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prasArAnga
UNIVERSITY OF MYSORE
1971

SOME ASPECTS
OF
URBANISATION

BY

V. L. S. PRAKASA RAO, m.a., d.phil.
Professor of Geography, Delhi University, New Dellii

UNIVERSITY OF MYSORE
Special Lecture Series—33

SOME ASPECTS
OF
URBANISATION
V. L. S. PRAKASA RAO, m.a., d.phil.
Professor of Geography, Delhi University, New Delhi

PRASARANGA
UNIVERSITY OF MYSORE
1971

First published 1971

© University of Mysore

Price Rs.

$

2.00 Indian Edition
1
(Inclusive of postage)

PUBLISHED BY THE DIRECTOR
PRASARANGA, MANASAG ANGOTHRI, MYSORE 6

PRINTED AT THE WESLEY PRESS, MYSORE

PUBLISHER’S NOTE

We are extremely happy to present ‘Some Aspects of
Urbanization’by Professor V. L. S. Prakasa Rao to the public
in the present form.
We are under a deep debt of gratitude to Professor
V. L. S. Prakasa Rao who kindly accepted our invitation to
deliver a course of three talks on the subject and permitted
us publish them in book form.
Prabhu Shankara

Director

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to take this opportunity to thank Prof. D. Javare
Gowda, Vice-Chancellor, University of Mysore, Dr. Prabhu
Shankara, Director, Prasaranga, and Dr. R. P. Misra,
Professor, University of Mysore, for inviting me to deliver
tlae two extension lectures which form tire contents of this
publication.
Dr. Ramachandran and Dr. B. Venugopal, my colleagues
in the department of Human Geography, Delhi School of
Economics assisted me in statistical and cartographic analysis
necessary for the preparation of these lectures. Mr. Krishan
Kumar and Bachi Ram, cartographic assistants in the depart­
ment prepared the maps. I acknowledge their assistance.

V. L. S. Prakasa^Rao

LECTURE ONE
Extension Lectures: Geography Department
Mysore University

SOME ASPECTS OF URBANIZATION
The Urban Civilization and Scale
Urban life
*
is believed to be as old as agricultural life.
Urbanization as a phenomenon is both ancient and modern,
and the city was the base of both ancient and modern civiliza­
tion. If the ancient is identified with Asian civilization, the
modern is identified with Western Civilization. The 20th
century is the century of metropolitan civilization, an out­
growth of the industrial civilization, tire core of Western
Civilization. Thus the Civilization in the world synchronised
with urban life: the city life. The thinking today seems to
be that ‘the ultimate solution of city problems is to abolish
the city . . . solve the city problems by leaving the city.’ This
only reflects the underlying discontent with modern urban
life.
There are six stages of city development according to
Lewis Mumford. The first is ‘Eopolis’, the rise of the village
community with permanent habitation. The second is ‘Polis’,
an association of villages with a common site. This is
essentially a town for defence. The third stage is metropolis
* Mankind congregated in towns for security, welfare or trade.
With the march of time, the foundations of town-hood became complex
and varied. In the past, a town was established as an instrument of
military conquest or as ‘a city of God or King’. In this manner, the
castle and cathedral towns of Europe and the fort and temple towns
of India developed. During and after the 18th century, industrial
and mining towns developed, and these are ‘atypical’ towns.
1

or mother city. The fourth is megalopolis, the beginning of
the social decline of the human community’. The fifth stage
is ‘tyrannopolis, an urban pattern which is parasitic’ and the
sixth and the final stage is ‘Nekropolis’ with ghost towns, the
manifestations of war, famine and disease. In contrast to this
horrible city of the future, we have the ‘invisible city’, the
product of revolution in communications and electronic trans­
missions. Even the remote village can have the urban com­
ponent of life, and yet avoid the city, we do not want to live
in. There is yet another stage: ‘Doxadis’s Dynopolis’ not
only for the man but also for this cars, aeroplanes, helicopters,
and maybe rockets.

Spatial urban Patterns

Like the large range in the urban growth, there is a large
range in the spatial urban patterns, at different regional levels.
The world patterns of distribution of urban population
(towns with more than 20,000 population) has co-variation
between per cent of urban population and national wealth,
as measured by the gross national product per capita. At the
global level, the generalization is, the greater tire city popula­
tion in a country, the greater its wealth, and this means,
greater social and economic inter-action within the Nation.
Here, a distinction is made between the level in the urban
scale and urban awareness, and familiarity, comprehensible
to the rural inhabitants of the country. In the most urbanized
countries like United Kingdom, there is urban-rural continuum while in a country like Ethiopia, ‘a city is a little
known enclave of foreigners to the rural folk.’ In between
these two extremes, there are countries like China where the
civilization has been basically urban oriented. But such a
pattern can never be static, and is rapidly changing with the
changing transport and communication system. World urban
patterns emerge also in the patterns of urban primacy. High
2

primacy is associated with lower income countries, and those,
which are recent entrants on the old political stage. Thailand
is an extreme example under this category. There is the
second group of countries with high primacy with high
income and urbanization rates. Contrary to both, India has
a high degree of primacy. Such are the urban patterns at
the global level using simple measures of urban patterns.

We can also identify distinct urban realms: the Western
and the Asian. Here we can look for evidences both at the
level of the Realm and also at the level of the patterns within
the cities. In Asia, urbanisation has over-run its economic
base and the rural-urban dichotomy is very sharp, as evident
by the sharp urban-gradients. Cities are growing more by
immigration than by natural growdi, and that, out of tune
with the city’s employment potential. The city core is over­
crowded without a strong economic base and urban infra­
structure and minimal living amenities. In die Western
Realm, there is a trend towards commutation and the develop­
ment of regional cities though this is being interrupted by
green belts or buffer zones, as in die RANDSTAD. Through
metropolitanization, the cities are developing as members of
a regional urban system, as in Rhur. The urbanization
pattern in America is such that there is a faster decay of the
cities than they are rebuilt. Both die industries and the white
population are moving only to the periphery eroding the city’s
tax base and also developing environmental anomalies
(Weissmann). In Nedierlands, the urban structure and
pattern are being geared to motorised community widi a new
way of urban living. The suburban structure is characterised
by lower residential densities, higher income groups and high
urban amenity costs.
In between the two Realms, there is a mixed pattern of
the Western and the Asian. India is a typical example even
widi an urban tradition behind, in the historic cities of the
3

2

Gangetic plain, unlike the cities of Africa and South East
Asia.
The port cities like Bombay and Calcutta and the twin
cities like Delhi—New Delhi and Hyderabad—Secunderabad
can be classified as hybrids between the two Urban Realms.
The dichotomy between the old city and the new city is
clear-cut. ‘The Indian cities are identified as post-industrial
cities inhabited by pre-industrial societies’ and their rate of
transformation is slow (Ginsburg).
Based on 31 criteria relating to processes associating cities
and cultures (historical influence, mutual economic, techno­
logical, and demographic relations, ethnic religious and socio­
political relations), Holzner grouped the urban complex and
characteristic composition into major urban regions with
several sub-regions. These regions ‘constitute areas within
which certain processes are active both in time and space.’

Urbanization: Geographical Aspect

Urbanization has different aspects: the main aspects arc
economic, social, physical and geographical. Here, we shall
examine the geographical aspect in some detail. The geo­
graphical aspect of urbanization is ‘human organization of
space.’ Geographer studies urbanization primarily as a spatial
process: increase, decrease or stagnation in the number of
towns of different population sizes and the sizes of individual
towns in a region. Consistent with this, there is the con­
centration or scatter (or both) in the distribution of towns.
Eldridge goes to the extent of stating: ‘as soon as population
concentration stops urbanization stops.’ In a regional setting,
a town is a point location, absolute and relative. A town is
not considered as an isolated and a closed unit, and is even
more than a part of its hinterland. A town is a component
4

of the whole urban system which is both spatial and func­
tional. An urban system could be local, regional, national
and inter-national (Fig. i).

Ftc. 1
5

At a micro level, functionally, a town is a part of its
hinterland, though all towns do not necessarily develop
hinterlands. As the distribution of towns is uneven, the dis­
tribution of hinterlands, is uneven, resulting in overlaps, and
distortion in size and shape. This results in the distortion of
the regular shape which is a circle or a hexagon. If there is
any regularity in the distribution of town-sizes and numbers,
it is the highly skewed frequency distribution, statistically,
and uneven distribution spatially. An analysis of Nearest
Neighbourhood Distance in Telangana for 1931 and 1961
brings out that the pattern of locational change is from
random (R = 1.0637) to even distribution (R = 1.2269).

Linkages
An equally important aspect of the studies of urban
pattern is the study of linkages. A urban system consists of
inter-connected and interacting parts (places). Analysis of
nature of the inter-connections between cities should reveal
the hierarchical ordering of the centres and the extent of their
respective areas of dominance. Further, the degree of con­
nections between places in the urban system, would tell us
something about the coherence of the system, or lack of it.
A complete understanding of the urban system is, therefore,
only possible by examining the interactions (linkages) between
places in the system.
The linkages paths of 104 Indian cities with a population
of 100,000 or more in 1961 have been shown in Figure 2.
These refer to paths of dominant interactions between places:
they have been theoretically derived using the gravity concept
of interaction between places in which interaction is assumed
to be a function of distance and population.
*
The map
For preparing the map, the intensity of interaction of each city
with all the other 103 cities was computed using the formula 1,=^
6

Fig. 2

reveals the existence of several nodal urban-sub-systems focus­
ing on Bombay, Calcutta, Delhi and Madras. In addition
independent sub clusters of urban centres exist with reflexive
interaction patterns, e.g. Allahabad, Kanpur and Lucknow,
and Guntur-Vijayawada.
In Figure 3 the analysis of linkages represents an initial
step. A complete analysis of linkages should take into
account the interaction between each place in the system with
every other place (i.e. a matrix of 104 x 104 interactions).
At this stage, it will be useful to apply graph theoretical con­
structs in order to explain the degree of connectivity of the
system, and the structure of linkage patterns. Furdier, graph
theory can help in the identification of urban hierarchy and
in isolating areas poor or rich in urban development. The
dynamics of the urban system can also be examined if the
same graph theory constructs are applied for successive census
periods (Kansky, Maggot, and Nystuen and Dacey).

One of the results of practical value from regional urban
analysis is an attempt to construct urban development model
for an area/region. The Planning Commission Project on
Muzaffarnagar District clearly brought out that the District
has a five-levels of urban functions, with functional gaps
between different levels. Geographical distances between
towns are very uneven. Our survey of resources, transport
accessibility, the pattern of agricultural change and consumer
travel patterns suggested that the District should have only
three levels-of urban functions (Fig. 4).
where Ij is intensity of interaction with city j, Pj is population of city
j and dj is distance to city j. The city that had the maximum Ij value
was found out and the two cities were connected by a path/line on
the map. This method was repeatedly applied to all the remaining
cities and the map completed.
7

8

URBAN

HIERARCHY

EXISTING

SUGGESTED MODEL

M

Muzofforntlgar

S

Shamli

Fig. 4

Classification of Towns
*
Classification of towns is a common field to all scholars
of urbanization. In the earlier classifications, as in the
classification of regions, the scholars did not make their
methods explicit. The earlier approach to classification was
subjective, arbitrary and descriptive. The main criterion was
tire dominant function, as indicated by the dominant occupa­
tion for which statistics are readily available. It is easier to
* Classification of towns based on only one urban component
should be distinguished from typology of urban areas, to understand
process of urbanization in the context of universal and comparative
patterns as well as individual towns.’ Political-intellectual and econo­
mic cities’, generative and parasitic cities’, ‘ortho-genetic and heterogenetic cities’, ‘Pre-industrial, industrial and metropolitan cities’ are
selected examples of classical, typologies. It is retreating step to think
that a useful and comprehensive typology of urban centres cannot be
devised because of data limitations, wide range of scales and types of
urbanization and its multi-aspect and complex character.
9

identify the town type in ‘atypical’ towns as they are mostly
single function towns, and that, during the initial years of
town formation. As the town grows in population size, the
tertiary sector dominates the occupational structure, and large
towns, as a rule, are multifunctional. These characteristics
are illustrated in Table i.

Otherscrvices
IX

Trade and
Transport
VII & VIII

1.51
0.51
0.51
5.08
2.35
5.47
8.87
2.04

53.00 6.95 15.08 21.64
38.60 2.43 33.34 23.31
22.61 1.61 53.02 20.45
3.55 4.23 13.84 15.79
2.92 74.44 6.25 11.57
16.00 2.88 42.10 20.76
5.05 3.21 21.06 25.30
2.73 1.04 9.14 14.61

6.64

5.87

11.70

VI

Factory

1.83
1.S1
1.80
57.52
2.48
18.79
36.51
70.44

V

Household
IV

Jamshedpur
Asansol
Kharagpur
Kothagudem
Vijayapuri
Guntakal
Yellandur
K.G.F.
(Kolar Gold
Fields)
Arsikere

Primary
I, II & III
*

Towns

Construction

Table 1
Selected Towns: Occupational Structure: Percentages

7.70 32.77 35.32

Size class

Class I City
Class I City
Class I City
Class II City'
Class II City'
Medium Town
Small Town
Class 1 City
Small Town

’Census category'

The greater, the number of urban characteristics, the more
complex the classification becomes, and the greater the need
for objectivity and sophisticated techniques. Here not only
the variables are numerous but also their units of measurement
and their very character are different. Another object is to
minimise or eliminate arbitrariness.
Urban characteristics could be economic, social, cultural
and some relate to growth, and others to density and even
characteristics like compactness. The problem is how to
combine them and derive categories.
10

identify die town type in ‘atypical’ towns as they are mostly
single function towns, and that, during the initial years of
town formation. As the town grows in population size, the
tertiary sector dominates the occupational structure, and large
towns, as a rule, are multifunctional. These characteristics
are illustrated in Table I.

Trade and
Transport
VII & VIII
Otherservices
IX

1.51
0.51
0.51
5.08
2.35
5.47
8.87
2.04

53.00 6.95 15.08 21.64
38.60 2.43 33.34 23.31
22.61 1.61 53.02 20.45
3.55 4.23 13.84 15.79
2.92 74.44 6.25 11.57
10.00 2.88 42.10 20.76
5.05 3.21 21.06 25.30
2.73 1.04 9.14 14.61

6.64

5.87

11.70

VI

Factory

1.83
1.81
1.80
57.52
2.48
18.79
36.51
70.44

V

Household
IV

Jamshedpur
Asansol
Kharagpur
Kothagudcm
Vijayapuri
Guntakal
Yellandur
K.G.F.
(Kolar Gold
Fields)
Arsikere

Primary
I, II & HI
*

Towns

Construction

Table 1
Selected Towns: Occupational Structure: Percentages

Size class

Class I City
Class I City
Class I City
Class II City
Class II City
Medium Town
Small Town
Class I City

7.70 32.77 35.32 Small Town

’Census category

The greater, the number of urban characteristics, die more
complex the classification becomes, and the greater the need
for objectivity and sophisticated techniques. Here not only
the variables are numerous but also their units of measurement
and dieir very character are different. Anodier object is to
minimise or eliminate arbitrariness.
Urban characteristics could be economic, social, cultural
and some relate to growdi, and others to density and even
characteristics like compactness. The problem is how to
combine diem and derive categories.
to

Tablb 2
Telangana Towns (.1961 Census data)
Classification of town types based on Standard Deviation (SD) and least squares Linear Regression (LSLR) techniques.

Mining (M) Agriculture (A)

Household
Industry

Factory
Industry
(FI)

Bellampally®
*
Kothagudem

Cherial
*
*
Parkal
*
Makthal
*
Kalwakurthi
*
Kodangal
*
Mudhole
*
Hasanparthy
*
Kollapur
*
Banswada
*
Kohir
Al er
*
*
Alampur

*Utkar
*
Pevarakanda
*
Kosigi
*
Sircilla
*
Armoor
*
Gadwal
*
Siddipet
*
Narayampet

Domakonda
*
Koratla
*
Kagaznagar
Bodhan

2

12

g

4

Construction
(C)

Commerce & Transport & Other Services
Trade (C T) Communica(OS)
Bi-functional Multi-functional dominating
tion (T)

*
Kadamdamsite
Narsampet
Vijay apari
*
Faruqnagar
*
Badepalli
*
Miryalguda
*
Vikarabad
Jangaon
*
Bhainsa
*
Zahirabad
*
Tandur

2

*
Manthani
*Dornakal

*
Bhadrachalam
Sangareddy
*
*
Adilabad
Karimnagar
Nalgonda
Mahabubnagar
Khammam

Narayankhed
Madira
*
(OS,T)
(OS,HI, A)
Nagarkarmoo! Vemulawada
(OS,A)
(OS,HI,CT)
Hazurnagar Chinnoor
(A,C)
(OS,HI,A)
*
Suryapet
Metpalli
(OS,CT)
(HI,A,FI)
Medak (A,OS)Kamareddy
Jagtial
(OS,CT,A)
(HI,CT)
Jagipet
*
Peddapalli
(CT,OS,HI,A)
(OS,CT)
Yellandu
Asifabad
(CT,OS,M)
(OS, A)
Sadasivpet
Shamsabad
(HI,A,CT)
(A,CT)
Wanaparthy
(HI,CT, A)
Mahabubabad
(OS,A,T)
Mancherial
(FI,T,OS,CT,C)
Bbongir
(CT,OS,FI,T)
Nirmal
(FI,OS,CT)
*
Nizamabad
(OS,CT,T)
Hyderabad
(OS.CT.T)
Warangal
(CT,FI,HI)
16

Town Types Based on Standard Deviation Technique

Mining (M)

Agriculture (A)

Household
Industry
(HI)

Factory
Industry
(FI)

Construction
(C)

*Bellampalli
*
Kothagudem

*
Cherial
*Parkal
*
Makthal
*
Kalwakurthi
*
Kodangal
*
Mudhole
*
Hasanparthy
*
Kollapur
*
Banswada
*
Kohir
*
Aler
*
Alampur
Huzurnagar
Medak

*
Utkur
Devarakonda
*
*
Kosigi
*
Sircilla
*
Gadwal
*
Siddipet
*
Narayampet

*Domekonda
Nirmal
*Kagaznagar

Kadam Dam
Site®
Vijayapuri®

2

14

7

3

2

* Common Towns

No function
Commerce & Transport & Other Services
Trade (C T) Communica
Bi-functional Multi-functional dominating
(OS)
tion (T)
Faruqnagar
*
*
Manthami
Miryalguda® Dornakal®
Vicarabad®
Bhainsa®
*
Zahirabad
Tandur®
Jogipet
Bhongir

8

2

Bhadrachalam® Madira
*
(T,OS)
Sangareddy®
Suryapet®
Adilabad®
(CT,OS)
Chinnur
Narayankhed Jagtial®
Asifabad
(A,HI)
Nagarkarnool Peddapalli®
Vcmulawada
(CT,OS)
Mahabubabad Koratla
(FI,HI)
Yellandur
(FI,CT)
Metpalli
(HI,FI)
Jangaon
(FI,CT)
Armoor
(HI,FI)
Mancherial
(FI,T)
Sadasivpet
(HI,CT)
Bodhan
(FI,A)
Karimnagar
(T,OS)

9

13

Samshabad
Nizamabad
*
Kamareddy
(A,FI,CT)
Wanaparthy
Narsampet
(CT,OS,FI)
Badepalli
(CT,HI,T)
Nalgonda
(A,C,OS)
Mahabubnagar
(A,C,T)
Khammam
(CT.T.OS)
Warangal
(CT,FI,HI)
Hyderabad
(OS.CT.T)

8

3

Inspired by the work of Moser and Scott, Qazi Ahmad
classified Indian cities based on sixty two original variables,
condensed to ten factors, applying factor analysis, a technique
which eliminates the problems associated with weighing and
scaling.

In the above exercise, the dictum is inter group differences
should be more than intra-group differences.
*

In any classification, the objective must be clear, definite
and consistent. Even in the classification on functional basis,
there can be more than one objective: to group on the basis
of dominant function or on the basis of similarity in function.

As an experiment, Venugopal applied two techniques of
classification to Telangana towns and the results are presented
in Tables 2 and 3.
Table 3
Classification of towns by LSLR and SD Techniques: Summation
Occupations

LSLR

SD

Common
Towns

1. Agriculture
2. Mining
3. Household Industry
4. Factory Industry
5. Construction
6. Commerce and Trade
7. Transport and Communication
8. Other sendees
9. Bi-functional
10. Multi-functional
11. No function dominating

12
2
8
4
2
9
2
7
9
16

14
2
7
3
2
8
2
9
13
8
3

12
2
7
2
2
6
2
3
4
1
...

71

71

Total

* Here the aim is not just to identify the different types but to
handle a large and varied data adopting systematic and statistically
valid procedures.
11

The inferences from the table are (i) there is no significant
difference in the results in the functional types from i to 8.
In fact in the types i, 5 and 7, there is no difference at all
between the SD
*
and LSLR+ techniques.
(ii) There is a significant difference in the result under
bi-functional and multi-functional types, (iii) A new category
of functional types emerges under SD, technique: three towns
with no function or functions dominating.
One explanation for this difference is that in LSLR
technique, both function and size are taken into account,
while the SD technique is only uni-dimensional.
What is important in any exercise in classification is not
just the technique, as no technique can be an optimal
technique, but it is the objective of classification. The
‘power’ of the data is equally important.

Urbanization and Planning

In our first five year plan, the problem of urbanization
was identified with the problem of increasing housing short­
age in urban areas, as a consequence of heavy shifts of popula­
tion from rural to urban areas. The second plan marked the
expansion of the housing programme of the first plan and
consisted of slum clearance, slum improvement and land
acquisition and development. In the third plan, for the first
time, it was recognised that ‘housing policies need to be set
in the larger context of economic development and industrial­
isation.’ It was decided to prepare master plans and regional
development plans for metropolitan and industrial cities. The
third plan did widen the horizon for urban development
planning. Urbanization was recognised as an important
• SD: Standard Deviation.
•f LSLR: Least Squares Linear Regression.
12

aspect of the process of economic and social development,
and the social aspects of urbanisation, particularly the need
for developing urban services and amenities was stressed.
The following are the main ingredients of tire development
policy which have a bearing on urbanization: (r) new
industries to be established away from large and congested
cities, but how far from a city, is any body’s guess; (2) the
rural and urban components in the community development
projects should be knit togedier to strengthen the economic
interdependence between die town and its adjoining rural area.
The fourth plan definitely strikes a new ground in urban
planning, which includes the expansion of urban community
development, started in the third plan. In the fourth plan,
there is awareness of the planners to spatial implications and
problems of urbanization. The emphasis on regional urban
plans, diough diese are regional extensions of master plans,
can be taken as an evidence. The objective to ‘harmonize
all activities inscribed on land’ seems to be more theoretical
and what is needed is an operational strategy for urban
development, as a part of die strategy for overall regional
development. The very purpose of die future pattern of
urbanization has to be restated with reference to die new
drought that is emerging in urban planning: to use urbanisation as a lever to initiate development. Then, it is the future
pattern of urbanization that provides die frame for indus­
trialization and not vice versa, as it was earlier.

13

LECTURE TWO

Extension Lectures: Geography Department
Mysore University
CARTOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES OF
URBAN ANALYSIS

In this lecture, I shall enunciate and discuss some of the
cartographic principles and techniques of urban analysis.
Principles
It needs no mention that all the urban variables need not
be mapped. Here the principle is that the variable should be
‘mappable’ for cartographic analysis. This means that the
variable is related to the spatial character i.c., structure and
linkage, either in cause, consequence or geographical position.
The map provides the base for measurement and hence there
should be map accuracy. Here, the function of the map is
not to provide a visual aid. A map on different scales show­
ing the occupational structure of towns by located and sector
diagrams is more for a better visual aid to comprehend regional
contiguity and variations, and does not provide an accurate
base for regional urban analysis.
The cartographic techniques arc related to the map scale:
field scale, micro, meso and macro and the size of the map­
ping unit. Here again, the scale for better comprehension
is different from the scale for analysis. Our experiments have
shown that for large areas, meso or macro regions, while one
million scale is useful for analysis, two million scale is useful
for better comprehensions. The area patterns just start get­
ting distorted or coalesce on 4 million scale. Measurements
particularly distance measurements should be made on quarter
14

inch scales. Like the definition of a town, the definition of
the town area creates problems. On a macro scale, a town
is a point location, and hence the town area has no significance,
unless the size is so large, as in conurbations. The problem
is how to make the legal or the administrative city more
realistic in terms of the ‘real city’ which often overflows the
municipal or corporation city boundary (Fig. 5).
The genetic and symbolic character of the variable to be
mapped determines the technique. Here the true character
of the symbol should be distinguished from the cartographically transformed character. The points, lines and areas can
be genetic and can also be derived or transformed. On one
scale, a town is an area, and it becomes a point on another
scale. Through scale transformation, there is a possibility
of deriving a cluster pattern, giving a false image as it were.
Here the geographical distance and die mode of travel decide
the cluster character. In a regional framework, a node is a
point and transport routes are lines. A power transmission
line is really a line unlike a highway.
While the purpose of analysis decides the choice of a tech­
nique, which is related to the map scale, there is a case for
the cartographic techniques to be supplemented by tables and
graphs, both for quantitative summation and eliminating the
inherent limitations in certain techniques like isoline and
choropleth. Where there is distinct lineation in regional
structure and alternation of patterns in space and where there
are distinct urban gradients, regional line or strip profiles and
graphs should supplement the isolinc and choropleth
techniques.
Conceptual/theoretical framework
With increasing emphasis on objective approach, quanti­
fication and prediction, the need for conceptual and theoretical
framework in cartographic analysis becomes greater. In this
15

Fig. 5

context, the map is more than a storage or a visual device.
Under given assumptions (e.g. of homogeneity, technology,
and gravitational pull of a city) and known independent or
inter-related inputs, the map can be used to extract or extra­
polate outputs. It is here, the map becomes a tool for
synthesis and prediction. A map could be used for local and
regional zoning.
In urban analysis, the concepts of city region, central
places, urban-hierarchy, urban shadow and urban gradient are
important. The theory of cellular growth (an extension of
the biological concept to town growdi), which involves the
recognition of organismic concept (town as an organism),
and die theory of graphs, which has a great scope for applica­
tion in the analysis of variables, having a linear form (trans­
port network), arc two typical examples of theoretical con­
ceptual approach in urban analysis.

Select Techniques
Isarithmic techniques

How far isarithmic techniques are appropriate for map­
ping the distributional patterns of town-size or urban growth
is a valid question. Here die agglomeradve character of the
process of urbanisation must be recognised. Where the
pattern consists of sharply differentiated size classes, a com­
bination of isaridimic and located symbols brings out die dis­
tributional pattern more clearly and realistically. Base­
mapping on i : i M scale by the combined method brings out
clearly intra-state variations in the distributional patterns of
urban population.
About the value which is used in drawing isarithms, it
may be claimed that index of concentration of urban popula­
tion is a refined measure of urban concentration than a simple
percentage of urban population to total population. It is
17

paradoxical to note that there is no significant difference
between the two measures, in revealing the areal/regional
patterns. A number of exercises for different components
may be tried to resolve the paradox.

Where dissimilar and related distributions (geographical
and statistical) are involved, and where the variables have both
area and sector dimensions, the problem is how to combine
*
them.
The Figure 6 illustrates that isopleth, choropleth and
regional profile techniques arc complimentary, and hence all
the three techniques are necessary in cartographic analysis.
Geometric techniques
Here, the geometric figures are symbolised to represent
different types of data. Modifications are many. There arc
innovations (e.g. piled symbols like piled coins and the
symbols can be proportional).
The geometric techniques can be more than just transla­
tion of statistical data to geometric figures on maps. To
illustrate, there are several measures of urban concentration
in a region/area. The percentage of urban (geometric) area
to total area is a useful measure. The percentage is more than
a statistical value. The concept of urban area calls for an
explanation. An urban area has a geographical extent and
intensity of urban influence. The limits of urban influence
are indicated by a geometric figure, generally speaking, a
polygon, which is obtained on a map, by drawing straight
lines connecting all the outer-most locations of towns in a
given area. The assumption, by and large is, the larger the
urban geometric area, and greater the number of towns,
* What is the geographical significance or interpretation of log­
transformation?
18

7otwi sites
/

Ciass

Class

Z

Class

HL

Class IY V

Fig. 6

Fig. 7

especially large towns, the greater the urban benefits. A
smaller urban geometric area of small towns would naturally
mean that there is a large area unserved by towns. The loca­
tion of the polygon is another factor which can be analysed
cartographically. Any measure of urban influence or urban­
isation has limitations, and this measure is no exception. The
results of this analysis can be tabulated as below:
Urban Concentration in Telangana
Density of urban
Proportion of
urban geometric jSlumber of town population per
area to dist. area in the district square mile of
urban geometric
(percentage)
area

District

Mahbubnagar
Hyderabad
Medak
Nizamabad
Adilabad
Karimnagar
Warangal
Khammam
Nalgonda

52
11
42
30
56
26
36
20
50

14
4
8
6
10
8
8
5
8

43
4,059
62
161
45
95
123
106
54

The Figure 7 bring out these ideas clearly.

Strips/Bands and traffic relief profile
Based on data of movement of goods, people or urban
services, flow lines are drawn in proportion to the quantity
moved. The direction of movement is shown. The relief
profile brings out the existence or absence of nodes, and is
used to rank and group the nodal centres. If urban services
are represented and their levels ranked, the relief profiles
may be used to determine the number of ranks in urban
hierarchy. A combination of these two methods (strips/bands
and relief profiles) helps in die delimitation of hinter-lands,
and in determining the hierarchic levels or the degree of
nodality of places (Figure 8).
19

RELIEF

o
O

TRAFFIC
20
MILES

PROFILES
40

Fic. 8

Econographs
Econograph technique is an improved technique of draw­
ing star-diagrams. The main purpose is to bring out tire
adequacy or inadequacy of different urban services and
amenities with reference to the set of norms or standards.
The shape and size of the econograph are important elements.
This technique is particularly useful in delimiting con­
tiguous and intensive areas of a given level of urban services
and amenities. The different services and amenities have
different units of measurements, and there is the need for
20

conversion into standard units. With a change in the scale
of die econograph, its pattern changes, and hence the scale
should be common for all towns.
Chorochromatic techniques
Chorochromatic techniques are used to bring out the
sharp regional variations and transitional zones, and to
portray related distributions in space. The techniques are non
quantitative. On small scales, the techniques are employed
only for illustrations in atlases and geography text books,
while at chorographic and micro scales, the techniques are
used to bring out spatial patterns and inter-relationships. The
trend today is to incorporate quantitative aspect, through
graded symbols and shade and screen intensities. Both over­
lays and sieve mediods are used in extracting the patterns. A
chorochromatic map is usually an end product of regional
analysis and it represents synthesis in space, highlighting the
location, contiguity or scatter, size and shape of the patterns.
Normally pictorial symbols are used to bring out the third
(vertical) dimension of the landscape, as in the house types
in an urban land use map. Here the map-scale is field scale
(four inches or six inches to a mile), usually used in town
plans. At the chorographic scale (one million and two
million) all related variables whether they belong to points,
lines, or areas, are shown to bring out the correlations in space.
Unrelated variables are sieved out, and hence, a choro­
chromatic map is not a ‘total map’. Only those variables
which help in further elucidation of the patterns are incor­
porated. To facilitate the use of greater number of variables,
colour and black and white screens are used: food crops in
colour and cash crops in black line shadings. The map is
quantified by showing production per acre in each crop
association zone by proportionate circles and the percentage
cropped area by graded line or colour intensities. Such a
21

N1

map is deviation from the orthodox map. Here, of course,
there are problems of reproduction, but all maps designed
for analysis need not be reproduced. Strictly, there is no scale
constraint in the maps under this category, but if these maps
are to be used for pattern identification and regional develop­
ment policy formulation, scale does become a constraint. A
map showing the location of large cities with accelerating
growth, both in numbers and urban area overlaid on natural
land types, watershed zones and area of structural instability
and flood hazard certainly provides a base for regional urban
planning and policy formulation through regional zoning.
To sum up, what I said in this lecture, it is difficult to
standardise cartographic techniques and the two determinants
are the map scale and the purpose and the mappable
character of the variable. Selection of class intervals and
visual comprehension introduce subjective and arbitrary
elements in cartographic analysis. The problem is how to
minimise these and ensure greater objectivity and precision.
Cartographic techniques need to be supplemented by statistical
tables and graphs, and cartographic presentation should be
distinguished from cartographic analysis.
Conclusion
Now I would like to conclude my two lectures by indicat­
ing the main trends and gaps in research in urban geography
in India.
(i) Urban geography has not, and perhaps cannot escape
‘quantification’ and one limitation here is tlie non availability
of data, or where data are available, they are ‘low powered’.
There is a tendency to ‘overdo’ in quantification, resulting in
a ‘game which is not worth the candle’. Research workers
are becoming aware of this, and this is a positive sign.
(2) There is a definite shift from systematic urban geo­
graphy of a single town to regional urban geography oriented
22

to planning. This is leading to an emphasis on theoretical
and empirical work. Here is a major gap.
(3) There is no evidence of any continuing work on the
same town or urban region for a period, say at least five years.
Time dimension in regional urban research should receive
more attention. Case study approach is more rewarding here.
(4) The following fields and sub fields in urban geo­
graphy are listed and these are only indicative and certainly
not exhaustive.

(«)
(£)
(c)
(7Z)
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Regional Urban system.
Transport net-work and urbanization.
Urban Form.
Consumer travel behavioural patterns.
Urban Multiplier.
SELECTED REFERENCES

1.

Rhodes Murphy, ‘Urbanization in Asia’, Elastics, Vol. 21, No. 122,
January 1966, pp. 8-17.

2.

Norton S. Ginsburg, ‘Urban Geography and “non-western”
Areas’, pp. 311-346, from the Study of Urbanization, Ed. Philip
M. Hauser.

3.

Norton S. Ginsburg, Atlas of Economic Development’, Chicago,
University of Chicago Press, 1961.

4.

Lutz Holzner ‘World Regions in Urban Geography’, Annals
of Association of American Geographers, December, 1967,

5.

6.

PP- 7°4'712Tisdale Eldridge, ‘The Process of Urbanization’, from Demo­
graphic Analysis, Ed. J. J. Spengler and O. D. Duncan, Free
Press, 1956.

Ernest Weissmann, ‘Population, Urban Growth and Regional
Development’, Eristics, Vol. 21, No. 122, January 1966.
23

7.

C. F. J. Whebell, 'Corridors: A Theory of Urban Systems’,
Eristics, Vol. 28, No. 168, November 1969, pp. 348-353.

8.

Second report on physical planning in the Netherlands, Part 2,
future pattern of development Condensed edition, Govt. Print­
ing Office of the Nctherland, The Hague, 1966.

9.

Qazi Ahmed, Indian Cities, Research Paper No. 102, Department
of Geography, Chicago, 1965.

10.

G. G. K. Peach, ‘Urbanization in India’, from Urbanization and
its problems, Ed. R. P. Beckinsale and J. M. Houston, pp. 297-

11.

3°3C. A. Mosen, British Towns: A statistical study of their social
and Economic Differences. Centre for urban studies, Report
No. 2, Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd, 1961.

12.

Gerold Breese, Urbanization in Newly Developing Countries,
Prentice Hall, 1966.

13.

K. J. Kausky, Structure of Transportation Networks, Dept, of
Geography, Research Paper No. 84, University of Chicago,
Chicago, 1963.

14.

Peter Hagget, Network Analysis.

15.

Nystuen, J. D. and M. F. Dacey, ‘A Graph Theory Interpreta­
tion of Nodal Regions,’ Papers and Proceedings of the Regional
Science Association, Vol. 7, 1961, pp. 29-42.

16.

Jack P. Giffs (Ed.) Urban Research Methods, D. Van Nos^rand
Company, INC, New York, 1961 also Affiliated East-West Press
Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 1966.

17.

Roy Turner (Ed.), India’s Urban Future, Oxford University
Press, Bombay, 1962.

18.

James H. Johnson, Urban Geography, Pergamon Press, New
York, 1967.

19.

Harold M. Mayer and Clyde F. Kohn, (Ed.), Readings in Urban
Geography, University of Chicago also Central Book Depot,
Allahabad, 1967.
24

20.

B. Garner, 'Models of Urban Geography and Settlement Loca­
tion’, pp. 303-360, from Models in Geography, Ed. Richard J.
Chorlcy and Peter Haggett Methuen London, 1967.

21.

V. L. S. Prakasa Rao, Towns of Mysore State, Indian Statistical
Institute, Calcutta, 1964.

22.

B. Venugopal, Urbanization in Telangana, Ph.D. thesis. Depart­
ment of Geography, Osmania University, 1970, unpublished.

23.

V. L. S. Prakasa Rao, Telangana: The Small and Medium Towns
Regional Patterns and Development (in Press).

24.

The First, Third and Fourth Five Tear Plans, Govt, of India,
Planning Commission.

25.

Planning Commission Project on Muzaffarnagar District, 1967.
Directed by V. L. S. Prakasa Rao.

26.

Pilot study to identify growth points, growth centres and growth
poles. Some further work on Muzaffarnagar District, as a part
of a project sponsored by United Nations Project on Social
Development, Geneva, V. L. S. Prakasa Rao, and R. Ramachandran, 1970.

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