress or water scarcity, and a further eleven countries will join them
by 2025. Urbanisation is an emerging issue in Africa, and is associated with various environmental health threats.
Asia
High population densities, economic growth and industrialisation are serious environmental challenges. Land degradation
is, again, a key issue. In India, for example, 27% of the soil has been affected by' severe erosion. In Pakistan, salinisation from
irrigation has reduced crop yields by 30%. Increasing habitat fragmentation has depleted the wide variety of forest products
used as an important source of food, medicine and income for indigenous pcople.The forest fires in South-East Asia in
1997-98 caused extensive environmental damage, and an estimated health cost of SI.4 billion. Water supply is a serious
'>Enicr^iin> ciivir.uiiiicin.il issues, paper presented to the UNEP Ministerial Special Session, Malmo, 29-31 Mav 2000.
DFID - October 2000
17
Present pos^-on: the cha'.ienge
problem, and freshwater availability will become a significant constraint. Many rural fishing conununities are threatened
by the degradation of coastal habitats and the spread of unsustainable aquaculture practices.
Latin America
There are two major environmental problems. The first is the lack of effective environmental planning in urban areas,
where 75% of the population now live. This has led to poor environmental health, ineffective solid waste management,
disposal and air pollution, exacerbated by overcrowding and insanitary conditions.The second is the depletion
and destruction of forests in the Amazon basin, and biodiversity held within them. Latin America contains almost 70% of
the worlds tropical rain forests. Natural forest cover is decreasing at over 1% a year. This is a major threat to biodiversity
and also contributes to global warming. The region is also prone to natural disasters, most recently Hurricane Mitch in
Honduras in 1998 and the flooding in Venezuela at the end of 1999.
Central and Eastern Europe and Central Asia
This region has an enormously costly environmental legacy, and is home to many of the world’s biggest environmental
disasters. Many of these problems are of national significance and affect both the health and livelihoods of the poor, as
well as impeding future econonuc growth and foreign investment.The Chernobyl disaster in Ukraine in 1986 led to
an estimated 500,000 people being exposed to health threatening levels of radiation. Numerous other incidents and
nuclear trials have also led to large numbers of people being exposed to unacceptable radiation levels. Industrial
pollution, although decreasing as a result of industrial decline, remains widespread, and in many cases threatens
public health. Public environmental infrastructure is often inefficiently managed. At the same time, new problems are
emerging — growing solid waste problems due to changing consumption patterns, rapid increases in urban transport
leading to increased urban air pollution and uncontrolled development in urban areas without proper environmental
infrastructure. As a result, levels of air, soil and water pollution in many urban areas are above levels recognised to be safe.
I
Small island states
The economies of small island states are highly dependent on the natural and physical environment.They are vulnerable
to natural and environmental disasters and have limited capacity to respond and recover. Low-lying islands (for example,
Tuvalu, Maldives) are at risk from sea-level rise as a result of climate change. Mountainous islands are susceptible to
inappropriate conversion of steep slope forests for agriculture with consequent soil erosion, landslides, damage to
infrastructure, flooding of coastal areas, sedimentation of coral reefs and general degradation of fragile coastal
environmental resources on which some of the poorest communities depend for their livelihoods.The widespread use of
agricultural chemicals particularly in mono-crop production systems (for example, bananas, sugar) is a significant source
of pollution with measurable impacts on water quality for human consumption and recreation, as well as on coral reefs
and fisheries.Tourism depends on healthy coastal environmental resources and marine biodiversity, but itself contributes
to environmental degradation.
Western Europe and North America
Until very recently, this region suffered many environmental threats associated with industrialisation and the
unsustainable use of natural resources. While many of these threats have now been reduced, new environmental threats
are emerging. Road transport is now the main source of urban air pollution, while emissions of other pollutants are still
rising. Per capita energy use is among the highest in the world. Stocks of some commercial fish have declined or
collapsed.There are concerns about exposure to pesticides and other toxic chemicals, food hygiene and the use of
genetically modified organisms. Important decisions need to be made that will determine whether the economic activity
and patterns of production and consumption of the region will become more sustainable.
18
Dr ID - October 2000
Present position: the challenge
Trans-boundary and emerging
environmental problems in the
21st century
2.12
Environmental problems do not respect national
boundaries Conflict over access to shared water resources
is growing in many regions of the world Air pollution
from one country can lead to environmental health
impacts in another. Persistent organic pollutants used
in one country can have effects in countries thousands
of miles awav.
*
2.13
The emission of substances that cause
stratospheric ozone depiction is another important
example of a trans-boundary environmental problem
The production and release of ozone depleting substances
from China can cause skin cancer in Latin America and
Australasia. Action to address damage to the ozone layer
through the Montreal Protocol was one of the first
concerted international efforts to protect the environment
and is seen as a model for other global environmental
problems Gradual phasing out of technology which
produces or uses ozone depleting substances has led to
some improvement in the condition of the ozone layer,
but continued enforcement of the Protocol is vital for
the problem to be controlled.
2.14
Climate change is the quintessential global
environmental problem. It is immaterial from where a ton
of CO’ is released into the atmosphere. Its effect on global
warming will be the same. Consequently, changes in
climate can onlv be dealt with bv global agreement. The
objective of the Kyoto Protocol to the UN Framework
Convention on Climate Change is that developed
countries and countries in transition should collectively
reduce their greenhouse gas emissions by 5% below 1990
levels by 2008-2012.
2.15
The impact of ch mate change is likely to
constitute one of the biggest global environmental
problems for the 21s' century. Despite the progress made so
far through international negotiations much more action is
needed if atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases
are to be stabilised at an acceptable level.The effects of
climate change are uncertain and are likely to vary greatly
between regions. Rainfall is likely to become less
predictable and extreme weather patterns more common.
Rising sea levels could threaten the lives of millions, with
Bangladesh estimated to lose 17% of its land area and
Egypt 12% from a one metre rise in sea level19.The overall
impact of a doubling of CO’ in the atmosphere would be
to reduce the GDP of developing countries by an
estimated 2-9%, compared with 1-1.5% for industrial
economies- .
2.16
Genetic modification technologies demonstrate
how rhe latest technology can offer potentially very
important benefits for the poor and yet also pose
environmental risks which require careful appraisal and
control. Potential benefits for people and the environment
include increased food security and employment; less use
of pesticides; and improved yields and nutrition.The
Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations
(FAO) estimates that to meet the needs of a projected
world population of eight billion or more m 2020, food
production will have to double. Whether that can be
achieved with conventional agricultural technologies
is uncertain.
2.17
There is not much understanding of the possible
environmental consequences of widespread release and use
of genetically modified organisms (GMOs). An agreement
on biosafety was negotiated in Montreal in January 2000.
It will give developing countries the legal ability to take
decisions about whether to import GMOs that may affect
their biodiversity. In working through its implications, it
will be essential to support developing countries in
building their practical capacity to take such decisions.
2.18
World trade flows are growing rapidly and global
production patterns are shifting as countries develop
sectors m which they have a comparative advantage.
Increased economic growth is often necessary to provide
the resources for improved environmental management.
There are reasonable concerns that without the
implementation of appropriate environmental policies
in all countries, trade liberalisation could lead to
environmental damage.This is likely to be a problem
in countries where environmental legislation and policy
is not a priority or well enforced. Several countries
are undertaking sustainability and environmental impact
assessments of trade liberalisation in order to inform future
discussions and negotiations.There is no strong evidence
that environmental standards are being reduced to attract
foreign investment, but there is a good deal of evidence
that local capacities to monitor and manage the
environment are often inadequate.
'’Human development report. UNDP. 1998.
■^’Pearce, D., and others. 1996. The social costs of climate change. In Climate Change, 1995, Economic and Social dimensions of Climate Change: Contribution of
Working Croup III to the Second assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
DFID - October 2000
19
Present position: the cha'ienge
□
In most cases, the environmental impacts of trade
2.19
externalities: when a producer can shift the effects
liberalisation are best dealt with by environmental policies.
of pollution to others, there is little incentive to
With some important exceptions, particularly the few
limit pollution;
□
multilateral environment agreements which provide for
uncertainty: our knowledge of many ecological
trade sanctions to secure enforcement, there is no provision
processes and our effect on them is very poor and
for, and it is not desirable to use, trade measures to protect
may never be reliable;
the environment. Equally, it is a mistake to argue against
□
further liberalisation on environmental grounds.
Marginalising poor countries from the benefits of global
society and pursue activities whose returns are higher
’
in the short run, but lower m the long run, than more
trade and investment will not prevent environmental
degradation and will alienate developing countries
myopia: individuals have shorter time spans than
sustainable alternatives;
□
irreversibility: some kinds of ecological damage are
from negotiations on global environmental issues. Rather,
irreversible, but many decision-making processes
the challenge of globalisation is that it intensifies the need
undervalue this loss of options.
for better enforcement of appropriate environmental
policies at the national level Developing countries need
2.22
to be able to harness the gains from increased trade at
national or local in scope and solution, but their
the same time as ensuring sound management of their
complexity still poses major challenges. For example,
environmental resources.
soil erosion has causes and effects across space, time and
Some environmental problems are essentially
people. It links to water management.The actions of those
upstream impose soil problems on those downstream, who
The causes of environmental degradation
2.20
For more than a decade, high priority has been
cannot charge or sue those upstream for damage due to
lack of property rights and clarity over fault and causality.
accorded to the environment by countries for domestic
While many local or national problems are
policy and development assistance. But actual practice has
2.23
fallen short of aspirations - opportunities for improved
theoretically soluble, global environmental problems
environmental management
continue to be missed, and
J
are more intractable. Individual countries lack incentives
environmental degradation continues. Major
to act on global problems because they cannot capture
environmental problems are rarely the result of a few
all the rewards. Neither markets nor national laws fullv
large, bad projects, but rather the cumulative effects of
reflect the value of global public goods. Only international
many small decisions taken separately by millions of
agreements can fully protect them. But such agreements
individuals. It is important to understand both immediate
arc hard to negotiate and implement for several reasons.
and underlying causes.The immediate cause - pollution
It has to be generally accepted that inaction risks high
by an inefficient factory, reduced tree cover leading to
costs and that the technology and institutional ability to
soil degradation - is generally evident and measurable.
find cost-effective and environmentally benign solutions
But the underlying reasons are usually a complex of
to the problem exist. All parties with significant roles
social, economic and political factors.They can be
to play in the solution or who bear the costs of the
categorised as market failure, unsustainable consumption.
solution must.be engaged in the attempt.
k
or poor and ineffective governance.
The effect of patterns of consumption
on the environment
Market failure
2.21
Some of the most obvious market failures are
as follows21:
2.24
On a global and national level, the poor are not
usually the major cause of environmental degradation.
They consume too little, contribute little to pollution and
ei
insecure ownership and open access to resources: this
waste, and have too little access to soils, forests, fisheries
makes it unclear who has the right to benefit from a
and freshwater to be a major source of degradation. In
resource or who has the right to protect or pollute
some instances, however, they contribute to environmental
it. It may also lead to inadequate investment in
degradation, for example, the cutting down of forests in
maintaining the quality of the resource;
north-western Brazil.This is generally due to a
-'Panayocou.T. 77i<- etviMiiiifS <>/ eurihninicin.il
20
piohlems, niusc< iind responses, 14111) Discussion Paper no. 355. Boston. April 1990.
DFID - October 2000
Present position' the challenge
combination of lack of access to land in less fragile
as the- next generation. Poor people’s aspirations are rarely
environments, open access to these environments,
expressed as being‘environmental’, but many of their
population pressure and poorly designed property rights
problems have underlying environmental causes. Full
which requires land clearance to establish ownership.
participation in decision-making of all affected interests
The solution involves tackling these issues directly.
is generally seen as the necessary response to this dilemma.
However, it is necessary but not sufficient. Stakeholder
2.25
Production for. and consumption by, the
consultation can often generate tension and disagreement
non-poor is responsible for the bulk of environmental
It needs to be buttressed by transparent mechanisms to
degradation.Their consumption is not a bad thing in itself.
resolve disputes and consequently often needs to be
A higher level of personal consumption is one of the main
accompanied by institutional reform.23
objectives of economic development. But high levels of
consumption of goods and services made in ways which
2.33
place intensive pressure on environmental resources
world's peoples, but much government policy has been
can give rise to irreversible damage.The kev issue is to
neither economically nor environmentally efficient. Where
separate consumption from the resources it requires and
corruption subverts rhe public interest, both livelihoods
the pollution it generates.This can be achieved in part by
and the environment suffer. Reforms of the last two
technical progress. For example the amount of energy used
decades around the world have brought markets back
per unit of GDP has fallen dramatically in the last 20 years.
into many areas of policy and public provision, reducing
Good governance can improve the lives of the
subsidies and bringing prices closer to their true economic
2.30
One way to encourage both technical progress
and switching by consumers to more environmental^
(including environmental) cost But removal of subsidies
faces stiff opposition from vested interests, often w ith
I
benign products is to use correct prices, i.e. if the market
strong political influence.The effects may also hurt the
failures identified in the preceding section can be remedied
poor before improvements are seen.
so that the prices of goods reflect their full economic costs
Some environmental problems have been
of production together with their social and environmental
2.3-1
costs22. Consumers generally reduce their consumption of
inadequately identified - so the situation has become
goods and services whose prices increase
difficult to resolve even before they have been noticed.
In some cases scientific progress has allowed detection
2.3 1
While technical progress can achieve much, there
of the problem. But even then, the lack of systematic
still may be a volume effect if technical progress is not fast
monitoring of clearly defined environmental
enough to keep pace with increasing demand.Thus the
indicators means that linkages between policies
energy efficiency of motor vehicles may have increased
and environmental impact are not recognised.
significantly, but the number of vehicles owned and
The consequences of environmental degradation
kilometres driven has also increased enormously.Thus the
arc often dealt with, but with little consideration .
UK continues to emit almost five times as much CO? per
of the underlying causes. As a result, people
capita than the developing country average - despite the
systematically under-value the environment.
UK’s much higher energy efficiency.
2.35
There is usually no institutional home in
governments for cross-sectoral environmental concerns.
Poor and ineffective governance
It is not sufficient to establish dedicated environmental
2.32
institutions-or programmes. Successful action requires
Future generations are key stakeholders in the
environment, but have no voice in today’s decisions.
awareness and mainstreaming throughout government.
Similarly poor people often suffer from the worst
This is very difficult to achieve and progress is slow.
environments, and also have little or no voice in decisions
Most environmental ministries in developing countries
which affect them.The real difficulty in harnessing and
have low7 status in the administration, are under-funded
protecting the environment has been to reconcile the
and need more skilled staff and facilities.They lack
diverse interests and demands of people alive today as well
the political weight, authority and legal power to
"It is possible For example, Singapore has dealt decisively with the issue of traffic congestion. It can easily cost around £\ 1,000 to obtain a permit which allow
the purchase of a car. In addition, a tax is levied electronically on drivers travelling on busy roads at rush hours.The result is a’rapid flow of traffic - around 60
km per hour even during rush hours.
-'Tor example, in relation to issues dealing with land ownership and tenancy reforms, many politicians are land owners and are reluctant to promote reform.
C’fiT - October 2000
21
Present pos.tion: the challenge
enforce compliance with environmental regulations-or
2.36
Mainstreaming the environment into national
to influence other ministries. Environmental policies have
• development planning processes faces a number of other
often been developed in response to pressure from donors
challenges including the need for transparent government
or international agreements.They have failed to capture
%
the complexities of the pressures on environmental
frameworks; addressing the power of vested interests;
resources. Governments in some developing countries
environmental priorities and concerns; developing the
tend to see environmental issues, especially at the global
capacity of statistical departments and economic planners
level, as an agenda dominated by the North, and as a
to value the environment to be able to measure impacts,
hindrance to economic growth.
change and internalise environmental costs and benefits.
22
developing the capacity of planning systems to incorporate
C- D - October 2000
3. Experience to date
Experience within poor countries
Box 4:
Experience of the poor in achieving
Access and control: Nepal-UK
Community Forestry Project (NUKCFP)24
sustainable livelihoods
3.1
While the poor arc not usually a major cause
The 1993 Nepal Forest Act gave legal authority to
of environmental degradation, they are usually the
forest user groups (FUGs) to manage forest areas in the
most vulnerable to such changes. Much can therefore
hills of Nepal. Land ownership remains vested with
be learned from the way they address these problems.
government but FUGs legally own the trees, develop
their own management plans, set prices for forest
The poor need security of access
outputs and determine how surplus income is
to natural resources
spent. NUKCFP, covering a sixth of all hill districts,
Weak and ill-defined security of tenure typically
has supported capacity-building to implement this
results in the poor being denied access to resources.This
legislation within the Forestry Department, non
increases their vulnerability. For example, poor rural
governmental organisations (NGOs) and FUGs.
women are often more vulnerable to environmental
Surveys show that forest quality is improving in nearly
degradation because of existing gender inequalities in
all forest areas under FUG management, although it is
access to land, and to natural and productive resources.
still deteriorating in all other forest areas as pressure
When the poor have no ownership of a resource, there
transfers from the protected to the unprotected forest.
is little or no incentive for them to use it in a sustainable
Gains for the poorest include greater access to forest
manner.Top-down approaches directed towards the
resources, although if the FUG is dominated by local
protection and preservation of natural and physical
elites, the poor can still lose out.
A.
3.2
resources, which have regarded people as part of
the problem rather than part of the solution, have
usually failed.
3.4
Experience has not always been positive. Not
all stakeholders have compatible objectives and there are
different degrees of power and influence.This can lead
3.3
A more people-centred approach is required.
Efforts have been made to promote the active involvement
of local communities in the management of natural
resources, with many successes. One example
of combining poverty elimination and reducing
environmental degradation is community
forestry in Nepal.
to conflicts over the use of shared resources or when
certain groups are left out of the decision-making process.
Inward migration also brings problems for community
management as outsiders contest access to resources.
Much remains to be learned about the key issues which
underpin the effectiveness and equity of community-based
management structures. In many instances, it has proved
difficult for communities to self-regulate resources,
without the involvement of other independent
stakeholders, such as non-governmental organisations
or government authorities.
-'Community forestry in X'cpal impacts on common property resource management, Springate-Baginski O et al, 1998; Changes in communityforestry conditions and
management 1994-98: analysis of information for the forest resource assessment study and socio-economic study of the Kosht hills, Branney P and Yadav K (1998)
DFID - October 2000
23
Experience to date
*
Box 5:
Box 6:
Community-managed wells in Mali25
Improving waste management services
in Egypt26
The Macina wells project was a response to the
Sahelian' drought of 1984—1985. Its aim was to
In many rural and urban areas of Egypt there is little
improve and extend water and sanitation provision
effective waste management, and refuse piles up in
through construction of wells and public health
streets causing health hazards
and impeding access.The
9
education. A community management approach
poor in Egypt consistently identify waste management
was adopted, involving the allocation of tasks to
as one of their major environmental priorities.
water management teams.The gender division of
Discussions with the urban poor living in Sohag in
responsibilities within the project was such that older
southern Egypt revealed the price they would be
men with authority were appointed as well caretakers
willing to pay for improved waste services.Through
and women as cleaners. Women were also given
working with existing community-based organisations
minimal influence over project planning and excluded
and groups, low-cost waste collection, transfer and
from technical aspects of the project and decision
disposal services were developed in a pilot district in
making responsibilities.
Sohag. The provision of these services significantly
The result was that both men’s and women’s work
improved waste collection, with benefits for over
was substandard.The caretakers were seldom on site
100,000 people. Due to popular demand, the
and well maintenance was poor. Women tried to avoid
improved waste collection services were extended
well cleaning which they saw as an added burden.
to other districts on a cost recovery basis.
They were also unwilling to co-operate with the rules
set by the men, which they thought impractical and
3.6
illogical. Men lacked any incentive to undertake their
unable to meet the full cost of a service. For example,
work- since water provisioning and sanitation were
viewed as ‘women’s work’.
However, consumers are often unwilling or
while people are willing to pay a market price for the
I
provision of drinking water, they are often unwilling
to pay for wastewater treatment. Private companies are
'
B.
3.5
therefore willing to extend piped water supplies because
The poor are readier than might
the costs can be recovered, but will not provide sanitation.
be expected to contribute to
Yet increasing water supply without treating and disposing
environmental services
of wastewater can exacerbate environmental health
The success or failure of programmes to improve
problems. Part of the answer lies in better health
the provision of environmental services (such as water
education. It.is usually important to ensure that the poor
supply, sanitation and waste management) depends on
pay for at least the operating cost of the service, to ensure
consumer demand. In some cases, this means seeing
financial sustainability. However, there may be a case for
what the poor are doing already and then supporting
subsidising part of the capital investment consistent with
them.The poor are willing and able to pay for a service
other calls on the governments budget.
they value and need.
C.
The poor should be helped to improve
existing livelihoods
3.7
It is important to help the poor improve the
sustainability of their existing livelihoods, rather than
encouraging them to adopt completely new practices,
unless this is the only practicable alternative. Sustainable
poverty reduction is achievable only if external support
focuses on what matters to people’s lives, understands the
differences between people and works with them in a way
that is consistent with their current livelihood strategies,
^Integrating gender into environment research and policy,Joekes et al, IDS Working Paper 27, Brighton, 1996.
Support to environmental assessment and management - Phase II, DFID.
24
DFID - October 2000
Experience to date
social environments and their own ability to adapt. Box 7
Box 8:
shows an approach that has been successful, while Box 8
Livelihoods and sustainability
in coastal Kerala28
illustrates some of the difficulties.
Box 7:
Prunus harvesting on Mount Cameroon27
Fluctuations in fish stocks, intensification of fishing
as well as changes in fishing methods have led to
concerns about the sustainability of the coastal
People living on Mount Cameroon depend for
environment and the livelihoods of fishing
their livelihoods on the use of forest resources.
communities in Kerala, India. Environmental health
The forests on Mount Cameroon are some of the
issues are also a major problem in the densely
most biologically rich in Africa. One of the key
populated villages of coastal fishing communities.
environmental threats on Mount Cameroon was the
Attempts to reform the fisheries sector to strengthen
unsustainable exploitation of the tree Prunus Africana,
livelihoods have centred on the at-sea activities of
(the bark of which is used as the source of products
men, with loans, extension and new technology aimed
to treat prostate gland disorders).The high level of
at small-scale fishermen. Women’s involvement in
extraction by several hundred harvesters threatened to
environmental concerns has largely been viewed in
destroy the trees and reduced the price for which the
terms of their reproductive activities within the
bark could be sold to an international pharmaceuticals
villages. The activities of women fish-traders selling
firm. Initially the project tried to identify alternative
at local markets have gained less attention.Yet the
livelihoods for the harvesters, but this approach failed.
women’s incomes are adversely affected by the
The project then assisted the local community to
diminishing quantity and quality of fish available for
establish a Prunus Harvesters’ Union. In its first year
them to sell as a result of overfishing.The women’s
of operation, the union tripled annual revenues to
interests in environmental sustainability are closely
USS40,000 from the collection of Prunus bark sold to
linked with their trading activities, even though they
the pharmaceutical company Plantecam. Of this, about
are not directly involved with catching fish.
USS36,000 was distributed among the 60 involved
harvesters on a pro-rata basis according to the amount
they individually harvested, and US$2,500 was used to
install the community’s first pipe-borne water supply.
D.
sustainable use and conservation
The pharmaceutical company now purchases bark
of biodiversity
directly from the Union, which has an incentive to
harvest the bark sustainablv.
Livelihoods can be improved by linking
3.8
Preventing biodiversity loss helps increase the
resilience and productivity of ecosystems over a range of
environmental conditions.This underpins the security of
livelihoods of poor people who rely on natural resources.
However, conservation through the rigid enforcement of
protected areas has often proved ineffective in preventing
the loss of biodiversity. Poor local communities denied
access to such areas have little incentive to support
protected area regulations or employ their local knowledge
of the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity.
Common problems are illegal harvesting, poaching or
encroachment in the conservation area itself and increased
degradation of resources in the surrounding areas. The
development of community-based management systems,
which involve the active participation of local people, has
tried to ensure that they benefit more directly from the
conservation of biodiversity.Two DFID projects in
Tanzania are addressing natural resource management
27Participatory biodiversity conservation — rethinking the strategy in loiv tourist potential areas of tropical Africa, Brown 1998; Prunus Africana: striving for sustainable and
equitable resource management in Cameroon, Acworth J and Ewnsi, B (1999).
^Globalisation and fishing livelihoods in South Asia. Hodges. N. Unpublished dissertation. 1999, IDS. Brighton.
DFID - October 2000
25
Experience to date
issues through institutional change to reduce poverty.
Box 9:
One at Mbomipa has established an effective wildlife and
Stopping environmentally damaging
activities by the non-poor in Sri Lanka
natural resource management system under community
control.The other has developed local capacity to manage
The RITICOE project in Sri Lanka sought to protect
the Usangu wetland by reducing conflicts over aquatic
biodiversity in the important natural sanctuary of
resources, improving overall water use efficiency and
Rittigala and increase livelihoods for households near
reducing threats to the bio-divyrsity upon which
the sanctuary. Collective management initiatives were
livelihoods are dependent.
started by the local Buddhist priest to limit open
access to the forest and medicinal plants. However,
while these had some success, it soon became clear
E.
3.9
Controls are needed on environmentally
that most of the illegal logging was being done by
damaging activities by the non-poor
non-poor‘outsiders’, which the local households were
The poor may be powerless to prevent damaging
powerless to stop. With donor assistance, Enks between
activities by the non-poor. For example, small-scale coastal
the neighbouring villages and the Department of
fisheries are often destroyed by large trawlers, or locally
WilcUife were developed so that the viUagers were
organised forest users may be undermined by illegal
able to inform the Department of WildEfe to enable
commercial loggers.The poor may be forced on to
it to take action against illegal logging.
marginal lands if most land is controlled by large farms,
as in Central America and some parts of Africa. It is often
impossible to help the poor tackle the degradation of
their environmental resource base without considering
Civil society experience
the impacts of the non-poor Efforts that, are focused
A.
Civil society can be an effective lobby ...
solely upon assisting the poor may, therefore, fail to
3.12
Civil society has been a powerful voice in the
improve the management of the environment.
developed world for raising awareness of environmental
issues and campaigning for action to address them.
3.10
International efforts can help The International
Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) in developing
Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries is a voluntary
countries have taken the lead within civil society on the
code, developed and promoted by the FAO, which sets
environment. While there has been a large growth in
out principles and international standards of behaviour to
rhe number of environmental NGOs in poorer countries,
ensure effective and equitable conservation, management
their impact to date has often been localised and their
and development of aquatic resources.The Code has been
memberships quite small. In the past, many international
agreed by all member states of the FAO and has an
NGOs regarded the poor as the cause of environmental
important contribution to make to the development
degradation, rather than an integral part of the solution.
of policy for sustainable fisheries. DFID is providing
However, this is now changing.
£24 million to a number ofWest African countries
over the next five years in support of the Code.
3.13
NGOs have other strengths such as the formation
of partnerships for cost-effective delivery of services,
3.11
Political support to address these inequalities is
particularly to the poor; raising awareness through support
often necessary.This can be illustrated by the co-operation
for effective environmental education programmes in both
between government and local communities to stop
formal and non-formal education; forming international
environmental degradation. However, while governments
alliances; and building political will.This last strength is
may introduce new environmental laws and regulations
particularly important, since gains from resource extraction
that protect the interests of the poor, implementation
often accrue to a few powerful companies or individuals,
and enforcement is variable and frequently low.
while the benefits of environmental protection are
dispersed among large numbers of people.
3.14
It is important that NGOs show the responsibility
to go with their new-found power.They need to pick the
right issues, to represent the facts accurately, be responsible
to international civil societies and to the real needs of
poor countries.
26
DFID - October 20CC
Experience to date
B
3.15
... and can raise environmental awareness
more generally
are principally responsible for multilateral environment.
Civil society groups have been particularly
environmental laws and regulations, and for contributing
agreements, for drafting and enforcing national
effective in raising environmental awareness and holding
to the development planning process - usually through
government and the private sector accountable for
managing environmental impact assessments. However,
environmental improvements.The media in many
the effectiveness of the majority of environmental
developing countries (for example.Thailand and the
ministries or agencies remains limited. It is thus important
Philippines) have been active in publicising environmental
to ensure that older, more powerful ministries are also
damage, often caused by state institutions. Interest groups
strengthened to handle environmental concerns.
have formed to monitor government and corporations and
have lobbied for change when performance is below the
3.19
expected environmental standards. In India, the Supreme
environmental responsibilities within their overall mandate.
Court became involved in monitoring progress towards
Often these responsibilities can result in conflicts between
environmental improvement following protests by public
their efforts to promote productive activities, and to
interest groups. In Indonesia, the state environmental
ensure that such production is sustainable in the longer
agency allocated a mark to large industries based on
term. For example, fishery agencies are responsible for
their environmental performance. Community groups then
both increasing fish production and protecting fish stocks.
put pressure on the worst polluters to improve29.
In those instances where institutions share responsibilities
Typically, other government authorities have
for both production and self-regulation, it is the latter
function which is usually weak, under-resourced and
Governmental experience
3.16
often poorly implemented.
Governments in countries throughout the world
Decentralisation is occurring m a number of
have taken actions to enhance the quality of the
3.20
environment in a number of different wavs The foliowine;
developing countries, especially in Africa and Latin
sections summarise the key lessons learned from actions
America. It has had a varying impact on environmental
taken by governments in poor countries to address
management. Typically, the transfer of environmental
environmental degradation.
responsibilities to districts and municipalities has occurred
without a concurrent transfer in resources or powers.
A.
3.17
Clear administrative responsibilities
For it to be effective, there is a need for environmental
are needed
management to be devolved to the lowest appropriate
Arrangements for managing the environment
level and for communities to be empowered to manage
are often confused, with responsibilities shared between
the resources on which they rely.
various government ministries or agencies. While there
■is no clear blueprint for institutional reform, many
B.
Environmental policies and plans can be
useful but only if certain criteria arc met
countries have been improving their institutional and legal
The majority of governments in poorer countries
framework. One strategy has been to focus on a resource
3.21
based approach with a new legal framework created to
have environmental policies and plans. However, their
encourage participation, a holistic view of the resource
preparation was frequently donor initiated. In the early
and clearer property rights. For example, the 1992
1990s, the World Conservation Union promoted the
National Water Act in Mexico enshrines the principles
preparation of national conservation strategies in a number
of decentralisation, user participation, and the introduction
of countries. At the same time, the World Bank supported
of private concessions. New institutions have also been
the preparation of national environmental action plans (in
established to manage particular resources. Indonesia has
many countries (including a number which had, or were
established new river basin authorities to manage
preparing conservation strategies).There has been much
watersheds, and a number of other countries are setting
debate about their effectiveness and impact. While many
up water councils to handle issues of water allocation.
strategies and plans have not led to different approaches, a
number have been influential.
3.18
Many countries have recently created or
strengthened environmental ministries or agencies, which
*The PROPER, programme began in early 1995 in Indonesia — the acronym standing for Programme for Pollution Control, Evaluation and Rating.
DFID - October 2000
27
’Experience to date
Box 10: Some benefits of national and provincial
environmental strategies30
Environmental laws and regulations should
C.
be made more relevant and effective
3.23
Botswana The National Conservation Strategy
(NCS) led to the establishment of a National
Conservation Strategy' Advisory Board and Co
ordination Agency’. Environmental impact assessment
procedures were introduced into national planning
and development. Application of these procedures
had a major impact on development decisions.
The introduction of pollution-related
environmental laws and regulations is relatively recent,
even in many developed countries.. Many of the
environmental laws and regulations in place in developing
countries were based on a ‘command-and-control’
approach. Often these have not been implemented
effectively, as government institutions lacked the powers
and resources to enforce them. In addition, they frequently
did not take account of the views and rights of other
Nepal The NCS led to the creation of an inter
stakeholders, in particular the poor.
sectoral network of senior governmental officials
from 20 ministries and departments.This group acted
3.24
as a catalyst for introducing environmental assessment
requiring environmental impact assessments for projects.
procedures, and the establishment of environmental
As in developed countries, this process is of varying
units within key government sectors.
effectiveness and impact. Key’ factors influencing success
Nicaragua A highly participatory process was used
to prepare the NCS.This contributed to the national
dialogue between antagonists in the recent civil war
and launched locally-led efforts to tackle
environmental problems affecting the poor.
Many poor countries have introduced legislation
are that assessments should be conducted at an early stage
in project design; those affected must be consulted; the
assessment must form part of a wider development
planning and decision-making process; they must be
available for public scrutiny; and there should be an
independent and objective evaluation of the quality
Azerbaijan The National Environmental Action Plan
of the assessments.
(NEAP) was the first document to quantify the scale
of environmental degradation and to prioritise actions
Broader economic policies are
D.
needed. In response to the.NEAP, the Government
very important
took a loan to fund the Urgent Environmental
3.25
Improvement Programme, which addressed clean-up
expenditure and trade policy can have a profound effect on
actions and institutional strengthening and reform.
the way resources are used. In order to convince economic
Economic policies, such as taxation, public
policy-makers that these issues are worth addressing, there
3.22
Key lessons to emerge from these strategies
and plans are that:
□
there needs to be genuine local demand;
□
preparation should be led by people with a role in
national development (rather than by environmental
institutions);
□
high-level political support is required;
□
active participation by all stakeholder groups is critical
(rather than a top-down, or science-based, process);
□
consideration is given to the most effective means
is considerable effort being devoted to quantify the
economic costs of environmental damage both at a specific
level, such as the cost of air pollution to a city, and at the
aggregate level, for example by adjusting estimates of GDP
to reflect environmental damage.The results are often
stark, suggesting that for many countries the GDP may be
significantly over-stated when environmental damage is
taken into account.Two examples for China51 and
Pakistan52 illustrate this point.
□
premature deaths, sickness and damage to productive
for integrating economic, social and environmental
resources and urban infrastructure — are estimated to
objectives; and
■
cost the Chinese about 8% of GDP.”
stakeholders should monitor the implementation
of the strategies.
“77»c damages of excessive pollution - in the form of
H
“The social cost of environmental degradation in Pakistan
is likely to be enormous and will continue to increase.
'“Strategics for national sustainable development: a handbook for their planning and implementation, 1994, J Carew Reid et al.
"China 2020: Clear water, blue skies, IBRD, 1997.
"Pakistan national conservation strategy: review of the commitment to action. Mid-term Review, June 2000.
28
DFID - October 2000
Experience to date
The direct health and productivity impacts have been
Box 11: Energy subsidy reform in China33
conservatively estimated at USS 1.5 - $3 billion
annually, or 2.3%—1.6% GDP, almost half of which arc
China has made remarkable progress since the 1980s
attributable to water pollution. This cost is almost doubled
in reducing fossil fuel subsidies. Subsidy rates for coal,
if the impact of indoor air pollution is included”.
which accounts for 73% of China’s commercial needs,
fell from 61% in 1984 to 11% in 1995. As a result,
3.26
Although these figures are significant, they need
energy intensity in China - once among the highest
to be treated with caution. For example, in the case of
in the world - has fallen by about 30 percentage
China, it does not mean that GDP would necessarily be
points since 1985.This has also had a major impact
8% higher it China solved its environmental problems,
on China’s greenhouse gas emissions, which by 2020
since China would need to invest substantial sums of
will have fallen by an amount equivalent to emissions
money to deal with these problems.’But it does suggest
from a year’s energy consumptiQn. Efficiency gains
that there should, in principle, be a high rate of return
in industry, resulting from structural and technical
for programmes which deal with pollution control and
changes, have also played a major part in reducing the
so on. Nevertheless, the figures send an important message
energy intensity of the economy. China removed price
to policy-makers and are a good rationale for the use of
public expenditures for environmental improvements.
controls on coal, and encouraged the development
of private coal mines, which now produce around
50% of China’s coal. Subsidy reform and industrial
3.27
Given the administrative weaknesses of many
environment ministries, it has generally proved more
restructuring has produced multiple benefits: financial
savings, energy- savings and reduced emissions.
effective to relv on market-based instruments to ameliorate
adverse environmental trends. However, there is a
Manx natural resources have a value which can be
perception that some of these instruments, particularly
3.29
the removal of subsidies, have a negative impact on the
taxed by the government while still allowing for profitable
poor.Tlns perception is often wrong. In most cases, such
exploitation.The lower the tax, the greater the incentives
subsidies are both harmful to the environment and mainly
for unsustainable exploitation. Many developing countries
benefit the non-poor. For example, subsidies that reduce
have low taxes for natural resources such as forestry,
the price of fossil fuels encourage their use and the
fisheries and other mineral deposits Some are now raising
accompanying emissions of greenhouse gases, and
them. For example, the Forum Fishery Agency in the
subsidies that keep water prices low for large-scale farms
Pacific has significantly increased the charges for entry to
encourage over-irrigation and depletion of freshwater
their fisheries zones for foreign fleets. Timber concessions
supplies. Most of these subsidies particularly benefit the
have been auctioned to the private sector. Another
non-poor. By contrast, the poor often have no access to
important resource within developing countries are natural
subsidised systems of water, sewerage and waste collection
parks Many countries are raising entrance fees charged to
Where a genuine case can be made that the poor will be
foreign tourists. This can provide funds for biodiversity
negatively affected, a general subsidy can be replaced by
management and compensation for those who live
a targeted one which helps the poor with much less
around the park.
environmental damage.
3.30
3.28
Many developing countries are now addressing
While most countries have traditionally focused
on a regulatory approach to environmental compliance, a
the problems of under-pricing environmental goods.
growing number are now shifting to environmental taxes
Countries are beginning to revise subsidies for fossil fuels
and charges. In Malaysia, a tax on wastewater discharge led
(which cause local air pollution and global warming),
co major reductions in water pollution. China, Russia and
fishing gear (over-fishing), diesel (particulate air pollution),
Central and Eastern Europe all have elaborate systems of
pesticides (increased pesticide poisoning and water
pollution fees. State ownership of industry previously
pollution) and land conversion (leading to forest loss).
meant the fines had little impact but with privatisation, a
simplified and higher level of fees has led to significant
environmental gains. Partial and targeted rewards and
incentives can also be an important way to change
'•'Wang, X (1996), China's coal sector: moving to a market economy. World Bank, China and Mongolia Department, Infrastructure Division.
DFID - October 2000
Experience to date
behaviour. Examples include renewable energy, watershed
to benefit poorer farmers, but research is at a very early
protection and cleaner production technology.
stage. For example, it can be applied to crops like cassava
to produce increased resistance to disease and pests. Half
While environmental charges have many
the world’s population eats rice daily; yet rice is a poor
advantages, they have not always been successful.
source of essential nutrients. Using these technologies,
The lessons learned from past experience are:
a new variety of rice has been produced with a high
□
content of vitamin A31. Such investments mav
* not be
3.3 1
be realistic and keep implementation of policies
within available institutional capacity;
□
be gradual and pilot approaches first;
□
allow for the possibility of low cost revisions when
drafting legislation;
□
relevant stakeholders must be involved, particularly
to overcome concerns about effects on equity and
industrial costs;
□
rely on markets - low cost administration is vital.
Research and technology can help but
E.
is no panacea
3.32
Land degradation is particularly acute in arid
and semi-arid lands, leading to marked decreases in soil
fertility There are many successful examples of resource
conserving technologies increasing or maintaining
productivity in marginal lands and reversing degradation.
They include soil and water conservation, reduced tillage,
trickle irrigation, composting, inter-cropping and
improved rotations. In Machakos district in Kenya, soil
degradation and erosion were successfully reversed and
productivity substantially increased by a combination
of bench terracing, tree planting, diversification and
the integration of crop and livestock production.
Experience indicates that:
□
c
□
.□
commercially attractive to seed companies.There is,
therefore, a case for more public funding of research
directed towards poor farmers.
3.34
Integrated pest management encourages natural
control of pest populations by anticipating problems and
preventing them from reaching economically damaging
levels. A range of techniques is used such as increasing
natural predators, planting pest resistant crops, adapting
cultural practices and, as a last resort, using pesticides
judiciously and selectively. It has produced good results
in Brazil, China, Indonesia and India, reducing pesticide
use by up to 90%.
3.35
Successful technology7 transfer and adoption
depends crucially on knowledge and understanding of
how best to use it. The way knowledge is spread is a
critical factor. Lessons from the agriculture sector indicate
that top-down, package approaches are unsuitable and
ineffective for poor smallholder farmers, and that the
adoption of inappropriate technology can undermine
sustainable livelihoods. Approaches which support a
learning environment among farmers, providing
technology7 choices and information, encouraging and
supporting farmer experimentation and encouraging
technology7 alone is not enough, it needs to be
farmer-to-farmer exchanges and visits, are much more
supported by vigorous local institutions and an
effective than the more prescriptive, old-fashioned
enabling external environment;
extension methods.
some techniques need action and adoption at
community level;
Private sector experience
single technologies are likely to have limited impact
A.
Increasing corporate responsibility7 offers
while combinations are more successful;
environmental opportunities to business, not
farmers need incentives to adopt a long-term perspective
just costs
- especially secure access to land and other resources.
3.36
In recent years, businesses have increasingly
recognised that improved environmental performance
3.33
An increasing proportion of research into
is a financial opportunity rather than just an extra cost?3
biotechnology is being undertaken by the commercial
Cleaner production methods were pioneered in the UK.
sector. It can be useful and of high quality but it is largely
They aim to eliminate pollution at source and conserve
aimed at bigger farmers and profitable cash crops.There
raw materials such as energy and water.This proactive,
are possibilities for using genetic modification technologies*
35
preventative approach contrasts sharply with traditional
wIn South-East Asia, 70% of children under the age of five suffer from vitamin A deficiency, leading to blindness and other diseases. UNICEF predicts that
improved sources of vitamin A could prevent up to two million deaths a year for children under four years of age.
35The share prices of the top 50% eco-efficiency companies in the global chemicals sector have out-performed the bottom 50% by 20% over the last two
years. Environment Finance, June 2000.
30
DFID - October 2000
Experience to date.'
pollution control or waste management, which aims
3.38
to mitigate damage after it occurs. Moreover, cleaner
for developed countries to reduce their emissions of
production is also often much cheaper. Growing corporate
greenhouse gases.The Protocol also established three
responsibility has led to the introduction of environmental
mechanisms to help countries meet these targets. Of
management systems, the setting of clear targets, and the
these, only the Clean Development Mechanism involves
publication of annual environmental audits. However,
developing countries directly. It has two aims: to assist
in the small and medium enterprise sector, progress is
developing countries in achieving sustainable development
much slower.
while simultaneously assisting developed countries in
In 1997, the Kyoto Protocol set out commitments
meeting their emission reduction commitments.
3.37
In general, foreign direct investment in
developing countries has led to an overall improvement
3.39
in the environmental performance of enterprises. Most
developed country investor would invest in projects in
multinational companies, now promote the application
developing countries in return for carbon credits. Such
of international environmental standards, and, through
credits could then be used by developed countries towards
investment and management changes, are able to introduce
meeting their Kyoto commitments. It should benefit both
new technology' to reduce pollution and emissions.The
developed and developing country partners.*37 The
initial concern that varying environmental standards in
developing country gains from the transfer of new
different countries would lead to pollution havens has now
environmentally-sound technologies and increased levels of
largely been allayed (although there have been one or two
foreign investment. All projects will also need to contribute
examples identified in research, e.g. the tanning industry in
to sustainable development in the host developing country'.
Brazil and phosphate manufacturing in North Africa) 56
A share of the proceeds will help fund adaptation to
Under the Clean Development Mechanism, a
climate change in the most vulnerable countries. Many
B.
The Clean Development Mechanism offers
countries will also benefit from various capacity-building
significant opportunities for the private
initiatives, designed to enhance their ability to attract
sector to support sustainable development
climate-friendly investment.
Box 12: Private sector activity on sustainable development
Many companies are examining how sustainable development approaches can be incorporated into their activities.They
recognise the increased transaction costs and public relations damage incurred through poor environmental and social
management.This is now coupled with demands for increased corporate responsibility and greater awareness of
the business opportunities associated with better environmental and social performance. As a result, the private sector is
demonstrating some advanced and leading thinking in the field of sustainable development. Most recently, new rules
introduced into the UK in July 2000 require pension funds to declare the extent to which social, environmental or
ethical considerations are taken into account in the selection of stocks by fund managers.
Certain companies are now actively attempting to mainstream sustainable development into their corporate policy and
thinking. Wider initiatives on issues such as biodiversity, public health, sustainable energy', and climate change are being
supported. Emphasis is placed on underpinning all company activity with much greater engagement with public
authorities, NG Os and communities. However, discrepancies between corporate intentions on the environment and
sustainable development and actual operational activities are recognised as a significant problem.This parallels the
problem experienced in many donor organisations of a gap between policy commitments to the environment and what
is actually delivered though programme activities.
There is considerable scope for donor institutions and government departments to share experience, and to strengthen
collaboration, with the private sector.The opportunity exists to develop coherent and compatible approaches to
achieving sustainable development.The World Business Council for Sustainable Development and the World Bank
Business Partners for Development are two such examples.
v,Mabey, N & McNally, R, Foreign direct investment and the environment:from pollution havens to sustainable development, WWF-UK.
37A World Resources Institute assessment of the potential for CDM projects in Brazil, China and India suggests a wide range of sustainable development
benefits, including cleaner air and water, reduced deforestation, soil conservation, and biodiversity conservation; and social benefits such as rural
development, employment and poverty alleviation.
DFID - October 2000
31
Experience to date
Experience within bilateral and
international institutions
Bilateral institutions
3.-10
organisation, incentives and knowledge”. DFID is co-operating
closely with the World Bank in this evaluation and in the
formulation of its new strategy.
Virtually all development organisations cover the
environment in their normal operations. In the last decade,
Multilateral institutions
most have introduced environmental screening and
3.44
increased the numbers of environmental staff. However,
environmental agenda, not least by organising the 1972
whilst improved screening and appraisal techniques have
Stockholm Conference on the Environment and the 1992
meant that few projects cause direct environmental harm,
Rio Earth Summit. Of the UN institutions, the UN
development agencies have been less successful at
Environment Programme (UNEP), based in Nairobi, is
integrating environmental opportunities into their work.
designed to be the intellectual and technical leader for
The UN has played a leading role in the global
global environmental protection. It has in-house expertise
3.41
These shortcomings have been as apparent in
DFIDs programmes as in those of any other donor.
An environment evaluation synthesis report for DFID38
concludes that: “DFID has accorded high priority to
the environment for over a decade ...There is a gap between
the high policy priority attached by DFID to environmental
issues, the value of projects marked as having environmental
objectives, and what has actually been delivered in terms of
positive environmental impact....... Environment as a potential
development opportunity — rather than as a risk to be minimised
and mitigated — has not been fully mainstreamed across the
bilateral programme”.
3.42
The report identifies four key challenges:
and its annual report on the state of the global
environment is well regarded. But overall it has very
limited funding, variable staff quality and an unfocused
mandate, all of which have led to a lack of confidence
in UNEP by the international community. Attempts are
now being made to address these issues and reform the
work of the institution and its governance. Habitat, the
operational arm of the UN Centre for Human Settlements
is responsible for the implementation of the Habitat
Agenda (sustainable human settlements and adequate
shelter for all). It needs to take steps to improve the
assessment of its real impact and to improve links with
civil society, but it has the potential, with UNEP and
rhe UN Development Programme (UNDP), to integrate
□
□
□
□
demonstrate the contribution of environmental
environmental concerns in the planning and development
improvement to direct poverty reduction;
of human settlements.
fully integrate the environment within bilateral
After Rio, the Commission on Sustainable
strategies;
3.45
design monitorable performance targets for the
Development was established as the dedicated body to
environment at country programme and DFID level;
monitor progress in protecting the global environment. It
have a central department with the mandate to
has developed a clear work programme and has successfully
promote and support the environment as integral
involved NGOs and the private sector. But it has faced
to poverty elimination, and with responsibility for
resistance from vested interests in the UN, it has poor
monitoring environmental performance.
links with the international financial institutions and
has no power to impose binding obligations on countries,
3.43
DFID’s response to these challenges is set out
since its mandate is simply to review progress towards
in section 5.They are common to the international
the implementation of Agenda 21. However, it remains an
community, including other donors and governments.
important voice in monitoring the implementation of the
There is great potential to build on these commonalities
follow-up to the Rio conference; and its structure does
through consultation and mutual lesson learning.The
allow countries to engage in a free and transparent debate
World Bank is carrying out a comprehensive evaluation
if they choose to take the opportunity offered.
of their environmental activities. A recent history39 states
that while the Bank has “promoted itself as a champion of
3.46
environmental sustainability ... the integration of these new
in support of the environment has been variable, but
concerns has been severely constrained by the Bank’s established
generally insubstantial, even though many have increasingly
The role of other UN programmes and agencies
^Environmental Evaluation Synthesis Study: Environment: mainstreamed or sidelined, Michael Flint. Paul Balogun.Anne Gordon. Richard Hoare, BenVbysey,
Anthony Ziegler,June 1999.
•' 'Greening the Bank:The struggle over the environment, 1970-1995, Robert Wade, in 77ic World Bank, its first half century, Kapur, Lewis, Webb (eds)
Brookings Institution Press, 1997.
32
DFID - October 2000
Experience to date
integrated environmental concerns into their strategic
environment. It is currently working on a new
objectives. The inefficiencies associated with the UN have
environmental strategy and sustainable development
hindered a coherent approach to environmental problems,
will form the focus for the 2002 World Development
with core agency mandates, rather than cross-sectoral
Report. Nevertheless, the environment remains less
approaches, remaining at the heart of their work. For
influential than other sectors and can often lose out to
example, although the UNDP has a very strong field
economic and social objectives (for example, in the
presence, a clear mandate as UN co-ordinator and good
integration of the environment into Poverty Reduction
relations with many developing countries, it has been
Strategies).The regional development banks face similar
unclear about its practical role in support of the
problems, and they probably lag behind the World Bank
environment and, like other agencies, its integration
in integrating the environment into their programmes.
of environmental concerns has been weak.The UNDP
is now trying to strengthen its role in support of
3.49
governance and capacity issues and to take a leadership
environment into its policies and programmes and
role in establishing links between the environment and
investigating the links between poverty and the
poverty reduction. DFID will seek to support and build
environment. With its significant funds for development,
on this work.
it is an important partner in pursuing the environment
The EU is committed to integrating the
target. Whilst on paper the EC’s environmental screening
3.47
The UN's environmental institutions entered
and appraisal systems are excellent, a 1997 evaluation of
the development scene relatively late compared to well-
the effectiveness of environmental integration concluded
established specialised agencies such as the WHO or the
that much remained to be done10.There is now a stronger
FAO.They have, therefore, had to fit within already
political momentum behind integration efforts.The
established institutional relationships and there has been
importance of integration and plans to strengthen it were
little real integration of environmental concerns into the
endorsed at the Development Council in November 1999.
broader UN system. However, a start has been made with
The plans include greater emphasis and increased dialogue
the establishment by the Secretary General in October
with partner countries on environmental issues, enhanced
1999 of an Environmental Management Group under
capacity for environmental management in developing
the chairmanship of the Executive Director of UNEP.
countries, the integration of environment and sustainable
Its purpose will be to enhance inter-agency co-ordination
development considerations in the next trade round, and
in the field of environment and human settlements within
increasing the ability of partner countries to participate
the UN. It is important that there should be greater
effectively in international environmental negotiations.
co-ordination and integration of environmental issues
However, translating these plans into consistent actions
in other international bodies.The Environmental
remains a major challenge.
Management Group can help in this effort. Such
incremental changes are likelv to be more effective
3.50
than more radical organisational change such as the
relevant: the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and
establishment of a World Environment Organisation.
the World Trade Organisation (WTO).The IMF tries
Two other international organisations are also
to promote better economic management through
3.48
The World Bank remains a very significant
its activities in designing stabilisation and structural
channel for resources for sustainable development in
adjustment programmes. However, whilst there is evidence
developing countries. It has shown a strong interest in
that some aspects of economic adjustment, such as the
the global environment debate and has wide experience
removal of subsidies, have been environmentally beneficial,
of environmental issues in developing countries. With
other aspects such as cuts in public expenditure may have
its skills in policy analysis and strong links with central
been detrimental.The IMF has recently established a small
ministries, it can wield major influence upstream on
in-house environmental unit. It will act as a liaison point in
the policies of developing countries in support of the
particular with the International Bank for Reconstruction
environment. Many of the institutional and economic
and Development (IBRD) to ensure co-ordination
reforms identified earlier in this section are now being
between the two institutions.The WTO has had to
addressed with World Bank funding. It has also helped
respond to concerns that trade may have adverse effects on
research the link between economic policy and the
the environment (for example, by clarifying its position on
4,1Evaluation of the environmental performance of EC programmes in developing countries: a synthesis report, E1<M, 1997.
DFID - October 2000
33
Exper.eace to date
An example of global approaches has been the
labelling). It has done so in such way as to resist pressure
3.53
for eco-protectiomsm It should also recognise that
establishment of the Global Environment Facility (GEF).
multilateral rules on trade and trade measures in
It assists developing countries in meeting the additional
environmental agreements are compatible.
cost to them of addressing global environmental objectives.
.
»
Projects addressing climate change, biological diversity,
sustainable management of international waters and ozone
Global environmental institutions
depletion are implemented by the World Bank, UNDP and
Trans-boundary environmental problems are
UNEP. It has unrivalled experience in practical approaches
starting to be addressed through an increasing range •
to global environmental problems and a wide network of
of international and global institutions, such as the
scientific advisers. Finance through the GEF has been
UN Conventions on climate change, biodiversity and
substantial (about S3 billion has been committed since
desertification.They help to raise the profile of specific
1991) but it is viewed rather suspiciously by developing
global environmental problems, particularly at a high
countries, since disbursement has been slow. Some see it as
political level. But this politicisation can make their
driven by the North’s environm
outputs remote from day-to-day problems in developing
finance for the GEF was an additional commitment after
countries. In general, developing countries resist binding
Rio, it has been overshadowed, from the perspective of
targets during negotiations, since they see global
developing countries, by more general failures to make
environmental problems as caused principally by the
progress towards the 0.7% of GNP target for aid.The
North and are suspicious that their economic growth
GEF also promotes the mainstreaming of the global
might be restricted. Developed countries face major
environment into the programmes of other institutions.
changes to established lifestyles and fear environmental
Negotiations for a third replenishment of it will
measures will make them less competitive in world
commence in late 2000, with completion of the process
markets. At present, this tends to result in ‘lowest
expected in early 2002. A successful outcome to the
common denominator’ decisions.
replenishment is likely to be welcomed by developing
3.51
tai agenda, and although
countries and encourage more constructive North-South
3.52
The Montreal Protocol has been successful in
partnerships at Rio+10.
slowing down depletion of the ozone layer. It is expected
that depletion will soon start to be reversed.This is
largely due to the phasing out of CFCs and halons
in developed countries and the wide availability of
replacement technologies The Kyoto Protocol to the
UN Framework Climate Convention has negotiated
legally binding measures on developed countries
to protect the environment A major challenge is
to ensure the Protocol is brought into force.
DFID - October 2000
1 The Patancheru Story
' CPCB in consultation with State Pollution Control Boards, has identified critically polluted areas
(22) in the country which need attention for control of pollution. PATANCHERU is one of them."
*Industrial Profile of Medak district:
Medak is a backward district with more than 80% of the population dependent on agriculture.
There are 4 industrial estates and 8 industrial development areas. The Industrial Area at
patancheru with 5 phases is acclaimed to be a good industrial estate/area.
The district has 372 large and medium scale units with an investment of 4025.79 crores
providing employment to 78,253 persons among which are BHEL, Ordnance factory, BDL, Nizam
Sugars Ltd., Dr. Reddy's, Aurobindo Pharma, MRF, Mahindra and Mahindra etc.
Under Small scale sector 4536 units are in the disrict and important products manufactured by
these SSI are paints, Granite stone cutting & polishing, welding electrodes/pharmaceuticals,
locomotives, mosquito coils etc. The investment for unit in this sector is highest in the state as
the small scale units in and around the state capital are intensive.
INDUSTRIES
Industrial Clusters in the district :
Bulk Drugs and Pharmaceutical Industry in Patancheru,
Bollaram & Khazipally areas, Mechanical industry in R.C.Puram A Patancheru
The population of medak district is 2269800 persons out of which 1152079 are Male and 1117721
female. (1991 Census)
According to 2001 Census, population of Patancheru mandal is 117214. Out which 60947
are Male and 56267 female. PROPOSED HEALTH SURVEY
Patancheru industrial development area is about 40 km away from Hyderabad, and is situated on
Hyderabad-Bombay highway. About 320 industries manufacturing pesticides, chemicals,
pharmaceutical products and steel are located in this area. A common effluent treatment plant
(CETP) is installed by about 110 industries that bring the effluent in the tankers for treatment
purpose. After treating these effluents, wastewater is discharged in a water stream called
peddavagu which meets the main stream Nakkavagu flowing through patancheru area. The
Nakkavagu finally meets the river manjira that is one of the main source of drinking water in the
area.
Industrialzation around Khazipally started around 1989. One of the reasons for establishing
chemical and drug industries can be traced to the fact that bulk drug production was banned in
United States around 1980. At this point of time most of the bulk drug industries shifted to
third world countries.
Climate :
Semi-arid tropics, home to one-sixth of the world's population, Persistent drought, unpredictable
weather, limited and erratic rainfall, and nutrient-poor soils are the farmer's challenges.
Impacts of Pollution
Pollution of water resources
Small village tanks are the primary source of irrigation in this district. These are used mostly
for irrigation and drinking purposes. They also help in recharging the groundwater, thus
maintaing the groundwater table and sustaining wells for livelihood. Predominantly people are
dependent on agriculture, the very survival of the population here is dependent on the village
tanks. Due to discharge of unregulated industrial effluents, the water quality of many of these
tanks is degraded and loaded with toxic chemicals, resulting in acidification, increase in total
dissolved solids, decrease in dissolved oxygen and decrease in biological diversity. These tanks
have been converted into toxic ponds.
Change in the water quality due to industrial pollution has affected the survival of many sensitive
aquatic species resulting in a significant reduction in bio-diversity in these ponds. It would be
rather apt to describe the villagers as nothing but moving corpses.
Pollution of groundwater
The groundwater of the area has obvivously been contaminated in and around the industrial
estates. In addition to the pollution to moving water resources, infiltration from wastes dumped
on the ground and seepage in some places has become a cocktail of toxins and is unfit for any
use. The National Geological Research Institute (NGRI) conducted a study and found arsenic in
abnormally high quantities, close to around 700 times above permissible levels. The toxic metals
pollute surface and ground water, with their horizontal and vertical movements. In addition
selenium, boron, manganese, chromium, nickel, cadmium and many other metals too were found at
unusually high levels.
Contamination of Soil
Before the pollution of the moving water resources, villagers irrigated agricultural lands from
these sources. The continued to use this source unknowingly even after alarming levels of
pollution. This resulted in deposition of heavy metals in the soil. After getting the crops
damaged, they tried to tap the groundwater which was also deposited with heavy metals. In this
way a multitude of toxins have entered the food cycle as well.Some of the locals having given up
agriculture have taken to sand mining and brick making. This has enhanced the of groundwater
carrying heavy metals and increased the concentration of total dissolved solids.
Air Pollution
The industries principally responsible for the omnipresent polluted air over Patancheru are ->
Pesticide Units, Bulk Drug Industries, Particleboard Industries, Steel Rolling Industries, Common
Effluent Treatment Plants & distilleries. Primary pollutants that have been identified in the air
include Mercaptans, Particulate Matter, Chlorine and other bulk intermediaries, Hydrogen
Sulphide.
Impact on Agriculture
Air and groundwater pollution have had a direct impact on crop yield and food cycle. High total
dissolved solids and chemical intermediates degrade the soil characteristics. Yields have
suffered due to the increase in salinity, loss of living structure of the soil complex and change of
physical and chemical properties of the soil. Soil pollution with heavy metals and other toxins
extends into the food chain and has irreparable impacts on human health. Yields have
significantly decreased in terms of quantity aS well as quality. Results of socio-economic studies
reveal drastic detirioration of economy and health.
Impact on Human Health
Mercaptans, found in the air cause nasal nerve damage, which usually acts as one's first
defensive mechanism. Pesticides like organophosphorous compounds are absorbed through the
skin and lungs. These reduce acetylcholine enzyme in the blood. Reduction of this in the blood can
prove fatal, which in turn ties in with a disturbing trend in Patancheru - sudden unexplained
deaths. Skin diseases and respiratory disorders like bronchitis and bronchial asthama,
convulsions and brain tumors have been reported from here. Hydrogen sulphide, another common
pollutant here causes pneumonitis. Increasing incidence of cancer, leukemia in young children,
lung cancers amongst non-smokers and liver cancers amongst non-alchoholics have been reported.
Indiscriminate dumping of toxic chemicals like lead, arsenic, nickel, chromium and other heavy
metals, and pesticides (both organochlorines as well as organophosphates) has resulted in heavy
metal poisoning. A survey conducted in 2001 revealed close to 700 people suffering from
symptoms of toxicity from a sample space of around 3000 people. Preliminary Epidemiological
studies which have been conducted since 1987 revealed a steep increase in morbidity rate,
reaching as high as 88%, while the national morbidity rate hovers at around 10%. Young children
have been reported to have extremely brittle bones.
Exposure Pathways include-^ Inhalation, Ingestion A dermal.
Major Toxins Present
Includes Heavy Metals like selenium, Boron, Chromium, Nickel, Lead, Arsenic, cadmium and many
more
Organochlorines / Organophosphates
Hydrogen Sulphide
Particulate matter - primarily wood and iron.
Chlorine and other bulk intermediaries.
Findings:LITERATURE SURVEY
The industries of the Patancheru and Bolaram area generate a cumulative 8 x 106 l/day of
effluents which are being directly discharged on to surrounding land, irrigation fields, and
surface water bodies which finally enter into the Nakkavagu River a tributary of the Manzira
River: Present study on abundance and distribution pattern of toxic trace elements indicates the
quantitative aspect of pollution in the Nakkavagu Basin. Migration patterns drawn for TbS, toxic
elements indicate that pollutants discharged by the industries are entering the surface and
groundwater system (aquifers) and are also migrating towards the Manzira River further
deteriorating the entire hydrological setup of the area.
Contamination of soil due to heavy metals in the Patancheru industrial development area,
Andhra Pradesh, India
Abstract. Industrialization and urbanization are the two main causes for the increasing
contamination of heavy metals in soil. An environmental geochemical investigation was carried out
in and around the Patancheru industrial development area of Andhra Pradesh to determine the
extent of chemical pollution in the soil. The main objective of the study was to establish the
spatial variability in heavy-metal enrichment and to assess the extent of contamination in the
study area. The data reveal that soils in the area are significantly contaminated, showing two to
three times higher levels of toxic elements than normal. Many heavy metals, such as Cr, V, Fe,
As, Cd, Se, Ba, Zn, 5r, Mo and Cu, are present above the normal distribution in the soil. The
heavy-metal loads of the soils in the study area are 240 mg/kg for Cr, 235 mg/kg for V,
1,350 mg/kg for Ba, 200 mg/kg for Cd, and 500 mg/kg for Cu. Most of the soils should be
removed from agricultural production, and the area needs to be monitored regularly for heavy
metal enrichment.
Government Study on Ground Waterpollution: In compliance with Supreme Court order.
Survey conducted on 27-6-1996
From the samples collected it was clearly established in the field that groundwater is not
potable in 8 villages. Out of 16 villages in 11 vilages groundwater is found to be polluted and
pollution is attributd to industrial activity as discharge of Nakkavagu and Pamulavagu is coloured
and odoured. The source of pollution to groundwater is industrial effluent which is let into the 2
stream and ffects groundwater body during rainy seasons mostly. On the whole the pollution
areas fall within 100 to 500 mts either side of Nakkavage and Pamulavagu streams. There is
evidence in the field that the crop yields are reduced highly and some lands are abandoned from
irrigation and cultivation.
Conservation and management plans for remediation KHAZIPALLY CHERUVU
Final Technical report , Jawaharlal Nehru technological university, Hyderabad.
January 1999.
Socio economic study due to pollution and damage in and around the water bodies:
According to the census data on population between 1981 and 1991 agrowth rate of 1.5% in
population is reported. In this period of 10 years the area of the land available for cultivation
has come down from 240 acres to 80 acres a reduction of 66% mainly due to introduction and
influence of industrial effluents into Khazipally lake.
Water:
The microbiological quality of waters.
Except for one water sample from the bore well, all the other samples showed contamination
with fecal bacteria. The habits and practices of people may be the reason for this pollution.
The microbiological quality of soil nitrogen fixers and soil fertility:
The soil around the area is under the influence of pollution.
Analysis of surface and Groundwater samples, sediment and soil samples:
The lake water analysis shows that it is polluted with acidic non biodegradable organics from
various chemical and pesticide factories.
Very unpleasant odour pervades the atmosphere and people got affected in different ways. Skin
diseases, respiratory diseases and prenatal problems seem to have made their appearance since
1995.
Health :
Some of the general problems are listed below:
! Miscarriage A high mortality of children figure
1 Loss of eye sight even at the age of 20+ years, (may be due to air pollutants from the
environment)
I skin diseases of various types in all ages
! Pain at joints including weakness of bones in age group of 30+ years
I Indigestion and stomach upset and intestinal disorders etc.
I Vomiting
I Attaining baldness
X
The prime cause for the present state of alarming status is due to the presence of POPs which
are a clan of synthetic toxic chemicals that cause serious and long term effects on livestock,
human health A ecosystems. They have also been implicated in certain cancer of the skin,
prostate & re-productivity defects viz., Infertility sex linked disorders, foetal malformation,
neo behavioural impairment, immune system disfunction.
Ground water around Khazipally village:
Almost all the samples are around neutral pH. Very slight turbidity is present. In most of the
samples chlorides are at the taste threshold. Hardness is also high in these water. Organic
Pollution is evident bu higher COD values. None of the samples are free from bacterial
contamination. The MPN values for all these is higher than 1500 / ml. These waters definitely
cannot be used for domestic purposes.
STUDY OF GROUNDWATER POLLUTION IN PATANCHERU AND BOLARAM INDUSTRIAL
DEVELOPMENT AREAS, MEDAK DIST. ANDHRA PRADESH
Sponsored by APPCB, Hyderabad
National Geophysical Research Institute, Hyderabad
December, 1998.
The Study area covers about 160 sq km.There are more than 400 big and small pharmaceutical
and chemical industries.
Environmental geochemical studies wee carried out in patancheru and bolaram industrial
development area.
Some of the observation of the toxic metals are :
The
l.
1
result shows that Arsenic concentration is very high in Peddavagu nala samples. High
arsenic concentration are noted in some of the groundwater samples specially in the villages like
Muthangi, Bandlaguda, patelgudem etc.
Wells in the villages are having arsenic concentration upto 700 ppb while the permissible limit by
WHO is only 10 ppb.
The main source of arsenic was found to be CETP.
2. it was observed that Strontium values were as high as 3000 ppb in Bangalguda,
Krishnareddypet, and Muthangi villages, High values are observed in surface as well as
groundwater areas.
3. High concentrations of Barium are not very common in groundwater but in Patancheru area
barium values are found to be in the range of 100-200 ppb which are very high in comparison to
normal distribution of barium in water or soil samples.
4. Selenium is one of the most toxic metal and is normally nil in groundwater or surface water
until and unless it is added by some industrial effluents. High concentration of selenium are
observed in Muthangi, near Voltas chemicals, Krishnareddypet and patelgudem areas. This toxic
meta may be released by some of the chemical or pharmaceutical industries in the study area.
5. Boron concentration in ground or surface water is normally found to be around 100 ppb but in
the study area this element is present to the extent of 3000 to 4000 ppb in Muthangi, Pocharam
area.
6. Manganese normally doesn't exceed 100 ppb in water samples but is found to be very high in
Bandalguda area abd the values are in the range of 1500 ppb.
7. High concentration of nickel which is a known carcinogen were found in the range of 200-1000
ppb which is normal concentration should not be more than 50 ppb.
8.
Residual pesticides show very high concentration in Nakkavagu water samples.
Total BHC was found to be abnormally high i.e. 34869 ng/L in CETP nala, 1620 ng/L in
Muthangi well water and 1450 ng/L in the nala originating near Voltas Chemicals.
Aldrin was found to be 6950 ng/L in Pocharam open well.
Total endosulphar was found to very high in nala water samples near voltas.
High concentration of DOT and phenols were also observed in CETP nala water.
9. Studies of Soil samples also reveal high level of contamination due to anthropogenic sources of
patancheru and bolaram industrial areas High chromium values of 100-200 ppm were observed in
nakkavagu near chitkul village. High cadmium concentration were also observed in Nakkavagu
water samples. NVery high cadmium values were found to be in Kazipally industrial area near
bollaram.
10. Soil samples in Bolaram IDA show adistribution of arsenic in the range of 1 to 2 ppm which is
much more than the normal distribution of less than 0.5 ppm in soil.
11. It is well established that the high concentration of toxic metals are dangerous to human life
and causes many diseases which are called geochemical diseases. High concentration of arsenic
causes lung cancer, skin cancer and nickel is a well known carcinogen and causes cancer. Lead is
known to increase the blood pressure in human beings.
ELEMENT
AVERAGE ABUNDANCE
DISEASES CAUSED
As
0.2 ppm
CARCINOGEN,
GASTROENTEER1I1S,
CARDIO VASCULAR
Cd
0.06 ppm
HYPERTENSION, KIDNEY
STONE
Pb
10.00 ppm
ANEMIA,
HYPERTENSION,NERVOUS
SYSTEM
Ni
40.0 ppm
CARCINOGEN,
-------- - --------------------------- - -------- !__ RESPIRATORY, ASTHMA
Cr
50.0 ppm
CARCINOGEN, DERMA 111 IS,
LUNG CANCER
Cu
20.0 ppm
RENAL DAMAGE,
DEPRESSION, DIARROHEA
Zn
50.0 ppm
ESSENTIAL ELEMENT,
VOML 1 ING, MUSCULAR
COORDINATION
INVESTIGATION REPORT:
Environment pollution caused by patancheru and Bollaram industrial Estates in nearby
villages of medak district in Andhra pradesh.
By : National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, Nagpur. October 1991.
A detailed survey has been carried out by NEERI in patancheru and Bollaram industrial Estates
and in surrounding villages affected by pollution including the river quality of Manjeera after the
confluence with Nakkavagu which is carrying wastewater from both the estates.
Observations:
•
Wastewater is highly polluting and must be treated.
•
Samudram an irrigation tank at Kistareddypet has been totally spoiled by industrial
discharge into it and now it looks like stabilization pond.
•
The analysis of the data reveals that the wells/bore wells and even Manjeera river
waters have been contaminated.
HEALTH:
The incidence of disease and death has increased considerably. The data suggests that there is
an increased rate of premature deaths.
NEERI Scientists were informed by the farmers of the affected villages that :
•
Girls are not attaining puberty at proper age
•
Married women are not conceiving
•
Pregnant women are delivering still born children
•
•
There is high rate if infant mortality
Death of cattle wealth takes place after drinking/coming in contact with the high
polluted wastewater.
A STUDY ON THE ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION AND ITS EFFECTS ON THE HEALTH
STATUS OF PEOPLE AT SULTANPUR VILLAGE BY BEPT. OF COMMUNITY MEDICINE,
OSMANIA MEDICAL COLLEGE, HYDERABAD. NOV. 2000
Sample: Total population of Sultanpur grampanchayat 382 households.
l/4,h of the population available for medical examination. Blood samples from some individuals
with suspected heavy metal poisoning were taken.
“2974 people examined and 690 people found to be suffering from symptoms of toxicity. DR. Rao
in Hell of Earth" .
RESULTS AND RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE STUDY:
1-
The religious, demographic low economic low educational, anadequate housing, industrial
employment, agricultural works in the fields in sultanpur village predispose them to the ill health.
2.
The morbidity due to heavy metal depositions in the various tissues of the body has
manifested in the hairs, skin, nails, nervous system, GIT, Urinary system, cardiovascular
and locomotor systems and the visual changes in the eyes and also the physical growth
retardation of the children, supported by lab investigations for blood samples for various
toxic heavy metals indicates the need to have a surveillance center for
3.
industrial pollution
and its effects at Rural Health Centre, Patnacheru for which WHO can be consulted.
There is a need to monitor the health status of the people who are at constant threat of
industrial pollution by periodical health surveys and lab investigations to establish the
relationship between the pollution and the effects observed.
ASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH RISK DUE TO INORGANIC ARSENIC IN
THE INDUSTRIALLY CONTAMINATED AREAS OF HYDERABAD.
BY
Analytical Chemistry and Environment Sciences Division, Indian Institute of Chemical
Technology and Yashodhara Hospital, Patancheru
SAMPLES:
Samples were collected from residents if the length of their residence in that locality was more
than five years only.
Urine and blood samples were collected from 193 people of various age groups.
Samples of blood, urine, hair and nails from people residing in areas free from industrial pollution
and from the authors served as controls.
Environment exposure of inorganic arsenic to humans was assessed by collecting samples from
the residents of the industrially contaminated area, Patancheru. Arsenic levels in the clinical
samples like blood, urine, hair and nails was measured by means of ICP-MS.
The main source of arsenic exposure is found to be the contaminated waters (ground and
surface) and also through the consumption of arsenic contaminated vegetables grown on
contaminated soils.
Concentration of arsenic in clinical samples clearly shows that there is a possible association of
arsenic in blood, urine, hair and nail with age, sex and with concentration of arsenic in soil, water
and vegetables.
STATUS HEALTH REPORT ON HEALTH PROBLEMS AND REMEDIAL MEASURES TAKEN
AT PATANCHERU AREA.
FROM Dr. G. Nagaiah
to The additional advocate general, high court
Osmania medical college
Morbidity survey, 1998.
SAMPLE:
The sample study was conducted in 14 villages. The unit of the sampling used was household.
10/o of the households in each village were selected by stratified random sampling method.
The study team came out with the report which showed 25.49% of General sickness rate, the
report also showed more morbidity was due to orthopedic problems. The cause for diseases was
to be established.
Remarks of Chief Investigator.
The report of the sample study in oct 1998 was showing quantitative values of the health
problems. The study was lacking specificity of cause effectiveness.
FINDINGS/OBSERVATIONS
Morbidity rate in this area showing increasing number trend which is evident from past
rate of 10.18% in 1991 oct. to present ratio of 25.49%
In all the types of the diseases, the female population is experiencing higher morbidity.
EUROPE ANU INDIA PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE
BY Austrian Research Centre Seibersdorf. March 2001.
Status of water contamination sources
Effluents of the IDAs are discharged partly untreated into the streams, underground
and ponds
The effluents containing appreciable amounts of inorganic and organic chemicals and
their bye-products.
Paer, 1 m
jviain identity
"Kuchita Khurana” <ruchitafa)toxicslink ora>
"Jayakumar" <thana!@md4.vsnl.net.in>; <tarumitra@vsnl.com>; <econet@axess.com>;
<janvikas@axess.coiTi>; "PSS" <pss@narmada.net.in>; <ics@bnpl.com>;
<okaanei@yaho.co.uk>; <sarangi_rk@rediffmaii.com>
<kanhere@hotmail.com>; <sochara@vsnl.com>; "dudani" <atd@mantraonline.com>;
^pravah@ndt.vsnl.net.in>; <waste@operamail.com>; <sctripathi@rediffmaii.com>;
<callshiv@hotmail.com>; <ceesouth@vsnl com>
from:
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’Zero Waste’ is n concept that attempts to initiate -action to eliminate waste per se. Seeminglv theoretical, it however lavs
down a sustainable framework for a series of policies and actions, which aim at diverting waste from landfills, recycling and
t reuse, and better product design which minimizes waste. This needs not only citizen's participation but also raking
responsibility by industry, an enabling policy by the government and investment in areas such as recycling. Are we then
1 seeing the emergence of such blinking through the actions of die Delhi Municipality?
Since urban India generates over 38 million tonnes of urban solid waste per year and urban local bodies spend about Rs.
’ 500 to Rs. 1500 per tonne on solid waste for collection, transportation, treatment and disposal, clearly this is a key urban
environmental'Issue. Moreover, landlill sites have been exhausted and newly emerging townships do not even have a plan.
Even the Supreme Court, has joined issue while provisions in the new Municipal Solid Waste (Management & Handling)
Rules 2000, need to be implemented by 315t of December, 2003, These rales aim at creating zero waste cities in our
I country by active participation of Municipality; Community based organizations; NG Os and citizens, however fall short of
recommendins action upstream such as in recycling and industry responsibility.
To discuss the feasibility of this attempt to create zero waste cities and in an attempt to bring better clarity to die issue
1
from tlte perspective ot a state like Delhi, we invite you to -a panel discussion on:
“G-LVZERO WASTE BE BELilES REALITY?”
Panelists:
Mr. Rakesh Mehta, Commissioner, Municipal Corporation Of Delhi.
Dr. R.C. Trivedi.i Additional 1 hrector.< Central Pollution Control Hoard.z New Delhi.
Dr. Iqbal Malik, Founder-Director, Vatavaran.
Moderated by Mr. Ravi Agarwal, Director, Toxics Link.
Venue: Conference Room 1. India International Center, Lodhi Road, New Delhi
Daie: Wednesday. 15th October 2003. Time: 6:30 p.rn.
(I;: colLabara^an
India Inur.:a^anal Center)
Toxics Link
M-9 dHnnnors Py+r.
- Media
RF_E_3_PART_1_SUDHA.pdf
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