COMMUNITY HEALTH DEVELOPMENT(CHW PROJECTS
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- Title
- COMMUNITY HEALTH DEVELOPMENT(CHW PROJECTS
- extracted text
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h 31 — I
TW bIA.MBT^JjLh. CHICKEN PRODUCTS
DReVoA.RA.0
Poulcry Marketing & Technology Specialist
Govt- of India, Central Training Institute
for
Poultry Production & Llanagcment
HESSARA..GEATTA. 5621 13 (Bangalore)
Poultry'Marketing has undergone drastic changes« The
sale of slaughtered roady-to-cook broilers in specialised
shops is replacing the purchase of live birds for home con- ■
sumption in the cities0 Even in rural areas, consumers are
beginning to buy slaughtered poultry directly from processors.
.
j
. : i.:a.v xnercase from 89jOOO
'bo imus in 1971 'cO I ^0,000 •tenues in 1985 and. further to 300^000
tonnes in 2C C Q 0. against a total demand, of 0.69 billion
t onnes in 197TI 0.9; he 1<06 Million tonnes in 1980; 1.05 to .
1 .../|.C Ft’ 1J :
t?' m • in 1 )85; Kr;7 to 1.61 Million tonnes in
l-Lre-hoxyelly the per capita consumption of poultry
2000
,
n .6lkg
heau. <a
meat thoogl recorded a rise from n 1^ t'? n
four fold raise) it is f£x below shat in developed countries
which is 2.17 to 5.95 -Igs in many aropean Countries»
JoV'.-L is
v'.-jiin.t.iiv Lo jjiupcej.c j.xx a.11 Ldiyx'ocsssed S'ta.teo
To-day the working c?.ass wen, womer. and the affluent society
demands convenience food items ■■fat can be quickly prepared
and served with little time and effort. So extensive research
has to. bo conducted in an effort bo bolster the price of chicken
and the ncsb jr.'oiu.sing marketable products using fowl meat as
a major ingredient, suitable to Indian dietary has to be developed
During the past few years, the nroccso-'re of poultry had developed
the knovV—how of Ready—to-eook chicken<> Put bhe idea of .dcbor.ing
the entire hen into an emulsified meat is innovative and the
possibilities of new products are unlimited * To produce consLUiie.v
products from the meat such as Hot dogsr chicken sticks, sausage?
Bologna, Cnicklor.u, chuukalona, chicken chunk rolls, spreads,
patties, mock cutlets, canned chicken, frozen dinners, frozen
baked goods, chicken has]?- chicke..± burgers of various types, cooked
salai-ii j fomented salumi, pies, chicken pizza, etc. was the whole
o o o o 2/—
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ot’H6A°T
sueq?.Imeson Jq pens
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uo^orqo
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sjonpoud esoqj up usqoTqo osn oj noq uu-eep ei p^q ^pauoEi
•qSusttW0 k 9Cl PTnoqs sti.Lj pu-s
.fe/A £?UOp 3 OA'E’q 0A4 'eo'ejuns psqoj'euos
opouTnjuoquo
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IJIATJTT
_
FLOW SKJET FOR ONUFACTUR^_ OF. .CHICKj
.SAUSAGE
-MINCER
DRESSING THE BIRDS--
.-—BEAT
FAT + VEGETABLES
SPICES, CONDIMENTS
AND COLOUR------ MINCED MEAT
+
i
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t
i
HOMOGENISER
(CHOPPER)
SAUSAGE MEAT
FILLER
...,SAUSAGE CASING
t
LINKING
TABLE
SAUSAGES
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1
f
COOLER o«o o.oWRAPPING HOLDING &
i
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’STORAGE OR DESPATCH
COOKING o
Use poultry meat free of skin bones and tendons• Coarsely
grind and mix with, seasonings then regrind and stuffed into
linkso Sausuage made from poultry meat need to be stored
at cooler temperature say 4^4*0.
o o c O 4/-
4
A
T A 2 L E
Formp f chick on saus age
“7 6 —
O
SI. No.
In.gr ed? enx
o
o— o— 0— a— a—
Percentage
’
6.
Meat
Vegetable fat
Vegetable
Monosodium glutamate
Sodium nitrate
Sodium Nitrate
7.
8.
910.
11 .
12.
13.
14.
Salt
Sugar
Bread
Whole egg liquid
Spices mix.
Onion
Ginger
Garlic
1 O
2.
3<>
4.
5*
. 6 „ 00
2s00
1.71
5.66
1.13
1.13
52.5
17.5
15.0
0.05
0.01
0.01
285.62
114.26
391.89
2^3.51
171.37
342.80
114.26
57.11
2.50
1.00
3-43
2.00
1.50
3-00
1.00
0.50
o'
FORMULA FOR TFE SPIC3S mXTURE USED IN
MM*
a* w
MW
Name of the spice
Anis e
Capsicum
Caraway
Condomoim
C innamon
Cloves
Black Pepper
Turmeric
Percentage in the mix
Qty(G)per 1kg
10
20
10
10
10
2.5
7.5
10
100
200
100
100
100
25
75
100
100
1 kg.
J
5
Z2’;
The preparations like barbecue, tandoori
BARBECUED CIIICKENl
increase consumption of poultry prochicken etc. can further
i
ducts.
1. OVED FOR BASBECUlh.
The design is available. It consists
of a steel bowl of U shape with adjusting slide door to regulate
air flow. A tray is also provided at the bottom to remove ash.
A wire mesh is fixed inside the bowl 12-13 inches below the
3" weld nesh is provided with
grill. A pair of grill made from
wooden handles. This grill can be used for outdoor Barbecuing
or oven built of bricks.
WTDUliI CHICKEN:
Also can be kept verywell for 13 days at 4.4*0
and 44 days
2^ TYPE OF CHICKEr_AND_li°S^ 0Ij> ENNS SING: Pick up tender chicken
Semi & oalded birds without damage to the skin is preferable.
Split the bird in two halves by cutting along side the back re
move neck and back bone completely« Dip the wing tips and trim
the projecting ribs.
J.PREPARATION OF DASDEQUEl Blond all ingredients like pepper
chillies, onion, garlic etc. nix thoroughly with liquid ingredients to form a mixture. Pour this on a melted ghee in a sauce
pan stir the sauce for 15 minutes, Bast this on Barbecue half in
the end.
4. PROCESS OF BARBECUING:
A slow cooking at moderate temperatures
BARS.CUING:
is recommended place the tender chicken on skin side upwards on the
grill to avoid burning of skin. Baste the chicken with sauce to
prevent Carcass from charring. Test the bird for ” Doneness” by
twisting the drum stick on wing of one or two halves from the
lot. If the bone readily separates out from the joint the bird,
is done. This will take 45-75 minutes. The recipes formulated
for Barbecue sauce (table— ) have been tried and found accep
table.
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(B) Spicysauces
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Ingredients
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Formulations
1
2
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•Ingredients
Formulation
o=je=c=#=e==e=a
Ghee
Water
Tomato Ketchup
Tamarind concentrate
Vineagar
72 Tb.sp
Procestcrshire sauce
Prepared mustard
Bengal gran flour
Chilli Powder
2/3 Tb.sp
72 T sp
72 T.sp
72 T.sp
72 T.sp
72 T.sp
72 T.sp
Brown Sugar
2/3 T.sp
2/3 T sp
Ghee
2 Tb.sp
Water
73 cups
Vinegar
3/2 our.
Tomato Juice
2/3 cup
Tanrind con
centrate
72 ..
Salt
2/3 T.sp
Chilli Powder 2/3 T.sp
Pepper Powder
Prepared Mus
V2 T.sp
tard
Clove Powder
1/2 T.sp
Salt
Bay leaf
2/3 T sp
1
72 T.sp
1
Green chilli
Garlic
Coriander leaf
Onion
Cinnamon powder
1/2 Lb.sp
1 Th. sp
2/3 Tb.sp
1 Tb.sp
Y2 T.sp
Garlic
2 Tb. Sp
l72 cup
1/T.sp
2 Tb.Sp
172 cup
72 T .sp.
o
0
2 Tb.Sp
11/2 cups
1/2 T.Sp.
2/3 T.sp.
V2 T.sp
72 T.sp
72 Tosp.
3/4 T.sp
2 small
Pieces
2 small
o
o
..7/-
J
7
Poultry Pickle:
Traditional meat pickle can be handed transported and
stored for 120 days at ambient temperatures without any appre
ciable loss of its quality characteristics. The ingredients
used for the poultry pickle are shown in Table-2
Z.A. B L B .-. J
INGREDIEIsTS US1D FOR THE POULTRY PICKLE
Poultry meat with bone
Salt
Sodium Nitrate
Monosodium Glutamate
Vinegaro
Red Chilly Powder
Garlic.
Black Papero
Jeora
Clove.
Cinnamon.
Refined Mustard oil
5 kg.
230 gm
1 gm.
5 gm.
1.5 litre
75 gm.
30 gm.
30 gm.
15 gm
5 gm
5 gm
500 ml
4
TAHLOORI CHICKEN
Ingr e di e iitsj.
One Croiler about 1 kg in weight
3 tsps.lime juice
2 tsps chilli Powder
2 tsps.garlic
2 tsps.onion juice, garam masala
3 tsps.butter
172 tbsp.juice of raw papa a or vinegar
2 tsps. Papmika.
Salt & Pepper to taste
Temperature to be sot 250 °C
//
8
J Method^/.
1. Rub chicken with papaya juice or vineagar.
2. Make very fine cuts into the chicken in
parts o
3o Mix lime juice, chillipowder, ,ginger, garlic
onion juice and salt.
4 Rub the mixture on the chicken
5. Keep aside to marinate for the next 2-3 hours
brushing with the juice that trickles from
the chickeno
6. Keep the chicken on a flat baking tray cover
with foil. Bake for 20 minutes.
chicken with dripping in the
7. Recuore foil, ba
tray. Bake for 40 minutes or until cooked Baste
at intervals. Brush with butter , bake for a few
minutes more to be crisp, Sprinkle with garam
masala serve hot.
The Tanduri chicken can also be kept very well
for 13 days at 4.4* C and 44 days at 6.77°C
FROZEN PRODUCTS:.
Frozen Products include pics, patties
pizzar etc. and can be sold in boilable’ pouches foil trays
and plastic lined paper cartons. Sheer convenience launched
those productso The product needs to be removed from its outer
wrapping and heated in a moderate even to serving temperature
and it is ready to be sliced or roasted and served.
stew, noodle
Whole chicken, fricassel,
:
CANNJ CHICKEN. PRODDCTS;
dinner, chicken A-La-king curried chicken, chicken liver pate
sandwich spread etc.
Older chicken and brioler birds when canned, can be conveni
ently stored for 6 months to one year. The whole on cut-upchicken is canned with spiced chicken curry in brine or in solid
pack form. Excess fat were trimmed any bone projections, fascia,
tendon and blood clots were removed. The pieces wore fried with
ghee in steam jacketed kettle to get the desired light brovm
colour of the meat. The meat is fried for 15 minutes in 230
grams of dalda. Gravy has to be prepared with the materials
listed in Table v-. The hot gravy is filled into the cans, sealed
processed, cooled, labelled. Canned chicken usually contains
a chicken with broth but without gibblets mature poultry con
sidered better than
A number of products based on moats were formulated and pro
cedure for their production were developed for use especially
c.9/-
9
for convenience as emergency food items for inclusion in
army ration some of these products are precooked dehydrated
ready-to-eat viz. chicken flavoured with vegetable broth
and spiced chicken and rice, precooked chicken rice and beans
canned chicken curry. Chicken biriyani. Army has shown
interest to some of these products. The following procedure
for preparing chicken for canning is followed;
CHICKEN-A-LA-KING. To 45-3 kgs of properly prepared chicken
add lukewarm water to cov^r and cook until tender. Add
.9 to 1.4 kgs salt a few minutes before removing the chicken
from the kettle. Take the chicken from the kettle and remove
the skin and bones. A half pound of tomatoss and one pound
of potatoes should be sliced and cut into the desired size.
Next sauce is made from chicken stock which is the con-
centrated water left in the kettle after the chicken have
been cooked« Some formulas call for the addition, of milk*
The water is melted by heat? and flavour is added to the
malted butter and stirred to smooth consistencyo The cooled
chicken stock is added to the flour and butter mixture and
cooked until it is of creamy consistency, then add the chicken,
popper tomatoes and potatoes. Mix and heat thoroughly and fill
into the cans
FLOW SHEET OF CANNING
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CHICKENS
CLEANING
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1
PRECOOKING
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REftTOVING MEAT FROM BONES
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CUTTING
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Thermal__
Exhausting
FILLING
- ' Vacuum closing
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Processing
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Cooling
/
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10
The armed forces require that canned chicken and vegetables
be prepared using the following formula.
kgs.
16 o 0
Chicken meat
2.0
Chicken skin
Chicken Fat
2.6
Potatoes
5.3
Carrots
5.2
Peas
3-4
Popper
1.25
Salt
0.57
Broth sufficient to give mixture content of not over
75$
CHICKEN.. SAfflWITCH_SPREAD
FORLiULA.,.
80 Lbs of chickon neat and skin
2 lbs‘of onion
2 lbs of salt
1 oz of ground white pepper
1 ox of ground cloves
1 oz of ground mace
1 gallon chicken broth
4 lbs flour if dcsiredo
Generally the neat is finally ground and the remaining
ingredients added in this operation
The nixturo should he
preheated to 90°C before filling<>
\
CHICKEN BROTH
Chicken broth is prepared from the
CIIICKILN^BROTH
stock obtained in pre-cooking chicken for canning. This stock
may be fortified with boiling chicken skinss and bones, in
small amount of water in pressure cooker for 3-4 hourss at
105'Co
Strained to remove small bone fragments, The broth
is then seasoned as desired before canning.
CHICKEN FRICASSEEChicken Fricassee consists of pieces
of chicken gravy. The chicken can be either uncooked or cooked
before canning. Chicken pieces generally make up 50-65% of
the weight of the can contents.
.o..1l/-
11
.PPYIUQ CHICKEN:
Freeze-dried chicken meat is used
extensively in dry chicken soup mixtures and in combination
with other ingredients to make soups, stews and other pre
pared dishes with this method raw7 poultry or largo pieces
cooked p-oultry retained original nutritive values, flavour,
shape and texture without hardening of the outer surface. Using
this method the meat is quickly frozen on trays at (-4O’F)
The temperature then raised to a carefully controlled heat
of sublimation whereby ice evaporates from the food without
thawing the frozen portion. The moisture level is normally
reduced to 2% and so the poultry meat will keep for 2 years
without rcfrigeration.
CHICKEN MeAT CUBES:
Meat extract or broth and meat hydrolysates
form the base, while the flavour is imparted by onion, and leaves
of corriander and mint.
Prccookubrown chicken:.
It has to be steamed with phosphated parts, with the batter
tad breeding on, thus preventing loss of the juices« By mainting the juices one gets a better yieldsand more flavour.
CHICKEN OR POIVDER;
SOUP
meats 6
Can bo nako from eld culled hens using minced
POULTRY MLikT IN SOUPS
Because of their convenience, high nutrition value and genorally fine quality and flavour, commercially produced cammed
soups are widely used. Biced, precooked chicken meat make
excellent ingredients for this purpose
POULTRY ROLLS
Poultry rolls are made up as a raw produ-ct
cooked cuned or smoked productso
When the neat is precooked
for rolling poultry gelatin or anyother birds such as wheat gluten
is added and the rolls arc molded under procure<» The following
percentage of white and Bark meat and ratio of large pieces to
small pieces in a roll can be followed as a guide to make a quality
product <>
.00.12/-
12
4
(percentage)
Large pieces’ of white meat--35 - 38 half breast
32 - 35 leg and thigh
Largo pieces of Baske meat--10 - 12
skin--------- —--18-20
Small meat pieces--- Seasoned with salt, popper, Kono s o d ium glut ana t c»
Poultry rolls sold as raw meat arc tightly packed in
casings.
Poultry rolls can be made in number of shapes; cylindorical
Rectagular,
Frozen at - 29°12°C and held 17»92*C until cooked.
B c Cooked Foul try Rolls.:.
Rolls sold as cooked products arc tightly packed in a
fibrous casing and sealed. Rollsarc placed in cooking vats
with wat^r temperature at 74.5’C 83 *C cooked until an internal
meat temperature of 66°C is reached. Chill rolls first in a
cold water then in a cooler 1-2cC before freezing at - 29<>12<’C
Product should bo hold in a frozen storage<>
The chicken meat rolls has excellent sliceability.
CHICK^ESAEACE:
Partial hydrolysis and subsequent concentration under
vaccum.
CHICKEN ST :Agsl
Breaded chicken breast steaks and breaded dark and white
steaks. The pieces can be tenderized and shaped into steaks
machine. By utlizing the skin and butter
with a cube stca
and broading, one can obtain excellent yield.
CHICKEN FRAMKS OR CHICKEN B0L0G1U
Bologna and franks arc the same products except franks are
stuffed in small casings and eaten hot while bologna is stuffed
in larger casing sliced and eaten cold.
CHICKEN BONELESS ROAST WASTE FREE OVEN READY:
Processed with white and dark moat the natural proportions
a small percentage of skin, finely minced to provide binding
salt and a aco of mixed herbs are added and the bar is cooked
at controlled temperature, and then frozen.
....13/-
Ccr^^i ?>| — X
VILLAGE PEOPLES1 SOURCE OF DRINKING
WATER* USE OF LATRINdS AND BELIEFS ABOUT
CHOLERA, IN THREE PARTS OF TNDTA-PRELD4INJ1RZ KEPQ.HT
Int reduction
Cholera results from a combination of many factors. A
source of infection is necessary, the Immune status of the
population is a key factor, and an environmental situation
conducive to spread through water and flies also is important.
Recently attention has been focussed on two other key factors.,
peoples, sanitary practices, and peoples1 beliefs about cholera
as a disease*
In a sense, these factors are part of the
psychological immunity of the human organism to cholera. Such
factors can change and witn a systematic and carefulapproach
much more effective ways of altering them can be devised and
applied.
This aspect of cholera control and control of other
itttestinal diseases has barely begun and needs much fuller
exploration. For this reason during village .studies under
taken as part of the research-cum-action project, information
was collected about the two factors mentioned above*
Method
The study was conducted in fairly typical villages in
the areas of Najnfgarh (Delhi), Poouumallee (Madras) and
Singup (West Bengal). A stratified, systematic sample was
__ I a senior person in each of these households was
o bt/ained and
interviewed. Findings are reported from interviews with a
total of 3306 persons, in 68 villages in the areas given above.
The questionnaire used for each interview included, amon.
other items, the following questions:1. From where do you get your drinking w^ter?
2. Do you use a latrine?
3. Would you like to have a latrine if it was cheap
enough?
4. What causes cholera?
5. How is cholera cured?
6. How is cholera prevented?
.were
Whatever answers were given^written down.
These were later
classified into categories.
In ^uch house it was also
recorded the type of latrine if 'there was one.
Findings
Almost all the respondents in the Najaf^arh and
Poonanalj^e areas said they take drinking water from open
hesearch-cum-Action Project, Poonamallee, Madras" (liLb-^ '
Binal Report, Section III(o), Social Science*
1
-2-
wells.
In the Singur area, almost everyone appeared to be
drinking tube-well water only^
Latrines were present in less than 4 per cent, ho iseholas i
in the Najaf .-rh and Poonamallee ureas, except that in tee
latter, 12 per. cent village leaders houses had latrines v
at
SLarur, there was a very low frequency among Harijans, out
other ^roups had latrines in from 10 per cent to 23 per cent
households.
r'hegul-.r
he £ul 1 use of a latrine was reported.-, by very fe’1
people in an.r ar..a. ’Occasional’ use ranged from 29 per cent
of the HarijaMS at N .Jaf^arh to 90 per cent of the leader
group at PoQ’-Xomallse* When asked whether they would 11.re go
have* a. household latrine, the proportion of ’Yea’ answers
ranged from 42 per cent among the Poonamallee- group to
83 per cent among muslins in the Singur area.
Though the low
decree of use is serious, there is a foundation of interest on
which'to build an effective latrine programme*
Tn« cause of cholera was said to be b-cessive heat;’,
a large proportion of respondents in the Najafgarh area1 Contact with a sick person’ was most commonly named at,
Poonamallee and ’bad food’ was most commonly named ^t Singur.
’Bad food’ -and ’ bad water’ were rarely named at Naj-.fo-i’h.
but were named by 7 to 11 per cent in the leader tJroup at
: Poonaiallee, and' by 13. to 17 per cent in every Oroup at
Singur.
Gems were rarely named at Najafga.rh but were 'lam^d
bv 9 per cent and 22 per cent of the Poonamallee and Singur
leader group respectively* Faeces of a sick person were
rarely mentioned.
For cure of cholera, hone-treatment was most popular _.t
Najafgarh and allopathic medical treatment was most popular
at Poonamallee ■ and Singur^
Two-thirds of the respondents in the Na'jafgarh area
said they did not know how to prevent cholera, or that cholera
cannot be prevented.
The response at Poonamdllee w^s almost
similar* Only at Singur was the number less*
Methods of preventing cholera, such as protecting food and
water, immunization, and e-creta disposal were mentioned by very
few respondents at Hajafga'rh. ^t Poonamallee, about a fifth of
th© leader group mentioned immunization, cleanliness, purifying
water, and protecting food* At Singur, immunization was
mentioned by a half to three-fourths of all Oroups in the
sample, and other measures relatively rarely.
Discussion
Tee findin^ that villagers at Singur almost all insist
on dr.iriklng., tube-well - water is -a clear indication o f what can be
done with a well-organised
x^duxocJ, continuous environmental sanitation
programme* INot
so many years a^o, these same villagers were
described in Union
.-rd1 Reports as "resistant" to such an
’’ --- Bo
—----c;
1 ■
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innovation.
Tne success in maintaining their pumps also
demonstrates that, with education £nd follow-through, the
maintenance problem which is feared elsewhere can be
solved.
The prevalence of use of tube-well water certainly
contrioutes very much to the decline in cholera which has
occurred in these villages.
The very low use of latrines poses a most serious
sanitation proelem.
There appears, however , to be a group
of villagers who do not reject the iiea of having a latrine
Tais
and who recognize it as atleast partially desirable,
indicates a founiation of ‘interest on which to build an
effective latrine programme.
The lack, of knowledge about the cause and prevention
of cholera points clearly.to the need for developing
systematically the educational aspects of rural health
operations in this regard.
There, did not appear to be any
serious potential clash with supegtitions or other fi-ed
ideas about cholera. Environmental factors especially,
seem to be stressed by the people, and offer a good started
’ to further educational efforts.
It appears that the leaders .group has more accurate
knowledge about prevention and constitute a good nucleus
for further educational, work.
Of all groups interrogated, harijau groups appear
especially to need education about sanitation principles.
..;. Mo^el, Metiaodology for I valving Pauchr/at as
Change A J/- :cy
By
Vinod M. Putel
Tn® three tier system of Pan.chyati Raj consists of Jram,5
Taloga, and District Panchayats.
The Family Planning Programme
in Gujax^t Stcxte has been transferred to the Panchayat
administration since April 1969.
. Tna present paper suggests a model methodology for
organising intensive Family Planning campaign by arranging
vasectomy camps through Taluka^anchayats ’ and their entire ma
chinery.
It is based on the e—perience of Ahuedabad District
Panchayat which has iemonstrated three times higher performance
m male sterilisations during January to March 1970.
Th?
Printed booklet:
Issued by Spate Family Planning Bureau,
Directorate of Health and Medical Services,
Gujarat, Ahmedabad, 1970.
-4-
*
methodology has educational dimensions.
Campaign
An intensive family planning campaign was arganised
from January to March 1970.
The detailed planning and
implementation of education and service campaign was done
by the Aamedabad District Pariehayat through their LJ&lukq
and Gram Pancfaayats by involving non-officials and al!
the field staff of the Panchayats. Leadership was provided
by fhelAhmedabad'District Panchayat President, for
implementing educational campaign through the elected ’^beis
of the District Taluka and Gram ^anchayats on the one aand
ah‘d by the District Development Officer in planning aD
executing the vasectomy campaign through the Taluka Develop
ment Officers and their staff.
Initially, the District
Health Officer played vital roles in involving Panr ayits
as change agency.
Seven large vasectomy camps, were organised oy the
Taluka Development Officers by mobilising all available^
resources in personnel such as the Talati-cum-Secret.aries
(Mantries), Motivations, Teachers, Sarpanchas, OramPanchayat members and pooling of all vehicles of Panchayat
and Public Health DepartmentThe oest available family
planning services were provided.
Tnu important achievement of the campaign was to
popularise vasectomy operations, as Ahnedabad District was
predominantly a tubectomy oriented district.
The model methodology for involving Panchayats takes
into co ns ide fat ion the ‘ below mentioned factors and
experiences in the field:
1. Experience of working with the ^hmedabad District Panchayat
and understanding their mode of work.
training and experience for evolving such
a methodology of community involvement- •
2. Knowledge,
3. Personal field e-periences of implementing Family
Pl.-.;.uiing Health Education programme through P.nochayats in
Kaira District, during 1963-65.
-5-
at various levels
i • State
D.O. letters, encouraging and evaluating the far ily
planning performances of the District oy the Minister of
Health to all District P-nchayat Presidents and from vhe
Secretaries to the District Development Officers.
Cr..tical
review by the Development Co-.missioner of the family
planning progress, with pooling of experiences and se .aio/
suggestions. A one day state level workshop of all Dvstric4Panchay-at Presidents and District Development .Of flee *s, t'j
prepare action programme on family planning which can be
followed by all District Panchayats.
2.
District
a) Meeting of District President, District Develop ■
ment Officer (D.D.O. ), Collector, Dy. D.D.C, ;
District Health Officer, District Family Planning
Medical Officer, Chaiman of District Health
Committee and Chairman of District Education
Committee to plan organisation of campaign.
b) Decision of the above, communicated to Taluka
Presidents, Taluka Development Officers,
M«mlatdars and Medical Officers of the Panary
Health Centres by getting o.O. letters written
by their respective heads.
Tney may send the rsu^^ested acti on program^
be followed by their subordinates.
c) Convening of a. workshop • by-the District Presid e
and District Development Officer of all Taluk...
Presidents, Taluka Development Officers and Men .1
- i
Officers of PHC s and the Chairman of Taluk .
Committees to discuss and decide the method/;
of organising the campaign.
The convenor may :
assisted by two State level Honorary Family
Planning Organisers and active members of the
State • Family Planning Council.
>
3.
Taluka
a) Orientation training camps for primary teachers
of the Taluka may be organised for one day at
Taluka he ad-quarts r<
b) Similarly, orientation training camps of Sarpaachas, other leaders and Talati—cum—Sec rotaries ma be organised with specific objectives. Orientation
training to leaders and other volunteers may on
given by following the methodology given in the
booklet on f Dimensions o f leadership and involve
ment of leaders/as Change Agents, in health and
family planning programme (p.33-44).
>1
-6-
c) Each Taluka may be divided into 8-12 sectors of
20^000 population each. A team* comprising a
teacher, talati-cum-Secretary and Family Planning
worker will motivate cases for their sectoia
Mem fers of the teams of each taluka may be
organised to discuss and finalise the action :■) - r-anme.
d) laluka Pa^-chayats can-ask the Gran Panchayats
ci the Taluka to convene their nenbors alongwith
other influential persons to discuss and decide
aoout the suggested action*
4. -Village;
a) Each team* will work in th© villages by organising
group meetings of village leaders and beneficiaries
.to stimulate then- individually and in groups to
accept sterilisation, IUD and 1 irodh.
■Each Gram Panc-hayat will arrange a meeting of its
members, other interested and influential’persois
representatives of Taluka Panchayat, and Family '
Planning worker to decide to undertake the camp ■ i
for the welfare of the. village people.
’
Suggested discussion points and actions require i
be taken are.given.
b) Methodciogy
r ■
of
motivating
v
—
WUfc V LU. w J. 1. A
cases to use family plaa.l...
devices
ices has been outlined and literature suggested.
5. -Organisation of Vasectomy Camp
'
a) Detailed p]an
Guidelines are ^iven for cr.^an- ’i
a vasectomy camp. >iong others are the division -i’
^nr:P°nSibilitieS’
selection ofthe
surgeons for rendering services, props- ari
suitable physical facilities, on the soot pasnont
XX^taf^r arid
^eputaSn of
for iho
f5 Ca7ps’ PriZes and merit cert:11-s
tor the different categories of field staff,
'
'
b)Qpcrational steps
1. Motivation
and
o
t -p
. .
" ■■
sti*ation of cases.
Information
2. Infomation on camp.
3. Transport.
4. Quality of services.
5. Scrutiny of cases.
6. Pa yn e n t o_ f J n c e n t i ve s.
7. Ins-rJctions
------- -------- 3
and NcErodh distribution.
8. Service card's.
9. P"
1-n *
Publicity
of the canp.
10. Recognition
-7-
a
c)
ow up
It is stressed that follow-up should be
e) Foll
Follow
up
done within 2 or 3 days if necessary byjshe Helical
Jrnm.ediate
an'I
Officer of the Primary Health Centre.
I.
necessary, treatment should ee carried out using
Rs.200/- of the family planning contingency for
medicMe and quality care.
During the second follow up visit, workers will try
to encourage the satisfied acceptors to function as motiva
tors, including the factthat there are monetary incentives
for doing motivation work.
CQ^VJNITY APPROACH TO FAMILY ■^ELF^xlB
Al'J EMPIRICAL STUDY
. 3y
B. 3. Chatterjee
Haaunau Prasad
S.0< Srivastava
.Banwasi Seva .Ashram, .Govindpur, has been serving a
tribal area of Mirzapur district in the State of Uttar
Pradesh since 1956t It organises Gandhism programmes of
construction and spreads the message of Gramdan and peace,
in this area. After the famine of 1966-67, the challenge of
developing the area was accepted and/iftrindus Project,
(sponsored by the Agiixius Vi ctor Gall aneai Memorial Institute)
was founded in 196? under the auspices of the Sarva Seva
Sangh, Gandhi Smarak Nidhi and War on Want (England).
Tne
aim of the project was the total and integrates development
of the area ana the prevention of further favine^and
starvation.
Later on, the_LiteTacy House, Lucknow, U. A.S.«-*. ,
New Delhi, and the Pathfinder Fund'of America helped organise
programmes of functional literacy, food production and family
welfare in this area.
Pro '.j;ranne
The family Welfare Pro gramme carried out at the 4.s nra^
was a Ibroad-based long teim wrk plan fully integrated with
the overall total development programme undertaken in three
Blocks in order that the community
co^unity faces its problems
eroblens Ln a
holistic way.
•
•
COTnPrehensive .scheme for family welfare was organise!
including a preliminary health survey of 25 villages and
development of a programme of preventive medical care.
The
Ti
I
Report of an evaluation off the
‘
“ v Welfare Programme of thFamily
A^rindus Institute, Banw^i Seva- Ashram
-- -i, Goviadpur, Mir::apur5
India, 19 70.
!
-8w
hypothesis was that given an incentive and remunerative
employment opportunities, health services and education,
the rural consensus will favour a small' frilly.
At the time of study (1970), the project had been
It was planned to
functioning for about 24 months .
develop about a hundred villages.
The programme was started with an out door clinic
consisting of a doctor, a part-time vaddya and a Pinrt-time
nurse.
The policy at the'Clinic was:-
a) To treat the. ailment.
b) To explain the cause and effect in cases of
infections and deficiency iiseases.
c) To have informal talks about the customs,
dietetic habits, ways of life of the villa-ers;
etc.
d) To have informal and incidental talk about
Family Planning.
e) To explain the programme to the responsible
people of the villages.
A nominal charge for medicine was levidd. Rural
communities would be encouraged to think and plan for shem^selves for providing answer for. all the year round
remunerative employment, education for cultural upliftm-.m,
training in- crafts and rural industries, and a programme f
health education, medical care and nutrition guidance*
The Medical Care progranne was phased as follows -
PHaSE I
1. Conducting of health and social survey in small
clusters of villages.
2. Developing local community groups to discuss local
problems and plans.
3. Initiating a pro gramme of health care and preven f7 ve
medical work including sanitation.
PEASE
(
II
1. Intensification of the above pro^ra^me
programme in about
25 villages?
2. Arranging exhibitions and audio-visual methods and
distributing literature.
3. Initiating better health practices,
4. Integration of local leadership and potential workers
for training programme in intensive medical reli f’and
family planning methods.
■
-9-
i
PH.ASE III
1. Expansion of work already undertaken to develop
methods of work of family welfare.
2. Extension of activities in the whole area.
3. Evolyirjg new methodology, high-lighting them for
application and multiplication.
Certain ground rules were also formulated to serve as
ortnciples of working the plan.
These ares
1. Felt needs of the villages would bo the starting
point of the project.
2. Where felt needs are not expressed, denonstra^i ns
would be held to facilitate development of such
awareness.
3. Involve villagers ma-lhally and in a very calculate,
manner to ensure an experience of success and
elevated social status in the community*
4. To provide information, but there would be no atte^;to motivate the community by the o.r^anisation .
Such
motivation should come as social pressure from the
local leadership itself.
5. Replace traditional pattern of socio-economic
activities with a multi-faceted approach, of
improved agriculture, education, health, etc.
6. Ib capitalise on e^tranfeous spcia-l events, su.;
;
building of lar^e dams, migration of farmers, uoc.
for marshalling community, effort for reconstruct! <
and d e velo pn en t.
The purpose of the present study was to provide teach rdata to assess the course, nature, and e-tent of progress - ■
a period of time#
E val ua t ion 0 o.j octi ves
1. WhatZ^tFiQ situation of the community : among whom
the scheme is being operated, and .is likely to
exercise same impact.
2. Hi;w far the aim and objectives of the scheme • r'"
being fulfilled.
3. What sort of changes are coming into existence as a
result of the working of the scheme and are these
changes congruent with the •avowed aims and object
ives of the scheme.
4. Lastly, what sort of infoimation c.an be gathered
from the field so that by feeding it back to the
organises and implementers of the scheme, an
improvement in th© working of the scheme can be
affected.
The areas.of assessment were as follows:
a) General nature of the life and habits of the people
including employment patter^,cultural practie es,
traditions arid customs, education, health
health, s mitation, etc.
b)State of knowledge , information, awareness etc. ,
about the project, about facilities and opportuni ties
provided by it.
t
-10-
I
provided oy it.
c) Nature, behaviour and practices of tne co'",mun±t> witre ^ard to:
i) Food and Dietary' habits.
ii) Preventive measures.
tCr
iii) H: using, sanitation, envwnnental hygiene,,
.iv) Drinking water.
.
Medical ' and therapeUtic
therapeutic measures adopted.in
v) Medical
case of common sickness, of infectiuo.s dis., ases,
accidents or mishaps,
of epidemics, oif serious
—1.
vi) Hygiene'and sanitary habits.
vii) Family Plc -ning Practices.
.
...
Belief
and
opinion
towards
the
ideal
sizeyof
the
fam
ily
d)
’es
in the perspective of structure and functional chan
changes
coming over the community.
e) Beliefs and. attitudes of the opinion leaders of the
community regarding the Changes coming over the
community as a result of the working of the projectfar it
it is
is
f) 0T
0T sanisational
:,anisational aspects of the clinic,
clinic so far
exercising an iikpact on the community.
Variables of study:
Throe types of variables were defined,
independent, intervening and dependent.
The independent
* variables included workin? of various agro-economic schemes and
the clinic Extension and diffusion efforts, for Gnm’ian ; ad
rural reconstruction’ and communication facility with ashram
Projects.
Tne intervening variables comprised various aspects
of their social cultural and economic VTays of life.
The
Dependent variables were the ■ wareness, knowledge and
informati n about the iVrindus projects operating in the area
and emergence of certain beliefs, ttitude and opinions
regarding such items as size of the family, medical care,
food habits, etc.
_____ : .
Sampling
It was assumed that the spread of the _ rogra' ^e wo ale
be nverned by the case of communication with the Ashrar IL’alFive villages were, therefore, choseen, which c ulo Pq
quarters,
ordered on a cuntinuurn
continuurn
of Communication facility1 rangia;
Thus, the
from ’•'U/st favourable’ to ’least favourable’.
Thus
village at the end of the communicatl n facility, with no
chance for the projects being started even at the time when
the evaluation was undertaken .was coilsiiered : s a ’control’
village, and the other villages where the projects had been
in operation partially or fully were re /arled as ’ e-.-per-mental’
villages.
Tr.e Project had been ■ started earlier in the learjy
villages, and later in the far off villages.
Dvxta were collected fro^ different sets of respondents
and for different variables, usin^ the following instrun’^tn.tSx^;
I
II
L
5
I
I
1. Schedule 3 - F^r eliciting infoimation from vi, 1.- _es
selected i.i the sample.
-11
F
2
2. Schedule A - For studying the functioning of the
Agrindus Project.
Schedule C - For study'ng the Opinion attitudes and
reaction of the staff.
4. Schedule DF ■ r eliciting information from head., ., f
selected ho use-holds.
5. Schedule Efor interviewing local health workei’S with
and without kit supplied from the clinic
6. Schedule F -An interview guile far interviewin loc-u
opinion leaders.
3.
ochelulus Xj 0 an.i E ■,,’i>re coacerne i vritn / Twin 7 ice
inlependent variables, Schedule ,3 cavers some of tne intorveain.:
variables and Schedules D and F are meant .to assess ieoeaient
variables.
The respomerits were as follows
Twentyfive per cent of house-holis in the sample vill
selected on the basis of stratified random’ sarplirm; a sc;u ■
o f 20 ,?erf?n1s iu
* , h1® say-fie villages coul i be ■considered~" ■ )in., - a
leaders and knowledgeable! persons^, seven health workers , tn
:
to the clinicj -three
'
~ with
\ medical kit and .fottr ■ / .
without ne.i..1
kit; .and the Di rector of the: A;-,rindus Conole^ and the Cn.ef
- f
Fa-ily Welfare Project.
Trisse nulti-leyel and nulti-ty;)e samples were
were inteW-w.
interview:. x
in a structured nanner with the help of schedules
and iniiery.;
guides.
Linitatlons of stuiy
Tue sample of villages was small <as time for e-ecutia
study was limited, A corrective for this i
-j was the’ constn et?/ a
of fairly conphrensive and 1de^talled tools
with various
chacks^and counter-checks. With a less sophisticated built, jpo, action
more time was needed to establish
rapport to obtain certain ip-?’
lhiihfwi7iatnnf : ThS surve^ 13 n e an tUV indie ate
certain tie a •'
which will only oe confined, ,by
by a
a re-surveys.
Finija s
Tht? find in -------- --- -
clear, unbiased
unbiased allWhSS
am 'dutrnnHc ‘XtSwTftt^frinah;
‘hal
t£. ..
A e eneral
“Jue. f
Vllld'<perusal
eS
the find in's seemed FS^wV.Vve v.^ue.
the findings
seemed e^taSiS
to indicate X™!.*
that <
' 1‘ ”
a.y.ai
io1 bavrES
appear to have been established.
There is ■>
treMs
'
about what the Ashram Stauls for.
’,W'
of"an
TTbere'are
Ve are 3i^’of
of an S Idea
that
theeuX
Insti
o ’VwtK51
®i,^V
SOn
.Vns“Vf
' o”layla
St
1 J5t
Slto1ottnt
uU:Vf
hX
,3 an -x-vncy
comprehensive fashion.
’
-rowtn 01 this area in a
S-.^e of the important findings of th.^ study
are:
I
1. KUsXyle?fe of Vp^-ers has increased with re ard t-,
iculture, village industries, health and
sanitation and hygiene.
“eautn ans
%
I
-12I
2. Bimployment op ortunities have been created.
3. Licome has incre-sed fron employment opportunities'
created and agricultural product! n has gone up
including the introduction of new crops of ve... .• ./ -1
and wheat.
4. Literacy per-centage has risen from 4 to 9 p. r c:
in the command villages.
5. Krr wled^e aoout health sanitation and hygiene has
been broadened.
. - .
6. Peoole are coming forward to receive hospi4o.±
tr .-atm.ent and faith in other types of indigenous
medicine is now diminishing.
7. There is a consciousness of family size, aid people
have started discussing related- problems in dept-’
and wi th frankness.
8. Community capital formation.programmes s^ucn as earn,
construction, digging of drinking water weils,
reel am ation df land have begun. L<*oour co-opei.. u-l/es
have been started and committees for common
endeavours such as the plucking of tendu leaves,
shellac collection and fe-.tha leaking.
9. An ideal dairy and agricultural fam set ur by
.A.._?rindus has had a significant effect on the area
SUGGESTIONS:
I?.: the light of the study findings, a number 'f
measures have been recommended for socio-economic develop
La th.
the
ment.
These incluJe various developmental activite^ ~n
field of Agriculture and. animal husbandry and. the
encouragement of house-hold and village 1 vel industries
based on local resources -.vailaole*
It is hoped this
counter-act the evil effects of over-centralised ^rowth of
cajital intensive industries in this area.
There is consiiera’ele emphasis on village literacy
schemes so that people can take the help of ^oiern science
and.technology.
On the health side, a health education ©--tensi'-n pre- ranne using different approaches and media has been outlinedThe pro .ra^me would not only relate to Fanily Plaaiiinj
but also to communicable diseases, safe drinking water,
ventilated .houses and general cleanliness. Among the
institutional health education pro grammea number of
suggestions have been male for the organisation of health
camps.
r
i
CsvviVi 3|- 3
SYMPOSIUM ON THE UTILISATION OF FARM WASTE FOR RURAL
INDUSTRIAL GROWTH
f
Efficient preparation and conservation of the Earm Yard Manure
in augumenting our nutrient resources.
R»Ananthanareyana and-B.V.Venkata Rao
Department of Chemistry and Soils
University of Agricultural Sciences, Hehbal.
ABSTRACT
Under present day constraints in respect of energy, raw
materials and associated inputs necessary for the production
of fertilisers there is a need for reemphasis on increased
mobilisation of local manurial resources like Farm Yard
Manure, compost and green manures.
In this paper, attention has been focussed on the
efficient preparation and conservation of Farm Yaid Manure
besides indicating its positive contribution to reducing the
dep endence on fertilisers to supply nutrient needs of our
agriculture.
*
%
It is reported that if only half the natural fertiliser
is mobilised and used there would have been no fertiliser
shortage in the country. During 1974-75 production of nitroge
nous fertiliser is of 1.2 million tonnes and that of
i3
0.33 million tonnes. But the consumptive figures for these
nutrients were 2.61 and 0.96 million tonnes respectively. The
difference was .met by imports. It is a paradox that India
with such a vast manurial resources0
.- 11 million tonnes per
year of rural compost,’and 800 million tonnes per year of
city sewage (jRoychaudhri, 1974) has to import fertilisers.
Therefore it is imperative that all our farm and uxban waste
should be properly collected conserved and augumented. with,
reference to both quality and quantity under our farm conditions.
According to Swaminathan (1975)? we may need about 4.6, 3.4
and 1.92-million tonnes of N,P,K respectively by 2000 A.D.
He has advocated, tapping of all the organic manurial resources
as the present installed chemical fertiliser productivity is
only of the order of 1.46 and 0.50 million tonnes of nitrogen
and phosphorous respectively, Quoting again Swaminathan,.the
nitrogen requirement for the year 2,000 A.D. can be easily
met from what goes into waste in 1973 itself. The excreta
of human being yield 11 lb of nitrogen per individual per year
and cattle kept in sheds for 12
yields 21.90 lb of
nitrogen per head per year. Taking the human population as
550 million and cattle population 220 millions, the total
nitrogen available is 4-75 million tonnes i.e. more than
what will be required in 2000 A.D.
In view of the changed fertiliser cost pattern in the
last year or so, the conservation of natural farm waste for
application to soil instead of its use as fuel becomes an
urgent necessity.
-2Barm yard manure consists of dung or solid excreta, urine
or the liquid excreta of farm animals, mixed vjith varying
amounts of straw, litter and other organic farm refuse. Bung
consist of the insoluble and undigested residue, of the food
along with certain fluids from the digestiv tract. These
residues are rich in nitrogenphosphorous and potash, which
serves as a source of pl-an-t nutrients and organic matter which
on putrifactory decomposition yield substance similar to soil
humus. This- is responsible for improving the soil as to its
physical condition.' Urine is derived from the digested food
and the waste products, arising in muscular and other tissues.
In addition to dung and urine B.Y.M. consists of litter which
consists of straw, and other plant waste used as bedding. It'
helps in the absorption of urine.
Quality and quantity of B.Y.li. product depends on
(a) Nature of litter used (Table I)
(b) Glass of .animals used (Table II)
(c) Purpose of which the animals are 'kept
(d) Bood given to the animals
(e) handling of manures.
t
TABLB I
Nature of litter regarding its chemical components
STHAW OH STALK
k2o
N
in. percentage
Paddy
0.36
0.08
• 0.71
w'neat
0.55
0.40
•0.10
1.10
0.23
0.42
1.57
0.75
2.17
1.65
2.50
J owar
Maize
Batra
S
0.65
Source: Hand book of Agriculture I.C.A.H. (1995)
Amount of fresh excrements produced by farm animals are
subject to wide variations, being controlled by the kind of
animal, age, amount of food, activity etc., However an
approxim.at’e averages (Table II) can be used as a comparative
basis of reference in estimating amounts of organic manure
that can be reasonably expected from farm animals.
,, TABLA II
Amounts of excrements produced for 1,000. pounds of live
weight by Barm animals
Kind of
animal
Total
excrements
Solid
pounds
Liquid
pound0
Percentage
of excrement
in solid
percentage
excrement
in liquid
Gov?
27,000
19,000
3,000
70
30
-5-
1
2
3
4
5
6
Horse
Pig
Sheep
18,000
30,500
12,500
14,000
.18,300
8,300
3,600
12,200
4,200
$0
60
67
20
40.
33
Source V -n slyke (1953)
Furtherthe approximate amounts of plant food constitu
ents produced annually in the fresh excrement by a single
animal Qf..,given weight can be readily calculated (Table III)
T^Iil III
Approximate plant food constituents produced annually by
excrements by farm animals of given weight
Kind of
animal
weight
in lb.
Nitrogen
in lb.
Phosphoric
acid pound
Potash
pounds
Cow
Horse
800
Pig
Sheep
200
100
30
52
21
5-
102
■ 1200
125
154
30
12
124
26
13
Source Van Slyke (1953)
TABLH IV
Average composition of excrement of the Farm animal
ar given in Table
. •
Animal
Nature of
excrement
Moisture matter
Nitrogen
0.10
Solid
84.0
13.6
0.30
Urine
92.0
6.0
0.80
Traces
1.35
Solid
53.0
36.0
0.75
0.60
0.30
Urine
86.5
9.9*
1.40
0.05
2.10
Solid
75.0
21.0
0.53
0.33
0.40
Urine
90.0
8.0
1.35
Traces
1.25
Solid
.80.0
17.0
0.60
0.45
0.50
Urine
97.5
1.5
0.58
0.10
0.45
Cow
Sheen
P90R K9'0
0
2 5 2
in percentage
0.25
I
•
Horse
Pigs
Source: Venkata Rao 3.V. (1958).
-4From the above data (Table III) it is clear that liquid
portion of the excreta is rich in nitrogen and potash, whereas
it is reversed with regard to phosphorous. Except when the
animal is on productive work such as fattening or milking,
almost whole of nitrogen supplied in the food in the form of
protein gets released in dung and urine.
The first step in efficient preparation of farm manure
is minimization of losses of urine due to various causes. The
losses are mainly due to loss of urine in cattleshed due to
the absence *f any effort at collecting the same, loss of
soluble constituents such as potash and nitrate in the manure,
heap exposed to sun and rain and finally loss of nitrogen due
to the hydrolysis of nitrogen of urea to ammonium carbonate
as under
CO (NHj)2 + 2H20
(nh4)
CO,
■2NH,. +
9
CO,
co2 + h2o
To' avoid the losses, the cattle hyre should have a. stone
flocring wixn
with cnanneis
channels leading
to uxine
urine
or cement concrete ilocring
xeaoing io
collecting ponds, where it could be stored and transnorted to
the fields for direct application ofc to the manure heap,
litter and dry soil should he spread under the feet of the
cattle as absorbing material, 5-10 lb. of litter per.animal
can he used. The absorbent material could be periodically
removed and fresh material spread over the floor. In western
countries straw is used for the purpose besides serving as a.
bedding material. It absorbs urine and retards its decomposi
tion. It also adds on to the organic matter content of the
manure. In our country straw is too valuable a cattle feed to
be diversified for this pu^nose. Groundnut husk, fine dry
earth, dried leaves, waste fodder when applied directly to th©
field, can be used with advantage for absorbing urine in the
cattle shed.
Application of chemical preservative like rock phosphate,
superphosphate, dilute sulphuric acid, gyosum etc., to the
hyre helps to conserve ammonia. These chemical preservatives
fixes the volatilised ammonia into non-volatile compounds, thus
it saves it from escaping into the air. Addition of 25-50 lb.
of single superphosphate would not only prevent loss of ammonia
but also enriches the F.Y.i'I. in its phosphorous content. The
losses- due to wash out of soluble constituents can be prevented
by providing a thatched roof to the manure heap.
A proper manure heap is essential for the production of
good farm yard manure. Two important of methods preparing the
F.'Y.M. are the i) Trench method ii) Plastered bean method.
(Govind'ara jan 1950).
The advantages of thesemethoda are- a) Labour economy
b) Conservation of moisture,
which facilitates proper
decomposition of the
material.
c) Better quality of the
manure
d) Higher recovery of
manor e •
I
-5Trench method employs a trench of suitable dimension,
depending on the farm size Trench is filled in layers viz.,
a layer of refuse and a layer of dry earth, over this water
is sprinkled and layers are built up till it is 2 feet above
ground level* This helpsin diversion of rain water. The
advantage in their method.there is no need for turning in
the material the second method is adopted in places where
the water table is high and it is not possible t« prevent
water from rising up. Here the farm refuse is dumped to form
a square heap of about 6 feet sides. The outer sides of the
large heaps are drawn to form a dome-shaped mound and this
is plastered with earth and water or earth and cowdung plaster.
In this method the material has to be turned in after a
month or two.
A moist and compact manure heap make for anaerobic fermen
tation preventing convension of protein nitrogen material!
into gaseous ammonia. It also prevents oxidation and loss of
carbonaceous material, which results in the lesser outturn of
manures. This type of loss amounts to 15-20% even under best
condition of storage and it may be 50-80% under inefficient
wasteful nractices so common in our villages.
Present day energy crisis has necessiated the use of
organic waste for energy producing purpo'ses. Here the dual
purpose gtber gas plant conies handy. They provide fuel and
also manure simultaneously by annaerobic fermentation. The
resultant products are a. mixture of methane and'carbon dioxide,
which is stored in a gas -cylinder. The digested slurry
contains 1 to 2% nitrogen.
P.Y.i--.. is a complete manure. Good sample of F.Y.M.
E.Y.M. may
contain 0.7 to 0.9 per cent of KpO. A ton of manure adds on
o0q and 30 lb
the soil approximately 15 lbs.
12 lbs. of TP’2^5
U-L
ULICGC; -L
P-LJ-CQ well
WCA-J- ’ Vi
■UAy'-*
V* wu.
& x*-. J
of Ko0. -UCOXUCO
Besides these
itU OU.JJ
supplies
dec^mposea
organic
matter, which influence th§ physical and chemicalp properties
of the soil. It promotes biological activity in the soil If
we accept the view that the animal excreta contains growth
promoting substance- or hormones, and the same are to be supplied
to the soil, farm yard manure, is the convenient and practical
source, of the same for the crop. Beneficial influence of FfM
on soil physical and chemical properties are well known. In
recent years Sarkar et al (19 73) have shown that the structural
properties of sandy loam soil of Hissar, materially improve
with continuous of application of BYM over a period of a year.
Kanwar and Prihar (1962) have reported the beneficial effects
of F.Y.M. on soil chemical properties. They noticed a^: substan
tial increase in N,P, K, Organic matter, C:;N ratio, compared
to control.
-6-
R E F E H E!K C .dj S
G-^vindarajan, S.V. (1950), Composts their importance and
their manufacture. Cir.. no.59. Agri. College and Res.
Institute-, Hehbal, Bangalore.
Hand Book of Agriculture (1966) Pub. by I.C.A.R. New Delhi
P. 105
"
•
Kanwar, S., and Prihar, S.S. (19&2)^ Effect of continuous
application of F.Y.Ii. and Inorganic fertiliseraus on
yields and properties of soil. I. Ind. Soc. Sail Sci.
10-109.
..... , S.P. (1974), Survey for the economic and
Roy Chandhri,
Scientific Research Foundation, New Delhi.
Sarkar, M. C., Mewa Singh and Jagannath. (1973), Influence >f
F.Y.M. on soil structure and some related soil properties.
J. Ind. Soc. S^il-Sci. 21-227.
Swaminathan, M.S., quoted by Sathianathan, M.A. (1975)
ff Bio-gas n. , Achievements and challenges Vol.I Agency
for fural development, New Delhi.
Farm manure, Gompnsitidn and changes in
Fertilizers and crop production Puh. hy Qr^ange Fudd. Ruhr
Company. Inc. New York. P.235.
Van► Kjxjn-c
Slyke (1955)
Venkata Rao, B.'^. (1958), Farm Yard Manure its Efficient
Production and Conservation Co-conut. .Bulletin.
*
*
*
*
c
SYMPOSIUM ON THS UTILISATION OR FARM ^ASTE FOR RURAL
INDUSTRIAL GROWTH
Efficient preparation and conservation of the Farm Yard Manure
in augumenting our nutrient resources.
Ho^nanthanarayana and B.V.,Venkata -tao
Department of Chemistry and Soils
University of Agricultural Sciences, Eebbal.
ABSTRACT
Under present day constraints in respect of energy, raw
materials and associated inputs necessary for the production
of fertilisers there is a need for reemphasis on increased
mohilisation of local manurial resources like Farm Yard
Manure, compost and green manures.
In this paper, attention has been focussed on the
efficient preparation and conservation of Farm Yard Manure
besides indicating its positive contribution to reducing the
dep endence on fertilisers to supply nutrient needs of our
agriculture.
* •;$ -M-
It is reported that if only half the natural fertiliser
is mobilised 'and used there would have been no fertiliser
shortage in the country. During 1974-75 production of nitroge
nous fertiliser is of 1.2 million tonnes and that of ^0^5
0.33 million tonnes. But the consumptive figures for these
nutrients were 2.61 and 0.96 million tonnes respectively. The
difference was met by imports. It is a paradox that India
with such a vast manurial resourcess- 11 million tonnes per
year of rural compost, and 800 million tonnes per yea^ of
city sewage (Boychaudiiri, 1974) has to import fertilisers.
Therefore it is imperative that all our farm and uiban waste
should be properly collected conserved and augumented with
reference to loth, quality and quantity under our farm conditions.
According to Swaminathan (1975J? we may need about 4.6, 3.4
and 1.92 million tonnes of
respectively by 2000 A.D.
He -has advocated,, tapping of all the organic manurial resources
as the present installed chemical fertiliser productivity is
only of the order of 1.46 and 0.50 million tonnes of nitrogen
and phosphorous respectively, Quoting again Swaminathan,the
nitrogen requirement for the year 2,000 A.D. can be easily
met from what goes into waste in 1973 itself. The excreta
of human being yield 11 lb of nitrogqn per individual per year
and cattle kept in sheds for 12
yields 21.90 lb of
nitrogen per head per year. Taking the human population as
550 million and cattle population 220 millions, the total
nitrogen available is 4-75 million tonnes i.e. more than
what will be ^required in 2000 A.D.
In view of the changed fertiliser cost pattern in the
last year or so, the conservation of natural farm waste for
application to soil instead of its use as fuel becomes an
urgent necessity.
-2Earm yard manure consists of dung or solid excreta, urine
or the liquid excreta of farm animals, mixed with varying
amounts of straw, litter and other organic farm refuse. Bung
consist of the insoluhle and undigested residue, of the food
along with certain fluids from the digestiv- tract. These
residues are rich in nitrogenphosphorous and potash, which
serves as a source of plant nutrients and organic matter which
on putrifactory decomposition yield substance similar to soil
humus. This is responsible for improving the soil as to its
physical condition. Urine'is derived from the digested food
and the waste products, arising in muscular and other tissues.
In addition to dung and urine E.Y.M. consists of litter which
consists of straw, and other plant waste used as bedding. It
helps in the absorption of urine.
Quality and quantity of E.Y.li. product depends on
(a) Nature of litter used (Table I)
(b) Class of animals used (Table II)
(c) Purpose of which the animals are kept
(d) Food given to the animals
(e) handling of manures.
TABLui I
Nature of litter regarding its chemical components
STHAW OH S±HLK
k2o
P2°5
_in. percentage
S
• Paddy
0.36
.0.08
0.71
Wneat
Jowar
Maize
Batra
0.53
0.40
0.42
0.10
1.10
0.23
0.65
0.75
2.17
1.65
2.50
1.57
■ Source: Hand look of Agriculture I.C.A.H, (1955)
7
Amount of fresh excrements produced by farm animals are
subject to wide variations, being controlled by the kind of
animal, age, amount of food, activity etc., However an
approximate averages (Table II) can be used as a comparative
basis of reference in estimating amounts of organic manure
that can be reasonable^expected from farm animals.
TABLE II
Amounts of excrements produced for 1,’QCO pounds of live
weight hy Barm animals
percentage
Percentage.
Liquid of excrement excrement
Solid
Kind of I* tai
excrements pounds ■pound
animal
in liquid
in solid
Cow
27,000
19,000
8,000
70
30
i
r
-
W":
-■
1
i.!. y.
■
j,..
a
-31
2
3
4
5
6
Horse
13 ,.000
30,500
12,500
14,000
18,300
8,300
3,600
12,200
4,200
^0
60
20
40
67
33
Pig
Sheep
Source V n slyke (1953)
Further, the approximate amounts of nlant food censtituents produced annually in the fresh excrement ly a single
animal of given weight can le readily calculated (Table III)
T^BLr III
Approximate plant food constituents produced annually by
excrements ly farm animals of given weight
Kind of
animal
weight
in 11.
Nitrogen
’ in 11.
Phosphoric
acid pound
Cow
Horse
800
1200
200
100
125
154
30
12
30
52
21
5
Pig
Sheep
■ Potash
pounds
102
124
26
13
Source Van Slyke (1953)
\
TABLE IV
Average composition of excrement of the Farm animal
are given in Table,
Animal
Nature of
excrement
Moisture °^^i.
marter
Nitrogen
P.O,- K„0
ICO
in percentage
Solid
84.0
' 13.6'
0.30
0.25
0.10
Urine
92.0
6.0
0.30
Traces
1.35
Solid
53.0
36.0
0.75
0.60' 0.30
Urine
86.5
9.9
1.40
0.05
2.10
Solid
75.0
21.0
0.53
0.33
0.40
Urine
90.0
8.0
1.35
Traces
1.25
Solid
80.0
17.0
0.60
0.45
0.50
Urine
97.5
1.5
0.58
0.10
0.45
Cow
Sheen
Horse
Pigs
Source: Venkata Rao 3.V. (1958).
i
i
5
3
*
-4from the above data (Table III) it is clear that liquid
portion of the excreta is rich in nitrogen and potash, 1v^hereas
Except when the
it is reversed with regard to phosphorous. Excent
animal is on productive work such as fattening.or milking,
almost whole of nitrogen supplied in the food in the form of
protein gets released in dung and urine.
•
The first step in efficient preparation of farm manure
is minimization of losses of urine due to various causes. The
losses are mainly due to loss of urine in cattleshed due to
the absence of any effort at collecting the same, loss of
soluble constituents such as potash and nitrate in.the manure,
heap exposed to sun and rain and finally loss of nitrogen due
to the hydrolysis of nitrogen of urea to ammonium carbonate
as under
co (nh2)2 + 2H20 ■- (NH4)2 C03
z2NH,j + CO 2 t H2°
(nh4) C0,^
5
To avoid the losses, the cattle byre should have a stone
or cement concrete flooring with channels leading to urine
collecting ponds, where it could be stored and transported to
the fields for direct application or to the manure heap,
litter and dry soil should be spread under the feet of the
cattle as absorbing material, 5-10 lb. of litter per.animal
can be used. The absorbent material could be periodically
removed and fresh material spread over the floor. In western
countries straw is used for the purpose besides serving as a.
bedding material. It absorbs urine and retards its decomposi
tion. It also adds on to the organic matter content of the
manure. In our country straw is to-o valuable a cattle feed to
be diversified for this purnose. Groundnut husk, fine dry
earth, dried leaves, waste fodder when applied directly to the
field can be used with advantage for absorbing urine in the
cattle shed.
Application of chemical preservative like rock phosphate,
superphosphate, dilute sulphuric acid, gypsum etc., to the
byre helps to conserve*ammonia. These chemical preservatives
fixes the volatilised ammonia into non-volatile compounds, thus
it saves- it from escaping into the air. Addition of 25*50 lb.
of single superphosphate would not only prevent loss of ammonia
but also enriches the F.Y.x-1. in its phosphorous content. The
losses due to wash out of s luble constituents can be prevented
by providing a thatched roof to the manure heap.
A proper manure heap is essential for the production of
good farm yard manure. Two important of methods preparing the
E.Y.M. are the i) Trench method ii) Plastered heen method.
(Govindarajan 1950). •
The advantages of thesemethoda are- a.) Labour economy
b) Conservation of moisture,
which facilitates proper
•decomposition of the
material.
c) Better quality of the
manure
d) Higher recovery of
manure.
I
-5-
Trench method employs a trench of suitable dimension,
depending on the farm size Trench is filled in layers viz.,
a layer of refuse and a layer of dry earth, over this water
is sprinkled and layers are built up till it is 2 feet above
ground level. This helpsin diversion of rain wafer. The
advantage in thb4r method,there is .no'need for turning in
the material rhe second method is adopted in places where
the water table is high and it is not possible t« prevent
water from rising up. Here the farm refuse is dumped to form
a square heap of about 6 feet sides. The outer sides of the
large heaps are drawn to form a dome-shaped mound and this
is plastered with earth and water or earth and cowdung plaster.
In this method the material has to be turned in after a
month or two.
■ji,
A moist and compact manure heap make for anaerobie fermen
tation preventing convension of protein nitrogen materials
into gaseous ammonia. It also prevents oxidation and loss of
carbonaceous material, which results in the lesser outturn of
manure . This type of loss amounts to 15-20% even under best
condition of storage and it may be -50-80% upder inefficient
wasteful practices s^ common In our villages.
Present day energy crisis has necessiated the use of
organic waste for energy producing purnoses. Here the dual
purpose, geber gas plant comes handy. They provide fuel and
also manure simultaneously by annaerobic fermentation. The
resultant products are a mixture of metha*ne and ^carbon dioxide,
which is stored in a gas cylinder. The digested* slurry
contains 1 “to 2% nitrogen.
P.Y.r;,. is a complete manure. Good sample of F.T.M. may.
contain 0.7 to 0.9 per cent of K90. A ton of manure 'adds on
and .30 lb
the soil approximately 15 lbs. cf N, 12 lbs. of
and
of KpO. Besides these it supplies well decomposed organic
"matter, which influence th§ physical and chemicalp properties
of the soil. It promotes biological activity in the soil if
we accept the view that the animal excreta contains growth
promoting substance or hormones, and the same are to be supplied
to the soil, farm yard manure, is the convenient and practical
source, of the same for the crop. Beneficial influence of BYI'i
on soil physical and chemical properties are well known. In
recent years Barker et al (19 73) have shown that the structural
properties of sandy loam soil of Hissar, materially improve
with continuous of application of PYM over a period of a year.
Kanwar and Prihar (1962) have reported the beneficial effects
of F.Y.1''I. on soil chemical properties. They noticed a$ substan
tial increase in N,P, K, Organic matter, 0::N ratio, compared
to control.
-6-
R..EJ F E E E N C E S
G-evindarajan, S.V. (1950), Composts their importance and
their manufacture. Cir.. no.59. Agri. College and Res.
Institute, Hebbal, Bangalore.
Hand Book of Agriculture (1%6) Pub. by I.G.A.R. New Delhi
P. 105
Kanwar, S., and Prihar, S.S. (19&2)< Effect of continuous
application of F.Y.M. and Inorganic fertiliserous on
yields and properties of soil. J. Ind. Soc. Soil Sci.
10-109.
Roy Chaudhri, S.P. (1974), Survey for the econciric and
Scientific Research Foundation, New Delhi.
Sarkar, M.C., Mewa Singh and Jagannath. (1973), Influence ef
F.Y.M. on soil structure and some related soil properties.
J. Ind. Soc. S5il Sci. 21-227.
Swaminathan, M.S., quoted by Sathianathan, M.A. (1975)
ftBio-gas”., Achievements and challenges Vol. I Agency
for fural development, New Delhi.
Van Slyke (1955), Farm manure, Composition and changes in
Fertilizers and crop production Pub. by Arrange Fudd. Pub.
Company. Inc. New York. P.235.
Venkata Rao, B.V. (1958), Farm Yard Manure its Efficient
Production and Conservation Co-conut. Bulletin.
*
*
*
-X-
*
*
xe -r
fi
fl
31 —5^
ARRlNDIX
THE lARGCR PIMEfilSIQNS OF DAIRY DEVELOPFOT IK POIA
Afrer he had been Prime Minister for a relatively short time*
Shri Lal Bahadur Shastri expressed to wish to stay in e village for at
least ono night.
A modest wish* one might think* but hardly one to bo
weloomed by conscientious security men responsible for his safety*
Nevertheless* when the Prime Minister come to Anand to inaugurate the
cattle feed compounding plant of the Kaira District Co-op. Milk
Producers1 Union* not all of this convey took quite the route that had
boon published.
Instead* it made in unscheduled stop) a diminutive
figure transferred from a largo limousine to a Jeep-type vehicle and the
convoy continued sedately to Anand* while the more homely vehicle
proceeded more bumpily to the village of Ajaroura* where it deposited
a delighted Prims Minister at a modest village house.
in sight.
Not a policeman
Complete freedom to roam the village* to drink tea with farmers
and labourers to get back* in other words* to what India ia all about.
Ignoring all Doctor*s orders* the P.M. talked with the people till 2 a.m.
and rose early next morning to talk with themagain over a breakfast of
tea and Ehapati’e.
When m reluctantly emerged from the village-end after a
remarkable, earthy^ ^temporanoous address to the 4Dt000 cooperators
who attended the inauguration of tha cattle feed plant - the
not content to let the matter and there.
was
He said that the Kaira Co
operative was all very well* but why were there not more them ?
Us told him that the Kaira Cooperative had already helped similar
institutions to get going in Mehsana* Baroda* Surat etc. - but that it was
difficult to see how the cooperative members1 resources could do the Job
on a national scale*
The Prime Minister replied that he fell that there
ohould be an institution supported by the Central Government* set up for
the express purpose of helping milk producers to organise their ouf»
’Anand Sw in all the milksheds of the country.
And ao it came about that
|rhe National Dairy Development Board was bon* with its Head Office at
Anand.
Not without some wrangling among the bureaucracy* it is tr^e but
By Dr, V. KURIEK, CHAIRRAH, NATIONAL DAIRY DEVELiH* LNT BOARD,
Lecture delivered during the Sixth Lal Bahadur Shaatri Memorial Lecture
aeries at INDIAN AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE, NEW DELHI (Janaury - Wl)
-1 2
l-
that is a dimension of our dairy development with which I shall not
attenpt to deal today I- but rather, what I shall attempt here is to
show something, at leapt, of how the country is now trying to fulfill
Shri tai Bahadur Shastri’s wish that there should be ’’Anand’s” ftn all
our milkshads - and how perceptively he envisaged the larger dimensions
of dairy development which our country could there by achieve.
THE FRAHE
First one must look at dairy development within the frame tork of ths
country’s total situation.
Of course, it is true that we dairymen often
liave to speak as if dairying wore in soma way unique*-but, for our ourposssr
here today, one must note the many characteristics that dairying has in
common with other agricultural industries.
It is important to
recognise
that dairying is an indeutry i evsn the moat traditional approaches to the
supply of liquid milk for our small to^ia, requires some organisation for
transport, processing and marketing plus some investment in equipment. It
follows that, since there is inveetmont, some capital is involved and
therefore-whet her it be in the nrivate, public or cooperative sector -
some application of the concent of “return on capital” must also b®
involved.
Moreover, even these sinple ”industrialw characteristics of
dairying oblige one to bear in mM mind two more * the importance in
dairying of demand supply relationship and tho fact that, uhether planned
or inplanned, all industries must in some sense complete for investment
funds.
Than also, like other induatri®, dairying can develop satis
factorily only if its development is consistent with that of the country
•e a whole.
I am thinking particularly of rural urban relationship
many so-called developed countries are proud of the fact that only, say 5^
of their people work on ths land in a few years time,
800
^e shall have an
million population - doss this mean that we shall aim at having an
urbanised population of 760 million, leaving
(40 million) on the land 7
Surely not even if such a monstrous urbanisation were contemplated, we
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aqq 03 aqnqyjquoo 03 sb Abr e ipns uy doyeA&p qsnw buyAjjep jn0 t yyy
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eq aa^qeq ^ouueo om« eaTTTwej jo epuetsiap eq3
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0T aeq^o
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•pooq yyeAyy -xiaqq BAyjep eydaed 38001
qoyq* ujojj ^eqyde^ Jofeta eq3 ey puey yexnqynoTJbe eaeqw ^eeyqyurumuoo
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eqq sieeX Aubih joj qseayqe •snqj
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-I £ I-
-I 4 i-
I believe that, if one accepts this framework, there are five
larger dimensions cf dairy developlient which must be observed.
The Instltuti.onal Dimension >
As in other areas of our national heritage, the main problsmof
oflr dairy development has not been that of knowing that tto d*| rather it
has seen that of knowing how to do it - or how to gat it done*
In
practice, in our country as in others, only one institutional structure has
proven effective in getting dairy development dons that is a unified orga
nisation of milk producers, which is responsible for procuring, processing
and marketing its members’ milk owned and controlled by milk producers and
therefore responsive to producers’ needs*
Such an organisation enables even the poorest producers to hire
their own professional technical personnel and managars*
It gives the
producers command over the technologies which they require in order to
market their milk to consumers who need it (as liquid milk and milk productsl
It also enables producers to invest in the facilitiaa and services which they
need in order to improve their milk production*
How does this work ? The structure is a familiar one I each
village in the milkahed forms its oio primary cooperative society.
AH
such eocieities in the milkshed from a cooperative Union and this Union
oucs» manages and operates the dairy apeocsssing plant, the
procurement
organisation and the marketing system for its members*
But note that each primary society is managed by a paid (and,
in this sense, a professional) Secretary.
Each primary socisty has its
otfi trained man to carry out on the spot artificial insemination of members’
anima la, to provide first-aid veterinary care for those animals etc.
Becapse they are .laid by the society, however modestly, these wen have t©
da thoir work conscientiously they cannot ftlaim the Immunity of a remore,
enteranohed bureaucracy.
-t S l-
Similarly, the cooperative union has its own managers and
technical personnel, paid toy the tasmbara out of the margina earned «•
their milk.
If they fall to earn the appropriate margins, the members
will »oon instruct their Board of Directors to get them removed.
idhan, however, the managers and technologists do perform, ths
producers find that they get a good price for their milk (plus a bonus
at the end of the year) and they soon become keen to increase their
milk production. »<nd they soon become keen to increase their milk
production. And it is hare, I believe, that the Institution comes into
its own. The union can Obfi and operate its o,*» cattle-feed plant-the
members' priswry socioties are ideal retail outlets for such e product I
members come twics a day to sell their milk, they are paid twice a day for
their milk so they readily purchase their concentrate requirements, if
necessary ch a daily basis.
3ust aa the Union has the managerial and technical resources to
apnMte its own cattle feed plant, so also can it arganias intensive systome
to provide Artificial Insemination services, verterlnary services etc.
For all nanburss At Anand, for example, ths Union has over 40 professional
veterinary doctor®, it carries out some 2,00,000 artificial insemination
services yearly, It markets lucerne seed yearly to its members, to help
them grow sotae ten ttiousand of hectares of green fodder annually. Ktt All
thio io one District only at no coot to Govemiaont.
Thus, as the organisation grows and get® a good return on its
members milk, the rnwhcrs rapidly develop their interest not only in improving
their milk production but also in improving the market for their milk,
So
they use their organisation to obtain the services of neop la who are pro
fessional mrkoters and the organisation becomes increasingly consumeroriented.
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7 i-
dot ar io rate, goneratljn by generation) : this is the built-in self
destructive factor on the production a de of our dairying*
There are similar, self—destructive factors built into our
dairying's traditional approachee to milk procurement, processing and
marketing*
This is precisely bucause cur traditional milk trade has
had a long time to balance a stagnant milk production against a surging
demand (in the major cities, milk and milk products account for 9,13%
of moat consumere' expenditures)*
In the face of a widening gap between production and demand
the traditional trader extends and cheapens liquid milk by additing
sugar, water rice, flour etc. (which we proudly call ’’dilution”) - and
to be prepared for the lean season he frequently tries to accumulate
stocks of gee mawa tote, during the Flush season (which we proudly call
’’hoarding”).
The traditional trader earns hant^-some margins for these
dilution and hoarding functions - but, really , he is doing only what the
system requires of him even though it makes our dairying self dost
ructuve and this is why the tQchnoeconomics of our modern dairying must
reverse such self destructive Factors.
To achieve this reversal# the key is the consistance of change
(throughout the production, procurement, processing and marketing phase
of our dairying) - and, of course the major criterion through out those
phases is ’’productivity” in the uea of resources, in the use of capital*
Hence the uss of producers oriented institutions, to snablo poor milk
pro doctors to acquire milch
animals which are better converters and which
make their family’s Xaboee mors productive.
Similarly, in the processing and marketing phases (which have
to be considered together), we have to evolve "Systems” for bringing metoft
milk and milk products more efficiently to urban consumers.
For examp is,
our present practice of building palatial Mestor-style urban dairies in
-I 8
l-
cities. Where demand is less than 100,000 litres is to costlys it
makes th© modern dairy industry less competitive than even with the
traditional system.
Hence our current efforts (which I believe are
on the brink of success) to evolve a system known as the bulk-vending
system tJUch would be enable several such cities to be served more
economically by a single larger dairy, we have yet to evolve such
techno-economically improved systems for milk products such ghee and
I shall discuss thia need briefly later.
Mean while, however, let me illustrate the third achievement
whldi I mentioned as being required of the new t edwo-sconomics of dairy
ing i namely, that they should benefit producers and consumers not
directly within the ambit of our modernising dairying industry*
Take
the croaa-breading programmes which are being instituted in the
solsctad milksheds, for example.
In effact, these program as will encourage the rearing of more
improved heifers than the iroducGts will with to retain*
Th®y will keep
ths best (which will enable them to take in advent age of the better
feeding and management available in ths milksheds) and they will sell off
the rest, which will thus be moved into th© non milkshed areas,where they
will be considerably bottom than the existing milch hereto, to the benefit
of the milk producers in those ara-aa and the consumers they serve*
Thus, in faat, the programmes for cwoss-brceding and upgrading
milch animals in ths milkehede will result in ths aiultiplication and dis-*
tribution of imp roved animals in ever-widening circles of increasingly
improved productivity*
This must be the ’’trigger
which sets off a built-
in change toward increasing productivity throughout or developing dairy
industry*
9
Thf ^ndUBtrlal Ofcionolan
However, several isolated projects undertaken an far to produce
crossbred animals in our milksheds have made little impact, partly because
they are isolated efforts*
in small "Mockats*1.
Most of dairy modernisatiopbannot be achieved
They Industrial infra-et root uro required can bo
sustained economically only if the scale involved is rather large* This
infrastructure oa-Hieed aim ba m^f
genlg
is of two district kinds t that which is of a general industrial nature -
and trvit which pertains, to the food industry in particular.
The general industrial infra-structur® required involved factories
to produce veterinary irtpyiological and biological products, factory-scale
production of frozen sewnen and factoring to produce ths equipment that is
needed for efficimt miIkpcocoasing arrefi'fasting. War is tJUs Just a
matter of copying simil?^r fnctories of
and America, Oiose avail-
abilities of capital, stainless steel, human skills oto. ere quire different
from ours.
W8 have not only to build naw kinds of categories, btft these
must embody systems, processes and aoproaohas to marketing which are designed
express el y to enable us to serve our producers and consumers.
Th® second part of the Industrial infra-st ructure required is
the building of tdieet ue usually
think of a«Hdiariee”-
However> our
experience shou® that, tjhile some storage and processing facilities ar©
needed, it is certainly not appropriate simoly to copy ths dairies of
other regions where dairying products arc propagandised ae something
almost magical, rather than a simple and wholesome foods tfiich they
should be*
In future we must build ’’food factors”, rather than things which,
because we call them ’’dairies”, ndmt bo
reserved for the lactic secretion
of the cow, even at the cost of vary loot utilisation - and these "dairies”
which are also ’’food factories” must be used simply to produce as much
uhols some good, value food products as poseibte.
-I 10 1-
Thio relates to the net>»techno economics which I outlined
earlier.
For examole, most ghee is diluted in varying degrees with
^anasoatl, to enable to traditional sector to nrovide consumers with
a range of mixed ghees at an appropriate eon go of range of prices. If
our modernsing dairy industry were to provide consumers with similar
"vegetable ghees", properly labelled,consumers would know what they
are paying forj these modem ghees would be both safe and pure and the
majority of consumers would be far better served, (and the nation’s
investments in processing facilities would be far better utilised)•
Thus, ?«i® roust structure the techno—economics of our modemsing dairy
industry so thafc it Increasingly of furs products which taste the way
that good foods should at the best possible prices, regardless of
t/tefchcr we make them with 10% milk solids and 90% vegetable solids or
vice versa.
Properly marketed, these products would rapidly find
consumer acceptance, because at better prices than the nroducts which
most of our coneumere are now compMled to but from the traditional
sector*
There are many such examples of how the desired techno-economics
of our modern dairy industry indicate the industrial dimensions that the
industry
must assume.
sinply to establish that ther
Howavar, I hope, I have said enough
are two industrial aspects which have to
be looked after (namely, the production of processing equipment, technical
inputs etc. - and the establishment of processing facilities which will
increasingly integrate dairying with out modernising food industry ias a
uirole) and that this industrial infrastructure must completinsnt ths
institutional and techno-economic development of our modem dairy sub-sector*
JhfiJ[Hm^gns tan of Technical Ho demisat ion In Rupftl AfpfiR
I mentioned in my introduction to this Lecture that I do not believe
that we can or should aim (in our life-time, at least) at a society wherein
only, aay
of our people will be directly dependent on the land*
Not only
-1 11 I
have wo Insufficient capital to create the number of industrial Jobe
bbtet this would require - but I suggest that we also have not the social
capital.
No society has.
We have only to look at ths racial tensions of mgny European
and American cities* at the appalling neglect of the aged throughout the
West. etc. Considering the inability of so-called ’‘developed* societies
to cope with smbs urbanisation, it is not surprising th?t our our cities
are becoming hellholes and onb can not wish the majority of our people to
be obliged to live in such places.
Inatoad9 one has to face ipto the fact that our rural/urban
priorities must change.
While trying to make like for those who do have
to live in our citiest socially and physically secure* we must also try
much harder to see to it that the majority of our People can live in a
rural society which will offer an increaingly satisfying and productive
experiMMMu
A food industry such as dairying has to deal with thia task
on two lave la
i
Flrot : There is the fact that, we need good food in order to
raak® the moat of our lives*
Those of us who influence the modernisation
of any part of our food production, processing and marketing, must see
■
to it that our people get the food they need,
this sounds elementary,
but it la disturbing to note how often osoile talk as if a man can sat
somsthing that is called a ’’Rural Labour Project”., or even an ’’Intensive
cattle development programme*.
Those of us who are responsible for the
agriculture food aact/or really have to discipline ouraerve® to eschew
such evasions.
Uhty.this need for good food is accepted, then it is our duty
also to consider that man does not live on food alone I wo have also to
create what I have refered to as the ’’Social upplta!" tfiioh will enable
our Ma jority to lead and increasingly productive and satiefylhg life
-I 12 t-
In rural communities•
dimension.
There is nothing unreal or ir^angible about this
It calls for nothing leas than ths tochnicul modernisation of
rural society.
Taking the example of dairying* consider the
act that one third
of our Districts are notential areas for efficient milk production.
Thia
means that a modemieing dairy industry, bassd an organisation owned and
controlled by milk iroducnrs, implies nothing less than the bull tip of
institutions which can reach into the heart of evon the smallest villagee
in one third of the country*
Consider what this means in a village where tiw majority of its
people oun a milch animal, when they find *yhat there is now an organisation
which enables thamto employ a literate man to manage their business, that
this organieation really does pay them the fair and declared price for
their milk and even that the same organisation can enable them to employ
technical people who will really work for them to help them improve their
milk production » veterinary doctors,green fodder specialists etc.
At the
sake time, they find that, if they wish to market more milk this way,
they can also get their processing plan expanded, they can hire aeople who
will work to evolve and market products which give them e better return on
their milk.
Uhat doss it do to their lives 2
They find that they are all
"economic equals" that they can each take their turn regardless of casts
when they line up to sell their milk and that milks of the same quality
fetch the same price, that milk has an “objective value”
They find that
the remote and perhaps ’,citifiedtt sciences can help them to use such very
practical technologies as artificial insemination to improve their milk
production.
Thus, technical modernisation enters into their lives via
the new institutional structures which I mentioned earlier.
-I 13 1-
The industrial dimension which I have mentioned are also
easential to thia technics
modernisation.
The producers' processing
plants become focal pointe for modem rural industries with which the
producers identify, such as cattle feed plants, small scale industries
making milk testing equipment, container for semen for artificial
ing em in at ion atu.
Thus, on th© on© hand, agricultural production
bacoraes mor© viable through the modest and practical application of
modem technology and at the sane time more ’’industrial” jobs are
created, both directly in th© produceva own organisations and also in
the burgeoning induotrial infra-structure*
Moreover, once a qlven group of milk producers has an insti
tution capable of making, aay milk pouder - then it 1. only natural for
the producer, to ask why they cannot process and markat, say thair paddy
in the same way.
They find that ths by-products of a modern rice mill
can ba used efficiently by their cattle feed plant.
Perhans also they
find that their milk powder and their cereals can be combined into whole
some milk beverages, the marksting of which gives them a better return
on both thair milk and their cereals (and i/iich, I may add, certainly
give, consumers of such beverages better value than they now get from such
products.
Thus, relatively aimol© nrogrammerfor improving milk production,
integrated with the proviaion of the necessary □rocessing and marketing
facilities, can becone a eoring board For the technicoal modernisation of
the vast rural areas involved*
Milk producers find that modern technologies
can help them and that they can obtain the eervioes of technicial and
managerial people to enable themto apply these modem technologies to an
increasing range of thoir agricultural produce.
Moreover the industrial
infrastructure which supports this modernisation provides an increasingly
wide range of Jobs uMhin the region.
Thus dairy development can set in
•otion the#" technical modernisation” of our rural areas, making life for
our rural majority more eeproductive and more satisfying without the
©Kceasive urbanisation which has engulfed the ^ost and which we must avoid*
-t 14 »-
5.
The social PftMmlim
I have tried to show how teshnlcal
modernisation can be the
"means" for inproving ths lives of our rural majority biA it is of course,
certainly not ths "end".
ite social content.
Such modeenieatlan is the erotically neutral in
It is up to us to see that, its impacts on our people's
lives are eocially desirable.
We have already found that the institutional
structure, if properly built, can provide its rural participants (in our
ease, milk producers) with an experience which shows them how t hey can set
up organisations wherein the socially disadvantaged people get a fire deal.
Each participant finds that he ©an line up to sell milk, without any
particular caste or community taking precedence - and that this institution
can be the means of achieving ether kinds of change in all walks of life.
The milk producers’ society, for example,
can accumulate funds
for the village of build a road td»i<*i connects it to the route followed by
the milk truck.
It can help fund the building of a primary school, a
domestic waber supply or even a clinic or library.
Thasa can be said to be social extensions of ths technoeconomics of a modernising agricultural industry*
Such extensions are,
however, much wider in thler implication i for example, if a poor producer
observes that you get a better calf if you give better food to a pregnant
cow even thoigh shs is dry, then that producer soon extends thia experience
to the idea that, if a human mother gate better food, she produce a
healthier baby.
If a veterinary doctor can use modern medicines to euro uhtoh
milch animals, than it io evon more logical to cook ways whereby doctor*
for humans can use modem medicines to keep our infants healthy*
If altl-
ficial insemination demonstrates that ths? reproductive process can bo
controlled to as to produce healthy calves when desired, it becomes more
logical that human concept ion could be controlled when decired*
I
-I 15 I-
In other wards, "technical modernisation” does not proceed
in isolation*
In fact, it cannot proceed if it is confined to technical
factors* It can proceed only as what we can call a process of “social
modernisation” also proceeds, where by rural people find that they can
increasingly comand modern science and technology to achieve their
social objectives*
6«
Qmwheiflfi
In will concludo with a short summary*
I have tried to show briefly what I believe to be the larger
dimensions of our dairy dovolapment•
I started by pointing out that, to
achieve thia kind of change an appropriate institutional structure has to
bo built up, iJhich is owned and controlled by ths producers concerned and
is sensitive to their needs*
This institutional structure can identify
and effectuate the techno-economic changes which must be made, in order to
move from a low-productivity high margin traditional dairy structure to e
modernising one which enable milk producers, processing and marketing to
become increasingly competitive and efficient,
^his of increasing the
dairy sub-sector1 a productivity leads tn e rational build m? of the
industrial infrastructure, including not only processing and marketing
facilities for milk and milk products, but algo the industrial units
required to produce the equipment and technical inputs of a modernising
dairy industry*
I tfsht on to outline hoy this process of modernisation really
implies the beginning of the technical modernisation of our vast milk shod
areas and that this modernisation is larger than one might think in two
ways * namely that although It may start through dairy development by
handling milk and milk products. It can and should Increasingly embrace
the major crops of the producers concerned* This process of modernisation
cannot merely demonstrate to producers ths application of such techniques
as artificial insemination. Improved animal feeding etc.
-• 16 I-
Oh the contrary t it inevitably shows the producers that they
can use modern scion00 and technology to achieve the larger objectives
of their lives*
Thua# 1 concluded that the ultimate and of such davdopm&ntal
programmes is not the more or loss mechanical modernisation of the pro
duction of a give food* such as milk# but it is rather the beginning of
the process i4iere by our rural majority can gat command over their future
and build themselves a richer end more satisfying community*
These are the dlmensiona of dairy development# I believe# dhich
our first Prime Minister saw when he came to open the first dairy at Anand*
He was accoRpanisd by his daughter# our present Prime Minister «• and I
believe that she remembers it too# because she also had been insisting
that we should multiply the Anand pattern# in order to involve the people
of all our milk sheds of their our development*
^nd9 as I said when I started this lecture# this is what Shri
Lal Bahadur Shastri sew# whan he stayed at the village of Ajarpura.
These
are the dimensions of the Job whiflh ths co ntry is trying to achieve and
I am happy
to be able to take this fitting opportunity to record here
Shri LqI Bahadur Shastri*s rule in helping us to Initiate this programme
of dsvelopmant within our rural society.
OvV| H 3 I n
THREE STEPS IN IClRAL WCRK
First -Step
V/hat we have to try first is to change the climate of defeat that prevails
in the villages specially araoung the lower economic strata of she society.
No uplift vzill ever take place unless the
psychological status changes from
that of diffidence to that of confidence. This is necessary because the
havenots have suffered reverses all through the ages and so have lost all
sense of initiative, -’his has to be nursed back by handling with great skill
and understanding. Once the self-ccr.il icnce is revived and they made to feel
that their efforts can lead to change in the level of their living, only then
they can mal:e use of the opportunities created for them. In this change in
the mental make up, even small techniques <*ould help them psychologically•
ball-bearing in the pulley to reduce the drudgery of the woman who draws
water from a deep well, water-proofing of the wall and fire-resisting of the
thatch-roof of the mudhut in v^hich the poor family is livinj for generations
introducing ovens which take less fuel or give no smoke or a- e run on cheap
solar reflectors, improving their environs by sanitary conveniences as can bo
afforded by the poor and such other things, oven if they may not bring signi
ficant economic gain to the poor, vzill inculcate a sense- of self-respect and ;a
confidence that even their lives can be changed, -‘his vzill prepare them to accert
further changes and evoke initiative necessary for accepting innovations and new
techniques.
The second 3ten
Simultaneous to the above the second step is to assure that the last
man in she corumnity is looked after. It should be endeavoured .tha/c at least
there is none in the village who has to go to sleep vzithout food. ’Unfortuna
tely, today there are, in,poor districts at least, 8-10 families in a hundred
who have to go vzithout food for more than 15 days in a year,
.’hey are hard
working people yet to whom the society is not able to provide any work on all
ds.ys. - o begin with (till agro-industries develop to remove this lacuna)
some social security vzill have to be provided for such peo ’le. The Cram la.bha
or the community through its school
some other leverage must have some work
provided for them. Spinning on an improved spinning wheel at a proper place
could be one such device• The v/ages thus paid will equal only to a dole and
the less is the number of people who avail of it, the tetter it is. At least
one-third to half of the wage of an agricultural labourer must be made availa.-
ble to him on days when he/she is vzithout any suct’ainence. This will be like
a life-belt thrown to those drovzing in the economic sea. Without this relief
being planned we cannot rest assured that willing hands denied vzoi'k, do not
suffer hunger hunger. Along with spinning other labour intensiv
comunity
employments will have to be devised.
...2
- 2 -
The Third Step
The third aspect is, of course, the introduction of new modes
of production^ The old village industries are important and must be
given all help but they serve a limited number of traditional artisans
and cannot, even if revived and improved, absorb the new hands whom
agriculture cannot provide work. These are to be given work through
industries which need to be fashioned out of a thousand and one inven
tions, innovations and techniques evolved in laboratories of our land
and abroad using the raw materials, skills and energy sources that can
be made locally available and yet produce goods so far unknown. The
straw, the minerals and the earth can be put to various productso The
agriculture produce needs to be processed and the fruits and leaves can
also be converted to innumerable useful articles. The gap however is
between the known techniques and their conversion into occupations fit
for the rural people. The constraints apart from physical are psycho
logical too. The poor man has nev.r worked on his own responsibility.
The whole educated unemployed also know no entrepreneurshipo To over
come this great failing a mechanism will have to be evolved in which
those in the field of business and industry can play their part o
Thus (i) small amenities to inculcate hope among the hopeless
(ii) some social security among the weak to avoid hunger and (ill)
introducing new avenues of production to make the unemployed take to
new self employed occupations, seem to be a right line of strategy
for rural change. The total productivity of the village and ether
necessary improvements should be subservient to the- prime task of
'Banishing Poverty’- the objective which rightly should be the slogan
of the nation.
Technology Relevant to Times
(Devendra Kumar) *
Technology and economics are inter-related.
Tie kind of techni
que influences both the economic pattern as well as the cultural matrix.
Artisans and small craftsman with decentralized method of production
and local consumption for self-sufficiency was originally the norm.
Gradually the advent of inanimate power as motivating means of produc
tion brought about change in the technology and consequent change in
the economic order.
Tie wind-mill and water-mill belonged to inexhaus
tible and comparatively universally available inanimate sources Of
energyc
Tie manual and animal draught power however still reigned
supreme.
But with the use of coal through steam power to generate
motive force for production brought about the beginning of the Industria
lisation age.
The concentration of production units started in spots
where such energy was easily available.
The changing pattern of economics
towards mass production in place of production by masses held its sway.
The conglomeration of human population in the industrial towns along
with the decay of the village economy and "the deserted village" began
wich ..he rise of the megalapolis.
The change, from manufacture for a
small area oi consumption, to a larger and larger areas of marketing even
m goods of primary needs proliferated.
The birth of industrial empire,
and political and military support for the same brought the age of
imperialism.
As a result we saw the clash of competitions leading to
two Great Wars for capture of markets of finished goods and sources of
the raw materials, mainly the mineral resources of the world.
Tlie progressive depletion of the natural resources leading to ;
a
realisation of the limits of non-renewable resources, the labour
employer difficulties in the highly rechanised and centralised system
cf production, the monotany of existence and lack of means of expression
to those in production lines and psychological strains on the atomised
individual, these and many other crises face today's man.
These con
flicts are (a) between the interests of nan-and that of nature (b) bet
ween the needs of men, the individual and that of society - the
collective and (c)
needs.
between man’s material satiation and his spiritual
These problems are the creation of harnessing of technology for
the fulfilment of man's avarice and his insatiable lust for power.
Now
however, a critical stage seems to have arrived and a revolt has set in
the human mind against this traditional role of technology being used
for profit, power and plunder.
Director,Centre of Science for villages, V/ardha
2 ~
CcrAi H 31 -
HOLS OF IMDUST .IAL HCUS3S IN HELPIIICIN
KlRAL 0EV3L0EI.HIT
(Devendra. Kuirjar *)
The role of industrial houses in increasing the total wealth
of the country has to be supplemented with the activities by which this
wealth is distributed among the most needy of the land.
The projects of
rural development to be undertaken by the houses with the above purpose
should, however, be a little different from those of the other voluntary
agencies.
The process of financially assisting the welfare agencies in
rural development is a philonthropy which is going on but what we need
is the direct involvement of the industriaJ. and/or business houses in
the rural work projects, so that the special potentialities of the houses
are given expression in the same.
If the know-how, the technological
facilities, the entrepreneurship and the management expertize available
with these houses are not utilized in the project they undertake in the
village, what new contribution can we expect from them except of adding
to the number of welfare agencies already in the field,
tative dimension to the rural scene the
properly*
fo add a quali
’houses’ should plan their role
Here are suggestions which could be of he^p in this.
Choosing the SITS :
Firstly the area to be chosen for such a work should be where the
industrial unit has some previous connection and where it can be looked
after by the principal person of theindustry,
of the head
The personal involvement
is very essential for getting the right results.
The whole
concept of social work by industry is based on the principle of bringing
nearer the classes and the masses.
"This is with a view to see that the
talents and goodwill of the high ups is utilized for the last and the
least. The effect of such an effort will be two sided.
It will benefit
those amongst whom the work is being done, at the same time
who are working there.
affect those
The interface of industry and the village will
lead to the improvement of the knowledge of both.
Thus, in the choice
of the area the following points could be of help :
(a)
The area should be such where the principal people of the industry
could give direct attention and be able to participate in it for
at least once in a month.
(b)
ihe village chosen he typical of the locality or region and should
not have any special facilities, not available to normal villages.
Then only what is achieved there could be made into a pattern to be
followed elsewhereo
*
Director, Centre of Science for the Villages, .'.rrLia.
2
ia
The problem of fuel is becoming progressively
Solar Snorgy :
acute in the villages.
The poor families have to hunt for fuel for
cooking spending large part of their time* fhe dwindling
tree wealth
is also threatened because of lack of alternate fuel source*
Here the
abundant solar energy available for at least 2000 sunny hours yearly
can come to our rescue.
The following experiments can be tried in
various areas and improved upon.
a)
Solar Cookers have been designed by many agencies and need to be
tested and tried in the field.
Sri Arvind Pandya — Sabarmati Ashram,
Ahnedabad has designed an insulated box with mirrors reflecting sun from
six sides costing bls.500/- and attaining temperature of 220°F enabling
cooking and baking.
A simple device made at Bandoli Ashram, Dist.Surat
is gtill cheaper*
The latest one has been made by MrjA.Von Oppen of the
ICRISAT, Hyderabad, where a paraboloid shaped pu^p basket made indigenously
and pasted inside with silver paper is used to focus sun’s rays.
The
’solar basket* costing less than ,Hs*5C/- can boil one litre of water in
5 minutes, cook rice in 10 minutes and ’dal’ in 20 minutes,
This has
gre at po tent ial it ie s •
The Brace Research Institute, Quebec, Canada has evolved a solar
steam cooker which can be indigenously fabricated even at the village
level.
The cooker consists of two parts which are rigidly joined to each
ot he r •
Tie first is a solar collector that is a metal surface heated
by the sun, causing water to boil to produce steam. The second is the
insulated steam cooker, in which the food containing saucepan is placed*
Steam is produced within an hour of sunrise and continues to be produced
throughout the sunny day.
Thus,
Thus, it is possible to cook both the mid-day
meal and the evening .meal,
Food left in the cooker remains hot for
several hours after sunset.
k)
Solar .Vater Heaters
have also been designed by many agencies.
Central building Research Institute, Rocrkee has one costing Rs•680/-
(1968 price) for an average family of five persons giving 140 litres of
water at 50 C*
There is another design developed at Arid 2one Research
Laboratory, Jodhpur.
Simple solar water heaters are popular in Japan and
the design can be adopted in Indian conditions*
The I-aegill University, Canada, lias developed an inexpensive
design suitable for domestic and agricultural purposes and car- be made
from easily available low cost materials.
Jt can provide 30 to 40 gallons
of hot water per day at a temperature of 130°F to 140CF.
The absorber is
3 -
H 3H Z
A r 1 E M D I X
TECHNIQUES ZiPIROKlATE FOR .TIE VILLAGES - SOLE IDEAS
(Dsvendra Kunar *)
The business and industrial houses should chose techniques evolved
by the laboratories in India or elsewhere which have the following
potentialities •
(a)>
(b)i
they benefit not the upper crust but permeate to the lowest
strata,
their application can be replicated as universally as possible
and which do not require special circumstances and resources
not possible to mobilise everywhere,
(c)i
they bring new avenues of employment and income to the poor
in ;ho villages and
(d)>
they are in consonance with the principles of ecology. In
. short., both social justice and natural balances must be
served through the new technology we are after.
The problem is that the techniques available as may be fulfilling
the above conditions are to be converted into economic propositions in
the villages.
This the scientist is incapable of doing. The bane of
the rural economy is that it has no avenues of enterprise, trade or
employment- except what agriculture or dairying/poultry afford. Unless
we bring about viable processes of production which can employ the
people and for this evolve hundreds of trades and professions unknown
earlier, no dent will be- made on the economic life of those living
below the poverty line.
processes found out in
Thus converting the
labs to professions and techniques into trades of the village people
is a challenge which is a fit one for the ingenuity and expertise
that the business and industrial world possesses.
It is this call
that should be heeded and each'house* could devote itself to present
one particular nevi industry for the villages.
It will, no doubt,
require adequate amount of inputs in talents, organization and finances
but the results will be far more rewarding than any thing else the
’house’ may have done.
Basically it is to stimulate thought in this
field that as rou h illustrations some techniques are being listed
in the following four areas ?
1.
2.
!•
3.
Use of new energies®
Ivlanual and bullock power.
Rural Housing ■
4.
Use of now raw materials.
USE OF NEW ENERGIES :
This fact that the rural India suffers from
a great vacuum in the sphere of energy is basically the cause • of the
backwardness and poverty that prevails there. .How to meet this out has
been tried by many innovations. Here are sone of them.
* Director, Centre of Science for tillages, V/ardha
2 -
2
1.1
Solar Energy :
The problem of fuel is becoming progressively
acute in the villages.
The poor families have to hunt for fuel for
cooking spending large part of their time, fhe dwindling
tree- wealth
is also threatened because of lack of alternate fuel source.
Here the
abundant solar energy available for at least 2000 sunny hours yearly
can come to our rescue.
The following experiments can be tried in
various areas and improved upon.
a)
Solar Cookers have been designed by many agencies and need to be
tested and tried in the field.
Sri Arvind Pandya - Sabarmati Ashram,
Ahredabad has designed an insulated box with mirrors reflecting sun from
six sides costing Bs.500/- and attaining temperature of 220°F enabling
cooking and baking.
A simple device made at Eardoli Ashram, Dist.Surat
is still cheaper.
The latest one has been made by tir.u.Von Oppen of the
ICBISAT, Hyderabad, where a paraboloid shaped pu^p basket made indigenously
and pasted inside with silver paper is used to focus sun’s rays.
The
fsolar basket’ costing less than ,Bs.5C/— can boil one litre of water in
5 minutes, cook rice in 10 minutes and ’dal’ in 20 minutes.
This has
g re at po te nt ial it ie s.
The Brace Research Institute, Quebec, Canada has evolved a solar
steam cooker which can be indigenously fabricated even at the village
level.
■?he cooker consists of two parts which are rigidly joined to each
other.
/lie first is a solar collector that is a metal surface heated
by the sun, causing water to boil to produce steam. The second is the
insulated steam cooker, in which the food containing saucepan is placed;
Steam is produced within an hour of sunrise and continues to be produced
throughout the sunny day.
'ihus, it is possible to cook both the mid-day
meal and the evening .meal.
Food left in the cooker remains hot for
several hours after sunset.
b)
Solar Water Heaters
have also been designed by many agencies.
Central building Jiesearch Institute, Bocrkee has one costing B-s.680/—
(1968 price) for an average family of five persons giving 140 litres of
water at 50OC. There is another design developed at Arid Zone Research
Laboratory, Jodhpur.
Simple solar water heaters are popular in Japan and
the design can be adopted in Indian conditions.
The I-aeg'ill University, Canada, lias developed an inexpensive
design suitable for domestic and agricultural purposes and can be made
from easily available low cost materials.
xt can provide 30 to 40 gallons
of hot water per day at a temperature of 130°F to 140CF.
The absorber is
3 -
3
constructed from corrugated galvanised steel sheet of standard roof
ing material and a sheet of 22 gauge flat galvanised steel rivetted
and soldered together and mounted high to be exp-osed to the sun.
1.2. Biogas J With about 23 crore cattle population producing daily
1.3 lac tons of v/et dung the biogas is a rich source of energy. The
estimate is that if biogas is got from all the cowdung and the human
waste in India we could get heat equivalent of 92 crore tons of coal or
6.5 crore tons of petrol.
The fertilizer that we will get over and above
the fuel gas, even if we use only the portion of cowdung that is today
burnt as fuel, will be equivalent to six times the annual output of
the Sindheri fertilizer factory.
The Khadi Commission has developed a gas plant costing Rs.5000
which will , ive 10 cubic metre of gas everyday and yield 50 tons of
fertilizers in the year,
Immediate potentialities lie in harnessing this
wasted source of energy.
1.3
power -University of foa. s sac beets, school of engineering has
experimented in the direction of a very large system using large number
of wind generators, complete with some storage sub-system, as alterna
tives to combustion power plants as well as nuclear power plants,
A
of heating energy
The use of wind power of sea and shores to convert sea v/a'te
wind turbine system capable of delivering 27 , 000
is being built.
water and air into nitrogenous fertilizer is being worked on,
The use of
small wind pumps to improve irrigation facilities in poor countries is
being tested there.
A wind machine for pumping water was developed by a Finish Engineer
S.J. Savenius in 1925-28.
Based on this a vertical shaft rotor design
has been perfected by the Brace Research Institute where in 45 gallon
oil druias are bisected lengthwise and welded together to form two
troughs.
Tiiese two throughs are mounted between two end plates, made
from 1/2” plywood 48” diameter.
This rotor is cheaper than the windmill
and has very 1 it :le maintenance to be done.
It operates in wind speed
of 8-12 mph and above and can pump water from a depth of 10-15 ft.
The West Bengal State Electricity board has developed a design of
wind mill to generate power to be installed at Sagar Island and Easant
(24 Fargana).
.the National Aeronotica.1 Laboratory and the Indian Institute of
Science at Bangalore have
devised and developed many models.
4
4 -
2.
1..ANUAL AND BULLOCK POWER : The animate energy on which the whole
rural economy, depends needs to be scientifically studied/and its more
efficient utilisation found out.
Ahe man and the bullock power has not
so fax been looted at something to he improved upon. Evidently this is
a lacuuna which must be removed.
Some illustrations of work in this
direction are giver, below s
2*1
;«/ater Pumps by manual energy iThe poor people, who cannot afford
to energise wells and sometimes do not even have bullocks subsisting
on the small holding they have, are left high and dry with the present
techniques taken to the villages.
For them the following techniques
of a foot pump and feid lump cylinder has been perfected in .Senegal
kr. euercult and are in daily operation for 18 months for irrigating a
market garden irt.’-suburbs of Dakar.
The foot pump can lift water
from the depch of 20 meters @1.2 cubic metres per hour.
is three times more efficient than hand punp.
Th© foot punp
The. super structures
of both pumps as designed use steel angle bars but the same could be
done by a good carpenter tn wood as well. The use of ball bearing
however cannot be substituted locally.
sPee(3 gear 1 Attachment for bicycles has been evolved iat the
Re. ional Research Laboratory of the C3IR at Jorhat (Assam) which can
2*2
increase the speed by 2 time or more.
This mechanism could greatly
reduce The strain on cycle - riksnaw pullers and be utilised in other
cycling arrangements utilizing manual power for traction and transport.
2.3
Bullock poweiyjlhodernization of Bullock cart can help 15 million
animal drawn vehicles of India with a total investment of 3000 crores
and employing 1.6 million people.
3.
RURAL HOUSING ; The
processes which will help the poor.
3.1
hon erodable i ud plaster • The common mud plaster applied to cover
the mud walls of a village gets eroded during monsoons. Experiments
made at CERI Roorkee have found out a method to make this plaster non—
erodable and water proof.
This technique if taken to the villages will
help the poor very much and also give some of them a source of employ
me nt.
Nov; mud houses fall down due to excessive rains and the outer
walls, hit directly by rains is to be plastered again and again
requiring much time and energy,
hut dwellers.
'Ihis tells upon the earnings of the
Th© following: process which gives 5-7 yea.rs of life to
the water proof exterior of -the mud wall at an extra cost of Its.6 to 10
for 100 sq.ft, area is found very useful.
- 5 -
C(5W1 H 3) -
RCLE OF IMDUST.IAL HOUSES IN HELIIIIG
IN
RURAL DEVELOfL. U-’T
(Devendra Kunar *)
The role of industrial houses in increasing the total wealth
of the country has to be supplemented with the activities by which this
wealth is distributed among the most needy of the land.
The projects of
rural development to be undertaken by the houses with the above purpose
should, however, be a little different from those of the other voluntary
agencies.
The process of financially assisting the welfare agencies in
rural development is a philonthropy which is going on but what we need
is the direct invol verrent of the industrial and/or business houses in
the rural work projects, so that the special potentialities of the houses
are given expression in the same.
If the know-how, the technological
facilities, the entrepreneur ship and the management expertize available
with these houses are not utilized in the project they undertake in the
village, what new contribution can we expect from them except of adding
to the number of welfare agencies already in the field.
To add a quali
tative dimension to the rural scene the ’houses* should plan their role
properly*
Here are suggestions which could be of he^p in this.
Choosing the SITE :
Firstly the area to be chosen for such a work should be where the
industrial unit has some previous connection and where it can be looked
after by the principal person of the industry.
of the head
The personal involvement
is very essential for getting the right results,
The whole
concept of social work by industry is based on the principle of bringing
nearer the classes and the raasses.
This is with a view to see that the
talents and goodwill of the high ups is utilized for the last and the
least. The effect of such an effort will be two sided.
It will benefit
those amongst whom the work is being done, at the same tine
who are working there.
affect those
The interface of industry and the village will
lead to the improvement of the knowledge of both*
Thus, in the choice
of the area the following points could be of help :
(a)
The area should be such where the principal people of the industry
could give direct attention and be able to participate in it for
at least once in a month.
(b)
The village chosen be typical of the locality or region and should
not have any special facilities, not availa.ble to normal villages.
Then only what is achieved there could be made into a pattern to be
followed elsewhere0
*
Director , Centre of Science for the Villages,
rdna.
V
2
(c)
3ach village centre chosen should have one key village G-andi
village) and the attached smell villages that is one 3 to 5,00C
population, big village along with 8 to 10 small villages of 500
or leos population. Thus, on<. village unit of xhis type will be
of 8 - 10,060 population and should be termed as one centre. The
number of such centres to be taken up will depend upon the scale
of work undertaken, Usually, one centre in one type of villages
would suffice. If more centres are to be taken up they ou ht to be
in different regions
(d)
In the choice of villages a special point to be renenbered is
chat best results would follow in a village where son© agency
or person who has already established a rapport with the people
and the work started in conjunction with such an agency will be
nore cost effective.
SIGHT behind the project :
The activity to be undertaken should not stop at bringing sone
benefits tot-
served locality alone, but be able to bring out the
solution of sone basic rural problems, the results of which could have
application elsewhere also. It needs to be stressed that what is done
must lead in evolving of a pattern which could be repiecated. For this
the following points may be of value :
(a)
-the inputs which are brought in, in a particular region — apart
from those required for exploration and experimentation — should
be so managed that similar facilities could be made available in
Other villages of the region or other parts of the country.
(b)
-he project should act as a starter for bringing about change in
the moribund state of the village leading to its integrated
deve? ^pnent,
(c)
The activity must have some relation with the kind of industrial
activity of the sponsoring body. This will enable the industry
to make use of its special talents in giving the rural economy a
new turn. The success of such rural development projects by
industrial houses will be judged by how their involvement has been
able^to break the otrfor^te which lias continued in the rural
front despite various efforts in the field during the last half
century.
(d)
It is suggested that tho role that the industry can play most
in this field is that of identifying, adapting and introducing
new techniques appropriate for improving the rural economy. This
should bring new hope anongst those who have lost all hopes.
(e)
It is therefore to be seen that tho efforts made, go in to helo
the poorer people in the village more than those who are conparatively w=H placed. This is, because invariably all new technoicgies assist the affluent and lead to a still greater economic
stratification of the society. This point needs special care.
If even ono new techniques could be adapted and introduced in the
rural economy by a business house it will go a long way in changing the
village scene.
It is a patent fact that the villages if they continue
to remain only agricultural and the cities maintain
to have all the
units of production of finished goods, the economic slope towards the
cities will continue to perpetuate the exploitation of
rural by the urban
3 -
3 -
economy and at the same time compel the push of the rural population
towards urban centres adding to the slums in cities. To obviate this
situation it is necessary that a certain level of agro-industrial
It is in this special sphere
economy is developed in the ^illa.ges.
that the industrial houses could assist,
The problem is very challeng-
ing because of fa) the lack of money, (b) absence of trained
people, (c)
insufficient structure and Cd)
ship, in the villages»
very little entrepreneur-
These cannot be met with unless all the
forces at our command are organised,
The transference of new techni-
ques will lead to following results :
(a)
The new technique will bring amenities not so far available
and thus give a psychological boost to the total rural popu
lation i enthusing them to take up to newer methods of production.
(b)
It will give new avenues of em^?loyment to many kinds of people
in the village.
(c)
It will enhance the wealth of the community and the economic
strength of the last man©
(d)
It will arrest, to some extent, the erosion of talents from
the village to the city.
For fulfilling the above task the scientist, the industrialist
and the social wcr!<er is the trio which must work together as
mission arises.
INSTANCES TO CITE :
V/ith these suggestions in rural development work about the site
and the sight let me cite some instances of technologies and techniques
selected from the published results of technological laboratories.
These techniques are randomly taken from only four fields of rural
technology and are only illustrative.
can be multiplied.
Both in range and numbers they
The four categories given in the attached appendix
are •
1.
Better use of manual and bullock power.
2.
Use of New Energies.
3.
Techniques in Hural Housing.
4.
Nev; uses of village raw materials.
In some of then greater details have been given while in others
only mention of the process is made.
Hie re are a thousand and one such
techniques which could find ready application in the rural economy but
are v/aiting for agency with the necessary skill and motivation. Let us
hope that the industrial houses will provide the lead in this pioneer
ing effort.
Technology Relevant to Times
( Deve ndra Kuxna r ) *
Technology and economics are inter-related.
'Ihe kind of techni
que influences both the economic pattern as well as the cultural matrix.
Artisans and small craftsman with decentralized method of production
and local consumption for self-sufficiency was originally the norm.
Gradually the advent of inanimate power as motivating means of produc
tion brought about change in the technology and consequent change in
the economic order.
Ihe wind-mill and water-mill belonged to inexhaus
tible and comparatively universally available inanimate sources Of
energyc
Ihe manual and animal draught power hov/ever still reigned
supreme.
But with the use of coal through steam power to generate
motive force for production brought about the beginning of the Industria
lisation age.
The concentration of production units started in spots
where such energy was easily available.
The changing pattern of economics
towards mass production in place of production by masses held its sway.
The conglomeration of human population in the industrial towns alonL1
with the decay of the village economy and ’’the deserted village” began
wich the rise of the megalapolis.
The change, from manufacture for a
small area of consumption, to a larger and larger areas of marketing even
in goods of primary needs proliferated.
The birth of industrial eihpire,
and political and military support for the same brought the age of
imperialism.
As a result we saw the clash of competitions leading to
two Great Wars for capture of markets of finished goods and sources of
the raw materials, mainly the mineral resources of the world.
The progressive depletion of the natural resources leading to ;a
realisation of the limits of non-renewable resources, the labour
employer difficulties in the highly mechanised and centralised system
of production, the monotany of existence and lack of means of expression
to those in production lines and psychological strains on the atomised
individualf these and many other crises face today’s man.
These con
flicts are (a) between the interests of man and that of nature (b) bet
ween the needs of men, the individual and that of society - the
collective and (c)
needs.
between man’s material satiation and his spiritual
These problems are tlie creation of harnessing of technology for
the fulfilment of man’s avarice and his insatiable lust for power.
Mow
however, a critical stage seems to have arrived and a revolt has set in
the human mind against this traditional role of technology being used
for profit, power and plunder>
* Director,Centre of Science for villages, Wardha
- 2 -
- 2 -
The Post War Era, over and above the other crises, began with the
threat ox a Nuclear holocausts
It has now become necessary to search
for an alternative technology whereby the above maladies which tend to
increase the quantum of conflict and violence in the total system could
be remedied.
Hence man is now finding that the principles enunciated by
Gandhi in this regard have begun to find greater and greater relevance,
ihe principles of new economy of peace and non-violence as applied to
technology relevant to modern times are :
Th© greater the magnitude of intensity of a
particular need, the more easily should its fulfilment be obtainable in
g.glf-3ufficiencY :
space and time i.e. the degree o‘f self-sufficiency in a particular
commodity will be determined by its degree of necessity.
The less the
degree of requirement of an article the greater could be the area from
which it is fulfilled and vice versa.
(2) DecentralisatiOTii :: The
The economic,
economic, political,
political, social or any other
human system must be as
as decentralised
decentralised as
as possible to give freedom to
Mie components to evolve themselves in diverse forms and be able to
interact to enable greater evolution and efficiency.
<3)
Viliagization :
.
-------------lhe village, being that form of habitat for
humans
which affords him the closest communion with his decentralised
units of
living, to -reserved, promoted and evolved in the light of the newer
knowledge of science.
The city mkes both the distances between man and
nan and also man and nature greater.
motive power for production be in the order res-
45
pectively ox manual, animal and perinnial sources like wind, water, solar,
etco ai.d only xn extreme necessity the non-renewable resources like coal
and petrol etc be used.
needs and the productivity in Nature
(S)
be
balanced and as a bee’s requirements are met in a
way that helps nature
to prosper rathei- than be destroyed by it,
so also, should be the case
The mineral
resources are trusts
given to us for the generations yet to come and
so should be utilised
with that attitude of mind.
with human consumption techniques.
(6)
Dl^bEtive__Jus;tice 5 The production and distribution pattern be
such as to .avoid
concentration of wealth. To remove disparity, the
mode of fir‘-st allowing the wealth to be produced at one place and then
to make the distributive justice prevail, requires power of the state
to be concentrated.
In its place the production system itself be
docentrailred
have an in-built mechanism of equitable distribution
of waltJi
2 -
- 3
(7) i7ipin£ out disparity : Traditional trend of technology which has
helped to increase production in a geometric progression by assisting
the strong to become stronger has created a great economic gulf between
the affluent and the Third ,7orld countries - the industrial cities and
the agricultural raw material producing villages. Tris trend must be
reversed to strengthen the weakest link in the economic chain. Thus,
alternate technology has to be found cut by the most sophisticated
scientific knowledge reacting with the problems of she poor of the
world and evolving processes which will preferentially assist them
more than the rich.
(8) —o? fassivity to Activity : The node of production be such as to
give freedon of expression to the individuals engaged in it. Instead
of the machine being men's master, he should be the master of machine.
It is expression in creativity in various fields which makes man’s life
worth living, in its stead if his passive role predominates both in the
production system as well as a consumer degeneration sets in in all other
fields. To correct this order new techniques have to energe.
(9)
Balanced Inter-dependence : Inter-dependence is a law of life but
when this inter-dependence is not balanced and A is more dependent on
B than B on A, E will tend to exploit A.
of A and E should be made balanced.
Hence the mutual dependence
This will require evolving techni
ques to correct such imbalances wherever they exist,
Even with best of
intentions wherever there are regional imbalances
or inter-personal
imbalances exploitative trends are bound to develop,
This needs to
removed by bringing back the balance.
Labour intensive technicues : th. a , •
----- ------------------tqucs
The techniques be labour intensive
ratter than capital intensive so that they can be in the ownership of
C10)
the producers themselves.
This can happen only when they have the
capability to pay back the capital locked in the machines at their
earliest. Such units of production will have a higher replecability
quotient among the poor sections of the community and provide benefit
of earning to a larger number. The intensity of labour employment will
vary from industry to industry but in more recurring and materially
consumed corxodities more labour intensive techniques will be needed.
These ten principles of the new economics which determine the
direction of the technology, give the orientation to science towards
the spiritual needs of nan.
Vinoba Ehave has rightly summed this
up in his Liantram 'Sarvodaya = Science + Spirituality, Waning unless
the power of science is given the direction of spirituality, 'Sarvodaya'
i.e. total welfare of all will not te possibie to be achieved. Science
therefore must. bE given a new orientation from its current direction of
using the environments for the narrow self interests of the ir.wediate
times without due rep’Ard
nil
j*
This io +ho n
• V
1 th dlElsnsions of space, time and spirit.
1S the new orientation for which Gandhi stands. Let us see how, we
in India
rablv mWrld “ reali3i^
balance w.ich it has miseraoiy missed.
***
H 31"
n
THREE STEPS IN RURAL WORK
First Step
;7hat we have to try first is to change the cl irate of defeat that prevails
in the villages specially amoung the lower economic strata of the society.
No uplift will ever take place unless the
psychological status chances from
that of diffidence to that of confidence. This is necessary because the
havenots have suffered reverses all through the
sense of initiative <
and so have lost all
‘his has to be nursed back by handling with great skill
and understanding • Cnee the self-coni! xence is revived and they made to feel
that their efforts can lead to change in the level of their living, only then
they can make use of the opportunities created for them* In this change in
the mental make up, even snail techniques c’^uld help them psychologically.
ball-bearing in the pulley to reduce the drudgery of the woman who draws
water from a deep- well, water-proufing of the wall and fire-resisting of the
thatch-roof of the mudhut in v^hich the poor family is livin
for generations
introducing ovens which take less fuel or give no smoke or a. e run on cheap
solar reflectors, improving their environs by sanitary conveniences as can he
afforded by the poor and such other things, even if they may not bring signi
ficant economic gain to the poor, will inculcate a sense of self-respect and .a
confidence that even their lives can be changed* -'his will prepare them ta accert
further changes and evoke initiative necessary for accepting innovations and new
te chn ique s •
The second Step
Simultaneous to the above the second step is to assure that the last
man in the community is looked after. It should be endeavoured .that at least
there is none in the village who has to go to sleep without food. Jnfortuna—
tely, today there are, in,poor districts at least, 8—10 families in a hundred
who have to go without food for more than 15 days in a year,
-Tjcy are hard
working people yet to whom the society is not able to provide any work on .all
days. To begin with (till agro-industries develop to remove this lacuna)
some social security will have to be provided for such pecgle. The '.-ram Eabha
or the community through its school
some other leverage must have some work
provided for them. Spinning on an improved spinning wheel at a proper place
could be one such device. The wages thus paid will equal only to a dole and
the less is the number of people who avail of it, the better it is. At least
one—third to half of the wage of an agricultural labourer must be made avails.—
ble to him on days when he/she is without any sustainen.ee. This will be li'xe
a life-belt thrown to those drewinq in the economic sea. Without this relief
being planned we cannot rest assured that willing hands denied v/oxk, do not
suffer hunger hunger. Along with spinning other labour intonsiv
community
employments will have to be devised.
...2
- 2 -
The Third Step
The third aspect is, of course, the introduction of nevz nodes
of production^ The old village industries are important and must he
given all help but they serve a limited number of traditional artisans
and cannot, even if revived and improved, absorb the new hands whom
agriculture cannot provide work. These are to be given work through
industries which need to be fashioned out of a thousand and one inven-
tions, innovations and techniques evolved in laboratories of our land
and abroad using the raw materials, skills and energy sources that can
be made locally available and yet produce goods so far unknowno The
straw, the minerals and the earth can be put to various products^ The
agriculture produce needs to be processed and the fruits and leaves can
also be converted to innumerable useful articles. The gap however is
between the known techniques and their conversion into occupations fit
for the rural people. The constraints apart from physical are psycho
logical too. The poor man has nev.r worked on his own responsibility c
The whole educated unemployed also know no entrepreneurship., To over
come this great failing a mechanism will have to be evolved in xvhich
those in the field of business and industry can play their part o
Thus <i) small amenities to inculcate hope among the hopeless
(ii) some social security among the weak to avoid hunger and (ill)
introducing new avenues of production to make the unemployed take to
new self employed occupations, seem to be a right line of strategy
for rural change. The total productivity of the village and ether
necessary improvements should be subservient to the' prime task of
'Banishing Poverty*— the objective which rightly should be the slogan
of the nation.
6
4.3.
d Boaxds • k-il lions of tons of agro—wastes of various types
are annually available in the villages.
These can be used to prepare
Several types of boards have been made which are
particle boards.
fairly strong and durable, look very attractive and can be used
part it ion materials.
a he
wo rke d in this 1 ine.
At x. xu L Jorhat a process of binding the
as
H xl L of the Colit at Jammu — Srinagar lias
particles without any adhesive by heating the fibre to a temperature
where some of its tar is released and pressing it then, makes the
boards waterproof•
4.4
C he ei ical se ason ing o f banboo : The forest r<esea.rch Institute,
Dehradun has evolved a simple process for making the round bamboo
treated against cracking, splitting, fungal, discolouration or
msect-accack by giving it an anti-shrink cum anti-septic treatment.
The process offers the possibility for handicrafts Manufacturers to
utilize banboos in forms hitherto little used to’ produce new forms,
designs and
articles apart from the existing range.
( The above material was collected
sone tine back and needs to be
updated.)
The nev/ thinking in the technological world has recognised the
need of small technologies and
almost all the Western nations’
Appropriate Technology, which is less capital intensive and can be
applied in a decentralised way to reach the weak, is being evolved
and there is a large corpus of information available about such
techniques, What, is required is the conjunction of the scientific
to the business acumen with a social service view.
*#*
’
•
I
\ "
I
r
I
n
t
/
I
Czmi H 31—10
A PgETHOD OF ORGANIZATION
> C 0 N F R 0 N T ft.T I OJI
It is mentioned by several radical groups working in India that they,
base, their activities on the. teachings of Gandhi (non-violence), Freire
(liberation through cultural action) and Alinsky (community organiza
tion).
It is comparatively easy to get hold of litterature on Gandhi and Frei—
re. But who is Alinsky and what is his method?
Below follows a brief introduction.
SAUL ALINSKY worked with the black communities in the United
States. He spent his. life "organizing powerless communities.
to seize power from an oppressive structure that was depriving
them of their ability to determine their own futures". (ISI)
Ths method is basically a rather simple one. The organizer is not a.
leaders he is a catalyst. The people determine that they want to t]O.
The organizer finds out what the people see as their problems; the
organizer then, through analysis of the problem, turns the problem
into an issue.
(Exam£l£S Lack of water is a problem; the fact that a particular
officer is withholding funds that have been designated for digging
irrigation wells, is an issue.. A community can organize around the
latter; it cannot organize around the former. When an issue develops,
it becomes clear who is the cause of a particular injustice, and
this facilitates organization. )
After helping the people to clarify the issue, the organizer provides
the community with alternatives of action, but the poop.ig, decide
which of the alternatives they will follow. The people soon discover
that it is only by confronting the cause of. injustice done t£ them
that they achieve justice. (This confrontation is to be diatinguished
from violence; in this context, it is interesting to note that
Alinaky-organized community has never been involved in violence.
When a community is effectively organized and confident of its own
power as a community, it realizes that violence is unnecessary.)
In brief, the Alinsky scheme is this;
community problem --- > political issue --- > alternatives.of action
--- community confrontation with cause _of injustice
If victorious, move on to next problem^
isi/eev
780516
31 — U
ARE FEMINISM AND SOCIALISM .RELATED?
Some women in the' feminist movement emphatically reject the idea
that feminism and socialism are related, and have attacked
socialism and Marxism in the name of feminism.
One such attack appeared in an article by Rita Laporte, in th^e
October-November 1971 issue of The Ladder, a nationally circulat
ed gay women’s magazine. Laporte directed much of her fire
against a pamphlet entitled The Politics of Women’s Liberation
Today, by Mary-Alice Waters, editor of The Militant. Here Waters
answers the charges and questions raided in the Ladder.
by MARY-ALICE WATERS
I can imagine a society where the distribution of wealth is
hopelessly unjust, but male supremacy is nonexistent; I can
imagine a utopia of sorts where all men arc treated with just
ice, but women are hopelessly oppressed. I have tried to see
what connection there might be between the oppression of the
worker and the oppression of woman. My conclusion is that un
consciously Marxists apple nalu supremacy no less than all other
men. In reasoning that the means of production should be in the
hands of the People, they conclude that women, as one means of
production - the production of babies — must likewise be in the
hands of The People.
The above is one of the more interesting passages to be found in
’’Political’-Theology, or Practical Government” by Rita Laporte, a
long, rambling attack on Marxism, and in particular the Marxist
view of the struggle for women’s liberation. .
It is a curious piece, mixing numerous statements about freedom
and justice for all human beings with observations and judgments
that could easily be uttered by ax ardent reactionary. Such a
mixture is not uncommon. Even Lyndon Baines Johnson said ”We
shall overcome.” But it is interesting because the author writes
as a proponent of'women’s liberation, especially lesbian libera
tion, and she thinks she is attacking Marxism from the left.
However, when Laporte discusses the left, she sounds like Martha
Mitchell, barely able to control her revulsion over the dirty,
smelly hippies. Youthful radicals, Laporte says, are simply
steeped in ’’old fashioned prejudice” against the wealthy and
those who have ’’made it into a profession. ”
"The selfstyled
leaders of the Movement (which in my disgust I call the Bowel
Movement) are Caesar types who envision themselves as rulers of
the world... From Alexander the 'Great to Augustus to Napoleon to
Hitler to today’s puny Movement leaders runs an unchanging thread. ?l
Laporte also .accepts the most reactionary stereotypes concerning
"human nature”, and male and female characteristics. ’’The
stronger are forever trying- to take advantage of the weaker", she
says, as though it were simply'"natural.”
Mary-Alice Waters, is the editor of the socialist weekly The
Militant. §he is the editor of Rosa Luxemburg Speaks (Pathfinder
Press, 1970), and is a National Committee member of the
Socialist Workers Party.
*A
2
’’Some of us are better able to manage the means of production, the
finances, the legal intricacies necessary to run our complex society
than
others. Some of us will continue to garner a greater share
of the gross national product than others. A society that tries to
give equal material reward for unequal contribution will not last
long.”
The implication is clearly that it is those who are more
capable who are running things and ’’garnering a greater share,” which
they deserve.
.
And as the statement quoted at the beginning indicates-, she even
seems to believe that Marxism stands for some kind of state-owned
.harem where every female would be forced to reproduce as ordered.
The fact that Marxists have always been in the forefront of the
struggle to free women from the burden of forced motherhood does not
yet seem to have penetrated her consciousness.
If such ill-informed and reactionary views were all there were to
Rita Laporte’s article, it would be of little interest. But along
with all this, both implicitly and explicitly, she raises a number
of important questions that deserve serious answers by those who
take women’s liberation seriously.
What kind of revolution?
- i
Laporte1s political position is that the emancipation of women can
be achieved without abolishing the capitalist system; that there
is no fundamental connection between the oppression of fromen and the
exploitation of the masses of humanity by. a tiny handful of indi
viduals who own and control most of the resources and tJje productive
capacities of the world. In her opinion the personal, psychological,
sexual liberation, nthe inner liberation of women IS tho revolution1’.
There is nq need to change society in order to achieve- thi^ on a
massive soole.
There is $o doubt that a revolutionary transformation takes p^ace
within each woman as she becoraes conscious of her oppression aW a
woman and increasingly determined to struggle against her secondclass status. That new consciousness has profound ramifications for
the lives of each of us. But, Laporte to the contrary, that is not
the end. It is just the beginning. It only raises for the fijr^t
time a whole series of questions we have all had to f&cte as we fceca pie
conscious feminists.
What are we after?
As women we have been stunned and then outraged as we Cfame to com
prehend the degree to which our liv$s have been deformed, our abili
ties and ambitions stunted, our sejf-confidence destroyed, our very
characters twsj-sted. We have Tuashed out against these things. Our
first faction was ofifen that it <ovld be easy to convince other
women of all this, because it was sg obvious. And if ve could only
convince enough womeri of the truth, somehow that would change every
thing. It was? only a question of consciousness.
So we tried. We started discussion groups, which grew. There were
10, then 100M then there were thousands of women involved. But it
rapidly becaifce evident that we vreren’t solving the real problems.
The laws thnt forced motherhood oa us were still on the books. We \
still got oifly 60^ of' the pay our male counterparts received. We
had no acc^ts to better jobs. We were still chained to thQ kitchen
stove and pday pen. Most men stiill looked upon us as bodies for
their sexual amusement.
In other WQxvds, we were rapidly faced with the key question: How
do we go afco\ut changing not pxust the ideas people hold but th©
■
'•
3
■■■/
but the institutions set up to perpetuate and reinforce male suprema cy?
, •
come ^rcS1 n^Ut+Oma?XCally ralSed others* Where did ®le supremey
benefit^ from it?
“ nOt ’ When did dt ^n? PWho *
it Jeive/
13
enf0I-ced?
social function does
These
|t.ree all
never even
even raised,
raised, mucjj less answer,
<a-LX questions
questions that
that are
are never
ea by Laporte. F
— only reference to
■ these
’
Her
fundamental
questions is
a passing dismissal of the idea that
-----j class society has anything to do
with the origins of women’s
oppression. How the abolition of capital. . ism could
any difference to
-j women is something she says she
cannot,fathom.
ORIGINS .OB, WOMEN’S OPPRESSION :
i
; ’■
If Laporte, offered some ■theory concerning the origins and social
function of women’s oppression, we could"have had
------- 1 a very interesting
discussion, But she doesn’t. So what
are
the answers to those basic
questions?
Women have not always been second-class citizens, they have not always
been considered inferior to men and excluded from any central pro' ™±VS„d 6
S°+Cietyu Pri°r t0 the d3Wn of recorded hiXy"
women and men functioned as social equals. Women were the main nro
humnitro/th^11^^5'6101’^ °r invented the ba3iQ ahills that placed
humanity on the road to civilization - agriculture, tanning weaving
pottery, architecture and much else.
canning, weaving.
ofmc^irtpel^ated
F
inferi°r social position only with the rise
‘h*
must work J
liVe Off the work of 0ther3 versus those who
as thZ SsJ? ^Ve 7 the Patriarohal family also cama int0 existence
and speJnd
i"11*’ WOmen Were relagated to domestic servitude
nfn !®C°nd^a3\3^tus in society not because it served the needs of
propertybecame, it served the needs of those men who owned
the
r?3tri3txonS on women were designed to assure
rifrchal fSilf as^h
°f £rivate Pr°P^ty and uphold the patThe fI; f1ly f
13311 !IlechanTam for the transmission of property.
resuSSflfir.t0°k °Ver "hat
Previously been a social obligation,
and sicj? 1
°
nOt pr°duCe ~ the ^il^en, aged
ar-
function has always remained the same. Like the state
apparatus ♦ the armies, polic®, laws, courts, etc - the family is a
i!frofSiVfli^StMlU!i0n desi^d t0 Perpetuate the unequal distribut
ion of
an.d the division of society into basic subgroups that
ither own the productive resources or do not.
is indispensable to class society, so the suppression
T«
6 mdiS'ipensable to the maintenance of the. family system.
• a /om*3\were f^ec’d of responsibility for the care of children, and
°4.uiater ?
Productive life of society on an equal footing
ith men, the family as we know it would cease to exist.
~
4
-
Thus, when Laporte states that she fcan .imagine
i_,
a society with •
gross inequality but no female oppression, she is simply saying
she does not know what social function the oppression of women
plays, either historically or today. .
^?Qx?U!e ,the suPPressio» of women is fundamental to class
society that the struggle for women’s liberation is a revolutionary
struggle. When we talk about revolution in our era we are not
discussing the situation of a new form of class society for an
outmoded one, such as the smashing of feudalism or slavery to
make room for the rise of capitalism, we are talking about the
destruction of class society in its entirety. We are talking
about the abolition of private property and the creation of a
system based on production for the use. and benefit of all society,
not a system designed to produce profits for a few.
Laporte sneeringly asks, "And what would this redistribution of .
ownership’ mean to the lowly janitor who sweeps.the floor (at
General Motors)?" If she were the ".lowly janitor," she would
probgbly not be so quick to sneer.
It would mean this janitor, together with other working people,
would control the wealth of snntaty and all its institution©. It
would mean suph "lowly" people could decide to produce the things
they need and implement policies in the interests of all. It
would, mean free 24-hour child care of the best quality all the
resources of society could provide; it w ould mean quality low
cost or free housing for herself and everyone else; it would mean
an end to household drudgery on top of working a full-time job,
bedause laundry, .cooking, and cleaning would all be1 socially
organized; it would mean free education to whatever level she
desired, regardless of her age, or background; it would mean free
medical care covering everything; it would mean an opportunity to
work at any job nhe wanted; and much more. In short, it would be
quite clearly j?i the interests of the "lowly janitor."
CLASS AM) SEXU.IL OPPRESSION-
’ '
LetSs go on to
next quegtio*. hj have tried," she says,
"to see what connection there might be.between the Oppression of
the worker and the oppression of woman".
First of all, nany women are workers, a fact which Laporte doesn't
seen to consic’.er very seriously. They have jobs outside , their
homes, usually in addition to their full-time housekeeping tasks.
Th© typical worker is not the $20,000-a-year, middle-agod, white,
male plumber luaporte envisions.
*
Secondly, how are those who must work for a living exploited,
whether male* or female? In the most immediate econoni <y rap ha,
they are not; paid for the full value of what they produce, the rest
being’appropriated by those who own the factories, machines, land
etc. But the exploitation of the working class is xruoti moye
than that. £?he entire economic system is organized to exploit
and oppress.
It is a syst em based on production for the purpose of increasing
the individuy 1 wealth pi? a few; a system based not. -on planned
rational pro p.uction to meet the needs of humanity' but on anarah^c
competition to capture riaykets and maximize profits; a system
which must produce wars as the ultimate arbiter between the 3
capitalist g’lantn; a sj^-iten which must produce racism, sexism,
and extreme prejudices of every kind in order to,prevent those
who produce r 11 the wea] th from uniting to demand control of what
5
services-do not bring in enough profit.
dOrker 1148 absolutely no function in society
except to sell her or his labour-power at whatever rate io
attainable. When you lose your ability to produce - through
age, ilfness or injury - you are socially'extraneous. That is
why-society is literally not concerned with whether you live
or die.
Laporte contends all that may have been true under the "pure
cessions to social welfare, liJee meAcare and-social security
programs.; But does Lannoo reaiiy believe that the welfare
system - just to take one example - is really designed to bene
fit those forced onto its' rolls 1because society has no productive
contribution for them to make?
O^ the contrary, it is designed to barely keep then alive, and
as the current controversy over welfare shows, the rulers are
constantly trying to cut back on even that level of social res
ponsibility. It would be hard for Laporte to make a case that
eliare, social securitv and -neranioynent insurance - which are
all paid for out of the workers' pockets anyway - are plans
designed to end rather than perpetuate exploitation.
HOW ARE WOMEN OPPRESSED
Again it is a
- child rearer.
reLon^h
r S0Aiet3' t0 a3sure that society as a whole has no
responsibility for the care of those nonproductive members of
society - the children, 'rhe elderly, the incapacitated. Everying else follows - the exclusion of women from a central pro
ductive role; the economic dependence of women on men or a man;
r“® ®^catl0^al 3°b discrimination; the psychological conditioning tq accept all this, supposedly willingly.
Working women
women in
in capitalist
capitalist society
society are doubly exploited and
oppre£sc$d, both as Workers and as women* A
—d. women of the
And
oppressed national minorities are triply exploited,
. - .j But Marxists
do^not deny that all women are oppressed to one degree or another
simply ;as women, regardless of class. That is why the struggle
of women for their liberation can involve women of all classes.
Bxt ?^a't struSSLe ^st be directed against the capitalist system
itself -r against class society - if women are to achieve their
liberation. For that reason, our struggle is against the sane
enamy that the working class and the oppressed national minorities
face- Lf Laporte wants to dispute that, she will have to prove
that capltal-isia is capable of granting al?, our demands, that our
s ruggle is not in fundamental contradict:.on to class society.
®Ut. ®ven on the- most -elementary l evel it is obvious. Who are we
fitting :in our struggle to aboli.ii all l.p.ws that restrict our
right to hbortion? Why do we have, to fight for the right to
control c tur own bodies? Even to gain thisV most meager reform
we are f reed to take on t-,e notional government, the reactionary
religious' institutions, the courts. What about our other demands equal pay , 24-hour. child-care facilities f c r all? Will such
demands b.g granted by those who are trying to roll back even 6^
pay mere ises? The aaswe:: is ?vident.
6
"Male" and’ "Female0
Throughout her article Laporte makes comments that equate "male"
with violence, conquest, destruction, and glory-seeking, while
"female” is synonymous with peace, privacy and homemaking* No
where does she even hint that such character traits, to the ex
tent they have any validity at all, are social, not biological,
in origin.
•But all the characteristics she accepts as being "nale" attributes
are in reality characteristics not of men per se but of class
society, of a competitive system based on each one for herself
or himself, a system where the stronger do take advantage of the
weaker. To place women in power instead of men, without funda
mentally changing that system, would alter nothing. •
Laporte proposes that women should take over the government from
men because they know more about "honemaking", and "what is the
proper province of government except homemaking on a vast scale?",
she asks. Unfortunately,. Sirimavo Bandaranaike and. GoIda Meir
are no more peace-loving homemakers than Richard Nixon or Nguyen
Van Thieu. That is not because they a re "deformed" women who
have made it in a man’s world. They are simply women who are
committed to the defense of the capitalist world.
What, asks Laporte, would cause the oppression of women to dis
appear if the capitalist system were destroyed? Wouldn’t women
wonen
still be on the bottom, even if all other inequities were wiped
out?
First of all, it would not simply disappear on the morrow of the ’
revolution. The myth of female inferiority is far too deeply
t ingrained for that. But a revolutionary socialist society would
immediately eliminate the material basis of women’s oppression,
because it would have no economic function. There would be no
reason to relegate vonen to domestic slavery. "Marriage" and
"divorce" would become totally personal decisions, subject to no.
laws, contracts or restrictions. Abortion aid contraception ’
would be available on demand, free 24-hour quality child care
and free education would be made available for all. Women would
receive equal pay for equal work and a system of preferential
hiring and training would be instituted to compensate for the
previous discrimination. . Free or .low-cost laundry,’ f$od and
cleaning services would be established.
In the United States, with ite tremendous wealth, such measures
could be taken vei-y rapidly and together they would totally eli..ninate the econoni 5 chains that bind most personal relationships
in class society. Then and only then would truly humn relations
being to develop.
/
■
Where are we now?
Laporte raises other* questions similar to those already dis
cussed. • But they al’,1 o©me back to the key dispute. Is it
necessary to abolish the capitalist system in order to liberate
women? The answer muist be an unequivocal yes.. Being: a socialist
and a feminist is not; a contradiction, In fact, becoming a
revolutionary Marxist: is the only totally consistent position
for a feminist. That: is why hundreds of women radian,iized by the .
7
women’s liberation struggle have also joined the Young Socialist
Alliance and Socialist Workers Party in order to work with,
women and men toward the common goal of a socialist revolution*
But that- does not mean, as Laporte charges, that the- struggle
for women’s liberation is postponed to some indeterminate
socialist future ’’after the revolution”. It means we fight
here and now tq win every reform, every -concession we can.
It does not mean that there is no need for a mass women’s move
ment fighting for the basic needs of women. We need both a mass
women’s movement and a revolutionary party.
Our goal must be to build a mass feminist movement. Not just
hundreds of thousands of women who are highly conscious, but a
movement of millions of women fighting to win concrete demands
like abortion law repeal, child care and equal pay. It is in
the course- of this struggle that the vast majority of women
will become convinced that a basic transformation of society .
is necessary.
That is the revolutionary and feminist perspective Ibr women*s •
liberation*
f
I
JI
aS •
X
^*1 Ama.
1
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE QF CHRISTIANS FOR SOCIALISM
Quebec, April 13, 1975
I.
INTRODUCTION
1.
As representatives of Christian groups we have come together from
various countries of Latin America, North America, Europe, Asia
and Africa, for an international conference. In the three years since
the First Latin American Conference of "Christians for Socialism”
in Santiago, Chile, in April 1972, Christians committed to the
txzAz*itstruggle
? for liberation have grown in number and extended throughout
the world. As part of this current, we attempt here to define and
and develop our action and thought as a point of reference in the
international class struggle today.
2.
During this conference we have undertaken a political analysis of
the present crisis of transnational capitalism, as well as of the
struggles of peoples for liberation and the construction of socialism.
Starting from the perspective of our political action, we have re
defined community life, reflection, communication and celebration of
our faith in Christ. Likewise, we have reflected on the situation of
our churches, nationally and internationally, and also on the rise of
a popular and prolitarian Christianity, capable of emancipating itself
from the domination of bourgeois ideology. We look with hope toward
the emergence of a liberating evangelization and toward the establish
ment of a church of the people. Lastly, we analyze within this new
Christian current the prospects of "Christian for Socialism". We
present in this final document part of the intense work of the commis
sions and plenary sessions.
II
POLITICAL SITUATION AND LIBERATION STRUGGLES
3.
Today the world is undergoing suffering from an ecooomicccrisis, but
the oppressed classes always live in crisis. Hunger is a permanent
and cruel reality for millions of men, women and children of Asia,
Africa and Latin America where now, rural unemployment is invading
the cities. In the face of this crisis the conspicuous consumption
of the wealthy classes is a scandal. In the capitalist countries
of the southern hemisphere,the political system assumes an openly
repressive, even fascist, character, as in Chile and South Africa.
Many suffer persecution, jail and even death, as police methods and
torture techniques become ever more refined.
4.
The present economic recession, with its concomitant unemployment and
inflation, strikes all workers in the industrialized nations, hitting
migrant workers and racial minorities especially hard, and threaten
ing, the economic system in its totality. The .spectre of crisis looms
again, this time in a oonsumed society which claims to have overcome
its contradictions*
5.
The profound cause of the crisis is the unequal and contradictory
character which expansionist world capitalism has assumed. Its
tendency is characterized by a concentration of capital and techno
logy in I he hands of transnational corporations. The majority of
these corporations operate from headquarters located in the United
States, and are supported by that countryrs government, invading
practically the entire world throughjtheir affililiates. The power
of these corporations is greater than the power of many nations
whose governments are forced to submit to them, and their economic
growth rate surpasses that of the more advanced national economies.
Their accumulation of capital based on profits obtained from abroad
continually grows because they are able to exploit cheap labor and
manipulate prices and credit. They also plunder natural resources,
2
.
r
2
thus exhausting them.
6.
This type of industrial development fosters the
All over the world, people are reacting in defense of their standard of
Capita
f d t^tb thiS CDncentration °f capitel and technology.
Capital, faced with the political and social conflicts which it generates
security and^X
Pr°Vide the cond“ions of’
security and order which make profits possible. When representative
authorXXcJ rTTX 9UarantGE this purity, even by assuming
authoritarian characteristics, capital turns to totalitarian regimes
which.obstruct and brutally supress all political and trade-union
IciXf:
’ tdE P°lice aPP«atus expands, with ^tensive and
1C USB 0
arture, leading to contemporary fascism. The result
label
13 !
C°nsepuence of the international division of
a or, proper to the imperialist phase of world capitalism. Imperialism
es no
esitate to unleash internal subversion, to intervene politically
and ven to provoke limited wars, such as that in. Viet_-Nam, which was
"
fought to preserve a threatened hememony.
7.
exercisedof1contril1'8VelAh1 nEW ?ultural power has developed through the
rnr,
.
1 °Vei' the roed13* educational institutions, etc. The
order^nd'Zti^ d5Vel°prnent seensolely in terms of GNP growth, law and
by transnational cepiJX^
8.
iU9‘
COmP°nentS °f the
P^meted
°f tto U"ltod =*"f. «* the heart at th. ■pt..,
acted by profound contradictions. Th. productive boso ot the coun
o^h
" b\thP
to other
_SE_arcn_of higher profits. ['An enormous bal nee of payments deficit
caused by the high (Military (
costs of imperial dominion produces an
economic crisis, manifested in rising inflation :
---- 1 and the fall of the
dollar as the currency of international reference.
----- * In this way the
U.S.-based transnational corporations end iup.contributing to the
economic decay their own..country with serious
—> consequences for its
workers.
s2t^anSnati0"al corP°ratiDn^ ®°st of them based in the United
~
Unite
The__crisis-affecting“the
■^Uted States of America and m hor capitalist ^?ri .q, far' from
10• Ihc international
SJ-^SS struggle thus encounters new
new contr^dictinng
pnd assumes new forms. An economic minority which is beginning to '
organize as a class on an international level, through control of
transnationals and alliances with the bourgeoisie of'each
'
whZb
3 POUtiC 1 PrOjeCt °f W°rld P-Portions andX country,
eS c
is
—J a crisis
—_one
+. .
proletarajat. and peasants jimt combat.
It is evident
j£^l_yet sufficiently organj zad on
__ a world scale. They
ore advancing energetically, however, in i----- many of their national struggles,
X whichZe :ptflyy-c:ntro1- This minority’is the
cXX*?
h"d ictctnctlcpp!
3
S:
3
11.
-
This explains the numerous and powerful liberation movements which
are found in various countries. Despite the fascist escalation in
South America, these movements have w.n impressive struggles: in the
first place, Viet-Nam and Camb die, and also in nusne-Bissau,
Mozambique, Ang/la and Palestine. In certain countries the military
on becoming conscious of the repressive role they are f...read'to play,
have broken with this role and assumed anti-imperialist -positions.
Racial and ethnic c. nflicts, the struggle for human rights and
women’s liberation ore increasingly linked up, often jith a progress
ive thoust, within the complexity of today's class struggles.
12.
But there are even mere. Within positive signs the contradictions of
the capitalist countries analyzed above type of social organization
is possible and is already being put into practice. Socialism is
historic movement which brings together those who have made a class
option in faver of the interest cf workers and of the world's, most
oppressed peoples. The advanced praxis of the popular movement
expresses this class option and actually gives birth to the new
societies cf the future. Amid the harshest realities of struggle,
it is this praxis which gives foundation to cur firm hope for a
human and just socialist society. This process, as demanding as it
is full of promise, is increasingly commanding the participation of
men and women who are conscious of human solidarity.
13.
Thanks to the victories won by the working class and the people
through-out this century in Europe, Asia, Latin America and Africa,
various countries of the world have established and proceeded to
develop socialist regimes. Socialist construction in these societies
takes place under difficult condtions, each of them endountering its
particular obstacles, internal and external - above all, the opposition
of the capitalist world. So profound a social and cultural transformat
ion is impossible without some suffering and partial failures. In
countries now dependent on capitalism, this transformation will not
be accomplished without the brutal hostility of imperialism, which
employs anti-communist propaganda economic blockades, political
subversion, arms buildups and even war to prevent their development.
Under these conditions, the socialist countries face on objective
responsibility, to share experiences and offer solidarity as they
are required by the world-wide revolutionary movement. Their
capacity to overcome their errors, limitations, and above all, the
differences between them, will contribute to the unity of the
international workers movement end to the defeat of the common
enemy.
14.
In the struggle for liberation and socilaism, the workers movement and
the exploited countries themselves are encountering in very concrete
and urgent tasks. W© want to mention three in particular. First is
the international coordination of trade union struggles, people's
organizations and movements of workers and peasants. Also important,
to the extent that they reflect the interests of the popular classes,
are the efforts of various countries in defense of their natural re
sources and the international price of these resources. Lastly,
there is the urgent task cf solidarity against fascist governments.
Work cf this type can mobilize progressive and liberal sectors in
defense of human rights, thus strengthening the struggle of the
workers against international capital.
....4
4
III
A NEW PRACTICE OF THE FAITH
15.
In the context of transnational capitalism today, many of us have discovered that our living, reflection, communication and celebration ®f
faith in Christ find their type place in commitment to a liberating
and revolutionary praxis within history. This discovery has led us to
see_more clearly that the revolutionary task is the place where faith
attains its full growth and its radically subversive force. In tak
ing up the task, we embrace all the demands of Jesus’s practice, and
recognize in him the foundation of a new humanity.
16.
The recent history of papular struggles, with their successes and set
backs, makes clear to us that the exploited classes and countries are
themselves the first and true agents of their own liberation. On top
of long-standing oppression, repressions of a massive and systematic
type is being carried out against every effort of the popular classes
to transform the capitalist social order. The only effective and
radical challenge to this combination of oppression and repression
lies in the struggle which comes out of the strength and conscious
ness of the poor of this world. Living and reflection on the faith
in this context of oppression and repression, forces us to seek
untested possibilities in our testimony to the power of Jesus’
resurrection. If the kingdom is in any sense present when the poor
are evangelized, we are convinced that this occurs solely in the
measure that the poor are themselves the bearers of the good news of
liberation for all people; that is to say, insofar as they make the
Gospel their own and announce it in word and deed, rejecting the
society which exploits and oppresses them. It is thus that the
’’wretched of the earth” bear out their unresting hope in liberation.
17.
The praxis of the exploited is a subversive praxis which seeks to
build a new earth; to adopt this praxis is to live the experience of an
evangelical conversion and to find a new human and Christian identity.
Conversion means to break with collective and personal complications
and to challenge oppressive power. Moreover, and above all, if we
say we are Christian it means to open ourselves to the burning question
of the needs of the popular struggle. This political and spiritual
rupture is the presence of the resurrection, the passover of freedom
and the experience of the new life according to the Spirit.
18.
Hither to the faith has been lived and understood in isolation from
the contemporary revolutionary struggle and in a world to which a
conflictual and dialectical vision of history is alien. Insofar as
identification with the struggles and interest of the popular classes
constitutes for the Christian the axis of a new way of being human
and accepting the gift of GodTs word, to that degree the Christian
becomes aware that a faith-reflection rooted in historical praxis is
really a theology linked to the liberation struggles of the oppressed.
19.
The truth of thp Gnspel lies in doing it. Being a witness to the truth
means making real the promise that men and women shall be brothers and
sisters faith the faithful parenthood of God, is transforming history
from below, from among the poor of this world.
IV
NEW FORMS OF CHURCH LIFE
20.
Christians who seek to live this experience of faith find themselves
up against the hard reality of a church which confmHlr-hs nlmultaoeously the demands of their political commatment and those of other
faithZ Seeing people's, countries and continents brutally crushed,
5
I
►
5
they expect a prophetic voice of denunciation from the churches which are
the heirs~of the rebel ’of Nazareth. But this voice is not hoard. It is
true that many Christians and some authorities of different churches are
discovering that Christiantiy must be released from subservience to cap
italism. The great majority of the churches, however, keep silent.
Moreover, ecclesiastical leaders oftenmaintain alliances and diplomatic
relations with those who wield economic and politic .;! power. The
mission of peace and reconciliation which the churches want to develop in
a non-conflictual context enforces a stance of neutrality which favors
those in power.
21.
Thejdominant ideology makes’ it difficult for the great majorities of
Christian people to live a faith and a religious practice which un
masks and overcomes the anti-Christian logic of capitalism. Rather
they are led into legitmating the system by investing their energy
and generosity into purely spiritual concerns. Most Christians in
the rich countries have no conscience regarding the exploitation of
their brothers and sisters in the underdeveloped countries and
continents. Objectively speaking, they even cooperate in this
exploitation and foil to perceive.’in this rupture of the world a
rupture of Christian unity.
22.
This attitude seeks to base its theoligical justification on the
churches* image of their evangelical mission, whichfo is conceived as
Apolitical and restricted to the spiritual sphere, far removed from
class conflict. Such a conception permits Christians to be judges
without being participants. It is coherent with a view of history
in which the fund.nment.aT conflict is reduced to an opposition in the
human heart between good and evil between grace and sin. In this
frame of reference the structural conflict existing between classes
and between countries is ignored.
Constant recourse to the ’’transcedence” of the spiritual sphere, of
faith and of the church, calling into question not the oppressive system
but the liberation effort itself, is further evidence that this principle,
the theology rooted in it, and above allthe praxis it seeks to justify,
objectively favor the interests of the ruling classes.
23.
Nevertheless, this dominant orientation does not fully express the
complex and often contradictory reality of the churches and their
behavior. The weight of structures and of the dominant theologies has
a not succeeded in stopping the liberating dynamic of the Gospel.
In many parts of the world, Christian people - laity, priests, pastors,
nuns, brothers and bishops - give their lives with generosity of spirit
in the service of the poor, sharing their life, and their struggle and
valiantly defending the rights that have been violated.
24.
But these factors do not eliminate the profound contradiction, in
the life of the revolutionary Christians, between fidelity to the
Church and fidelity to the popular classes. They refuse to leavd
church, for this would mean abandoning the Gospel to the ruling classes.
This contradiction and sufffering engenders the search for an eccltsial
alternative.
25.
The people of God are beginning to reappropriate the scripture, re
reading it from the point of view of the poor and oppressed classes.
Also, they are beginning to assume once again the respohsib'ili€y~of
themselves directing their churchly activity. And, finally, they
are beginning to reappropriate liturgical~and sacremental symbols and
to find new possihili tip® for rrin+.F?mplnt J on, cd« labra tion and eucharist,
........ ... ..is—:----------
1172 _->
CAi Zt
• 4x9 ct y J
y / fl ray
*
which can provide a common sign of their two-fold fidelity, to Christ and
to the liberating struggle of the poor.
A truly new form of the church can be developed only in a society
which has broken down the structures of domination and laid foundations of
the objective conditions fur liberty’and justice. We know that no type of
historical society of church can ever be totally free of sin, and therefore,
the forward pulltoward human and Christian fullness of life will never
'cease.
“
-----------------------------26.
Nevertheless, the topien perspective has already attained a mobilizing
impetus in io day’s struggle, promoting new kinds oflocal Christian
participation still groping and provisional but not for that less vital.
It is in this growth of a people’s church that the Christian conscience
takes on class consciousness without being reduced to it.
Through this forward groping the Christian community slowly begins to
envision the features of the future society. To the degree that the
people become the subject of history, the people of God will be the
true subject of the church.
27.
The church will bean eeffective sign of God’s love and of Christ the
Liberator only if it becomes in -----itself an effective and prophetic sign
of a different kind’of future, not only Beyond-but in the' very-Teart of
history.
V
CONCLUSION
28.
A growing number of Christians in five continents are joining in the
struggles for the liberation of thepeople. These Christians are shaping a broad current, defined by a new quest of faith and a search for
churchly forms within <a proletarian and socialist political practice.
In the different countries, these Christians
.3 are forming a variety of
grass-roots groups and national movements, They are not, nor do they
wish to be,’’Christian" political parties, On the contrary, viewing the
workers movement as necessarily one,, these
"
Christians are joining
proletarian parties and organizations. IInserted in and. somewhat dis—
persed throughout the political struggle, they nonetheless unite to
carry on in the Christian domain ani ideological struggle which is
becoming more and more important. This activity brings new motives
for meeting in commited Christian communities
- ------- > where a liberating
evangelization end the seeds of a people’s church are germinating.
In this way, a new kind of Christianity, tied to the interests of the
working class, is arising as an alternative to a Christianity allied“ideiologically and^structurally to the dominant system of exploitation. As part
of this wider curretn, the "Christians for Socialism" movement is nourished
by it, and in some countries and certain situations it constitutes an
organizational tool jas useful for its grassroots membership as in its public
and social manifestations,j at the national and the international levels.
29*
The development of this current of Christians committed to the struggle for
liberation, and the growing strength of "Christians- for Socialism" are signs
of hope.
This hope is rooted in the historic force of the movement of workers and peasants,
and in its capacity for resistance and struggle. This movement is growing in unity and winn
ing over broader and broader sectors of the people, thus achieving vietorioc in various parts
of the world. The historic force of the struggle of the poor and oppressed, in whom we
acknowledge the presence of Christ, serves_also as the starting point for the liberation of
the Gospel, of theology, of the churches and of society - all of which have beenlaid captive
by those in power and their ideologies of domination. As brothers and sisters , we call
on
all Christians to shore actively in our concerns, in our efforts, and in the struggle
we
are waging.
-------------------------------- -
GyvYiH-Sl— LB
GROWTH AND EQUALITT IN INDIA
Joost Kuitenbrouwer
India:
Pwlor. to this 1process of subordination India had hbready a high
degree of development in nre-industrial terms, Agriculture was sufficl- ‘
ently developed to support a :relatively
“ * * “‘large number of non-agrloutural
workers; there
t--- were
--- *«>highly skilled craftsmen in iron, steel, textile*Shipbuilding and metal work and manufactured goods were hot only produoed
Tor home consumption but as indicated also for estnort. Its economic wealth
had for centuries been controlled by merchant bankers and price® who
honed off the surplus of production over consumption in the forme of idle
hoards of gold and silver bullion; hence this wealth was sufficiently eom«
eentrated t>o represent a potential source of investment funds. India*®
resources of good quality coal and iron were located in convenient proxi^
mity to each other,
Why did not this combination of apparently propitious
‘
‘
circumstances produce a 'type of" economic
development,
capable of generaii*<
sustained momentum?
Basically, the answer is simple. It was the colonial
re?lationship
' ‘
which subordinated India to British political. and econoaio
interest.-
The systematic and intense plunder of India, startirf
stnrtirf from Bengal,
B-engal, was
was
unquestionable.
iH't rumentai in giving a major impetus to the start
of Industrial
Revolution
- ------1
r^and.. The magnitude of theis primary aoou—
mulation was tremendous as can bu jseen from the fact that it wag estimated
to be larger than the capital of all the
-..j in^^str' ” -'rternrises operated
by steam in Europe in the 18th centruy.2
The monopoly/ the East Indian Company acquired with regard to foreign
trade, came to involve the monopolisation of internal trade. Thus resul
ted in the Indian mercants being subjected to heavy taxation and the pea
santry and local traders being forced into politically handing over their
products and goods.3
As suggested above, a^ definite
~‘
i
blow
to Indian society came with the
imposition
of
free
trade
through
which
it
?
’ ’'
t?
lo-ie x
---competetive capacity^
rom
1<. 15- to 1832 -India
cotton exports
exports dropped
dropped by
by 02
Q2 per
per cent.
cent ♦ All
..
— ’js cotton
other industrial products shared this fate.
The iprocess of subordination had not only profound effects on India*®
social structure interms
------- --- “
----- of
”7 the
'“J r
emergence
of new classes but also in terww
of the emergence of a new type of relationship between
-.1 the towns, which
grew into cities, and the surrounding rural areas.
This can be illustrated
with the nature of the expansion of Calcutta which became
--------- the centre for
the collection of the Land Tax as well as the collection of manufactured
goods from the same peasantry.
The land Tax was so severe that it ancroximeted even the whole of the economic rent, thereby naralvsing agricul
ture, preventing any own accumulation, and creating poverty and indebtednC^'\
thl9 1,nnd Tsix which
'se<J
acquire the manufactured
goods from the peasants-nrtis«ns nt low prices for export.
_
It was through this forced annrowriation of surnlus that the nrernl^
ling balance between agriculture and industry and the potential for a bn-
In this process, the Etate functioning as the instxument of extraction,
promoted and defended the --------interest
of the East Indi» Company.
It is here
that a fusion can be observed of the process of public and Private monopolization of surplus appropriation.
The process of disintegration of the rnascent industry was deepned by
Britain imposing on India a new division on
n labour by which India had to’
Produce raw materials and fond which were, again acquired at low prices.
The imbalance introduced *"_the^T’r0<i\l?tive str”cture through the inetitutionalizMiion of unequal trade forcedly imposed through
. i conquest and subordination h^d disastrous rconsequences. Not only the vil
1 age’community?
-- ------—
wuimmuav/i
Whi.Ch
has so far been the basisJ of the Indian communitv, f’
disintergrated
but
the
balance between agricult ure and industry was ,unset.
cities were cheeked in their deve loonie nt and neonle in the city and Also
in the countrywide
•i
2
were force back into agriculture. Thus Dacca, one of the flourishing
....jungle and the ernftsment,
centres in Bengal, ’was nartly
nartlv <overgrown with
reduced to idleness, spilt over into agriculture
agriculture”.55 The imposed export
and import frade and the collection of land tax brought nbout other deepgoing chaittges in the social structure. They led to the emergence of a
growing absentee landlord class and trading class, both operating fr6m
the centres and draining the countryside. Thus, the expansion of the \
centers, of which Calcutta has been the most illustrious example^ took
place at the expense of the impverishinent countrywide which provided the
base for the ac curo ul nt ion of wealth for the centers. The emergence of
a ruling class or the reinforcement of the existing one was a direct
consequence of British rule, Gradually the new class institutionalized
its control over resources and over the appropriation of SUrnlus through
both the legalization of various forms of land tenure and of the imposi
tion of direct and indirect obligations on the dependent rural population.
In the second half of the 19th century industrialization starts again
in response to Britain’s need for improved communications in India and also
to counteract the growing competition by other West European countries
end Japan on the industrial market. Thus, by relying on the cheap la
bour in India, Britain was able to challenge her competitor^ and make high
profits at the same time. This illustrates the need and trend of capital
at the snme time, a trend which has continued .until recently, to indus
trialize the dependent countries m view of the advantages to be derived
fromthe low org nic composition of capital, cheapness of labour, the pc r
working conditions, and the low level of labour legislation and labour
protection. India’s cotton industry was initiated by the new commercial,
trading, and landed elite, promoted by the Britain colonial administration
as a necessary intermediary. Its capacity for accumulation was enhanced
by the impoverishment of the rural nonlulation which as a result of incre
ased indebtedness had to rely increasingly on money-lending with its
usurious practices. Until today indebtedness and dependency on a money
lender are basic characteristics of the conditions in India’s rural areas.
The forced ban on production outside agriculture had multimple negative consequences.
It created increasing pressure on the land.
It contributed also to the rise of rent and land speculation, the underutilization of labour and the emergence
(
of overpopulation (in relation to the
potential resources and opportunities
f_„ productive work).
---- ------------ 5 for
It, therefore,
added to the dependency of the impoverished
~J. peasant population on land
lords, merchants and money lenders.
The process and pattern of monopolized
appropriation of surplus by Great Britain started to reproduce itself in
the relationships between the newly formed cl
. - sees and the major victims
of extraction - the peasantry - as well ^s iin the relationship between t' w
expanding larger centers and the hinterland.
Can it be assumed th^t if India had not been subjected to foreign
domination, it would have been able to devel^ r> in its own way? This isa
speculation to be sure, but a legitimate one.
por the alternative to
the massive removal of India’s accumulated wealth and current output,
- - ___ to
the ruthless suppression md distortion of ^11 indigenous growth and the
systematic corruption of its social, Political n.nd cultural life th^.t
we re inflicted by Western capitalism on India as other societies which
became dependent is by no means hypothetical.
This can be clearly seen
in the history of Japan, the only Asian country th^t succeeded in escaping
its neighbours’ fate,
In Japan the conditio’’ s were as conducive, or ra
ther as unfavourable, te economic development as anywhere else in Asia. ,
Perhaps just because of its condition which was more favourable, Japan
coiild have its o ,-n wav.^
%•
At the end of the period of British rule in India there was a ftu^e
rural proletariat, about half of the rural population, a small class of
prosperous peasants, and a tiny elite.
This rural proletariat cor is!.,
mainly of agricultural labourers, either landless or with a tiny plot to
re them to the landlord.? Monopolistic control over industrv was shared
by a tiny native bourgeoisie and foreign capital.? The prevalence of a
limited market as a consequence of thb semi-feudal structure in the rural
areas led to the nre-dominance of non-productive over Productive capi
tal formation, expressing itself in the overriding newer of a financial
and commercial establishment in which the interests of the urban hourgeoisie estimated at half per cent of the total Population) and the rural
te^wMlTth' estyq-te\y 1
ceTlt of the total population) became uni
ted while the urban petit bourgeoisie became 1 rgely engaged in trade
3
t ransnort,
commerce and money lending,9
Inspite of al1 its seemingly impressive plans,policies and programmes
'for development over the last nearly twenty-five years, India has remained
a society with widespread poverty and hunge r and although it has gained
political independence, it is economically dependent as never before,
External Uebt jservices have risen constantly and’have strongly accelarated in the second partj of the sixties, reaching an amount of 3 billion
dollars, representing 28 per cent of foreign exchange earnings and 36 per
cent of aid requirements,
requirements.
It is estimated that its external .debt will
increase to the astronomic amout of 14 billion dollars in the beginning
of the eighties while it will still need 18 billion in foreign aid.
Ove r
half of the total aid to India is from the U.^.A. and about one third of
the total has been in the form of food aid.10
Foreign aid has accounted for *20- of the total investment in India’s
f iret five year nlan while it has 1been rising from only 10^ in the first
five year nian to 30^ for the third- plan
and
..
- the
-...3 fourth n 1 an had to be
suspended for four years because of aid uncertainties and a recession in
the economy,11
The~income structure in India continues to reveal extremely serious
disparities.,
A study on the income structure in the beginning of the
sixties revealed that only 2.3 ppercent of the urban and less than 1* per
centArural population had income s ranging from comfortable to affluent
while in contrast 85.6 per cent of the urban population and 86.9 per cent
of the rural population lived in a situation ’which is hardly to be defined even euphemistically, as one of bare subsistence. "12
Another study suggests that 40 per cent of the rural and 50 per cent
of the urban population lived below the povery line, both in terms of
calories and quality of nutrition,
There is enough evidence that the in
crease in consumer expenditure, which has since then taken place (only 1/2
per cent ner annum) has hardly benefitted the poor.
Disparities have in
creased, and can be expected to deepen if the present trend continues, in
spite of the Indian Planning commission which continues to stress a high
rate of growth as the principal development objective, thereby consis
tently supporting the policy orientation of the country as it evolved from
independence onwards.
While the rural poor <consist mainly
1
of agricultural workers, small
cultivators and artisans who have been thrown out of work, the urban poor
are largely comnosed of rural migrants, driven away from their villages
by their untenable situation, to find even a more difficult one in the cities.
The situation of the poorest 20^ among these has even deteriorated
in the past years.13
. Agriculture is still the predominant sector
sector or
of tne
the Indian
Indian economy, pro
ducing nearly half of the national income.
income.
It
still employs
employs more than 3/4 ■
It still
of the labour force.
Organised
industry which
produces 6 - 8 per cent
Organised industry
which only
only produces
of the national income and employs only 2-4
ner cent
2 — 4 per
eent of the total labour
he rest is active in the tertiary sector.
sector,
orce. IThe
The fact that the share
of the secondary sector in the total net domestic Product has slightly been
falling while that of the tertiary sector has increased substantially bet
ween Independence and the seventies, is clear indication of the lack of'
dynamism m the industrialisation process- and the increasing and dominant
role of merchant.capital which, instead of utilizing the accumulated sur
plus for productive purposes, channels it towards unproductive or specula
tive use, particularly by the expansion of its own operations.
7
The limited and questionable nature and the direction of the- industrial development process in India are^clearly indicated by the following
facts: 1. the real wa^e rate in the total factorv outnut
over the last
thirty years remained virtually stagnant; 2."the share of
wages in the value
of.total factory output been declining: 3. the indsutrial poods
are mainly
einfbDr0du°e(i. f°r the richest 10 per cent of the population, that is to
cZnt
e, rlCbes\tfn T’er cent of the rural population and the richest 10 per
cent urban.population.14 Thus, the direct producers have not improved their
4
The effect of capital intensive technology introduced by Indian big
industry and foreign interests are multiple: it displaces productive em
ployment in the rural areas and further upsets the balance in the local
economy; it draws away from or precludes investment in labour intensive
industry and in the urban areas; ft tends also limit urban umnloyment oppor
tunities. Indian big industry and foreign interests are both mononolisticall
organized and are increasingly intertwined in interest.
Although the total
oreign capital is small, it is strategically invested in banking, indus
try, mining and agricultural
activity.
The lopsidedness of the In
dian industrial structure is reflected in the comparatively high Percentage
of workers m big industries.
In 1956 24.6 per cent
cent of
of the
the workers
workers were
working in establishments emnloyrnng 20 workers:
32.1
per
workers: 32.1 per cent
cent in
_ esta
blishments employing 100 - 1000 worekrs; 1and 43.3^ were employed in indus*
tries having 1000 or more workers.15
The possibility of producing an increasingly diversified amoirt of
goods for the privileged income groups is directly related to the capacity
of these income fgroups
to increase their income and to the relative independence of industry to—set
-itsJ prices. This can only do in as far as it
extends its capacity for monopolistics control. The use of capital intensive technology which is induced bothl by considerations of growth as well
as imposed by foreign investments,16 1may also be inspired by the considerstion that^the problem'of food supply, with a more limited demand, may be
n»ere easily solved.17 Monopolistic control over food supply may at any
rate secure the necessary profit.
an-
Jion!18
There is
are generally used at 54^ of the
C°nsuner ^
ods and
goods
and 22^ in those
those making
making the means of nroSuc!
Thus the highest rationality from the point of view of i
profit creates
the absence of any reasonable response to the basic and urgent
~
~
J needs of the
majority population.
There rare
_ ~ disregarded in view of the
superior
rate !=?
of profit which can be made in
1- the
LLe Production of non-essential goods.
In short, the rural and urban bourgeoisie in control of the means of
production together with the petit
bourgeoisie exercise
petit bourgeoisie
exercise a threefod squeeze
control of land,
C°ntr01 °f
*nd
The desperate situation in India- reveals a profound contradiction
between theory and practice,
From the very beginning, development nolicy has officially been aiming at the realisation of equality and the promotion of equal opportunities for all.
Azt the same time in its practical
orientation, these policies served the prmary purpose of economic growth
resulting in the increase of inequality and poverty,
While Indian plan
ning was and is socialist i„
in terms and while it was time and time again
emphasised that only a socialist^policy
could give a reasonable answer
o India’s problems of dependency Pnd y
poverty
Indian planning in reality
has served as the matrix for a modernization
modernization 'nrocess in the service of vested interest groups which have c
systematically utilized- the Skate and the
resources of the State for their own ends
and for the benefit of
o f a minority.
•
Although scholars and planners in India have
recognised and have in—
sights into the increasing contradictions :
themselves in the
in the dynami.cs of the social structure andrevealing
have
.. — .e also made suitable recom —
men dat ions, they have not, in any way,
been able to alter the course of the
process.
In the agricultural sector or in the rural areas, most of the benefits of the Government a policy since Independence have gone to the rich
farmers who always have
velopment.20 Thus the t r^ d i t i on n kf-6 d the lynchninch of agricultural deinu.,, rne traditional forms of annronriation of agricultural
surplus were not only continued but even intensified.
This becomes cJeZr
practically in areas where
i.
1
--- j irrigation has been introduced.
Production and
productivity have increased but ar
at the
the same
same time the proportion of tenents and the rental frates have increased
also. At the same time the prevailmg policy has failed to organise an
-adequate
credit and marketing
structure which would provide incentives
for
the
peasant
population at
large to increase production and
productivity so that they could contribute
5
to an adequate food suply to the centers.
This inability to produce more
has in turn been due to the exploitative nature of social relationships in
the agrarian structure.
It is the persistence of this social structure
which has caused the wide underutilization of the productive potential in
and of people as well as of available resources.
The policy of ’betting on the strong21 should not be considered as an
open option or alternative which the CGovernment could choose.
It could more
appropriately be considered an inevitable
-- e consequence of the overriding
power of the rural bourgeoisie and its capacity to influence and control the
functioning of the State,
Diffusion theories22 giving a theoretical justification for such a policy can better be considered as
an ideological justi
fication than as a scientific argument.
7
lt‘ 'has 'become clear that the strategy of focusing on agricultural growth through the rich farmers has rein—
forced the economic
io and political power of the minority group already in
control of resources and the instruments for the mobilization of these re
sources.
Poverty and hunger for a majority of the pnpulation,on the other
hand, has not been diminished and inequalitv■ has increased.
+ 1,0 -T+e 1^yod'J°tlon of the New Agricultural Strategy, which grew out of
h- intensification of the so-called intensive agricultural district pro
gramme started m the early sixties after the failure of the Communitv
Development programme, may heln to alleviate the pressure on the balance of
payments sndmay have substantive results in terms of increasing food surly
But it also increases India’s dependence on outside inputs and it contri
butes at the same time to the intensification of regional disparities (in
t arms of favoured over non-favoured areas') as well as income disparities
conflict«a^+g mOrf
the already existing contradictions and resulting
conflicts between landlords and tenants, owners and landless labourers 2?
tilizatiornJ1?^
Wil1 nromote further speculation, eviction and underuloiv ?!
labour as a result of the spread of capital intensive techno-
s: E.:i:
g
s-;
can hardly come
So
1 supreach its
;
of de
mand for food from the higher income {groups
-. , tend
.
- to
.
which
diversify their
expenditure patterns.
This might lead1 to
}n further process of rationalisation in agriculture which in turn will lead to further marginalisation of
small producers who would, in as far as \,hey have as yet not been routed out
of the market, not be able to stand
up.25
^uch a -process will further limit
purchasing power tamong the rural population
so -hat consumer goods will
naturally be more directed to th
.nose who are in a position to acquire them.
This will in turn enhance the process of diversification of
consumer goods
instead of production for the basic nc e d s o ~ the
population at large.
The suggestion mPdc three yevrs ego. by the President of the world.
Bank, while recognizing the problems that the Green Revolution would endanger — the effects of the Green Revoluion
were acknowledged as 'a problem
for a second generation to solve’
— represented the view that the agricultural growth strategy followed wf.s for the nresent the most desirable’
policy since it would solve the food problem,
Such a view on agricultural
modernization leaves aside the causes of large scale starvation"
large underutilization of people's Productive potential
*, of the
and
of
the lack of
effective demand by major part of the population,
It
also
leads
to .justi
^agricultural growth, not in view of the most
crying needs of majority
population, but in function of securing support for India's industrial"
growth in which, as was indicated before,
there is a definite trend tozingSeffpn+!epOf
intensive technology with its'mult inle^mpplinnlizing effects for the working ponulotion.
K
)
'While it has been agreed that continued reli°ncebv India on
h as also been
r as we11
I
41though the j-to agriculture and the
rural development policies
to by-pass the introduction
social relationships
S«4R
t pa
ns
-6in the structure of relationships between the
groups which control surplus extraction in the peasantry and those interest
rural areas from the metropolis and smaller centers,, :relationships
’ ‘ '
which, as suggested before, continue- to be of ’a semi.oolonial nature’.29
The observation of the Indian home minister in 1969 to the effect
that
unless the Green Revolution is based on f
social justice, the green revolution may not remain g
--green would seem to be a realistic warning.
The issue
could be formulated in another
way
by
arguing
that
agricultural
.
t
\
--------------- raodernization (under present conditions
as in India)
ought only to be promoted with
in the contex4. of structural maturity.
30
in other words, the strategy of
the green revoikution becomes meaningful
and
it plovp for and Promotes equal onnortunityelegitimate only in as far as
js and responds to the basic
of thR nonulntion at large, in terms of work, income,
i
£ 77^7
- r~ -
---- —
society, in
n
nd
the
benefits
produced
therefrom.
Ruch, an snnroach to the nroblem
contains
an
appeal
to
the classes m newer to review their policies
in
terms
of
the
concrete
needs
of
the m'ajority population.
Until now such an ■appeal has been !---answered’ ’by the introduction of Successive improvements in the conditions of
the vpoor which h^ve demobilized
them while increasing the; 7process
-------of accumulation
----- n and control over them
which has happened through
— such
—i programmes ras communitv.
development, rural
works,local government cooperative organisation
n end marginal reforms in the
agrarian structure.31
Would it be realistic to expect that the :
rural' 'bourgeoisie to give ,p
its power anr the control of
the instruments for■ imonopolize
---ion of resources and opportunities on which their
wealth
is
based?
’ 1^uch an expectation
does not seem warranted if we
the systematze and successful study the actual behaviour
--- r of this class
resistance to the pressures of the urban and
and industrial bourgeoisie to imnlement Ip.nd
Such
howver,, m
1„ themselves
thms,:radlot
SnC“ pressures are,
contradictory since it
o» the „„e h-nd it s.ets t(, „0™"tts
, while
seeks to expand its market
. njinues
o r.ely on the rur
rural
*'bourgeoisie who the industrial bourgeoisie
in the short
are i. ts major customer
---- - and middle run
run..
At the
some
time
the
g^oisie has developed an
an inrerest
in
supporting th urbon industrial bour
interest
in
it ccul. contribute to the formation oJ su^Jus
se green revolution since
to the formation
.
needed
for India’s industnalizption.
In that sense
senee the
urban
“
‘
’
the
industrifii
bourgeoisie is denenent on the rural bourgeoisie.
Both
of
them
t
urgeoisie.
geoisie, continue to assume the control of -r J^geiiher with the petit boursurnlus through the maintenance
of the seui-f-udnl or nre-capitglistic
ore
structure
areas, the rural bourgeoisie collaborate
-J of relations in the rural
_
since it nrodides them with wealth
and power and bhe opportunity to
assoexote nrofitnbly with the urban bnrgaining the .urban bourgeoisie.3'2
4
The persistence of such semi-feudal : '
relationships, excent for limited islands of capitalist
agricultural
modernization,
a? far as such a mode o
f production offers the most > is understandable in
maximizing surn1us.33
’successful’ way of
comnatibility between
... _.i a major
ragricultural sector,and the
introduction of the canitaii
Pt nodenart
nJ of the
J
■
affricultural sector.
in theory a conJradi^ion^? interest ^7 °f
(
i
rural bourgeoisie,
working population <
as for the rest c f th•19hnn.
n
•
4‘
maint
^ining politics
lity, the emergence of
racy’ throu^ the process of Indus
trial monopolization together wJth
. I L
- - — of capital tensive
intensive w"vs
of production, may be understood
bourgeoisie °s
-8 we
wt. 11 as
remiLt of
response tn the Power of the rural
as a. result
own search for increased Profit
Jo’Hl brffo
’
eniSie
Xithin
the
c
™text
urban bourgeoisie within
--1 of the a. cOomodation and the
-‘1 —1 a.'-rgse
-obi :b^uiijpZm,™vn:h4h:h:— b—- e .
a
industrial structure and the we.a„. „„01se, „„ lt by f<,„lsn „n*7“=_
tic investments.
Is the :*increasing narticination I.
b.v the Ptate in industrialization
the problems
a way
-. J •'rising from industrial
---- monondjly in the privat e
sector?
to
O
’-overcome
7
‘ ‘ , the entrepreneurs of major
From th< beginnings of nl'anning in India,
of
^tate
nlanning34
and. have had a decircompanies were active supporters
undertaken
by
the
State
in the field of
sive influence in the activities
ehough
evidence
that
those
fields
of Indus—
industrialization.
There is e_.
to
the
State
represent
most
risk and
trial activity which have been left
the least profit.
While the growth
g - - - - of the Public sector, which represents nearly half
of total industrial investment, has
result
of increasing
h^s been slow as a i
----- 1
difficulties in the balance of payments among other reasons (India has
even to'
her -feoct inports
to1 export much needed steel in order to pay
nay for
1
----India has received substantial support from Russia, for the development
of her heavy industries.
On the other hand, the necessary imports for
the development of the heavy inddstry have also been hampered by the in
creasing imports needed for the production of consumer ggods, which led
to wh-t’has been called ’pseudo indust ria 1ization’.35.
Thus while the de
velopment of heavy industries had, as its original obiective to produce
capital goods needed for the production of other goods, the very orienta
tion of the consumer industry stimulated it to produce for a production
process which, as indicated before, responds to the wQnts of the minority
population and not to the basic needs of the ponulntion at large.
Thus
there is a ’functional integration’ between the Public Sector and the pri
vate sector — the Public sector supporting and contributing to tho inte
rests of the monopoly capital of the private sector.
This is realized
through the provision of cheap energy, transport facilities, and other
inputs for the private sector.
Thus we similarly see in the industrial
sector as in the agricultural sector that the production and availability
of inputs responds to the requirements of the groups who exercise a monopoly on the means of production, in this case, those for direct co sum ntion.
The view that it would be nossible to peacefully realize a developed democratic society through State capitalism under Indian conditons36
and that by developing the State sector the need for revolutionary changes
would be obviated would seem questionable, particularly where such a po
licy is implicitly based on the assumption that a prior structural trans
formation of the agricultural sector is not of primary importance thereby
supporting implicitly the orientation of the Prevailing New Agricultural
Strategy.
Such a view is clearly based on an option for primacy of in
dustrial growth especially in heavy industry, and the assumption that
somehow in the process, tho necessary social transformation will take
, place.
FTinco Independence there h*s been much emphasis in Indian Planning
on the role of small sc^le industry as g complement of big industry.
This
was partly the fruit of the legacy of the nas'u, represented by the views
and the ideology of Gandhi with his bins against the city, industry, and
mass consumption culture with its alienating and depersonalizing effects.
It was at the same time derived from his ideal of sef1-sufficiency and
his fear that the concentration of industry in the urban areas would
threaten the population in the rural ^reas in its opportunities for pro
ductive work qnd would lead tn increased labour under-utilization.37
Among the arguments in favour of-small scale industry are the fuller use
of local resources,itsmultiplying effects, the provision of incentives
for the rural population* in short,the need for and promotion of balanced
rural development.
In spite of the official emphasis on the need for
smnH scale industry and the large amount of funds devoted to it, the
programmes has been qualified a failure.
Inspit e of heavy investment from the first five year plan onwards
the small industries programme created up to the end of 1967 in whole of
India, only provided employment for 75,000 persons.
This was partly due
to the fact, that contrary to’the expectations of the government, the
entrepreneurs chose to produce commodoties which were relatively capi
tal intensive; secondly most factories worked below their capacity, while
the programme was meant to contribute to local self-sufficiency by produ
cing basic consumer goods, the Atat—subsid^ixed small—scale industries
started
tn produce inputs for other industries.
One of the
reasons of this conversion into subsidiaries of arrangements which also
provided security.38
Another reason may h^ve been the competition the small industries
would have to face from the larger ones, particularly in urban areas.
Although such competition in rural .areas may have been less of a threat
they may also have been turned into subsidiaries on account of the limix’
I
!
I
-A-
ted market, beside the desire for nrofit maximization,
^he distortion of
the original obiectives of the small scale development nrogramme are indicative of the forces working in Indian Society, teniing to subvert develonnent and to subordnate the action of the State to the requirements and
advantages of the Private Sector to the detriment of the majority copula
tion.
The question must however be asked, whether it would be realistic
to expect that the outcome of such a planning could have been different in
a societal context in which monopolization of opportunities for profit is
a predominant feature. The virtual absence in India of production of sui
table capital goods as well as basic consumer goods for the rural majoriy
population seems an inevitable consequence of the alliance as yet prevailing
between the industrial and rural bourgeoisie and the growth pattern this
produces..'.
There seems little room for doubt that the industrialization process
in India directly contributes to the polarization process tnkring place bet
ween the rich- and the poor and that it, like the New Agricultural Strategy,
further deepens the already existing contradictions within society and un
intent ionally adds to the development of antagonistic interest between clas
ses.
While there is evidence that poverty in itself is unlikely to move
people to undertake organized action against those who resist transforma
tion (in view of the Preservation of their privileged condition and the
search for increased surplus appronriation, dictated to them by the very
dynamics of the monopolistic connetitive structure of ^hich they are in
tentionally or unintentionally the agents and beneficiaries), it seems more
likely th^t it is the deterioration of conditions which moves people to
protest and organize themselves "nd act in self defence.
Is such a situa
tion developing in India?
It hnsbeen pointed out thnt in comparison to China the record of
peasant unrisings in India is quite unimpressive.59 Numerous local revolts
have taken nVce over time in protest .against various forms of exploit
tion.
In Particular the violent uprising at the end of the forties in the
Hyderabad areas has been considered as indicative of the potential for revolutionary action, among the Indian peasantry.40
the Indian Governmental
Government/!! recognizes thnt
recent study
stuny by
oy me
th"t the new technology and strategy hive been geared 'to the goals of Production with ?
secondary regard to socio.) vnoerntives' and that this orientation as sugges
ted before has brought about 'a situation in which elements of disparity,
instability, and unrest ore becoming conspicuous, with the possibility of
of nn increase of tensions.
Numerous land invasions "re cited, a number of
them of n violent noture ss well as other actions such ng the seizure of
standing crons.
Participants in such actions, which in several places h-ve
taken on the character of veritable movements, have in particular been poor
peasants, tenants and landless workers.
The emergence of such movements nvo
specifically attributed to the ’denial of basic rights’ to those groups
whether it regard tn security of tenure, their share in the Production,’
fair rents, wage payments, land distribution and, in
in general,
genersi, access to
services and facilities such as credit.
It is recognised
recognized that an explosive
situation may develop "S a :result
n 1 of~ the
‘ ’
combination of the continuation of
the new Agricultural Strategy and. the delay of measures to create new structural and institutional conditions to meet the demands of the agitating
"nd land hung ry poor peasantry.42
The intention of the present Indian Government do not differ substantially from those of previous Governments in that they are characterized
by radical principles.
It is not unlikely th-t, as in the past, in nrnctice it will combine its radical apnroach in terms of priciPles for trans
formation and reform with a ipragmatic conservatism in practice.43 There
is a wide distance between the enunciation and Planning of policy and its
actual implementation. The Nejw Congress Party as the old one also relies
heavily on the old as well as new groans in the rural bourgeoisie who, in
the States where lend reform
ctu^lly and in practice must be implemented,
exercise control in the vill -nges as well as within and. on the bureaucracv
charged with the implementation of policies.
There are numerous ways in
which the best intentions of the Federal Government can be circumvented.44
Again can it be expected that the present power holders will voluntarily
give up their position of Privilege?
Can transformation be planned9
P'ooH
historical evidence to assume that a! land reform
which is planned and carried out from above mav tend to serve as a tempo
rary stabilizer of an economic, social and Political order th"t by its
very nature is inimical to development.
-9Until a few years ago the successive Indian Governments seem to have
been able to manage to control local protest movements and potential re
bellions by a combination of improvement programmes and direct forms of
control.
The use of violent means of repression on a larger scale emerge,
however, from the beginning of the faxalite movement which started in Ben
gal and spread from there to various other states of India.215 None recent
invasions of large scale farm-s, including those of politicians in the
Congress Party,have.■ met with very severe action from the side of the
Government . 46 Such actiorPmake cle^r the insistence of the Government on
the full protection of property, even when such property, c ? the resources
it represents, are not or are under utilized while there continues a seri
ous marginalization of the poor rural population without land and work.
i
There hns been much insistence on the gr< 't ’resilience* and flexibi
lity, in the Indian social structure, particularly in the rural areas, by
the accommodation of marginalized grouns, the so called process of ’sanskritization’ by which members of lower castes can move up into higher
castes, continuing to adhere to the code of rules prescribed bv the values
of traditional society. Yet ’institutionalised inenuality’ through castes
mokes the recognition of common interests among various c°ste groups which
belong to the same class difficult.
Also there is relative absence of
solidarity .among the exploited sections of the peasantry as a result of
the prevalence of vertically integrated factions °nd the intensity of con
trol and dependence that has been stressed.
The dependent poor peasants
internalize the values imposed upon them by the dominant landlords.47
It would seem, however, that there is a combination of factors which
would induce, in my view, more Profound changes in the hitherto relativ ly
submissive copulation, both in the rural and the urban areas.
One: the decline in foreign aid ^nd, particularly, food aid which
helped the Government in dealing with crisis situations in the cities.
TwQ- the intensification of capital intensive industry and the one-side
modernization of agriculture, which on the one hand
bond promotes marginal isation withn the selected nr-'-as and on the other hand puts a break on th
evolution of the agrarian structure in 'left out’ areas which continue to
be subject to a semi-feudal structure.
:s the increasing inability
of the Government to support, in a sustained w;.v,
w.i.v, its strategy for agricutural- modernization in view of its.s inability to touch the unproductive
continue
pnnu1 is
istt nror-r
nrnorwrs
social surplus and to cont
inue ' popu
--imwc s ( s thnt of community
development) which served in the n-^st
p^st to soften th',
th'.- situation for the poor.
.T’our: the increasing dichotomy between th- emerging
c-meryiag rural npd urban 'la
bour aristocracy' and
nd the increasing
incroasina ncn-utili
nen-utili ation of neonle.
Five- the
continuing rise of expectations both in the co .trvside and in the cities
and towns, due to increased communications and
o nd the imnact mass media and
the
conspicuous consumption by the- m.-inor'ty in
context of stagnation and
d^eterioration of conditions for the poor.
°ix
the pressures created. 1*
p 0.0 r .
; ix
the ranid increase in population on which the
tie -'orced camnnign for popu
lation planning h^s only-had a very limit d ?'in
r’ct
rmpnc
’^ and is likely to hav.
less so in the future. 48 -even • the need, for the
the Government, ns the re
presentative of the ruling clnsse-s, to i3 n
c re
nc
re as iin aly
o-1 y control the moderni
zation process and isolate it fr^^^.ts
impct
.hi
terms of its negative
fliff^kcts iriTr ot
social consequences.
The need t oA lucre nsng use of force for control and
containment seems inherent in the very development strategy which is being
pursued.
The possibility to successfully defl..ct the rising pressures and
to channel them in such a
that they indir- ctly lead to support and
favour the prevailing objectives of growth, would seem to come to an end.
for the reasons above suggested.
The leeway open to the ruling class b in e a de c 1 ar e d ' no 1 i cy o
socialism and equal rights and opportunities for the whole population
■with a factual n o 1 i c y for more no vertv, hunger and dependence than oven
before.
If it is briny suggested th^t profound structural transformoti-n
of and in Indian society have become inevitabl', it is not because a r
lution^ry process is advocated, but because it becomes inevitable in view
of the development of the internal cont radiotinns within this so cietv as
it has been shared by the prevailing forces, and by policies, re fleet iv.
ofthesc forces.
-10-
Notes '?nd Reference si
1.
Lamb, Helen B., Quoted in Mn.ndel, On.cit^ n.442i
2.
Manel, Ernest, Op.cit., P.444
3.
Dutt, Romosh,
4.
Ibid, Int ??oduct ion .
5.
Mandel Ernest, Op.Citi, p,447.
6.
Baran, Paul
Paul,, 'The Political Economy of Growth’, -a.151.
8ee al .0 the observation by Nehru in his Discovery of India:
Nearly all our problems today have Town un during British rule
and as a direct result of British policy: the princes, the mincrity problem, various vested interests, foreign and India,
the lock of industry and the neglect of agriculture, the extreme
a
backwardness of the social services and, above all, the tragic
poverty of our people.
7.
Moore, Barrington,
8.
Bettetheim,
9t
Ibidkj pn. 54 - 79 and 84
10»
Streeten, Paul and Hill, Roger, Aid to India in India and China, stu-
’The economic History of India* (London, l°01).
Charles,
Uppel ^London,
Ih
Ram, Mohnn,
India Independent,
nn. 54-79.
100.
I Chen *nd J.3.
1971V
’.he Communist Movement in India*,
cerned Asian Scholars,
in the Bulletin of Co.
IV,1,1972.
12.
Krishna Mxrti. B.V. ‘Power Elite Planning for Peoples Welfare1, Eco
nomic nd Political Weekly, Bombay, May 27,1967.
i
Pandekan V.F. and Rath, Nilahnntha, ’Poverty In Indin, Dimensions and
trends’, Economic and Political Weekly, T^ninry,2,1971.
14 .
eu, ’Indian Economic Growth, Constraints and Prospects’,
Ranjit K. ^au,
Economic ©nd Political Weekly, Annual Number, Feb,1972.
15.
Ishikawa-, 8. Economic Development in Asian Perspectives, (Tokyo, 1967V
Quoted in N.K. Chandra, Western Imperialism and India Today.
Ishikawa gives comparative figures for concentration in Japan
an* U.S.A, which have the following corresponding percentages?
Japan in 1958:40.4, 38.2 and 21.2 ard the U.8,a. in 1954:19.4,
45 .
<
Op. cit., n. 368.
s in comparative development. Editors,
d:
•
and 35.4 .
16.
Diwan, Rom.sh, ’Planning for the Poor’, Economic and Political Weekly,
August 21,1971.
17.
See Bettelheim, on.cit.,
18.
Lbel, E. .and Das, P., Productive capacity of Large ocale Industry in
India (Calcutta, 1959). Quoted in Bettelheim, on.cit. n.265.
19.
Myrdal, Gunnar, see his analysis of the ideology of Indian planning
and the relation between theory and practice of equality, demo
cracy and socialism.
and San, op.cit.
... s a i, A.R., ’Reliance on rich farmers for development’, The Economic
Weekly, Sept. 18,1965.
21 .
Wertheim, W.F., East Wpp.t Parallels, Sociol ogic01
Asia ( The Hague,196/. V
22.
Schultz, T h e <■ do re ,
’Tr^rr forming Traditional Agriculture (London, 1964).
Mosher, A.T.,
’How to get Agriculture Moving’ (New York,1966V
Rogers, E.N.,
’The Diffusion of Innovation’
Erasmus ,
23.
^nnroach to Modern
Ch . J.,
’Man Takes Contra].’
(New Yor1-, 1962).
(F innoanl is ,
1961).
Frankel, Francine, ’India’s Green Revolution* (Princeton, 1971V
Francine FrapV.-.-l served as a n. 7 Aid Consultant to India.
Dutt, Rudder and •The Green Revolution in Indian and Chinn* in Kwen-iChen
Sundharna, K.P.M., and J.*, runpni (edrt), India '’nd ChinatStudlea in
compactive Development (New York, 1971),
V
-Il
’Unrisd, The Introduction of Hi^h Yielding Avrieties of Food Grain,
Selected Readings ^Geneva, 1071^.
Jacoby, Erich, Cepede,
Michel and Ahmhad,
Manzo or Zubeida.
Contributions by these Authors in the T.L.O.
International Labour Review, January, 1972.
Cleaver, Harry M.
’The Contradictions of the G£een Revolution’
monthly Review, June 1Q73.
in
24.
Re s e a. rch an d
The causes and Nature of Agrarian Tens ions
Policy division of (N ew Delhi,undated).
the Indian Ministry
of Home Affairs,
25.
Jacoby, Erich, Man and L^nd, The Fundamental Issue in Develonment,
(London,1971).
26 .
Streeten,
27 .
Gough, Kathleen, ’The Eouth Asian Revolutionary Potential ’,Bullet in
of Concerned Asian scholars, IV,1,1972.
28.
Ram, Mohan, op.cit., points to the advantages of the new strategy both
for the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe which deliver every
fourth tractor needed, and for the United states’ interests in
fertiliser industry^
"Paul and Hill, Roger, On.cit.y
Jacoby, Erich, on.cit., see his discussion on the orientation of multilateral and bilateral technical assistance and aid, np.140.65.
29.
The report of the seminar on planning problems of metropolitan regions
and the strategy for development (New Delhi,1970>st ates : ”It was common
realisation that the existing wide disparity between metropolitan de
velopment and the development of backward areas is mainly due to a
sem-colonial relation the metropolis now has with the backward areas.
This means that backward areas are being used for only production of
agricultural raw materials without any facilities for transformation
of their economy”.
Bose, A.N. "Institutional bottlenecks, Main barrier to the development
of backward regions, ’’Indian Journal of rerion^i Science, II,1,
1.970 and HI, 1, 1071.
30.
The expression is Erich Jacoby’s.
31.
cf. Barrington Moore and Gunnar Hyrdal, o.pit.
32.
•See the argumentation of Sau (on.cit.
Bet t elheim
( on . cit . ) .
on.cit.^5) and Bette
1heim(on
33.
At a*more theoretical level are relevantsErnesto Lnclau, "feudalism
and Capitalism in Latin America" in New Left Review,No.67, May
June 1971, and Giovanni- Arrighi, The Relationship between the
colonial ^nd the class structure, who both argue the ’functionality’ of the persistence of the feudal mode of production in
view of its relative profitability.
34.
Myrdal, Gunnar, on.cit. n.725.
35.
Bettelheim, on.cit.
36.
Wertheim, W. F., Evnlutie en Revolutie ( Amsterdam, 1970), o'° 418-26.
See his discussion on the Soviet view of the function and pers
pectives of State Capitalism in Asia, and the Chinese view of
Bureaucratic capitalism which, in view of its monon olistic
nature in the function of and alliance with the urban and rural
bourgeoisie who control it, is represented as ’a high moutain.
which, ss a dead weight, lies upon the Indian peonle." Onlv
a Revolutionary process of liberation and transformation can,
in the Chinese view, open the w^-'r to development in India. Com
pare the present official Soviet view of the role of the Bour
geoisie in Indi® with the Soviet nosition prior to the position
n.253.
taken by Urushchew in 1°55:RAY,"Changing Soviet Views on Mnhatma Gandhi", "The Journal of Asian ftudies, 29.1.1969.
Comnnre the views of Pun Tot Fen
7 on and .Mao Tse Tung on the changes
ahd role of the Kuomintang, expressed in "On the people’s demo
cratic dictatorship" of June 1949.
-12-
37.
Myrdnl, Gunn»r,
on.cit.
PertJJf
Se his analysis of the Industrialisation issue
7 CrltS and SmaU scale industry.
Connare the
-ertial-identity of Gandhi's views with the Chinese approach.
38.
Lef.ber, Louis end Region’ll Development experiences and Prospects
in
South end South E^st Asis (The Esgue, 1971).
^ntahofaiSC“SSi?n/n Industri'u estates nrogromtnes as instruinents of regional development policy.
Datta-Chaudhuri,
Frin.al,
39.
40.
Foore, Barrington,
Ibid.,
on . cit. n i 37Q.
p. 382.
Alayi,
Alavi, Hamza, "Peasants nnd Revolution", The socialist Register
fLondon, 1965 \
41.
Hee footnote' 40.
42.
Although the Government study explicitly gives the
from the poor neasantry as a ccause of unrest, seizure of land
protest and rebellion, it nevertheless qualifies
-J tho=e who n.ct in defence of their
basic rights as
* git at mg and -land hungry".
Bremen, Jan, "Rijke Boeren Houden 1*
nndhervorming tegen in India"
Rich Farmers obstruct Land reform'I' , De C-roene (a Dutch weekly'.
10th Anril, 1971.
43.
OF DOMINATION AND EXPLOITATION - 2. INDIA
THE, RICH
POLITICAL DOMINATION
ECONOMIC DOMINATION
85% of politicians come from
agricultural background, but
2/3 of them own above 10 acres
and 38% raore than 25 acres.
/
ADMINISTRATIVE DOMINATION
10%
of Indian
Population
\
80% of the personnel in I.A.S.
I.F.S. and I.P.S. are drawn
from the top 10% of Indian
society•
1 • Own 56% of the land
2. Get l/3 of the yearly
income of the nation
3. Top one tenth of one
per cent own more than
half the total wealth
in form of shares.
4. 2% of rural households
hold 25.7 per cent of
rural wealth
5* Access to nquality
education”, More than
50% of students in *
professional colleges
come from top .20%.
WIDENING GAP BETWEEN RICH AIJD POOR
(Economically, socially, politically)
\/
THE POOR
POLITICALLY EXPLOITED
ECONOMICALLY EXPLOITED
They have hardly any political
power.
Most of them are unorganised.
1. Own only 4% of th© land
(2)% have no land at
all.
2. They claim less than
l/3 of the total
They are marginal
yearly
income of the
\
nation.
/ -They are absolutely
3» They have no access to
ADMINISTRATIOIT /
poor
\
shares.
^-They
are
illiterate
(70%
A corrupt
4. Bottom 5% of rural
administration
of Indian population is
households hold 7.37%
oPten takes
illiterate.)
of rural wealth
adv ant age oT
/
(Bottom 20% = 0.8% of
Loss than Ite.^-0 a month
tnom.
I
rural wealth.
\
to spend (in 1970
SOCIALLY
to 50% of
Indian
>
population
\
prices)
5. Hardly any access
to Mquality
educat io n" .
■
ii
■■ ,
ii
I,
■■■—ii
i
m
■■ .i i i
"ESSEIWIAIXY THE DIFFICULTY FACED BY THOSE WHO BELIEVE THAT IT
IS POSSIBLE WITHIN THE EXISTING POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC SYSTEM
TO INTRODUCE REFORMS WHICH WILL ENLARGE INDIVIDUAL FREEDOM AMD
MAKE POSSIBLE A MORE JUST SOCIETY, IS THAT THE SYSTEM ITSELF
OPERATES PRECISELY TO EXCLUDE THOSE REFORMS."
-J.A.C. Griffith.
Mriwji.ii
SITUATION OF DOMINATION AND EXPLOITATION - INTERI^ATIONAL.
RICH NATIONS
-They dominate international
trade.
-They dominate international
politics.
-They dominate international
organisation.
-International judiciary
institutions function in
their favour.
1.Consume 87*5% of the
world’s produced
wealth.
2♦Get 80% of the economic
growth of the world.
3.98% of the world’s
research.
4.Set the pace in
scientific education.
Per capita income in i960 = $1,360
in 1970 = $2,660
(almost doubled in 10 years)
WIDENING GAP BETWEEN RICH W POOR NATIONS
POOR NATIONS
r i.
11
Hi—■ mi —1
■
■
-i
11
1•Consume only 12e5%
world’s produced wealth
They are the
”object” of
political
decision.
/POOR NATIONS
/ 3/^ of* the world’s
z
population^
“inTant mortality 5°
times as high as that
of rich nations
vary limited
in Internationa
organisations•
-every second victim
claimed by death is a
child below 6 years
K
2.Get only 20% of economic
growth of the world.
3;Only 2% of the world’s
research
4.Lags behind in
scientific development.
-high rate of
illiteracy.
Por capita, income in i960 = $130
in 1970 = $210
(Rise of 6ofo9 compare with rich nations)
In 1939, 39% of the world population had to manage with less than
2000 calories.
In 1970, 60% of the world population had to manage with loss than
2000 calories•
’’TODAY 85%, TOMORROW 90% ROT IN MISERY IN ORDER TO MAKE
POSSIBLE THE ECONOMIC COMFORT OF TODAY 15% AND TOMORROW
10% OF THE WORLD'S POPULATION.”
,
'
-Don Holder Camara.
Politics is t__e language in which we discuss the way men live
together, in society5 and since living together in society is
the normal human condition, by talking about politics we are
talking about what it means to be a man, to be alive.
All our
experience is in this sense politicals it has some relation to
other men, to social reality.
Politics is not only discussion of
certain aspects of human behaviour - it is discussion of the
structures and institutions which make a man what he is, for a man
only comes into being through his society.
Christ’s teaching is
political teaching, concerned with how mon are to live together,
not with man in isolation*
There may be an objection that this is an unfair use of the word
"politics” that wo are weighing our case by giving it an inflated
signiricance.
The objection is understandable if? we look at the
way tme tom has been narrowed to mean merely the techniques ox
government, the detailed business ox getting and preserving power.
Politics has become a matter oT the public world - the world beyond
our private, intimate experience - and the relation’* between our
closest values and belief's, and the impersonal world of political
manoeuvering has become increasingly diTTioult to make.
The
temptation is therefore to reject politics altogether as a
specialised pursuit Tor the ambitious and this is substantially
what has happened in most Western societies today.
”Itrs all
politics”, ’’politics is dirty”, "I’m not politically minded” are
phrases which have become part of* our conversational wisdom.
This
kind ex' mental barrier can be best got over by seeing that this
attitude is itself' a deeply political ohe$
if' politics is reduced
f*rom a matter of ideology and human belief' to a specialist prof'essiai
the reduction will benexit those who wish to keep their own,
dominant, ideology from.being questioned.
When a Liberal or Labour
or Conservative IIP says that public ownership is a matter of
efficiency (not ineffi cich cy) , not of doctrine, Jce is making this
kind of re du ct ion.
This way .of seeing politics, as a public matter divorced from our
personal concerns, has a long tradition behind it, but it is not .■even today - the only way of looking.
To begin with, there are
a good many people who would reject the idea that we can separate
off our "public” from our "private" experience, and label the former
as political, the latter as non-political. If we think about our
actual ejcpericnco of living in society, we realise that this kind of
division will only hold as an abstraction.
We are persons,
individuals, because we are born into and shaped by a society whose
language provides us with the terms wit bin which w think and feel
and acts wo become individuals through society.
There is no such
tiling as wholly private experiences our most intimate experience is
derived from social reality of which wo are a part.
Our personal
consciousness is not "given" a priori s it is shaped by
culture
and language and institutions of our society, and will change as these change.
Our consciousness also creates and changes these
institutions of course, so the process is two-way, a mutual shaping.
Our personal life is therefore not something to bo set over against
society, the way we think, the possibilities of experience open to
us, are matters of the public world, the world of our society.
So politics is not a matter—©r techniques alones it is sometimes
made into this by men who fear the consequences of seeing politics
in its deepest sense, as offering elg-z ways of living together, this
is why politics Is important to Christians,-.
Tlioro are dxiTi'erozit ways ox creating cozaaitmity, or course, and the
way which religious have traditionally recognised is by loving
one’s neighbour, acting loving to the people we know and meet.
. .2. .
4
hut c om muni t y and re 1 at ions hip, i n m o de m indu st rial society,
involves more than this immediate personal contact.
In an
industrial society we are all intimately related to each other,
even without luipWing each other personally at all; wo are related
through institutions like organised work, tnrough. the mass media
and public services, through transport and cultural activities and
the o loot nr al system.
What I do in my ovzn life, in a factory is
part of a whole industrial pX’ocess which relates me, indirectly,
to all the other people in my society; I am present to them, in
relationship with them.
By writing these articles wo are present
to people we don’t Imow, hoping to influence them.
Our concern
with being present to others in a loving way, therefore must
extend to include a whole society.
We must loam to thin of relat
ionship in more than directly personal terms.
These wider
relationships, consisting of a whole society, are created through
institutions - through legal, social, cultural, and economic
structures.
By changing thes e, we can change human relationships and this, ultimately, is what politics is about •
So it is inadequate to think, as some have tended to in the past,
Oi' charity only as a personal quality, unorganised and spontaneous •
Charity must indeed be sp0p.tar.00u3, but we have to learn to
visualise a charitable, spontaneous society, one which expresses,
in its formal institutions, in factories and cinemas and local
government chambers, the kind of loving life which we can see now
in our personal relatioiiships.
Personal charity will- produce
charitable groups and, activities, but will do nothing'to
change the structures and institutions of a society.
It may,
indeed, make the situation worse by causing the inhuman results of
those structures and tills diverting people’s attention from their
evil.
The man who believes only in personal charity will tend to
think that society will be healthy once all the individuals in it
are kind to 6ach other; ho will fail to see that this personal
Izindnoss is an inadequate response to a society which, in its
very structure - in the things wliich make it what it is - is
dividing and degrading - men.
We need a language that can describe
a whole society’s life, and action which will change a whole
society, as a single organism.
And both of these are politics.
*
*
* •Jfr *
I ’
X
f
n
GsWH 3! —
is
POVERTY
THE
jZ&AJL/
VL.VSA. '
*. .r-J*
PROBLEM
Poverty is not the real prBblem oT the modern world. Tor we have
the knowledge and the resources which will enableo us to overcome
poverty. The real problem oT the modern world the thing which
creates misery, wars and hatred amongst men, is the division oT
mankind into rich and poor.
We can see this division at two levels 0 Within nation states
there are a Tew individuals who have great wealth and whose
wealth gives them great power. But
But .the
. the vast majority oT the
people suffer Trom varying degrees oT poverty and deprivation.
Even in a country like the United States this division can be seen.
In countries like India, Portugal or Brazil the contrast between
the wealth oT a Tew privileged individuals and the dire poverty
oT the masses is a crying scandal. And looking at the world as a
collection oT nation states we see the same pattern repeated: there
are a Tew wealthy nations which dominate the whole wrId, economic
ally and thereToro politically, and a mass oT smaller and ppor
nations whose destiny it appears is to bo dominated. The significance about this division between rich and poor is not simply
that one man has more Tood than ho can eat, more clothes than
he can wear, and more houses than he can live in, while others
are hungry, unclad and homeless. The signiTicant thing about
the division between rich and poor, and rich and poor nations is
not simply that one has the resources to provide comTort Tor
all its citizens and the other cannot provide basic services.
The reality and the depth oT the problem arises because the man
who is rich has power over the lives oT those who are poor.
And the rich nation has power over the policies oT those who are
not rich. And oven more important is that a social and oconomic
system, nationally and international?y, :supports those divisions,
and constantly increases them so that the rich get ever richer
£nd more powerful, while the poor go I; relatively ever poorer aid
loss able to control their own Tutureo
This continues despite all talk ox human quality, the Tight
against poverty, and oT dovolopreni. Still rich individuals
within nations and rich nations wLthin the world go on getting
richer, very much richer, much Taster than the poor nations can
overcome their poverty. Sometimes this happens through the
deliberate decisions oT the rich who use their wealth and their
power to that end. But oTten, perhaps more oTten, it happens
naturally as a result oT the normal workings oT social and economic
systems men have constructed Tor thamsoIvos• Just as water Trom
the driest regions oT the earth ultimately Tlows into the ocean
where already there is plenty, so woalth Tlows Trom the poorest
nations and the poorest individuals into the hand oT those nations
and thos o individuals who are already too wealthy. A man who can
aTTord to buy only one loaT oT bread a day contributes to iiho
proTit accruing to the owner oT the bakery despite the Tact
that the owner already has more money then he knows how to use.
/aid the poor nations which sells its primary commodities on th©
world market in order to buy machines Tor development Tinds that
the prices it obtains and the prices it has to pay are both
determined by the Torces oT the Tree market in which it is a
Pygray which is Tighting against giants.
Both nationally and internationally this division oT mankind
into a tiny minority oT rich and a groat majority oT poor is
rapidly becoming intolerable to the majority as it should be.
••.2..
n
: 2
:
The poor nations and the poor peoples of the world are aIre ady
in rebellion. If they do not succeed •in securing a charro which
loads towards greater justice then that :rebellion will become
an explosion0
Injustice and peace ore, in the long run, incompatible,
Stability
in a changing world must moan ordered change towards justiwo,
not mechanical respect for the ''status quo”. It is in this
t..at development has been called another name for peace.
It is in this context which gives urgency to your deliberations
on participation in the dovelopmnt of the peoples.
The purpose of development is man. It is a creation of conditions
both material and .spiritual which enable man the individual and
man the species to become his best.
Mon aro creators of themselves and their conditions, but under
present conditions we are creatures not of God but of our follow
mon. For mankind has novor boon so united or so disunited., has
never had so much power for good nor suffered under such evident
injustice. Mam’s capacity has never been so clear nor so obviouiLy
and deliberately denied.
y
The world is one in_ to clino logic al terms. I4en have looked down
on the earth from the
—o moon and soon its unity. In jet planes I
can travel from Tanzania to Now York in a matter of hours. Radio
waves enable us to talk to ono another, either in love or in
abuse, without more than a few seconds elapsing between our
speech and the hearing of it.j Goods ai?o made which include
materials and sldtlls from all over the world,. and
j " aro
_ then
12
put
for sale thousands of miles from their placo'of manufacturoT
Yet,
at the same time as the intordepondonce of man is increased
t hr ou gh advan co s of technology, the divisions between men also
expand at an over increasing rate. The national income per head
in the United States
is* said to bo more" than $3;2-00 <>000 a years
--- —
In Tanzania it is approximately $80?00 per yoaro That is to say
it would take an average Tanzanian forty years to earn what an
average ^jerican earns
oneyear
year— —and
andwowoare not the poorest
j. one
- - —in
nataon on earth. Further it has boon estimated that
—j while the
rich countries are adding approximately §60,00
a, year to the
per capita income of their citizens, the average increase of
per capxta income in the poor countries is less than two dollars
a year. It has boon estimated that up to 500 million people on
uhe
today are suffering from hunger, from novor having
enough to oat. Further, ono out of every two of the world’s
peoples is suffering from malnutrition, from deficiencies of
protein,
~
i 4.
' from
rather essential health giving foods. And finally
lot mo
remind
you that
that even
t
13G
you
within the wealthiest countries of
the world the misery and coppression of poverty is experienced by
thousands, or oven millions
ns, of individuals and families and
groups.
□o the world is not ono.
Its peoples are more divided now and
vaoso who are hungry; thoy are divided between those with power
and those without 2powers they aro divided between those who
dominate and those who are dem inated, between those who exploit
and those who are exploited., /And
_ 1 it is the minority which is
well f'ed and the minority which has secured control of the world ls
wealth and oven their follow meno
Those who control a man’s livelihood control a man. His' freedom
as eroded ana ixs equal humanity is denied when ho depends upon
others for the right to work and the right to oat. Equally, a
nation is not independent if its economic resources are controlled
by anothox* nat ion o Political independence is meaningless if a
nai1on d ?co not control the means by which its citizens can eam.
their living. In other words, the devololament, of peoples
oe .3. .
3
■&
follows from economic development only if this latter is achieved
on the basis of the equality and human dignity of all those
involved. And human dignity cannot be given to a man by the
kindness of others5 indeed it can be destroyed by kindness which
emanates from an action of charity. For human dignity involves
equality, and freedom, and relations of mutual respect among mon.
Further, jt depends upon responsibility and on a conscious
participation in the life of tho society in which man moves and
works. The whole structure of national societies and of inter
national society is therefore relevant to the development of the
peoples. And there are few societies which can now bo said to
servo this purpose, for there are few. if any, which both
accept and are organized to serve social justice in what has been
called the revolution of rising expectations.
The needs of4 riankind are second, ix they are considered at all.
There is no proTit in producing cheap houses, so they are not
produced. There is no money for schools and hospitals, but
luxury apartments can bo built, and six lane higliwayse For these
tilings money can be found. And the result is a few mon living in
groat luxury, using the wealth produced by men for their own grandeur
and to P.nsuro their own power. At the same time, masses of mon,
women and children ore reduced to beggars, and to squalor, and to the
the humiliation of that disease and soul destroying insecurity
vzhich arises out of their enforced poverty,, Lot us bo quite
cloax* about this. Mon’, are shaped by the circumstance s in which
they live. If they are treated like animals they will act like
animals.
If they are denied dignity they will act without dignity.
If they are treated solely as a dispensable moans of production
they will become solely hands
to whom life is a matter of
doing as little work as possible, and thon escaping into the
illusion of happiness and pride through vice. Therefore, we must
seek to ensure that man can have dignity in their lives and in
their work. We must itself become a force of social justice
and must work with other forces of social justice wherever they
are and whatever they are called. Fui’thor, wo must recognize that
mon can only progress and can only g-o*w in dignity by working for
themselves and w orIcing together for their common good.
*
* # *
M.
/,-
■
■
”i
H 3> | — Id
11 Here they come11 says the villager
As he gapes at all the visitors
Who come to his Village to small
Trying to teach fn guide them all
Is this a doctor to heal ’a cure
The sick, the maimed, the lame ’a poor
Jb, this one talks about sanitation,
health, cleanliness and immunization*
No drugs does he given ncr pills
Nor does he cure the sick’ n the ill
Lectures he’s given, his duty <s done
He rushes away, waving to everyone.
Here they come, from the department of agriculture
Teaching about Irrigation fn fertiliser
Crop rotation, tractors *n pesticides
About seeds, hybrids and weedicides*
Parting with this know-how, they’ve done nothing great
Of improving this agricultural state
The farmers all gathered, away they go
To toil in their farms, as they ’d done before
Then comes the nutritionist, talking ’bout food
Diet during disease ’n when health is good
What foods to avoid ’n what to eat
About protein foods like pulses ’n meat*
The villagers all stare and gaze
As they listen, all in a maze
Home they go to cook and dine
The Jowar roti ’n pickles of lime*
The economist comes, with files ’n paper
To see the per capita income of villagers*
Of farm output’n mechanization
Which he can present in his dissertation*
The health camp workers, troop in here
With all their equipment and gear
To be cured, the villagers rush to the front
Little knowing that its a publicity stunt J
"For what selfish reason did they come here ?
“They help us not” saya the villager
"The Urban strangers come and go
But our sleepy village goes on as before 1
(SOURCExmfc bulletin August 1981)
fcfeena Panth
Hyderabad
A |
CtTr/l H 3 — I
Social Justice
And
4 f 10
fl a
Community Development
—Fr. H. Volken S. j.
Today more than ever the Word of God
will be
unable to be proclaimed and heard unless it is accompa
nied by the witness of the power of the Holy Spirit,
working within the action of Christians in the service
of their brothers, at the points in which their existence
and their future are at stake. ” (Apost. Letter of P. Paul
VI, May 1971).
It has come as a shock to many that the actual trend
in development in India is towards greater disparity,
towards increased social injustice. This means that
there are many hidden forces of injustice at work in
our society. It is possible that we too, without being
aware of it may strengthen these forces. The challenge
of the hour is, therefore, to examine and evaluate our
personal and institutional work, in order to see what
the actual impact of all this activity is on society as a
whole
The religious sisters all over India are the first
group in the Church who courageously have accepted
this challenge,
and
have launched a nation-wide
programme to find out what the practical implications
of the new demand for social justice of our people are
for their apostolate.
COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME
THE
When the Community Development Programme
18
iDte.
was launched in 1952, on Gandhiji’s birthday, it was
expected to become a vast movement of liberation
from poverty and social inequality in the 550,000
villages of the country. Some looked at this new
nation-wide venture as a new star in the Asian sky.
It was to prove that there is another alternative to the
Chinese model of agrarian revolution. The years
have passed by. During twenty years an immense amount
of money has been poured into this Community Develop
ment Programme.
In many regions of the country
this programme has achieved remarkable physical
results in terms of common amenities like schools,
roads, health-centres and agricultural
production.
But in its essential purpose the Community Develop
ment Programme has been defeated: our villages have
not been transformed into real communities in which
the Harijans and the poor have been able to free them
selves from hunger, illiteracy and abject poverty. The
stronger section of the rural population rather than
the weak have reaped the benefits of the Green Revo
lution which has increased remarkably agricultural
production. To see thus the already well-to-do climb
still higher has, however, opened the eyes of those left
out from this process of change: they have gained a
new consciousness. These marginal masses do no
longer accept in a resigned and fatalistic spirit this
increasing disparity; they increasingly feel frustrated
and angry. They now know that they are condemned
to remain in the grip of poverty because of the shrewd
ness and selfishness of the powerful and make even a
community development programme work to their
own advantage.
THE
MECHANISM OF DEVELOPMENT
Why does development, on the international as well
as on the national level, increase the gap between
the rich and the poor? This is the question that pre
occupies more and more persons who are sensitive to
this organised process of hurting the dignity of million
who rightly aspire for more justice and real brotherhood.
Why is it that after so much talk and planned develop
ment we go further away from these professed ideals
in the actual reality of life? With regard to Community
Development, a first answer was given some years
ago by a special appointed evaluation committee.
They said that this was due to the fact that Govern
ment planned and managed this programme and not
the people at the local panchayats. When the whole
village community will get involved in the programme
new village communities will emerge from the rural
scene. Again, years have passed. Today the despe-
A
ration of the rural poor is greater than ever. The
Panchayati Raj has not changed their lot. Though
in some places the Harijans do have an effective say in
the panchayat, this new democratic institution is
guided by the old spirit of narrow loyalties to one’s
family, and caste. It has hightened the motivatidn
for achievement among the powerful groups in the
village, but not the will to transform the village as a
whole into a genuine community marked with a special
concern for it’s weaker section. The village makes
progress, but the harijan quarters remain as miserable
and psychologically depressing as they have been when
New IndiA was not yet the dream of the nation.
THE CHURCH AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
One would have expected that right from its start
the new programme of Community Development has
:aught the imagination of Christians and the Church.
It did not, neither in 1952 nor in 1972! Ideally there
was a real challenge to a Church that has its origin in
Jesus Christ the Great Community Builder! In rural
Christian communities the fear of contamination was
greater than the sense of being sent into the wider
community. Surprisingly, even after Vatican II which
in the Pastoral Constitution expressed a new conscious
ness of the Church as being commissioned to be a leaven
of unity, a force of transformation in the wider human
community, the isolation of the rural Church from the
Community Development Programme persisted. A new
sense of social responsibility did come to life in the
Church in many places. Many remarkable develop
ment projects were undertaken. Yet, even today, we
probably can count on our fingers the Church spon
sored projects Which aim at creating a new community,
a genuine brotherhood of the entire village. This seems
so strange when we know well that it is first on the
level of a village that social justice and more equal
opportunity for all, has to be realised. All the Churches
have united, themselves in SOD EPAX to promote
social justice in the world. International Conferences
.iave been held; ‘ Hunger for Justice’ was the theme
of an all India Christian Consultation in Delhi two years
ago. On the local level, however, which is the place
where action for Justice has to take place, the Church
has not yet found a way to be a force of justice, counter
acting the present trend in village development by
which the richer farmers grow richer and the small
farmers and the landless do not grow except in frustra
tion and desperation.
UNREALISTIC TRAINING
Unawareness of the real possibilities of building
new village communities, is the main cause of the
19
Mta.
'AV“
20
absence of the Church in the illusive community
building task the nation faces today.
In this the priests
and religious are the main defaulters, and this is because
of the inadequate training they have received.
It is
jWfcjf ^rnazing how we can excel in ignoring modern tools
"lQipw8|of work jn the service of Christ.
It took a long time
before we discovered the new methods of groupdynamics and sensitivity training. Now we know
how much these can help in building up small, intimate
and effective groups. But we have not yet realised
that there is a hidden treasure in the community develop
ment approach and method. The immense experience
gained in developing a country, in understanding the
dynamics and obstacles of community-growth during
the recent past, has not yet entered the syllabus of
Seminaries (in this Sisters formation centres are more
advanced.)
THE COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT APPROACH
Unfortunately the Community Development Pro
gramme launched 20 years ago by the Government,
ignores in practice most of the principles and methods
of community development.
In every village there is
a God-given potential to become really a community
through a new type of collaboration in a spirit of soli
darity. At the moment our villages are full of facts
which are an insult to God who wishes all His children
to experience dignity and happiness. There is one
bishop in India who believes that his mission of evangeli
sation must go together with the task of organising all
the poor people in the area exploited by moneylenders
and neglected by officials, so that they may be able to
assert effectively their fundamental rights and have a
place in a developing society. A group of student
volunteers, of young priests and sisters are helping
the victims of this unjust set-up become aware of the
causes oftheir plight and helplessness. Thatthis defence
less people should all of a sudden show courage and
confront the powerful and corrupt in an organised
manner came as a surprise to the dominant groups.
Some ofthese are already undergoing a sort of ‘ forced
conversion ’ out of fear.
In course of time they may
even be helped to act more justly towards the weak
for more positive motives. Where the leaders and
dominant groups are not yet willing to accept responsi
bility for the good of all the members of the village
and exploit the weaker ones, conflict is inevitable.
The exploited have to be organised first so that they
can confront as partners the strong.
If in this process
some priests, sisters or laymen will incur persecution
and even imprisonment, as it happened in the north,
this will be for the glory of God and His Church.
A community development approach which involves
all the members of the community, high and lower
castes, rich and poor, is the ideal. Gandhiji believed
that this approach is possible in Indian villages, though
some of his followers do organise surpressed harijan
groups against landlords and money-lenders. In an
ideal Community development programme the atti
tudes of all the people are changed. The more priviliged begin to be concerned about creating real opportu
nities of progress for the poor, the poor are helped in
this process to gain self-confidence and a will to partici
pate in various development schemes. The ability to
work in collaboration with all is fostered through con
crete cooperative action. All grow as men in exerci
sing new responsibilities to solve community problems
of health, education, housing, production. A new
community comes to life, a new spirit of solidarity
fills the hearts and minds of the people.
It is an illu
sion to think that priests, sisters and laymen cannot
contribute towards making this ideal a reality, at least
in a limited measure.
Rare facts prove that it is possible
if these are acquainted with up-to-date methods of
community development and adult education through
cooperative action.
21
Mte
In one of the best villages we have in India, I asked
a village leader how the people from all castes have
been able to work together for the up-lift of the whole
village. He pointed to the priest of the place, who
stood near by, and said: “ It is because of our Father ”.
He realised that all the betterment programmes that
the villagers wanted to implement, would offer an
excellent educational opportunity for a human and
spiritual transformation of the entire community.
It
requires the involvement of priests, sisters and other
Christians in the common struggle of the whole commu
nity against poverty and inequality.
EXTENSION METHODS
DEVELOPMENT
IN
COMMUNITY
Community Development needs the support of
Extension work. To illustrate this: the Extension
Department of the University of Agricultural Sciences,
Bangalore is assisting hundred of villages through
their extension guides. These go into the villages and
train the farmers on their own fields in modern practices
of growing hybrid and high-yielding varieties. This
same method of extension work is now being expanded
into other fields like applied nutrition programmes,
nutrition education,
community health, treatment
and prevention of leprosy. This is again a new approach
which has developed rapidly during the past ten years.
The ‘ social work ’ of the Church being so much confined
to Institutions, has also in this field not been able to
22
““Ikeep pace with our times. Being in daily contact with
persons professionally trained in extension methods,
I am sure the fruits of Christian social involvement would
multiply a hundredfold, if only we would be humble
jWlW|enough to learn from others.
Extension work not
only means a new method of work, it also implies
mobility. It means going out to many villages, instead
of serving people only through an institution.
In
this approach volunteers are being trained in many
villages to carry out some of the activities of the pro
gramme. One single sister could e.g., guide and ani
mate an applied nutrition programme covering many
villages, as it is actually done in Kottar Diocese. This
expanded close contact with the-people in many villages
helps detect potential leadership. Some can be brought
to the Centre for short term training. This method
can be applied to many different programmes:
agri
cultural training through demonstration, adult literacy,
short term training of women and girls in practical
skills in child care etc. In the Bangalore District a Sister
has implemented an excellent poultry extension pro
gramme in which 30 families are helped to keep units of
100 birds.
r
SPECIAL PROGRAMMES FOR THE SMALL MAN
Since two years the Government has implemented
in many regions special programmes meant to give an
opportunity of self-help to the weakest section; The
Small Farmers Development Agency is to help the small
farmer make his holding a viable unit. Special credit
facilities and extension services to train him in modern
methods of agriculture are provided by the Agency.
Another scheme is meant for the marginal farmer
and the landless. Such a scheme is operating in Goa.
It offers special credit facilities for starting a dairy,
a poultry, a cottage industry etc. These are wonder
ful schemes to create forces of social justice. They
offer a first rate opportunity to people concerned
with the poor to help them come to know about the
existence of such facilities.
In his helplessness the
poor man often does not know hew to go about to
benefit from these schemes.
I wish the CBCI had in
its last meeting officially declared its determination
to support these schemes.
Here would be a wide
field of supporting excellent official schemes. But
again, do we know that they exist? We could, if we were
closer to the people and less in Seminars.
All I have said does imply that we must make our
selves more free and competent to work where people
( Continued on Page 42)
in our society, we are against him. If we do not fight
* for justice, we help continue injustice in our society
and the oppression and exploitation of our fellowmen.
Neutrality is impossible. Also, to us, Jesus directs
his question: 44 What about you, do you want to go
away too?” (Jn. 6, 67). When we say: 46 Lord, you
have the message of eternal life ”, it means that we take
God’s side in all societal issues.
*
*
*
Note :
Without the cooperation and inspiration of many, this article
would have been quite different. J thank all those who have hnowingly or unknowingly contributed to this article, particularly Father
Samuel Ryan S. J., who will recognize some- of his ideas on the
heology of liberation, which he shared at the CRI Regional Re
presentatives’ Meeting (2-3-1972).
c
brother
uniper
L
(contd. from p. 22)
are struggling. Community Development and Extension work does
demand a re-orientation of involvement in social action and place
ment of personnel. In conclusion, however, I would like to affirm
that there is no place and no institution, in which the spirit of com
munity-living and social justice cannot be fostered. But even here this
will be achieved much more successfully if some of us are com
munity workers and extension workers who will help the rest of us
keep in touch with reality, with people who long for a more dignified
life and for more justice.
42
personalizes. Hence 44 they are determined to kill him ” \
(Jn. 11,53). However, it does not pay to kill the true
prophets. 44 I tell you, if these keep silent the stones
will cry out” (Lk. 19,40). Ignazio Silone, the Italian
novelist underscsores this:
In every dictatorship
just one man, even any
little man at all, who continues to think with his own
head, puts the whole public order in danger.
Tons of
printed paper propagate the regime’s orders of the day,
thousands of loudspeakers, hundreds of thousands of
posters and handbills distributed free,innumerable orators
in the squares and crossroads, thousands of priests
from the pulpit, all repeat, to the point of obsession
and stupefaction, these orders of the day.
And it is
enough that a little man, just one little man, says ‘ NO ’
for that formidable granite order to be 4 in danger.’
4 Suppose they take him and kill him ’, said the
girl—“ Killing a man who says 4 No ’ is a dangerous
undertaking' said the priest, 4 even his body continues
to repeat it in a whisper 4 No, No, ’ with the tenaciousness and stubbornness of certain corpses. How can
you make a corpse shut up?”
Conclusion
Since God desires his creation (humanity) to grow
into the Eternal City, where He lives, among man;
they being his people, he being their God; a city where
he himself wipes away all the tears from our eyes, a
city without death, mourning or sadness (Rev. 21, 1-4),
he calls upon us to work for that city, to create commu
nities among men that provisionally reflect the new
Jerusalem.
The God of love has entrusted to us his
concern for man’s happiness, his well-being, his whole
ness. Since justice is a condition for this community
of love, all through history, God has been denouncing
all forms of injustice and oppression and has championed
the freedom of all men. ,4k He who is not with me is
against me, and he who does not gather with me scatters ”
says Jesus. If we are not with God in his concern for
justice, if we are not with God in his concern for justice
41
C
H- i
I S’
Facing the rural facts
By
BUNKER ROY
WJIEN the anti-poverty pro- the government. They have
” 'grammes designed by the papers to prove it. Thousands
government show a remark have gone to court and fought
able reluctance to take rural for that land and the courts,
realities into account, there the Revenue Board and all
must be something seriously other authorities have said
wrong with the whole planning the land is theirs. But most of
process. It is not that the them still do not possess it.
vastness of poverty is over The rich farmer says, let me
looked: the trouble is that our see you taking it, brother! The
planner^ social
scientists, implementing agencies that
econoiC^A. bankers, bureauc are supposed to help the land
rats anosocial workers want less and protect their rights
to perpetuate certain myths. __ the thanadar, the patwari
One such myth is that conflict and the sub-divisional officer
need not necessarily arise in — are all hostile to them.
the attempt to bring about What can the landless do? We
change or in the implemen say keep quiet, don’t create
tation of poverty eradication trouble. Is this the anti
programmes, when the rural poverty programme we have
poor are being organised to in mind?
t assert their rights. The se
No such programme will
cond myth follows from the work unless the delivery sysfirst, which involves adopting tern below the district level
the line of least resistance: is strengthened, And that is
that social change is possible not all. Any programme that
(indeed inevitable) through pleases all sections — the rich
economic change.
and the poor, the higher and
If people think it is possible lower castes, the exploiter and
to bring about socio-economic the exploited — especially an
areas economic development pro
change in the rural
confrontation and gramme, must be a poorly de
without
conflict, they do not
know signed programme. A
pro
their villages, The irony is gramme to bring about fun
tha^there are
a
that^there
government or- damental change must hurt
dej^^gteh, if implemented,
w/SRi^Brd to conflicts (which some sections — in this con
text, the more influential and
( should be all to the good), but richer sections,
But many
' the delivery system is too non-governmental
organisaweak to carry them out. For tions themselves, let alone the
instance, an order comes that government, think this is no
every scheduled caste locality way of bringing about change.
should be given one hand Why? Because they are ill
pump for safe drinking water. prepared to face a conflict
Now,
would
the Public situation where their organi
Health Engineering Depart- sation might be threatened.
ment (PHED) follow this di
rective scrupulously? No. In
There is this mistaken no
the name of scheduled castes, tion that the rural vested in
will react sharply
the sarpanch puts the pump terests
next to his house. That means to awareness-generating pro
it is of no use to the supposed grammes which involve orga
beneficiaries. In such cases, nisation of the poor, but, they
the advice to the scheduled will allow non-governmental
castes is, let it be, why create organisation as well as the
an unpleasant situation be government to implement eco
cause even if you protest, nomic programmes for the
nothing will happen. Is this uplift of the poor. But will
what we call development?
they? Why on earth should
The 6th Plan
document they co-operate in undermin
claims that 6.79 lakh acres ing their own hold on
the
have been distributed to 11.54 village society? it does not
lakh landless people, of whom make sense unless — and this
6.13 lakh belong to the sche is very likely — they are mak
duled castes. AU this is sur ing fools of us all by consoli
plus land allotted to them by dating their economic position
with the funds earmarked for generations for their survival
have been branded as back
the scheduled castes.
The
anti-poverty
pro ward, crude, primitive
and
grammes have been so inef not conducive to the image
fectual because their empha India wants to project abroad.
sis has been on infrastruc
People’s participation is a
tural development (tangible two-way process. It implies
and the easiest) and not on we are ready to accept the peo
human development (intan ple — even the rural poor — as
gible and more difficult
to partners in the development
account for). Human develop process and willing to learn
ment means getting involved from them. Myth. We are yet
in issues such as social justice, to accept them as
equals.
of which there is precious lit Even more tragically, we are
tle mentioned in the Plan, It not willing to believe that they
means getting involved in have something to teach us.
conflicts.
The truth is that the deli
We make the mistake of very system has never been
confusing conflict with vio- put to a test. Tile revenue,
lence. We can be great pro the judicial and the law and
moters of non-violence and order systems, because they
yet use potential conflict situ
are in the hands of the domi
ations in the village for con nant few, have always operat
structive purposes. The last
ed on the lines that conflict
thing we should do is to fight would be a reflection on their
shy of facing such situations.
Training of agricultural scien efficiency and it must not be
allowed to be seen in public.
tists, irrigation
engineers, Anything for silence — an
health workers and doctors is, appearance of peace.
no doubt, important. But why
Another distressing aspect
is there no training centre
exclusively for the rural poor? is the communication gap in
anti-poverty
The anti-poverty programme regard to the
are
talks of people’s involvement programmes. While we
in planning and implementa giving ample importance to
satellites, colour television and
tion. 1 ask, which people?
Do we need the participa field publicity units (inciden
tion of the 3 per cent of far tally, they are defunct in
mers with operational hold most districts), there is a
ings of over 10 hectares, who wealth of talent lying unuti
per lised in the villages — roving
cultivate more than 26
cent of the total cultivable minstrels, local theatre groups
land in the country, or the puppeteers living a hand-to70 per cent with holdings of mouth existence, whose skill
less than 2 hectares, who own in communcation we are notbarely 20 per cent of the land? prepared to recognise. They
Obviously, the latter.
But could communicate develop
then, is any attempt being- mental ideas more effectively
made to provide them with than posters, television and’
But the development
the tools and the skills ne radio.
cessary for their participa of such skills is put under the
tion? it is the 3 per cent, who classification of ‘Culture”.
in
league with the
local
In short, if we are not pre
bureaucracy, distribute subsi pared to let people develop
dies, projects,
programmes themselves, to give them the
and other opportunities in the tools and training to be selfrural field. Their hold on the reliant, if we are not willing
poor is more than economic: to treat them as equal part
they control the whole village. ners and learn from them
They decide which techno what they know better, then
logy is most suitable, what is we might as well not have
primitive and what is mo this farce of an anti-poverty
dern — with the result that programme. After all, we are
the knowledge, the skills and only deceiving ourselves: cer
the wisdom that the
rural tainly not the millions living
poor have been using
for below the poverty line.
Con ft
"Action research" in health programmes
Oliver Razum, Regina Gorgen, & Hans Jochen Diesfeld
Deficiencies in a health programme or service can be analysed,
and solutions can be developed and tested, through operation
al and action research, the distinguishing features of which are
explained below.
The results of operational or action research
allow managers to tackle problems affecting
particular health programmes and services,
and subsequently to assess progress. Decisions
are based on evidence collected specifically
for the purpose, rather than on the experience
or common sense of the managers concerned.
Whereas operational research is usually per
formed by an outside worker in order to ensure
objectivity, in action research the investigator
is attached to the service or programme requi
ring attention and is involved in planning and
introducing policy changes and subsequently
in monitoring and evaluating their effect. An
insider is likely to be familiar with aspects of
the problem needing study which an outsider
would not be aware of. Furthermore, an in
sider should be comparatively well equipped
to translate findings into sound action plans,
thanks to a better understanding of what
changes are possible and how they should be
explained to the persons affected. An inside
researcher spends much longer in a district
than one from outside and is therefore in a
relatively good position to monitor the conse
quences of whatever measures are taken.
Occasionally, of course, insiders conducting
action research may make light of their own
shortcomings and those of the people in the
’ activity under investigation, and this danger
has to be guarded against. However, it has to
The authors are with the Department of Tropical Hygiene
and Public Health. Im Neuenheimer Feld 324.
69120 Heidelberg. Germany.
54
be remembered that mistakes made by health
workers often arise because of deficiencies in
services or programmes. For example, nurses
may fail to give all antigens on the same day
to unimmunized children aged nine months
because they have not been trained to do so.
In such circumstances it would be counterpro
ductive to place blame on the nurses, as might
happen if an outsider were carrying out the
research.
Whereas in operational research the study
population may merely become involved in
data-gathering, in action research there is
continuous interaction between the researcher
and the people who are the subjects of study.
It is important that the researcher should esta
blish a rapport with the population studied, for
whom an open, mutually respectful exchange
of information, opinions and ideas can provide
an opportunity to participate in decision
making at district level. The use of qualitative
methods can facilitate the onset of a communi
cation process. Representatives of the study
population should also contribute to the inter
pretation of findings, for instance during spe
cially organized workshops. This can help to
identify fundamental problems in a pro
gramme and to avoid unjustifiable attribution
of blame.
Action research is particularly suitable for
identifying underlying reasons for deficiences
in programmes or services because it involves
the recognition and analysis of problems by
both health workers and their superiors wor
king together. Their discussions contribute to
World Health Forum • Volume 18 • 1997
Action research
mutual understanding, motivation and the
acceptance and correction of shortcomings.
The development of communication between
users and providers of services may help
greatly towards achieving improvements,
although community members may be reluc
tant to speak freely to insiders because of a
fear of adverse consequences. Of course, they
would probably be even less open with an
outside researcher whom thev did not know at
all.
The methods or instruments of action research
should be selected according to the problem
that has to be tackled, and not on the basis of
availability or personal preference. The
methods of social science, including inter
viewing, observation and document analysis,
can be used alone or in combination with bio
medical or epidemiological measuring tech
niques such as immunization coverage surveys. The combination of different methods in
the study of a particular aspect of a situation
can help to overcome'a selective perception of
reality and makes it possible to crosscheck the
validity of results. For instance, in a study of
the performance of immunization services this
could mean .organizing focus groups on
mothers’ attitudes to immunization in conjunc
tion with a coverage survey aimed at assessing
their actual panicipation.
In action research the starting point may be
the description of a perceived problem rather
than the elaboration of a formal hypothesis,
such as might happen in conventional scienti
fic investigation. In general the design of
action research cannot be fixed in advance, a
flexible approach being adopted so that light
is thrown on different aspects of the problem
in a step-by-step fashion. Interim findings may
make it necessary to adopt additional research
instruments.
Action research is management.-oriented and
the methods employed should therefore be
simple. The accuracy of data needs only to be
sufficient for decision-making, and their quan
tity should be small enough to allow rapid
World Health Forum • Volume Id • 1997
processing and timely application of results.
.Although computerization accelerates the col
lection and processing of data it cannot be a
Whereas in operational research the study
population may merely become involved in
data-gathering, in action research there is
continuous interaction between the
researcher and the people who are the
subjects of study.
substitute for sound treatment of methodologi
cal issues and is by no means indispensable in
action research. It should be borne in mind
that small population samples may not be
representative, placing impact evaluation - for
instance the measurement of changes in the
incidence of diseases'targeted by immuniza
tion programmes - beyond the scope of action
research.
The findings of action research can contribute
to the improvement of service quality in the
setting where they are obtained. Action
research is particularly suitable for district man
agers wishing to assess and improve elements
of service quality7 such as accessibility, perform
ance of activities according to standards,
and acceptance by users. Both accessibility
and utilization can be assessed quantitatively,
tor example by means of a coverage survey.
Adherence to standards can also be studied in
a highly structured way, for instance by using
a checklist to assess workers’ activities.
However, if activities are not being performed
correctly it is necessary to adopt a more open
approach, involving intewiews, focus groups
and so on. in order to discover why this is so.
The use of a structured questionnaire may fail
to reveal underlying factors that the researcher
has not envisaged. Similarly, it is vital to iden
tify reasons for non-acceptance of services so
that improvements can be planned; the use of
less structured instruments is invaluable in this
connection and favours the participation of the
population concerned. ■
55
AN OVEKVIEW OF UPDATED CONCEPTS IN
HEALTH AND
'DEVELOPMENT
AN ELECTIVE STUDY KEPOKT
DINNIES. V,J.
PGDCHM-
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
A lot of people/ have/ hetp&d/ wte/ to- prepare/ thiv elective/ ^tady
would/ tpecifivally like to- tharih D r. Kajaratvxuwv A hel, The/ H eael
of the/ departwiert of RUHSA}CMC}\/ellore/.I would/ al^o- like tothardo Vr.T.Thuvlar\/ who- wav
elective/ (X^-ordtuat^.Nevt I
would/ Like to- thark/ Mr^Jayalak^hriy who- wav yny elective
grade. My yircere tharkv to- the likrrary ttaff of RUH SA who- wav
very co-operative av\d/ heCpfuk.I at^o- thark/ other faculty
membery of RUHSA who-wav very helpfob.
INTRODUCTION
The Department of RUHSA in CMC, Vellore conducts a one year Post Graduate
Diploma programme in Community Health Management. A three weeks elective study is
done as part of the course. The present study was undertaken as part of the elective study
The methodology consisted of literature review and discussion with faculty members.
The study was done between 10-3-03 to 29-3-03 in RUHSA.Whenever the textbook of
preventive &social medicine is mentioned it means Park&Park 17th edition. The
conclusions derived are by no means final and should be adapted to the ground realities
of the particular region
GOAL- an oveniew of updated concepts in Health and Development
OBJECTH^ES
1. To cite reasons for why health and development should go together.
2. To define healtli and development status in developing countries.
3. To suggest realistic objectives for a communin':
.000 population in a
developing country7.
4. To discuss areas of community participation.
5. To identify areas where specialist care is required.
aiding specialist care in a rural setup,
6. To identify
and means crnroviding
setup.
health and development agencj’.
7. To describe guidelines in settii8. To identify’ ways and means of ensuring sustainability.
WHY HEALTH AND DEVELOPMENT
'The attainment by all peoples of the highest level of health”
This is the stated objective of World Health Organization, the WHO defines
health as
"A State of complete physical, mental and social well being and not merely
the absence of disease or Infirmity”
The preamble of the constitution of WHO states in unambiguous terms that
"The enjoyment of the highest attainable standards of health is one of the
1
fundamental rights of every human being without distinction of race, religion,
political belief economic and social conditions”
It is clear from these statements hat WHO and in turn UN recognizes healtli
as a fundamental human right Each and e\’eryr wrord is loaded with meaning A Black
man, A White man, one living in a tota’itarian state, one living in a democracy, A
poor man, A rich Man, Every one is entitled to have the highest possible standards
of health as a fundamental human right. Any act involving the capability deprivation
of a man or woman or child which in turn leads to ill health is an affront against a
fundamental human right. It can be a denial of access to safe drinking water, it can
be a denial of access to proper RCH care. It can be a denial of primary education to
a girl child.
CONVENTIONAL HEALTH CARE: -
The conventional health system is said to have the following features from a
sociological point of view.
1 .They are predominantly urban oriented.
2. They are mostly curative.
3. The}' are accessible to a minority.
If we take the converse of these statements tne picture becomes much more clear.
I.e..
1. There is no rural orientation for the existing health care systems.
2. The present system is not oriented towards prevention.
3. The health care is not accessible to every one.
'.A
A
All these factors assume serious proportions when taken in the context of a third
world country. Majority of the population in a third world country live in rural
areas. In these areas the access to health care is remote al best and non-existant at
its worst. 1 Jther words a man living in a rural area is denied a fundamental
human right just because of his place of domicile.
The present health care system focuses mainly on
curative aspects of
medicine. The system comes into play only after a pen a is afflicted with a
disease. The modem medical wisdom treats the human body as a rather
complicated piece of machinery, ..Licit breaks down every now and then and
needs some f dng. But now we know that a person cannot be treated in isolation
with his environment. The host and Lis environment constitutes 2/3 of the
disease process while the causative agent as such plays only 1/3 part in the
aetiology of disease. 80% of the diseases can be controlled by simple rest and
some slight change in the lifestyle. Ibis part of treatment is most c Hen ignored in
the conventional medical treatment. After fixing the trouble the machine is reset
in the same environment. More often than not the / 'chine breaks down again.
Ibis feature of modern medicine has become so deleterious that some authors
consider medical establishment as the biggest threat to health. (Ivan, Illich, limits
to medicine). The one and only solution for this problem is a paradigm shift in
health care system towards preventive aspects of medicine.
Determinants of health
Biological
Positive health
| Better health
Freedom from sickness
Unrecognised sickness
| Mild sickness
S Severe sickness
| Death
The Health Sickness Spectrum
:
|
Behavioural
Human right
Equity and
social justice
n
I
I
Gender
I
■
|
Environmental
'Communities
Families
Health
Individuals
| Health aysteiii
—
communication
Science and
technology
Socio-cultural
I
Aging of the
population
last important negative aspect of the present health care delivery system
is the inaccessibility. The medical personnel have become entrenched in their
urban ivory towers. In the morning they emerge from their air conditioned
bedrooms to their air conditioned cars and work in their air conditioned clinics.
Proper healthcare is beyond reach even for the urban poor, let alone the rural
pastoralist. Here we see the very medical establishment itself contributing to an
affront to a fundamental human right. No wonder authors like Ivan illich consider
medical establishment as the biggest threat to health.
ALMA ATA AND AFTER
In 1978 Alma Ata hosted an International Conference on Primary Health care.
This conference was convened under the auspices of Health Assembly ol WHO
and executive board of UNICEF. Alma Ata is the capital ot Kazakh Soviet
Socialist K public in former U >R. Tlie conference took place from 6 1 to 12
September 1978. The confere . c deci
that the health status of hundreds of
millions of people in the world is unacceptable. More than half the population of
the world did not have the benefit of proper health care. The motto Health for All
by A.D.2000 was proclaimed during this conference. The conference called for a
new approach to Health and Health care, which was to be built upon a sound
basis of Primary Health Care (PHC). Along with the primary Health Care the
development aspect also was to be given due importance. The very first
recommendation of the conference reads.
The conference.
Recognizing that health is dependant on social and economic development,
and also contribute to it,
Recommends,
That the Governments incorporate and strengthen PHC within their national
development plans with special emphasis on rural and urban development
programmes and the Co-ordination of health related activities of the different
sectors.
The conference also decided that any distinction between economic and social
development was no longer lenable.There
icnable.There can not be any social development
williont economic development The conference envisaged that the PIIC there is
no social dept can’t economic dev. 1'hcrc is no cco
coo dev can t social dev the wid
win
help people to contribute to their own social and economic development. In other
words PHC is an integral part over development of soci ’y.
This was the first /me that an international body id uified and proclaimed
the inter relationship b. iween health and development. So, after Alma Ata 1978
there is no room for doubt about llic integration of health and development.
The Alma Ata Conference identified 5 principles on which to base these
health and development activities. These are,
1. Equitable distribution - All the people should have access to heahh services
Irrespective of their ability to pay. 1 he inability to make health services
accessible. To all tantamount to social injustice.
2. Community participation individuals families and communities should be
actively involved in promotion of their own health, the Governments should
drop the top-down bcurocratic approach in implementing primary health care.
3. Appropriate technology tliat is scientifically sound, adaptable to local needs,
and acceptable to those who apply it and those for whom it is used and that
can be maintained by the people themselves, using resources that can be
afforded by, the community or country.
4. Focus ut prevention - This was the major change in orientation of the
healthcare delivery systems. While most of the systems focused on curative
aspects of healthcare, PHC should stress on the preventive aspects of Health
Care.
5. Intersectoral co-ordination - PHC should not work in isolation from other
sectors. According to Alma Ata declaration primary health care involves in
addition to the health care sector, all related sectors and aspects of national
and community development, in particular agriculture, animal husbandry,
food, communication and other sectors.
In short the primary health care and community development should
go hand in hand.
HEALTH & THE STATE OF DEVELOPMENT IN A DEVELOPING
COUNTRY
The title calls for a definition of a developing country. There are any number
of definitions available. Some consider any country other than US a developing
country, some include all countries other than G 7 as developing countries, and some
specifically take sub-Saharan, African, South East Asian countries, Oceania minus
Australia and New Zealand as developing countries. But it is not very easy to define
a developing country. Some of slums in developed countries have socio-economic
status comparable to sub saharan Africa. Within a developing country urban areas
can be as affluent as any downtown area in a developed country. This paper
proposes to concentrate on rural poor in a developing country.
World population by continents
Asia
Africa
Europe
Latin ameri ca&Carribean
North America
Oceanea
Total
source Manorama Year Book-2002
%
3721
813
726
527
317
30.9
6134
60 66
13.25
11 84
8.58
5.17
0.50
100 00
Wh3y focus on rural poverty
1. Poverty is rampant in developing countries and it is growing day by day.
2. In a developing country majority of the people live in rural areas.
3. Poverty in rural areas is not only wide spread but it is also deep and severe.
4. A large number of rural poor arc vulnerable to external shocks, natural
disasters, conflicts and spread of diseases.
5. New initiatives arc required to bring the rural poor to the center stage of
development.
6. Few developing countries will be able to meet the international development
goals particularly in the rural areas.
THE CRITERIA USED IN THIS PAPER
Criteria
1. 40% population below poverty line
2. 30% people illiterate
3. 50% people don’t have safe drinking water
4. IMR is > 80
5. Doctor: population ratio is more than 1:5000
SOME REALISTIC OBJECTIVES FOR A POPULATION OF 50,000
The objectives will be based on the criteria used for identifying the target
population. Thus the objectives will be,
1 Reduce number of people living under poverty line to at least 25%.
so .w u- Or P.,« -.io . «.
t
least 1:5000
One soundn.nnngingprinciple says tl»lyour objectives stoddalwwsbe
SMART. Each letter stands for one attribute of the object
1. Specific
2. Measurable
3. Attainable
4. Realistic
5. Time bound
The same principles can be applied in die case of a health and development
project Along with these some approaches in community development also
a
can be utilized These arc
1. Sectoral approach.
2. Integrated approach
3. Educational approach
4. Regulatory approach
5. Service approach
6. Technology transfer approach
food security to all the people in the world at international level. Recently this aspect
of PIIC has become more and more threatened after the globalization. In the 25
years after Alma Ata the situation has actually worsened. Every other year one of the
sub Saharan nations is hit by famine and subsequently starvation deaths.
There can be no state of positive health and well being without safe waler.
Water should be easily accessible, adequate in quantity, free from contamination,
safe and readily available throughout the year. In 1989 the UN general assembly
launched the international decade on drinking water supply and sanitation.The stated
goal of the dccadp was to provide all the people safe drinking water & the sanitation
by the year 1990. Another decade has gone by after 1990 and still we arc now here
near the attainment of this goal.
By definition MCH is an integral part of the PHC. This is an area where
technical inputs can be translated in to solid outcomes like reduced incidence of
IMR, MMR and childhood infections. Rapid strides have been made in this area.
The top down beurocratic structure in most of the developing countries were
instrumental in bringing about this change. But they failed to produce the final thrust
in reaching the masses. This is an area where only an NGO wof Ing among the
masses can show the results. Some reason for the failure of this aspect is the
inability of the government agencies to recognize the potential of NGOs in this field.
Inununization against major infectious diseases has been more or less
successful. It has brought down the morbidity and morality rates due to major
infections diseases di satically. Prevention & control of locally endemic diseases
like Malaria, worm infestations, Dengue etc have been brought under control. A new ♦
health and development organization should address these problems at the
maintenance level
The appropih'Hc care of common diseases calls for more wide spread rea* h of
health programmes. Most of the developed countries have their own existing
traditional healing systems. Some of these systems • c based on practical wisdom
gleaned through centuries of experience. These should not be looked down upon
when implementing PHC. It is more sensible to integrate these systems in to the
PIIC.
Provision of essential medicines calls for international co-ordination on an
intersectoral basis. Sensible down to earth managerial skills arc needed here.
mN
COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION
The Alma Ata recognizes community participation as the major basis on
which to build PHC. Since health is influenced by a number of factors such as
adequate food, housing, basic sanitation, healthy lifestyles, protection against
communicable diseases the frontiers of health should extend beyond the narrow
limits ol medical care. Uns is not possible without community participation. In oilier
words the medical care is no longer synonimous witli health care. Ideally PHC
should be a do it yourself concern of each & every individual. Further more P f
cannot function in isolation with socio-economic development of the coninir ' y,
especially the first four. Activities in one sector over laps with activities in another
sector In PHC any one of the sectors in community develop nent can act as an entry
point for an overall health and development organization. An overview of these
sectors will provide a pictur e of die potential of community participation
AGRICULTURE
The agriculture sector is particularly important in most the developing
countries. The majority of the people in these countries arc involved in agricultural
activities. The food security and adequate nutrition, which is the second ok nent o
PHC cannot be realized without co-ordination with agricultural sector. In some
countries this may mean a basic policy change at national level regarding die
patterns of land tenure. In some olher countries it may take the form of promotion of
kitchen garden among rural women. Whatever may be the methodology adopt
there an not be any doubt regard-g the importance of agriculture sector,
cspccirlly in developing country.
WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
The element of m tcrnal and child healthcare including family planning can
mean much more than v >at the words imply. In most of the developing countries
majority of rural women re not involved in any productive work, fins means dtat .j d
nearly half the population is idle. Even a small change in the situation will make a
noficeable change in GNP situation. Women and cluldrcn constitute a particulaily
vulnerable group of die population from a health point of view. Any calamity or
natural disaster alTc< Is these groups first and die impact is more pronounced lor
9
these groups. This mitigation of these problems involves much more than just
provision of antimal intermatal care it calls for a conscious at womans centred
dcvclopmcntaFsiratcgics, woman need appropriate technology to lighten
knowledge about maternal & child nutrition should be imported to men so that they
can properly feed die children in available resources. Each & every woman should be
('de to take care of herself during prcgncnancy ■' id lactation. This will be the ideal
of community participation in PHC women SI’ Js In SEAR countries is a small step
in this direction.
SAFE DRINKING WATER AND SANITATION
This element ofPHC can never be implemented without community,
participation. The very startly point of public health in the history was the
PROJECT PLANNING
Tha mnltiprnfoGuional planning toani
Medical servicer
Nulling icivicer
Ancilhiy seivicei
AdminiiUative services
Calming leivicei, etc.
llenllh
care
lacility
Building services
Engineering tcivicer
Maintenance ictvicci
USERS'
zone
Communication of
proposed aims
and ineltiodt
■
I
I
CLIENT GROUP1 ■
Doctor
,
Nurse
Adminii ^tor
Special), advisor as
nect, jiy
Planning/
brie ling
team
PLANNING/
BRIEFING
ZONE
WORKS PROFESSIONALS
Architect
Engineer
Quantity surveyor
Architect
Engineers
Quantity surveyor
Landscape architect
Interior designer
Design
team
DESIGNING
ZONE
Communication of
policies and
pro'jr arnrnei
•4-
•
. Jl.Vlt.'
I
Indlvldunl
approach
,• .
Lf.
I
• 1'1,
Personal contact
2
Home visits
a.
Personal Letters
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3.
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Discussion methods
Group discussion .
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4.
Printed material
5.
Direct mailing
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Health Cornrhiinlcalion
-- ----- ------------- —-
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In Health
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JMethods'
_______ ____
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t br;i e
7. I lealth museums
and exhibitions
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9. " Intefnetl-'Hi'"’'1'1'
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The package as an aid to decision-making, as one of many inputs
Data from
other sources
Equity
Political
ideology
..nunity
participation
Sustainability
issues
Policy
decision
Holistic
considerations
Package
data
Policy guidelines for
implementation (staffing patterns,
supplies, and technical
guidelines)
Implementation
monitoring,
evaluation
VWO 98258
th
identification of contaminated water as a source of infection diseases. In tire 18
century, itself it was known that it is possible to reduce morbidity and mortality due
to certin disease by tire use of uncontaminated water. Plentiful supplies of clean
water helps to reduce mortality & morbidity in particular among infants and
children. It makes life easier for women. Tire official UN programme and most of tire
national programmes failed to achieve the set goals. The only possible alternative is
a bottom up approach beginning at the community level.
Along with the supply of safe drinking water provision for proper
environmental sanitation also should be taken care of. Hie safe disposal of wastes
and excreta has significant influence on health. Again this cannot be achieved
without community participation. Education in the proper use and maintenance of
water and sanitary facilities is important. Another important aspect of proper
environmental sanitation will be proper housing. Houses should be proof against not
only the elements but also against insects and rodents that carry infections and
zoonoses. All the structures in a house should be easy' to clean, especially kitchens
and sanitary facilities.
EDUCATION
The very first element of PHC as stated by Alma Ata 1978 stresses the
importance of the educational approach to health care especially preventive &
promotional aspects. Community education helps people to understand their health
problems. It will lead them to possible solutions and alternatives. Instructive
literature can be developed and distributed through a well laid out community
education system.
The mass media can play a supportive role in the educational aspects of
PHC. The media can disseminate valid information on promotion of health. One fine
example of the use of mass media in the promotion of health is the pedal operated or
hand wound radio sets used in sub Saharan African countries for the spread of
information on HIV/AIDS (The rural areas in these countries do not have supply of
power. So the conventional mass media are not practical.)
SPECIALIST CARE
The Alma Ata 1978 envisaged a PHC system, which worked under a
protective umbrella of logistic and financial support provided by other levels of
health system. The secondly & tertiary levels of the health system was expected to
provide skills, guidance and training. PHC cannot have a stand alone existence
without tire backing of a sy mpathetic conventional health care system. This system is
necessary to ensure that people enjoy the benefits of useful technical knowledge that
is too complex or costly to apply routinely through primary health care.
There arc mainly 2 models of provision of specialist care under PHC
1. Referral services
2. Regular speciality clinics / camps.
Both models are quite efficient if used on a case specific manner. For example it
is absolutely necessary to refer a case of complicated cardiac arrhythmia or a case
of Icterus grans neonatorum. But it will be foolish to refer a patient to the central
hospital for a shot of preventive vaccine. It makes more economic sense to
organise a clinic or camp at the PHC level itself with community participation
and get as many people as possible, immunized. Once it is decided to organize a
camp or a clinic it is necessary to decide ,
1. What specialities should be represented
2. At what intervals the clinics be organized.
3. 1 low can the community participation be ensured.
The statistics on the prelevance of diseases that require specialist’s care should
be a good pointer to the appropriate course of action. This paper identifies the
following areas of intervention through specialist care
1. Orthopcadics
2. Ophthalmology
3. Ololaryngeology
4. Psychiatry
5. Neurology
6. Dentistry
Orthopcadics
For a person an orthopeadic handicap is a deterrent to his normal functions
in society. It can be at different levels Viz.,
1. Disease
2. Impairment
3. Disability
4. Handicap
The consequences of these can be transient or permanent. In such cases PHC has a
duty to provide appropriate disability limiting measures and rehabilitation .In recent
years the word community based rehabilitation as come into vogue. The UN
declared the decade of disabled persons from 1983 to 1992. The theme of the decade
was “Full participation and Equality” .This kind of theme can become real only if
the PHC and the community, co-operate for the welfare of the community
Basic package throi!gh”sieves of a funnel” approach
i
UHI
1ST
CRITERION
Necessity
Effectiveness •-"""•
i
iuhum. EfficiencyHmMn
•••Inadequacy\ of self-care /
4-
Basic
package
WHO 98257
2ND
CRITERION
3RD
CRITERION
4TH
CRITERION
Budgetary
limits
Steps in planning
1. Develop a guiding document
2. Conduct a stakeholder analysis
3. Identify problems in the community
4. Assess community needs
5. Develop targets for the future
6. Collect baseline data
7. Sustainability strategies
8. Appropriate action planning
9. Appropriate intervention
10. Develop organizational structure
11. Ensure adequate leadership
12. Monitoring & evaluation
13. Budget
Fig. 10. Type plan of a primary health
1 care unit (dimensions in cm or m)
-z------------,50.35 r 90
335
go
7JU 1.50
1.75
/--- z---z-f
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1. Seek financial support
2. Gather resources
3. Develop organization plan
4. Establish communication
5. Establish motivation / commitment
6. Identify and overcome obstacles
■/'I
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•'HO I)HI
MAIN ENTRANCE
Action plan for implementation
EQUIPMENT
3OOST°RE35
I
I
I
I
.
Data required for basic health planning
1. Total expenditure by government
2. Total expenditure by private sector - voluntary agencies
Insurance schemes
Occupational health
Private practice
3. Break up of expenditure (Govt or private) - Area wise
-Program wise
-Age & sex
-Population wise rural / urban
-Employment wise- Civil servants
Agricultural labourers
Subsistance farmers
Wage earners
-Disease wise
(Primary Health Center) in India
1. Medical care
2. MCH including family planning
3. Safe water supply & basic sanitation
4. Prevention
r
& control of locally endemic diseases
5. Collection & reporting of vital statistics
6. Education about health
7. National
'
health programmes implementation
8. Referral services
9. Training of health workers & assistants
10. Basic laboratory services
Hypothetical example of general pattern of regionalization showing
programme area and type of facility
HEALTH POST
I
*I
jfcHEALTHCENTRE I
X
URBAN AREA *
PROGRAMME AREA
DISTRICT HOSPITAL#"
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CENTRAL LEVEL
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REGIONAL LEVEL
RURAL AREA
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INTERMEDIATE LEVEL
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BASIC 11VI.I
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_____ Z. PRIMARY LEVEL
WHO 77»JO
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Sustainability
Is the ability of a PHC programme to continue providing services to meet the needs
of its target population.
Why sustainability
(^Decreasing funding for development
(^Diversion of reallocate resources
(3Move toward conununity controlled PHC
(ifJecd toward increase community awareness in containing health care
1. What to sustain
2. What level is to be sustained
3. What are the resource restrictions
Sustainability factors
A condition that may alTcct the continued existence of a programme
1. Size of target population
2. Target groups demands for services
3. PHC services quality
4. Management support
5. Organizational capacity
6. Political commitment
7. Personnel
8. Programme revenue
9. Programme expenditure
10. Environment
Working pirn
1. Selecting a strategy
2. Make a plan
Action plan for sustainability
1. Develop the future profile
2. Make changes in organizational structure
3. Establish an ongoing evaluation system.
4. Participate in community & research activities
Practical Considerations in Establishing a hcalth& Development Organization
All thcorilical 7 academic considerations will become inconsequential if it is
not possible to implement them at the practical level. We have seen dial it is
possible to use various sectors as entry points to implement a health & development
programme. Now Oils paper turns its attention to die implementation. This paper
takes, healdi care as the entry point to discuss practical aspects of organizing a
healdi & development project.
Justification
In a developing country some of the most effective & spectacular work can be
done in die field of healdi care. The result obtained will easily conform to die
SMART principle of goal selling. The targets can be very specific so much so that
diey can be expressed in numerical values. For example we can specify die indicators
as target IMR =
Target MMR =----- Target life expectancy =------ Naturally
diese targets arc measurable. If the goals realistic, it should be attainable & it should
not be a big problem to show the results in a time bound manner.
Sample Objectives for a population 50,000 (10,000 HOUSEHOLDS)
1. To uplift at least 5% of Below Poverty Line families to above poverty line in
3 years
2. To make at least 50% of school dropouts in the age group of 15-25
functionally literate in 3 years.
3. To provide safe drinking water to at least 2000 new house! olds in 3 yrs
4. To bring down IMR to < 80 in 3 yrs
5. To increase immunization coverage to at least 60% in 3 yrs.
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