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RF_WH_11_7_SUDHA
A I’rc-NGOs Conference Before the UN 4th World Conference on Women'95
Preparatory International Symposium
lor 1995 NGOs Forum on Women, Science ami Technology
September 24-25, 1994
Science I hill, Beijing friendship Hotel. Bei jing, China
PROGRAM
EQUALITY DEVELOPMENT PEACE
EDUCATION EMPLOYMENT HEALTH
Sponsor:
China Women's Association for Science and Technology (CWAST)
Co-Sponsored by: All-Chimi Women's federation (ACWf)
China Association for Science and Technology (CAS T)
China NGOs forum Organizing Committee
|~JH 24
China Women's Association for Science and Technology (CWAST)
Introduction
China Women's Association for Science and Technology (CWAST) is a non-profit and non-governmental
organization composed of women in science and technology from different disciplines and fields, including the
government, industrial and commercial enterprises, universities and colleges, research institutes including 161
national societies and associations in basic sciences, engineering, agriculture, and medicine. CWAST aims to
promote Chinese women's full participation in the coordinative political, economic, scientific and
technological, and social development, to achieve the full realization of the advancement of women as equal
partners with men, to establish cooperative relations with international scientific and technological
organziations for women and organize professional exchange programs between Chinese women and their
foreign counterparts.
Objectives
* To safeguard the legal rights and eliminate all forms of discrimination against women;
* To enhance women's roles in policy decision-making processes at all stages;
* To promote the reconceptualization of science and technology "by, with and for women";
* To strengthen the collaboration between women and men and women in science and technology
and grassroots women;
* To sponsor face-to-face scientific, technological, educational and cultural exchanges
throughout the world through international conferences, symposia, workshops, training courses,
mutual visits, etc.;
* To set up various kinds of training and education programs for advancement of women;
* To build close linkages between women in formal and informal science and technology;
• To render suggestions to governmental & non-governmental organizations for improving science and
technology policy, research and application;
* To nominate women candidates as representatives and participants in the work of international
science and technology organizations:
* To raise funds for exchanges and educations of women;
Membership
Individual membership & provincial and municipal membership
Four Committees
Committee for National & International Professional Exchanges
Chairperson: Hu Qihcng
* Committee for Advancement of Women's Educations
Chairperson: Liu Shu
* Committee for Women's Health
Chair|K-rsons: Wang I'englan & Ge Qinshcng
* Committee for Ijivirornment and Development
Chairpersons: Den Nan & Tang Xiaoyan
*
Nine Working Groups on Gender
*
*
*
*
*
*
♦
•
♦
Working Group on Industry
Micro enterprises
Chair. Cao Qixiao
Working Group on Health
Chair. Wang Fenglau & Xiang Xiaoying
Working Group on Energy
Chair. Lu Weide & Deng Keyun
Working Group on Environment
Chair, Tang Xiaoyan & Qian Yi
Working Group on Employment
Chair, Feng Yaoping & Guan Jinzhu
Working Group on Food Security
Chair. Meng Suhe
Working Group on Indigenous Knowledge
Chair. He Xinyun «kt Peng Shulian
Working Group on Education
Chair, Zang Jinping & Zhou Qingjun
Working Group on Information
Chair, Luo Ruining & Zhang Zhili
Senior Advisors (in alphabetical order)
Chen Minzhang, Minister of Public Health
Li Xiangyi, Director of Department of Popularization Science, CAST
Niu Deming. Honorary Director of Beijing Municipal Institute of Development Strategy
Wu Heng, President of China Invention Society
Zhou Guangzhao, President of Chinese Academy of Sciences
Zhu Chuanyi, Professor of Chinese Academy of Social Sciences
35 China NGOs Forums for T he UN 4th World Conference on Women
Beijing, China, August 30-Septembcr 8, 1995
’Women <kr Environment
♦Women & Political Empowment
♦Women in Science & Technology
♦Women Ar Industrial Development
♦Women in Rural Areas
♦Women Ar I leallh
♦Women rk: Peace
♦Women At. Education
♦Women & Family Education
♦Women & Family
♦Women
Employment
♦Labor Protection of Women
♦Women & Mass Media
"Women of Minority Nationalities
♦Women At Human Rights
♦Population Control «kt Family Planning
‘Women ,kt Loans
♦Violence Against Women
♦Women & Chinese Culture
♦Women & Traditional Chinese Medicine
♦Women's Participation in Enterprise Management
♦Young Women and Social Development
•Elderly Women At Their Life
♦Women in Disability
♦Women <kr Sports
♦Women Studies in China
♦Women and Adult Education
♦Chinese Women's Role in the Family
♦Women and Social Work
♦Women and Religion
♦Women and Arts
♦Women and Movie Arts
"Women Groups and Social Aids
♦Women & Red (‘toss Aids
’Development of Ihumm Resoutccs of Chinese Women
Welcome to Beijing
On behalf of China Women's Association for Science and Technology, a non-profit ami
non-govcrmncntal organization, we arc pleased to extend our warm welcome to you to
participak n the International Preparatory Symposium for 1995 NGOs Porum on Women,
Science and Technology to be held in Beijing September 24-25, 1994, a prc-activity before the
UN 4th World Conference on Women and NGO Porum.
Women of many nations have come to the realization that human lives arc enriched by the
advancement of science and technology, education and women’s social status. Our organization
is dedicated to these efforts. China, one of the cradles of human civilization, takes great pride
in her 5,000-ycar cultural traditions and women's contributions to science and technology.
We arc committed to the concept ul face-to-face communication between Chinese women
scientists and their counterparts from all nations of the world. Wc believe this one-to-one
interaction is beneficial in many ways. Prom September 4 to 15, 1995, the United Nations
will convene its 4th World Conference on Women in Beijing, China. At the same time, from
August 30 to September 8, a Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) Forum will be
organized. These activities will provide you an opportunity to share and exchange information
and foster understanding and friendship among women.
Il is our hope that you will join in our commitment to promoting the advancement of
women in science and technology and education. We look forward to your participation in our
future exchange programs including 1995 Beijing Conference and to your contribution toward
the success of the implementation of the Nairobi Forward-Looking Strategics.
Xie Xi-dc
President
China Women’s Association for
Science and Technology
Wu Gan-mei
Secretary General
China Women's Association for
Science and Technology
Welcome Address
by Professor Xie Xide, President of China Women's Association
for Science and Techology
Dear friends, distinguished overseas colleagues:
On behalf of the China Women's Association for Science and Technology, I would like to welcome all
the participants to the Preparatory Symposium for 1995 NGO Forum on Women, Science and
Technology. The Symposium is held under the support of China NGO Forum Organizing Committee
and All-China Women's Federation. The major theme of the Symposium listed in the announcement is
"New Vision for a More Holistic and People-Centered Approach to Science and Technology for the 21st
Century".
The 21st Century will soon go into the history books and it will be remembered with a kind of mixed
feeling, since this is a century that science and technology have made tremendous progresses; however,
one has also witnessed two World Wars and numerous civil wars and local confrontations. Looking
forward towards the next century, we arc filled with the feeling of great anticipation. More new things
that we have never dreamed of before might emerge. Il is our unanimous wish that people will live in a
better, more prosperous and more unbiased and peaceful world. Therefore, it is quite timely for us to
gather here to describe our common vision for the development of science and technology in the 21sl
century from the women's point of view. In order to have a more holistic and people-centered approach
to science and technology, women's participation is most important, Various barriers which might
hinder the implementation of our vision have to be removed. Il is only after the majority of the world
population could be free from the threat of hunger and poverty; it is only after the basic necessities of
human beings could be met and the value of wonted could be fully honored and repcctcd, then and only
then our visou can have a chance to turn into a reality and it is also then science and technology could
have a sustainable and healthy way of development.
1-linking through the past decade, it is quite evident that although progresses have been made since the
1985 Nairobi Forward-Looking Strategies were put forward;
however, the goals for equality,
development and jicace are far from being implemented. We feel very sorry today that many women in
die
world
are
discrimination.
still
sulferemg
from
hunger,
poverty,
unequal
treatment
and
various
forms
of
In many places, women do not have equal rights in and equal access to patlicipalion id'
various professional undertakings. According to the report on “The Situation of the Chinese Women", a
white paper released not long ago, we are glad that in China women have enjoyed equal rights and equal
opportunities for education and employment since 1949; however, we still have a long way to go before
women could play a comparable role with their male counterparts in the fields of science and technology.
This Symposium will provide an excellent opportunity for Chinese participants to share our experiences
with and learn from our overseas friends.
Since time for the Symposium is very short and there arc numerous issues of common interest to be
discussscd; therefore, it is my sincere hope that liverly discussion can be focussed on some of the major
issues such as how to help those regions which arc suffered from poverty and environmental pollution.
how m mi<(’ the cdcalion level and illj’jijnalc the illiteracy of women, how to carry out the health
protection as well as how to develop the various forms of job oriented skills for women. Together with
our overseas friends we would like to identify and understand the barriers that hinder women from
moving forward faster.
Although the time for our gathering is short. 1 am sure that the friendship thus established will last for the
days to come.
Finally, I sincerely hope that the Symposium will be a successful one and your stay in
Beijing will be both fruitful and enjoyable.
Symposium Program
Wednesday, September 21, 1994
12:00-13:00
Working lunch between Ms. Wu Ganmei and some foreign delegates attending the
International Conference on the Development and Role of Women in Technology and
the Preparatory Symposium for 1995 NGOs Porum on Women, Science and
Technology
Ju He Yuan, Friendship Palace
Friday, September 23, 1994
13:30-16:00
Registration
Room 102, 1st Floor of Science Hall, Friendship Hotel
14:00-17:00
Discussion with the National Business and Professional Women's Association of USA
and the American Association of University Women
Room 102, 1st Floor of Science Hall, Friendship Hotel
Saturday, September 24, 1994
09:50-10:50
Registration
In the lobby of Science Hall, Friendship Hotel
09:00-12:00A. Introduction of Internationa! Federation of Business and Professional Women
(IFBPW) and Its Preparations for NGO Forum'95
B. Introduction of individual members of Beijing Club of IFBPW
C_. Exchanges of experiences
The Report Hall, 1st Floor of Science Hall, Friendship Hotel
Key Speakers
Yunsook Hung, Vice President of IFBPW
Hu Qiheng, Vice President of Chinese Academy of Sciences
Wu Ganmei, Secretary General of China Women' Association for Science and
Technology (CWAST)
Pat Harrison, Regional Coordinator Asia Pacific Region IFBPW
Linda Clark, National Business and Professional Women's Association of USA
Yang Xiufang, President of China Finance Trust and Investment Corporation, Finance
and Environment
Li Jingzhi, Vice President of Chinese Management College of Women Cadres
Tao Chunfang, Vice President of Chinese Management College of Women Cadres
Song ling, Genera) Manager of China National Non-Mctallic Minerals Industrial Im|x>rt
& Export Corporation, Chinese Women's Roles in anil Contributions to Metallic
Industry and Trade
Zheng Bijun, Director of Women Studies Center, Beijing University, Problems and
Strategies to Girls' Education in Poor Areas in West China
Guan Jinzbu. Duector of Science Consultancy Department, China Association for
Rural Enterprises
Guo Weiqin, Director of Beijing Dongzhimcng Hospital, Women Scientists and
Development of Traditional Chinese Medicine
Fang Jing, English Teacher of Beijing Jingshan School
Zang Jinping, Lecturer of Open University, IJfclong Education in Open University
Zhou Wciwcn. Research Fellow of Chinese Academy of Social Sciences Hebei Chapter
Difficulties and Development in Dry Areas
Tea Break 10:15-10:30
1215-13:15
Working Lunch
Wan Shun Ju. Friendship Palace
13:30-17:1X1
Plenary Session
Presided over by Ms. Wu Ganmci. Secretary General of CWAST
Report Hall, 1st Floor of Science Hall. Friendship Hotel
13:30-13:35
Welcome Address by Prof. Xie Xide. President of CWAST
13:35-13:45
13:45-13:55
13:55-14:10
14:10-14:15
14:15-14:20
14:20-14:25
14:25-14:30
14:30-1-1:35
14:35-14:40
14:40-14:45
14:45-14:50
14:50-14:55
14:55-I5:(X)
Key Speakers
Lydia Makhubu. President; or Patience Dennis. Vice President of Third World
Organization for Women in Science (TWOWS)
Hu Qihcng, Vice President of Chinese Academy of Sciences
Josephine Bcoku-Bclls. Program Coordinator of Once & Future Action Network
Lu Weidc, Director of Beijing Institute ol Solar Energy. The Hole of Chinese
Women in The Development of New & Renewable Resources of Energy
Use Marks, Technology Officer. United Nations Development Fund for Women
(UNIFEM)
l ang Xiaoyan, Vice President of Chinese Society lor Environmental Science
Julia Marton-Lefevre, Executive Director of International Council of Scientific Union
(ICSU)
Cao Qixiao, Director of China Association for Women in Chemical Industry,
Women's Involvement in Industrial Development in China
Sharon Schuster, American Association of University Women
Wang Xiaoqing, on behalf of Liu Shu, Vice President of CWAST. IVrwren in Science
ami Technology
Malec Suwana-adth, President of Approtcch Asia, ITDP/TS/TPU/Biolechnology &
Genetic Engineering, UNIDO
Wang Fcnglan, Chairperson of Women’s Health Committee, Women & Health
Yunsook Hung, Vice President of International Federation of Business and
Professional Women (1FBPW)
I5:(X)-L5:15
Tea
15:15-15:20
15:20-15:25
15:25-15:30
Ning Ruxin, President of Beijing Institute ol Technology, Women & Education
Lilia Ramos, Executive Officer of Approtcch Asia
Luo Rumin, Director ol China Evaluation Center of High-l ech Industry, The
Roles of Women in Developing Information Industry
Aparna Basu, Secretary General of All India Women's Conlerneee
Sophie Leung Lau Yau Fun, a well-known entcrprencur, Hong Kong. Ileing A Women
Enterpreneur—My Experiences
Muriel Magenta, Project Director of the World’s Women On-Line. Institute for Studies
in the Arts, Arizona Stale University, The World's Women On-Line—Electronic Art
Networking Project
Zhu Huiqun. Chinese Society for Environmental Science. The Importance of
Environmental Protection of Women in Industrial and Mining Enterpiises
Renate Bloent, Member of the Geneva NGO Sub-Committee on the Status of Women
Alison Vincent. University of Sydney, The History Jt Philosophy of Women in
Science and 1 < < hnology
15:30-15:35
15:35-15:40
15:40-15:45
15-45-15:50
15:50 15:55
15:55-16:00
16:1X1-16:05
16:05-16:10
Ebomnbou Patience. Camcioun Association ol Women Eiigineeis
1 ilia Rcdshow, Voluntary Sei vice Overseas
16:10-16:15
16:15-16:30
Minako Yasu, Japanese Association for Women in Science
Huang Qizao. Vice President of All-China Women's Federation,
Update hiformation about the Preparations for China NGOs Forum and 4th World
Conference on Women
18:30-20:00
Welcome Reception and Evening Party hosted by All-China Women’s Federation
Ju He Yuan. Friendship Palace
Sunday, September 25, 1994
09:(X>-10:00
Plenary Session
Room 213, 2nd FI<K>r of Science Hall. Iiiendship Hotel
09:00-09:05
09:05-09:10
09:10-09:15
09:15-09:20
09:20-09:25
09:25-09:30
09:30-09:35
09:35-09:40
09:40-09:45
09:45-09:50
09:50-09:55
Speakers
Teresa Wilson. Vice President International Programs, Pennsylvania Peace Links, The
Manifold Impacts of Militarism ami The Nuclear Arms Race on Women - In
1 erms of Health, Employment, Education, Environment
Tang Kcbi, Director of Department of Women Employees of All-China Trade Union,
The Role of Trade Union's Committee on Women Employees in Their Labor
Protection
Rea Labuschague. Expert in Gerontology
Zhang Shiqiu, Research Fellow of Chinese Society for Environmental Science,
Uttilding Up Women's Capabilites in Environmental Protection
Annclise Jarvis Hansen, Cultural Information and Coordination
Chen Qi, Professor of Beijing Normal University, Policy and Proposal~-the Retirement
Age of Female Teachers
Anila Dholakia. Grass
Yang Jinwei, Chinese Society lor Environmental Science. Women in Remote and Poor
Areas Need More Aids
R. Burma, Mongolian Movement "Women for Social Progress"
Feng Yaoping, Council Member of China Foundation of Post-PhD., IVe Need More
Women Experts
Dang Yi. Associate Professor of Beijing University of Traditional Chinese Medicine,
Food Therapy in Traditional Chinese Medicine anil Cosmetology
09:55-10:10
lea
10:10-12:00
Workshop on Women & Health, Food Security and Traditional Chinese Medicine
Chair, Wang Fcnglan
Room 206, 2nd Floor of Science Hall, Friendship Hotel
Workshop on Women & Employment, Education, information & Culture
Chair, Zhang Zhilin & Zang Jinping
Room 208. 2nd Floor of Science Hall, Friendship Hotel
Workshop on Environment, Energy and Industrial Development
Chair, Lu Weide <V Deng Keyun
Room 213, 2nd Floor of Science Hall, Friendship Hotel
12:15-13:45
A Reception Dinner hosted b- China Finance Trust and Investment Corporation
Ju He Yuan, Friendship Palace
14:00 17:00
Visit lo the Venue ol the NGO Forum ot the UN 4th World Conference on Women
CHINESE INDIVIDUAL MEMBERS OF INTERNATIONAL FEDERATION OF
BUSINESS AND PROFESSIONAL WOMEN
(in alphabetical order)
Bai Ling. Human Settlement CotmnittceCao Qixiao, China Association for Women in Industry
Chen Qi, Department of Psychology. Beijing Nonnai University
Dang Yi. Beijing University of Chinese Medicine
Deng Keyun, China Society of Rural Energy
Dong Guilan, Department of High-Tech, the State Commission on Science and Technology
Duan Jingru, China Personnel Society
Fang Jin. Beijing Jingshan School
Fenig Yaoping, Deputy Director of Department of Expert Affairs, the Ministry of Personnel
Gao Lin, Institute of Ecological Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences
Ge Qinsheng, Pekin Union Medical College
Guan Jinzhu, Department of Scientific Consultancy, China Association for Township Enterprises
Guo Weiqin, Beijing Dongzhimeng Hospital
He Xinyun, Beijing Dongzhimeng Hospital
Hu Jian. Department of Economics, Beijing University
Hu Daofeng, Beijing Research Institute of Agricultural Sciences
Meng Suhe, Deputy Secretary General of China Food Association
Ning Ruxin, Beijing Institute of Technology
Li Jiaxi,Chinese Academy of Geological Science
Li Xiuqing, Department of International Cooperation, the Slate Commission on Science and technology
Li Xiaolin, Chinese People's Association for Friendship with Foreign Countries
Lin Mingmei, Beijing Insitute of Pharmacology
Lin Shouqing, Peking Union Medical College Hospital
Liu Jingyi, Ecological Environment Research Center. Chinese Academy of Sciences
Liu Yumei, Institute of Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences
Lu Weide, Beijing Institute of Solar Energy
Luo Ruining, China Evaluation Center of Hgh-Tcch Enterprises Dcvelptncnt
Peng Shulian, Beijing Dongzhimeng Hospital
Shi Shuyun, Chinese Organizing Committee of UNESCO
Tang Kebi, Department of Women Employees, All-China Trade Union
Wang Jiaxiang, Beijing University of Foreign Studies
■ Wang Wenhua, Ecological Environment Research Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences
Wu Changzhen, Department of Law, China Association for Women Lawyers'
Wu Yiyong, Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics
Xiang Xiaoying, Beijing Institute of Women's Healthcare
Yang Jingwei, China Society of Environmental Science
Yang Tuan, China Foundation of Population Welfare
You Chuan. Beijing Institute of Women's Healthcare
Yu Ilanhua, Rscarch Center, the Stale Commission on Science and Technology
Zhang Shiqiu, The Environmental Science Center, Beijing University
Zhang Xiuqin, Department of International Cooperation, the State Cotnmisssion on Educaion
Zhang Yihua, Department of International Cooperation, the State Commisssion on Educaion
Zhang Zhilin, Department of Technology Conditions. Chinese Academy of Sciences
Zhao Xiuwcn, Dcpartcintn of Law, People's University
Zheng Biiun. Research Center of Women Studies, Beijing University
Zhu Huiqun, China Society of Environmental Sciences
received
20 Oi.; i.
Dear friends, distinguished overseas colleagues:
W n -.-3_____________
On behalf of the China'Women’s Association for Science and Teclmology. JL would
Eke tn welcome all the participants to the Ihvparaloiy Symposium for 1995 NGO
■ Forum on Women. Science and Technology. 'Hie Symposium is held under the
support of China NGO Forum Organizing Committee and AU China Women's
Federation. The major theme of the Symposium listed in the announcement is "
New Vision for a More Holistic and People-Centered Approach to. Science and
. Technology for the 21st Century*. • •
l
\
The 21th century wdl soon go into the history books' and it will' be. remembered
;
I
with’.a kind of mixed feeling, since' this is a century that science and technology'
■ - have made tremendous progresses, however; one has also witnessed..two World
- - Ware and numerous civil ware and local confrontations. Looking forward towards
die next century, we are filled with the feeling of great anticipation. More, new
: . things that we have never dreamed - of before might emerge. ‘ It ’is our unanimous
; wish that people will five in a better, more prosperous and more unbiased, and
.peaceful world. ’ therefore it is quite timely for us to gather here to describe our
commoqwirion for the development of science and technology in the 21st century
- from the. women’s'point of view. 'In order to have a more holistic and.pcople.. centered approach to' science and- technology,' tv omen’s participation is most
important.' ‘.Various barriers winch rmgfifhindcr the implementation of our vision
have to be removed. Il is only after the majority of the wddd population could be
• free from the threat of hunger’ and poverty ~it is only after, the baric, necessities of
,• htanan brings could be met and the value of women could be fitUy honored and
respected,’ then and only then our vision can have a chance to trap into a reality and
it is also then-science'and technology could, have a sustainable and healthy way of
development
j
.
i
\
Looking through the past decade, it is quite evident that although progresses have
■ • been made since-the 1985 Nairobi Forward-Looking Strafigics were put forward,
however, the goals for equality, development and peace are far' from. being
implemented. We’ feel very sorry to-day that many women in the world are still
. suffering .from hunger,- poverty, unequal treatment and various forms of
• discrimination; ' In’many’ places, women’do not have equal rights = in and equal
access to participation of various professional undertakings- According to the
report on “ The situation of Chinese Women”, a white paper released not long ago,
- -wczre glad that in China women have ergeyed equal rights and equal opportunities
for education and employment since 1949, however, we stffl have a long way to go
before women could play a comparable role with their male counterparts in the
fields of science and technology, this symposium will provide an excellent
opportunity for Chinese participants to share our experiences with and leant from
our overseas friends.
Since lime for the Symposium is very short and there are numerous issues of
common interest to be discussed, therefore it is my sincere hope tliat Hvcly
discussion can be focussed on some of the major issues such as how to help those
regions which are suffered fiom poverty and environmental pollution, how to raise
the education level and ill rm in ale the illiteracy of women, how to carry out the
health protection as well as how to develop the various forms of job oriented skills
for women. Together with our overseas friends we would like to identify and
understand the barriers that lundcr women from moving forward faster.
Although the time for our gathering is short, I am sure that the friendship thus
established will last for the days to come. Finally, I sincerely hope that the
Sympeomm w21 be a successful one and your stay in Beijing will be both fruitful
and enjoyable.
SPEECH AT PREPARATORY SEMINAR
of
uly
osc
use
the
dlls
ind
ON WOMEN ANDSCLENCE &. TECHNOLOG Y FOR’95 NGO FORUM
BY. MADAM HUANG QIZAO,
VICE PRESIDENT AND FIRST SECETARY OF THE SECRETARIAT
OF THE ALL-CHINA WOMEN’S FEDERATION
AND VICE CHAIRPERSON OF THE CHINA ORGANIZING COMMITTEE
FOR THE FORTH WORLD CONFERENCE ON WOMEN
Dear friends and fellow sisters,
thus
It is a great pleasure for me to meet you in Beijing. It would be a very good opportunity for
the
all of us professional women share and exchange our information idea’s, and experiences on
dtful
the role of women in development under the theme of equality, development and peace and in
line with the Nairobi Forward — Looking Strtegies.
The two days preparatory symposium on women and science &- technology for '95 NGO Fo
rum sponsored by China Women Association for Science and Technology is very important
pre —conference because there are only 300 days left before ’95 NGO Forun.
Since the United Nations decided to convene the Fourth World Conference on Women in Bei
jing, The Chinese Government and Chinese NGOs have’attached great importance to the
preparations for the Conference. Premier Li Peng, during the 1st nd 2nd plenary sessions of
the 8th National People's Congress held in 1993 and 1994 respectively .twice stressed the im
portance of the preparations of Fouth Conference on Women. On August 28, 1992, the Chi
nese Government set up the China Organizing Committee for the Fourth World Conference
on Womeh,which is headed by Mms.
According to the resolution of the United Nations, Chinese Government has also compiled,
with the participation of Chinese NGOs and some experts, the national report on China’s im
plementation of the Nairobi Forward-Looking Strategies, which has been submitted to the
ESCAP and the UN Secretariat of the Fourth World Conference on Women in March this
year. In June, the Public Information Office of the State Council delivered nnd pudlished a
white paper on the Situation of Chinese Women.
Mme. Mongella, the Secreaary —General of the Beijing Conference, highly appraised the ef
forts made by Chinese Government and Chinese people after her two plan missions to China
in June last year and thia year. And not long ago, Mr. Ghali, the Secretary — General of the
United Nations, paid a visit to China and signed the agreement with the Chinese Govern
ment.
Now through the media, the information of the Conference has been sent to all corners of
China among women in both city and rural areas particularly among the grassroots.
The
People’s Daily, the most influential and widely circulated newspaper in China has carried
more than 80 articles about the Conference, while the CCTV, which has the largest audience
has had a series of programmes to form information packages on a range of issues.
From this September to the next September, over 100 publication series entitled Chinese
Women’s Achievements will be aired on CCTV at the prime time, systematically presenting
Chinese women’s roles and achievements in political economics and social development.
From Ooctober I this y, ,r, a special program named“half the Sky”will be broadcast for about
45 minutes every day on the hot women issues.
The Chinese NGOs have also taken active part in the preparation for the *95 NGO Forum.
Composed of the leading persons from 23 major NGOs in China. The all —China Women's
Federation as the largest non — governmental women's organization in China, is entrusted by
the Chinese Organizing Committee to undertake the concrete preparaton for the NGO Fo
rum.
’95 NGO Forum location will be in Beijing Workers’ Sports Service Center, which covers an
area of 40 hectares with a total floor space of 130,000 suare meters. The center has a Stadi
um with 70,000 seating capacity where the opening ceremony and arts and crafts demonstra
tion will be held. The gymnasiu hall with 13,00 seating capacity will be used to show films
and hold large scale regional meetings or to organize cultural performances. There are anoth
er 60 large or smalTmeeting rooms will be used for sominars nnd workshops. At the request
of some NGOs and according to the experience of the '85 Forum, we will set up about 30
tents in the center. There will be also show exhibitions on such subjects as “The Past and
Present
of
Chinese
Women”,
“The
Chinese
Women
and
Progress
in
Science
and
Technology”, “The Dresses and Ornaments of the Women of 56 Ethnic Groups in China”,
“Books for Chinese Women”, “Paintings and Works of Calligraphy by Chinese Women”,
“Women’s Handicrafts",and “Stamps on Wmen ”, Shopping areas and food streets will be
opened within the center for the convienience of the participants.
The Chinese NGOs are earnestly applying to hold over 30 seminars covering such topics as
Women and Education, employment, Health, Political
Participation, Participation
in
the
Progress of Science and Technology.
Dear sisters and friends there are only 300 days left before the *95 Conference. We shall try
our best in perfecting our preparation for the Conference to act as a qualified host to greet
friends from all parts of the world. Chinese people .especially the Chinese Women,are warm
heartedly awaiting the coming of 1995 and sincerely hope to see every one of you in Beijing in
the golden autumn next year.
Thank you.
A paper on the history and philosophy of women in science
and technology
i
Alison R. Vincent
September 199-1
e
e
(Papei written for the Pieparatory Symposium for 1995 NGO Forum
on Women, Science and Technology, 24-25 September 1994. Beijing,
,
China.)
R
Introduction
an
di
ra
ms
th-
This paper is in four parts:
1.
My position: A woman-centred view of science and technology
2.
The emergence of that position: Why are science and technology
arc not woman-centred
3.
Two approaches to take if this position is adopted: Attending
differently
4.
Posing questions: Asking new questions.
est
30
and
and
a”»
•
n".
I be
s as
A woman-centred view of science and technology:
position
My
First, it is important to recognise 1 am a westerner. My position is that
of a westerner. While I am open to new understandings fiom my
sisters in other parts of the world. I come here with a pailicular
background, history. One aspect of this background is some study in
the area of critical social theory (e.g., Fay.----- ; Habermas.
>
the
Second, I am assuming science and technology are male centred, mule
dominated fields of study' and endeavours. J hope there are challenges
to that. In part that is what I am trying to do, to question the male
female dichotomy, categorisations, of intellectual acti\ity. In the
making, of new categories. I hope to show, it is possible to transcend
gendei without making it ii relevant in science and technology
1'hird. the issue for me is not in creating new labels lor issues and
aspects of issues, but in coining to understand where we are. how v.r
might understand things differently and what we might do to make
things different where that is agreed as an important thing to do.
Fourth, the topic is too great to achieve anything beyond indicating a
position and something of where and how that position emerged and
how women in science and technology might proceed if they adopted
such a \ iew of themselves and what they do. It is now time to state my
position: A woman-centred view of science and technology must differ
in its philosophical orientation, its approach, from what aheady exists.
One aspect of this position is that a view of science and technology that
relies only on participation of women in existing paradigms of science
and technology is in essence no different from the patriarchal gaze or
approach which already exists.
Repositioning science and technology with a gender
sensitivity
A brief excursion into historical and philosophical texts on science and
technology pointed to a number of issues that let me to question the
gendered positioning of science and technology. A simple g'id/matrix
helps illustrate the framework in which I am working.
History and philosophy of women in science and technology
1
.1
:d
my
SCIENCE
I ECHNOLOGY
Almost silent
The first stone
Promotion of science in
the education of girls
Technology and progress
HISTORY
il'fer
IslS.
nee
or
Cyberspace
PHILOSOPHY Silences
Ecofeminism/deep
ecology
Beginning voices
History
History is important to a study of women in science and technology for
at least two reasons: One, we are historical beings; and two. very
generally speaking the recorded history is one of silences of the
interests and contributions of women.
We are historical beings, we change ourselves. In light of changes in
society, and in the ways we understand ourselves, humans can
contribute to the social forms they inhabit. Part of these social forms.
while some may argue a minute part, is an attitude to science and
technology.
Recorded history of women in science and technology
he literature is almost silent on the presence and activities of women.
At least until quite recently this was so. Interesting it is women writers
who have been as silent as have the males.
In 1974, when Margaret Rossiter reviewed a biography by Robert
Clark of Ellen Henrietta (Swallow) Richards (1842-1911) and claimed
she was the founder ol ecology, Rossiter remarked to the effect that it
was a somewhat romantic notion, despite that Clark had shown
Richards to be a remarkable woman for her work in sanitary science,
chemistry and so forth. L.ess than ten years later, in a study of women
of science in America, Rossiter proclaims the importance not only of
the scientific contributions of Richards, but also of the work she did in
creating a political presence for women of science. Rossiter suggests
that while (his work was important, it had to occur outside the
mainstream, the malcstream, of science—a woman was simply not
acceptable.
The women of science who are mentioned in Anderson and Zinsser
(1988) are the wealthy and powerful women, who stood outside the
gendered restrictions of society. In the sixteenth to the eighteenth
centuries, women who were excited about and wanted to participate in
the Scientific Revolution suffered "parents [who] criticised their
daughters' absorption in such inappropriate, inelegant, and unfeminine
endeavours" (p. 87).
In the precursor to this conference, the Manilla meeting, I understand
there was much work done to even establish women in science and
technology as an area of concern. In the Jakarta Declaration, the issue.
seems to have lost some import.
Because science and technology are seen to be ways into the patriarchal
public world of economics, and because activities to do with the home
have been labelled female, and activities to do with materials and
manipulation of them with machinery have been labelled male (and
technology) it has been widely argued that if girls are educated in
science and technology the economic disparity between women and men
will tail nw;i\. loward the gaining of numciically gender balanced
classrooms, in /Xustralia at least, and 1 understand this has happened in
England as well, there has been a determined effort to eliminate the one
field of study that combined both a gender sensitivity and technology in
its very foundations, home economics. In a cursory glance through
some literature on history and philsophy of science and technology,
there is an absence of both this gender sensitivity and no connection
between technology and women's ways of doing and understanding.
That is not so say such literature does not exist, only that it
Philosophy
The love of wisdom, the questioning of how we understand ourselves,
the wondering about ways the world ought to be and how people should
contribute to making the world perfect, the development of grand
visions and theories and tracts upon which to meditate...
In an essay on the history of the philosophy of science (I lane, 1972,
pp. 289-296) and one on problems in the philosophy of science (Danto,
1972, pp. 296-300) there are no suggestions of gender as an issue.
From about 1850, however, there had been an identifiable beginning in
the history of philosophy of science. So. in more than one hundred
years, women did not even rate a mention. Hardly surprising, then, is
it that recently I was talking about the development of this paper to
someone who was writing a post-graduate course in history of science
and that person suggested 1 might like to write a component on the
history and philosophy of women in science. When I asked why it was'
not automatically a part of the course, the comment came back that
there was no one who could leach it. In other words, at least in that
one institution, thinking of women as part of the history and philosophy
of science, anecdotally at least, is still something of a rarity.
Science
What is being talked about when the idea of science is mentioned?
Science is thought by many to be a process of thought, one that is
logical, though the form of logic may vary, rational, in that the
processes that are used are reasoned out, and public,- that is made open
to the public tor scrutiny. Some views of science testricl the process to
iogicai empiricism, others expand-the process to be a method of
democratic process in education (Dewy is one example). Science is
clearly able to be more than white-coated laboratory technicians and
absent-minded professors.
Initiroveniei.
, -ofcor
Girls are supposed to have an antipathy toward science.
Technology
What is being talked about when the term technology is mentioned can
vary from the most sophisticated nuclear-powered military craft to new
computer-operated washing machines. It can mean a new style of
chimney in a house in Bihar in India or a fandangled potato peeler in
the United States of America. For most there seems to be’an
acceptance of computers and technology being related ideas. Almost
W1UIQUI ewepmm io niv iuvu
___
implements, for the carrying out of tasks. If this is accepted, however.
then there are other technologies that exist as ideas and systems, the
technology of economics, the technology of democracy, the technology
of language--all technologies because they are tools that help humans
achieve some desired purpose or end. From the first stone that was
picked up by man (many smiling point out that it was probably a
woman), to the notion that technology is intertwined with progress and
that therefore all technology is good, to the technologies of cyberspace
(entering the internet, and so on), it is clear that technology can mean
almost anything.
To allocate time here to discussions of definition is not possible.
However science and technology are thought about, one thing is clear.
as they are portrayed in the literature, promoted in education, and
largely understood in the public, science and technology are sepaiatv
horn girls and women's experience and that is not good.
There are beginning voices, voices out of history, philosophy,
feminism, environmental studies, geography, merging to form a new
field oi study, eco-fcminism, deep ecology. They join the long, but
soft public voice of theoreticians from the domestic perspective, who
have for more than a century argued and cducatedthat the ideas of
technology and science must be part of a humanistic understanding for
them to be of benefit to the people of the world.
Attending differently
A position on science and technology that might emerge from the UN
NGO Forum in Beijing ought to take into consideration a different
approach to understanding women in science and technology. Two
approaches suggest themselves: Patricia Thompson's Hcstian feminism,
and the long used and valuable ecosystems model used in t!»e field of
home economics and family studies. Here 1 will take only a moment or
two to indicate each of these and suggest literature that could be
helpful.
Hcstian paradigm
Thompson’s Hcstian feminism is predicated on a world view that
suggests that as western civilisation evolved, the "private home
domestic domain" (Virginia Woolf) became separated from the
polis/patriarchal world outside the home. She suggests that this has
created a distorted vision of being human. It is like having a pair of
spectacles where one lens, the female or Hcstian lens, is alwass dirty,
foggy. We have learned to see through the male lens, the llermean
lens, and yet our vision is incomplete. We must, Pat argues, polish the
Hestian lens and refocus our vision for a clearer, more wholistic view.
To look at only what science and technology can do for the home and
private world of family, without also looking at what the private world
of home and family contribute to the world of science, without
allowing the private world of home and family to i ifluence the way(s)
in which science and technology operate and the things that scientists
and technologists develop is to perpetuate the distortion.
Thompson's most recent work is Bringing Feminism Home. Hynes has
used this approach in asking questions about engineering and the
absence of womens' voices in that field. She claims it is not that these
voices did not exist, but that they simply never emerged in the
dominant discouses.
Ecosystems approach ■
In home economics theory, an ecosystems approach has been developed
that indicates the interrelatedness of individuals, families and the
various systems that operate in the world, that influence and shape what
is possible for families and individuals. It is a simple diagrammatic
representation that is instructive in several ways. Here I only want to
draw your attention to it and to indicate there might be some
possibilities in such a model for reshaping the ways in which science
and technology are understood in society.
When science and technology combined have been able to invent a laser
that can blind the eyes of an enemy, because blinded enemies are more
trouble to the opposition than otherwise physically wounded warriors.
when reproductive science and technologies can create human dilemmas
that are beyond the reasoning and logic of our greatest minds, when
media technologies can convince huge portions of the world's
population that their life is meaningless unless they watch the six
o'clock news, science and technology have imposed upon humankind
more than I as a woman, as a mother, as a human, can allow to go
unquestioned. The questions of the past, however, are not sufficient.
Finding new solutions will not do.
The task in front of us. I suggest, is the finding of new questions;
questions that transcend anything we have had before; questions that
place being human at the heart of the enquiry; questions that are
morally and politically powered; questions that can slow the rates of
change, give people time to think through the rationality of what is
being developed and perpetrated...different questions, Hestian
questions, ecosystemic questions, gendered questions that are sensitive
to the gendered orientations from which they come.
Asking new questions
What kinds of questions might lead to a different, a woman-centred,
understanding of science and technology? Will feminist technological
utopias be any different to other technological utopias?
What kind of technological society do we wish or can we afford?
(Segal, 1994, p. xii)
What might be some ways to bring scientists and technologists who
have these more wholistic visions together, to empower them, enable
them to join the discourse?
In what ways do the divisions ot science and technology and within
science and technology contribute to the continuing discrimination
against the interests of women and families?
What questions do you have?
References
Anderson, Bonnie.S. and Zinsser, Judith P. (1988). A history of their
own: Women in Europe from prehistory to the present (vol. 2).
New York: Harper & Row.
Clark, Robert (1973). Ellen Swallow: The woman who founded
ecology. Chicago: Follett.
Conley, Verena A. (1993). Rethinking technologies. Minneapolis:
University of Minnesota Press.
Danto, A. (1972). Problems of philosophy of science. In P. Edwards
(Ed.) The encyclopedia of philosophy (vol. 6). New York:
Macmillan.
Fay, Brian (
-). Critical social science.
Habermas, J. (1971, orig. 1968). Knowledge and human interest
(trans. J. Shapiro). Boston: Beacon Press.
Harre, R. (1972). History of philosophy of science. In P. Edwards
(Ed.) The encyclopedia of philosophy (vol. 6). New York:
Macmillan.
Hynes, H. P. (199----- ). Feminism and engineering: The inroads. In
Cheris Kramarae and Dale Spender (Eds.), The knowledge
explosion
(ch. 11, pp. 133-140).
Rice, Ann S. and Tucker, Suzanne M. (1986). Only life management
(6th. edn.). New York: Macmillan.
Rossiter, M. W. (1974). Early environmentalist, Science 185.
Rossiter, M. W. (1982). Women scientists in America; Struggles and
strategies to 1940- Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University
Press.
Segal, Howard P. (1994). Future imperfect; Ute mi\ed blessings of
technology in America. Amherst: The University of
Massachusetts Press.
Thompson, P. J. (1984). Home economics-a knowledge system not a
gender system. In P. J. Thompson (Ed.), Home Economics
Teacher.Education Yearbook 4; Knowledge., technology and
family change (pp.
). Bloomington, IL: Bennett &
McKnight.
Thompson, P. J. (1988). Home economics and feminism: The Hesiian
Synthesis. Charlottetown, P. E. I., Canada, Cl A 4P3: Home
Economics Publishing Collective, University of Prince Edward
Island.
Thompson, P. J. (1990, June). Confronting our critics. Papei
presented at the American Home Economics Association Annual
Meeting, San Antonio.
Thompson, P. J. (1992). Bringing feminism home: Home economics
amllbC-Hestian connection. Charlottetown, P. E. 1., Canada,
CIA 4P3: Home Economics Publishing Collective. University of
Prince Edward Island.
The Once and Future Action Network: Re-Envisioning Women, Science
and Technology Towards 1995 and Beyond
Background
The Once and Future Action Network (OFAN) is a collaborative
initiative of a group of international agencies active in the field
of Gender, Science and Technology. The goal of this organization
is to plan a series of activities for the Fourth World Conference
on Women in Beijing, China, in 1995. These activities will promote
and recognize women's role in science and technology, while linking
■this with the definition of a new scientific paradigm which puts
people, the environment, and .sustainable development first.
r
The common desired goal of planned activities for Beijing and
beyond, is to recognize and validate women as once foremost among
scientific visionaries and technological problem solvers both at
the professional and grassroots levels.
The programme seeks to
-'inform and influence policymakers, planners, and development
practitioners about ways in which women's full participation in
science and technology can make a difference in redefining the
priorities of scientific research to initiate the following: (1)
new linkages between formal science and technology practiced at the
professional level and informal science and technology practiced by
grassroots women and men (2) stronger linkages between science
prich" and science "poor" regions in the North and South, in
developing a more realistic appreciation of the profits and losses
pf scientific advancement in the global econonmy (3) greater
collaboration
between grassroots
women's
organizations
and
international development networks in the exchange of ideas,
experiences, expertise, and in defining what type of science is
appropriate- for a sustainable future.
i
The Once and Future Pavilion
The highlight of the activities planned by the Once and Future
kct.ion Network is the Once and Future Pavilion at the NGC Forum
parallel to the Fourth World Conference on Women in 1995.
The
pavilion will provide a visual representation of women's past,
present and future scientific and technological talents and
pontributions, while linking this with !the new vision of science
and technology for a sustainable future.
L
Planned activities for the pavilion include; exhibits.,
•[nteractive demonstrations, workshops and issue areas, performances
nd assorted events, and shops and booths.
In addition to the
bove, the pavilion will provide women with a platform to exchange
Information and ideas and to strategize on how to lobby the
Jfficial U.N Conference on issues relating to Women, Science and
technology. Ultimately, the pavilion should facilitate broadbased
Communication among similar interest, organizations and individuals
for other collaborative ventures beyond Beijing.
(
2
OFAN Activities to Date
To date, activities initiated by OFAN include the following
(1) an Expert Group Meeting on Gender, Science and Technology j
1993, at the request of the Secretary General of the Fourth Worl
Conference on Women, and of which the outcomes will feed into tl
1995 Platform of Action; (2) a published Directory and Database
Women, Science and Technology, which will serve as a contaf
resource base for the Programme Secretariat and Sub-Secretariat;
and
a
resource publication
for Network members,
Nation
Machineries, NGO'S, formal and inform'1 educators .and oth
interested groups after 1995; (3) a proposed series of publicatio
reflecting the new vision of science and technology for sustainab
development, including ways in which women's participation
science and technology disciplines and activities can make
difference; (4) and several networking and advocacy activitie
including workshops on Women, Science and Technology at each
the NGO Regional Forums in Latin America, West Asia and Africa.
Primary objectives of the above mentioned regional workshc
are to: (1) prepare a statement addressing critical issues relati
to women, science and technology, which will feed into the platfc
of action for each regional forum; (2) provide documentation in t
form of regional resource materials to inform and influen
policymakers and planners at Regional NGO Forums and Minister!
Preparatory Meetings, for the Fourth World Conference on Women,
issues pertinent to women, science and technology and; (3)
identify individuals and women's groups involved in Gender, Scier
and Technology activities who may wish to participate in the Or
and Future Pavilion experience.
OFAN Organizational Framework
The framework of activities and events planned for the X
Forum in Beijing and continuing for a short period after 6
conference, have been developed by a planning committee of the On
and Future Action Network.
This committee is composed of.
representative of each network organization and provides technic
advice and support to the programme secretariat.
It also assis
with setting programme priorities.
The programme is based in Jamaica and hosted by the Jamaic
Society - for Scientists and Technologists (JSST) .
An execut
board member (Dr. Patience Dennis) of the Third World Organizat
for Women in Science (TWOWS), which acts as a lead agency for
Once and Future Action Network, is senior technical adviser to
programme secretariat.
The Programme Secretariat consists of a full-time progra
coordinator
(Dr.
Josephine
Beoku-Betts),
and
a
part-t
information officer and administrative assistant. The Secretar
is responsible for the day to day management of the progran
3
involving neiworking, commun i ca t: i ons, and advocacy activities.
Specific activities include ongoing liaison with sub-secreteriat
members planning thematic activities for the Once and Future
Pavilion and communication with other networks and institutions
involved in the Once and Future experience.
The Jamaica
Secretariat also promotes and facilitates collaboration among
member and prospective member organizations in the re-envisioning
effort, and coordinates planning and'preparatory meetings for the
1995 NGO Forum regarding the Once and Future Pavilion.
Other responsibilities of the Secretariat; include managing the
data base on "Who's Doing what in Women, Science, and Technology",
and communication activities
that will
facilitate the re
envisioning and networking process
throughout the pavilion
experience and beyond.
The Sub - Secretariats
To encourage and stimulate exchange of ideas and „ active
involvement of network members and interested groups in the
envisioning and planning process, pavilion activities are organized
into thematic areas representing the following Sub - Secretariats:
(1)
Women
in
Science/Women
do
Science
Differently,
(2)
Entrepreneurship (Credit and Trade) , (3) Appropriate Technology,
(4)
Indigenous
Knowledge/Intellectual
Property
Rights,
(5)
Education (Gaining Knowledge), (6) Communication (Advocacy).
Sub-secreteriats are designed to serve as contact points for
similar
interest
network
members
and
prospective
member
organizations who are involved in designing and planning activities
related to their thematic area for the Once and Future Pavilion.
It is expected that such a, system will provide for greater
collaboration and exchange of ideas among a wider constituency of
similar interest groups, thereby strengthening the institutional
building capacity of network members. Sub-secreteriat members will
also benefit through greater visibility and media exposure in the
Pavilion planning process, and from access to the OFAN Directory,
multiple mailing list system, series of newsletters, and dialogue
through electronic mail.
To facilitate the collective process and to encourage
efficiency of planning for the pavilion, sub-secreteriats are
invited to collaborate in the following:
- planning committee meetings for the pavilion in October,
1994 in New York, Regional NGO Preparatory Meetings wherever
possible, and in the NGO Preparatory Meetings in New York in
March 1995;
■ prepare news updates about their activities; and a
thematic flyer which will highlight ways in which the
visionary goals for science and technology can be
translated into action around sub - secret.er i a I themes;
- fund-raising to supplement the seed grant oE
$US 2.000-00 each sub-secreteriat will be allocated to plan
their activities;
- correspondence with the Jamaica secreteriat and similar
interest
organizations
involved
in
the
pavilion
experience.
- planning and preparation oE the series of published
resource guides and source books which sub-secretariats
are invited to produce to reflect ways in which women can
make a difference through participation in science and
technology disciplines and activities.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the goal of the planned activities of the Once
and Future Action Network is to promote the recognition of science
and technology as a gender specific issue to be 'addressed at the
Fourth world Conference on Women. Furthermore, it advocates for a
change in attitudes towards the application of science and
technology, to include the perspectives, skills, and knowledge of
women both at the professional and grassroots levels in the agenda
of the Fourth world Conference on Women in Beijing, in 1995.
Each network member will collaborate in planning and
implementing these activities in a way that will reflect andj
strengthen their experience and expertise.
The organizational]
framework of this programme will enable each member to built^
institutional capacity and facilitate collaboration and outreaclj
with similar interest organizations to promote women's role in
redefining the mainstream of science and technology beyond Beijing!
I
I
I
I
I
5
Appendix 1
Members of the Once and Future Action Network
At present, the Once and Future Action Network (OFAN) includes
the following organizations: the Third World Organization for Women
in Science (TWOWS); the International Development Research Centre
(IDRC); the Women's Environment and Development Organization
(WEDO) ; the Energy arid Environment Desk of the World YWCA; the
International Women's Tribune Centre (IWTC); the United Nations
Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM); Hie Gender, Science and
. Development Programme of the International Federation of Institutes
I for Advanced Studies
(GSD/IFIAS);
the Gender,
Science and
; Technology Network (GASAT) ; tire American Associ ation for the
Advancement of Science (AAAS); Approt.ech Asia; the Intermediate
Technology Development Group (ITDG); the International Federation
of Inventors Associations (IFIA); the World Women's Veterinarian
Association
(WWVA);
the Worldwide Network;
and Appropriate
Technology International (ATI).
I
Since it is expected'that the network will grow during the
course of the programme, it is anticipated that other women's
groups, NGO's,
technology institutes,
education centers and
development organizations from all levels, regions, and disciplines
will become involved in the programme.
I
l
6
Appendix 2
Sub-Secreteriats
Indigenous Knowledge (Intellectual Property Rights)
ITDG/Do It Herself
WEDNET (Asia)
CIRAN/CIKARD
World Women's Veterinarian Association (wwva)
Asian Pacific Development Centre
1.
Helen Appleton (Contact Person)
Intermediate Technology Development Group (ITDG)
Do It Herself Programme
Mycon House, Railway Terrace
Rugby CV2 13HT
United Kingdom
Telephone: 44-788-560631
Fax: 44-788-540270
2.
Education (Gaining Knowledge)
Non-Formal (Technika 10)
Formal (FAWE, GASAT, YWCA)
Eddah Guchukia (Tentative Contact Person)
Federation of African Women Educators
P.O.Box 21389
Nairobi, Kenya
3.
Communication (Advocacy)
IWTC
1DRC
BOSTID
South Pacific University
Alice Mastrangelo (Contact Person)
International Women's Tribune Cenl.er (IWTC)
777 United Nations Plaza
New York, New York 10017
U.S.A.
Telephone: 212-687-8633
Fax: 212 - 661-’2704
email: iwtc@igc.apc.org
4.
Women in Science (Women do Science Differently)
TWOWS
Center for Science for the People
GSD/WIGSAT
AWIS
WISF.NET
Uganda Association of Women Engineers
CG I AR
ITDG/PTD
Science for Villages
International Federation of Inventors Associations (IFIA)
Patience Dennis (Tentative-Contact Person to be confirmed by
TWOWS)
1
Government Chemist Department
Hope Gardens
Kingston 6
Jamaica, Wl
Telephone: 809-927-1829
Fax: 980-977-0974
..5.
i
Entrepreneurship (Credit/Trade)
UNIFEM
Apprropriate Technology International (ATI)
International Coalition on Women and Credit
Body Shop
Women's World Banking
Grameen Bank
I
!‘
r
[
Valeria Budinich (Contact Person)
ATI
1828 L Street, NW, Suite 1000
Washington DC, 20036
Tel: 202-293-46 (Switchboard)
202-463-8482 (Direct)
f 6.
P
f
k
f-
Appropriate Technology
World YWCA
ITDG
Approtech Asia
WEDNET
•
Ruth Lechte (Contact Person)
P.O.Box 623
Nadi
Fiji
-
Telephone:679-79 -0003
Fax: 679 ‘79 -0003
1
8
BEING A WOMEN ENTREPRENEUR - MY EXPERIENCE
Dear Ladies.
SOPHIE LEUNG LAU YAU FUN.
It is my honour to be able to participate in this great occasion for women. Women of today
have come a long way through their own making. When I was young, my mother used to ask
me. whenever I complained too much, if I had a contract with God giving me the guarantee
that none of my dislikes will come my way. J now share my mother's wisdom with younpeople associated with me. I hope they would have the same good fortune of understanding
that life, and all that is associated with it. is not simply to be had. but rather to be earned and
mastered with tact and determination.
As ayounster. we were all taught the basic values of life. We learned what is right and wrong.
We gained a notion of what is fair and unfair. The application of these basic values to
whatever we do is a lifelong learning process that I call personal growth. As a young girl. I
also learned by my mother’s examples. Being the only daughter with many elder brothers in
a traditional Chinese family, I learned how to be observant, to accept, and also how to
Improvise within a given adverse situation and to find satisfaction. Through my mother's
^wisdom, I saw that one could be influential and even get a result one wanted without being
confrontational. Through this leaming-by-example process, she led me to touch perceptiveness
and taught me how to care genuinely. These basics traits help me tremendously in my personal
'growth and development.
There is a Chinese saying which states that life’s primary goal is personal growth; secondary.
family stability; tertiary, state governance: and fourth, world peace keeping. The teaching is
that, if one is to truly succeed, one must follow these priorities and place great emphasis on
personal growth and family stability. Persona) growth cultivates a mature personality with
ethical values and, healthy principles, which lead to a level of self-confidence that enables us
to approach all sorts of challenges in a very positive manner. To know that even if we fall, the
fall is without remorse, defeat is accepted graciously and we learn from it. Striving
continuously to improve on personal growth. I have found more certainty and harmony within
myself in whatever I do, knowing that I will continue to improve, even grow, and be true to
tnysclf, for I can accept even defeat and failure as part of my learning process.
b
({After studying at the University of Illinois and spending eight years in another culture, my
husband and I returned to Hong Kong in 1973. founded our first company in 1976 and have
been developing and working in our own businesses ever since. The basic values that 1 have
Required are applicable to every situation and .each incident is a learning experience. For r<c
the learning curve is forever. My constant wish is that not a day should pass when I haxc not
learned something new.
Perception of lite is like sitting in from of a great big screen of multi TV sets. You have!
turn on each set to get specific information. The number of TVs that are on depends on ya
so is the appi opriateness of the information that you are watching. In other words, t!
knowledge you need to help you become more successful in life is controlled in your
hands. In recent y'-ars, I have become more involved in community undertakings and as
appreciate the wisdom and successes of other business leaders. J observe this same kind |
commitment to their personal growth. this same effort to improve their perccptivencss and set
• ■nfidcnce.
To be successful, women need not pretend to be tough, or to unnecessarily aggressive. On th
contrary, our in-born femininity can help us to be more direct in obtaining our goals. Asj
mature, femininity exhibits itself as part of me and who J am. As a women, J have found me
obstacles to surmount and challenges to succeed in. I also have a few more roles to play ai
opportunities to interact with others directly, and I just love it. My associates accept me as
am, with my softer approach to human relations - no disguise, no pretences, all genuinenej
As in their professional role, women entrepreneurs also excel in the primary role of home
making. We exercise the same entrepreneurial sensitivity to be excellent home-makers, wives
and mothers, and adopt as our own, the loving challenge to bring the best out in our childrct
To me. a strong family bonding and the goodness of our children are the most valuable thing
on earth, even all the riches in the world cannot compare. God never promises us rose gardens
so we work harder and sacrifice more to achieve better results. 1 drew a lot of satisfaction ot
of this exercise.
I also learned to expand the loving care for my own children to other young people, to hel]
and guide them in their personal growth and career with the best of my know-how. In return
1 earn their trust and their friendship. I also learn from them. I am practicing what my mothc
taught me : to give is to enlarge one’s own capability of the same thing, be it wcalJi
knowledge or experience. To me. this is the greatest contribution, women entrepreneurs cai
give to the society, Wc live by our own examples, and our interaction with people around u
within our life time. We can survive into the future only by passing on our experiences am
our values tn the next generation.
car Ladies, this is my experience with life and with truth. Even though the world seems K
>0 getting more complex and more competitive, simple values and ethics- arc still very bask
and are vital to our success. When we build on love, caring, truth and fairness we build a betta
world. This is a lasting contribution women can make for the future
Ot
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the
The Twofold Poverty and Sustainable
Development of Women in Arid Areas
Zhou Weiwen
I’m Zhou Weiwen from the Hebei Academyof social sciences. 1'u talk about two issues
onthe behalf of the women in the aris and semi —arid areas.
The first issue is that major povevty of the women is the twofold poverty which mears
the poverty in material and in knowledge. This kind of twofold powerty effects the sustain
able development of the women in the arid areas in the following eight aspeets.
A. Sense of values. Women of these are as Can learn more deeply through their personal
experience the interdepenolent relationship between the water resources and the mankind,
thas making water an object of worship,and gradually getting the habit of sepending on wa
ter. B. Marriage, women in the arid areas take marriages as the weans and spiritual suste
nance of inproving life and being lifted out of adverse circumstances. They usually take the
water condition:- as the prereguisites of marriage,for example,the number of the wells or wa
ter pools of the family of a man and the distance from a man’s home to the water resources,
etc. C. Population and Fertility. Poverty makes Wonen place the self Value on children —
bearing, in this way they sink deeper and deeper into the quagmire of having more children
alae to poverty and beconing poorer due to having more children. D. Health Care. The health
care conditions in these areas are terrible and people there are lack of health care knowledge
due to the inadequocy of funds and public accumulation. New delivery method has not been
spreaded in the early— liberated areas .minority areas,borser areas,poor areas and mountain
ous areas. E. Disease. Only 1990 of people in the areas seriously short of water can enjoy safty
in using water. In the districts seviously short of water. The unsanitaryway of using water is
one of the reasous accounting forthe high rates of diseases. F. Way of life. The distinctive fea
ture of the life of women in arid areas in the north is that most of them remain unemployed
and stay at home engaged in the unpaid housework. They do not have much social activities
to participate in their spare time .and some of them even do have TVs to watch. G. Religion
and Superstition. The poverty and diseases due to the shortage of water resources bring great
pressure on the women living in the aridnrens. The usually turn to seek consolation and psy-
choligical balance tn the religious activities and prayers to the gods for they could not cast off
the yoke of the adverse environment of the nrid nrea. II. Education. The chief in expression of
the unequal tredtmeht Suffered by women in . lid areas is the uneguality of having less opper-
(unities to be.'education.
The second issue is the policy and proposal concerning the women in the arid areas.
A. Strengtheling the Education of Women in Arid Areas, literacy education. The aim
should be to elininnte the female illiterates and to make the schooling rate of girls to reach
95?-o befove the yenr of 2000. Education in techniques and skills. Enable at lenst £0% of them
to master one or two practical skius in three to five years. Education of woman’s quality in
vesourceo nnd euvironment. Encourage them to actively approving policies concerning these
matters. B. Public policies To provide more opportunities for their employment and chance to
obtain land .water and other resources. To encourage women to take jobs in the secondery
and tertiary industries .to speed up the service,etc. C. Participation in Environmental Protec
tion. To provide facilities for women to plant trees .to pretect forest.water and soil .to broad
en water resources and reduce lossof water, to control desertization of land and to Improve
the conditions of the community when they working together with men. To provide women
with opportunities of various kinds of professional training so as to enable them to master the
skills of Irritation .compound planting .conttyard. D. Encouraging the population migration of
the type of Environmental Development. In some areas with severely asverse environment
and severe poverly, young women should be particularly encouraged to go e-way from the
poor and backward living environment by leaving the arid areas to work, to do businees.to
participate more social activities .to love freely and to marry outside the arid areas. E. Improv
ing Child Bearing Consitions. The goconment should pay special attention to adapt feasible
measures in the following five aspects, Women should be helped to grasp more knovledge
about C. ntraception .hygiene nnd child— dearing. Women should be helped to deciole family
planning conscientiously. Women should be helped to shake the yoke of the heavy bursen of a
large family with too mang people by stimulating them with the bene —Dial interest of having
less but better qualified children. It should be energetically encourage to share the vesponsibilies and duties of family plannyng between men and women. F. Health —care and hygienic
conditions must be improved. Zhe government should make efforts in increasing the financial
allocation for women’s health care. including Setting up village and town women’s hea 1th
care centers .speeding knowledge of women’s health nnd hygiene .adopting system of regtdar
and mobile examination of gynaecological diseases .purchasing mecessary medical and hygien
ic water equipment with funds from the govern ment. Society and individual.
Non-governmental Forum
— Women and Lifelong Education
Zhuo Qicgjun, China national
Institute for Educational llc'oarch
Principal exper ience
1) The government attaches importance to lifelong education
The
Chinese government pays much more attention to lifelong education.
There are special administrative institutions responsible for general
schools and adult schools from the centra! to local government''
Snr*.0
research institutions were also set un.
At present.
two senooi
systems have been formed in Chita. One is general school system.
the other is adult school system. There arc all together : 433
million schools with 260 million students among which the latter
accounted for 49 percent of the total schools. 26 percent of tne
total students. Hence, such ramie development ensured women to hate
enough places to receive lifelong education.
2) Mainly rely on masses and community forces.
The Chinese
government considers lifelong education as a massive and wide
-ranging educational undertakings. Sc we should fully rely on masses
, and rely on government organizations. entc'prises,
institutions.
people’s communities, democratic parties, neighbourhood committees
and the countrysides to involve schoo1 -running besides of educational
depar tments.
3) Undertake education in accordance with women’s characteristics,
during the procedure of wiping out of illiteracy, some vocational
literacy courses such as sewing, feeding and weaving were organized
besides of general culture knowledge course in face of the reality of
many woman illiterates in the countryside. At the same time,
the
knowledges of woman hygiene, scientific education of children, women
health care etc. are also imparted. Tne National Women’s Federation
also set up ' woman reward ’. At the stage of secondary and higher
level of education, a number of girl's middle schools,
girl’s
vocational middle schools and administrative colleges for woman
cadres were especially set up. Attention was also paid to training
high Level woman technicians.
To be more efficient to develop
family edneation, over 200,06'0 parent schools were set up in the
whole nation so as to educate woman parents with child psychology
and virtues
4) The systems of employment work, personnel must develop i r. the
benefit of lifelong educpiinn. China adopts a system of pre- post
training before work, and emphasizes the importance of post training
in adult education. The status of in-service training is considered
as an important factor for check, selection, promotion of cadres.
Important suggestions
1) The government and all social sections should enlighten the
knowlcdgement of women's lifelong education. Al present, the state
of women's human resource development in China is badly qualified to
the needs of development of modernized construction. The rate of
women’s employment in China is very high. According to statistics
in 1 9 9 0, the rate- of women’s employment in China occupied 44. 5,
percent of the whole number of employment in China, much higher than
America ( 42 percent 1,Canada { 40.4 percent ) .
France (
38. 7
percent ), Germany ( 36.8 percent ), Japan ( 34.7 percent ), but the
level of women employment were very lower. Most of them engaged in
physical labour, a few in interlectural labour. More woman cadres
act as deputies, a few as chiefs ( first-hand leader ). One of the
reasons is that women have less chances to receive ..continuing
education and vocational training after they entered into society.
So women’s lifelong education must be greatly strengthened, women's
human resources can be fully and properly explored and utilized in|
the benefit of national construction.
2) Set up extra social women’s educational institutions, and make
women’s lifelong education further socialized
Romen’s lifelong
education oriented toward the socialized developmem
This is an
inevitable trend for future development of women’s lifelong education.
The orientation of social development means two things: on one hand.
various schools at different levels should be open wider to the
society,on the other hand, all equipments and facilities of education
culture and propaganda should he fully utilizea tn carry out
educational activities.
In this case, those women ».iu .me desire
of learning can get various learning opportunities an y here and at
anytime. So such kind of socialized education must bo organized
coordinated and administrated by h suecial institution
3) Strengthen the work of legislation for women's lifelong
education so as to make women's lifelong education gracially develop
toward the track of legal system. The law of lifelong education
should be timely worked out when conditions are ripe. The right of
receiving lifelong education for women can cot only be further
guaranteed through making law and regulation, but also it must be
clarified that the responsibilities which educational
depar tmen ts,
non-educationa 1 departments and social sections should bear for
women’s lifelong education.
4) Teach students how to learn from early age. At oreseot,
one
of the disadvantages in school education is as follows;
teaching
contents, teaching methods and exam method etc. are cot quite right.
Many students have only learned how to recite and mechanically
memorize and deal with exams. They lack methods and capability of
acquiring new knowledgements through their own efforts. So students
must be taught how to grasp learning methods through teaching reform
in education. Those who do not grasp learning methods, will become ’
illiteracy ’ in the future society.
Review ui
Women" s Reproductive Health Status in China
Dr. Wang Fenglan,
Maternal and Child Health Department,
Ministry' of Public Health
People frum different countries cr organizations truly have diiTerer.t understandings of the concept
of reproductive health. its Intcnicns and cxtcntibns;'there may still be academic disputes over it- Yer
the essentia! reason why it b.ns come into practical use Is that it seeks to eliminate the ranger of death
encountered by women la the process icn pregnancy to delivery and in the early stages of infancy .and
child developmenti to help women jo through pregnancy and delivery La a safe manner; to increase
the survival rates of mothers and children; to relieve wotar. of cbCd bearing age from worries of acci
dental pregnancy; and to protect them from sexually transmitted diseases so that they feel respected,
safe, healthy and happy no matter what kind cf physiological conditions they might be Ln.
I . Historical Review,
a.
1950—1965 (From the founding of the People' s Republic cf Chinn till the-beginning of
the Cultural Revolution)
©Facing the poverty, backwardness, high maternal mortality, high infant mortality, high fer
tility and the prevalence of infectious diseases left by old China, the newly founded country engaged in
a patriotic health campaign to combat pregnancy—rdated infections and neonatal tetanus which were
the major causes of maternal and'child death. Prostitutes were banned and .sexually transmitted dis
eases were treated and finally eliminated.
©Dr. Yang Chor.grui. a famous Ob/Gyn expert and one cf the pioneers for the course of ma
ternal and child health Invented a new method of delivery and was the drsi in the world to train tradi
tional birth attendants,
b.
.
.
.
'
1966 —1976 (The Cultural Revolution)
©Politics, economy, culture, education,’ science and technology were greatly infljcnced by
the ultra—Left trend of thought.
©Yet also during this period, many urban health workers went down to the countryside bring
ing with them a large quantity cf niecical equipment, thus strengthening township and county hospitals
technically and greatly improving the quality of care and their service ability. They also trained a lot
of bare-foot doctcrs who treated the patients using simple but practical skills similar to the appropriate
techniques recommended by WHO nowadays. The international society paid great attention to the sc—
□died cooperative medical system. which was su-nmar-red by World Health Organization as the well—
known Alma-Ata Declaration which has now become a global target for the year 2C0C.
©F.'riilj panning was advocated nation — wide from the early seventies and within a decade
the following progress w»s achieved,
Birth rate
33. 34%,
it- s?y»
Natural growth rate
25. 83%,
11.61%.
General fertility rate
5. 8
2-8
Crude death rate
7. 6%,
6- 2%,
1978 —1988
c.
©The Constitution stipulates that women have equal rights with men in.terms of politics, econ
omy. culture, society and family. The State Council also revised ’Law of Marriage" , "Rules for Mar-
rias* Registration" and "Regulations for the Protection of Female Workers’ ; .-n-l Ministry of'Public
Health and Ministry of Civil Affairs jointly Issued "Regulations on Premarital Physic*] Examlntien’.
©With the health policy putting prevention of diseases at the first place, immu.tcation cover
age rate reached 85 jo and the work of perinatal care in'the urban areas, maternal and child eycee-ntie
management tn the rural areas was started. Some of gynecologic diseases were treated free of charge
by the government.
©Under the epen policy, pur country started extensive cooperation with UNICEF, UNFPA
and WHO.
©In the early eighties, family planning was determined as one of the essential nantioaal poli
cies, which was followed by health education, free supplies cf contraceptives and the improvement of
contraceptive methods and techniques. As a result, 'crtTI"/ .rare ”c: grsilulL’y dm.casing, with birth
rule fluctuating around 20%, and total fcttJUtv rate around 2- 5, while life exoecmccy was maintained
at 68— 69 years.
I . 1990—An Epoch — making Stage
©In 1990, three major International events brought new light for the health and and welfare
of children,
------- Ratification of Convention on the Rights of the Child >
------- World Congress on Education for All ,
------- World Summit tor Children.
©The World Summit for Children held in September I960 was hailed as an epoch — tracking
milestone and opened a new chapter in history of mankind. It produced ihe^Worlc'Decramtlon on the
Survival. Protection and Development cf Children" and the global "Plan of Action" for :r.iplemeniir.g
the World Declaration. The World Summit and the global, regional and national operations after It
have been playing a profound role In child development around the world.
©On Myrrh ]8. 1991. Premier Li Peng signed, on behalf of the Chinese Government the. two
' documents and thereby madea solemn promise to the international society. I: means th?.; from 1996
till year 2000, China is to reach seven major taragets including: Reduction of maternal mortality rate
(M.MR) by 50;% > reduction of Infant mortality rate CD.tRI and under—five mortality rate (U5MR)
by one—third and so on.
©Some interna ticnal officials were quoted as saying."If the Chinese Government is committed
to Joins scnietbisg. ir. is sure :o make II n Some UNICEF officials hope Chinn could Like the lead in
achieving rhe World Summit go?.ls_
Oln February • 1992. the Sta’.c Council formulated and issued a "National Programme of Ac
tion for Child Development in Chinn in the 199Qs". And all the provinces and ministries made provin
cial pians or plans for different agencies according to their specific situations. The Ministry of Public
Health» the first of the 19 ministries to submit its plan, linked the targets of the "Programme of Acdun" closely to those of th- international cooperative programmes. Governments in 305 counties, 177
prefectures and 30* provinces or autonomous regions all made committment in terms of counterpart
fund, relextant policies and so on. thus making the MCH/FP program a government action.
©The Natiorut! Working Ccmmhiee fcr Children and Women Under the Stale Council, the for
mer Coordinating Committee ,'cr Children and Women, which is headed by the Stale Councilor,
Madame Peng Peiyun, is now working with relevent agencies to formulate "Programme of Action for
Maternal Development in China Ln the 1990s".
©The National People' s Congress has issued "Law for the Protection of the Under—age" and
"Law for the Protection of Women' s Rights" . passed "Convention on tile Rights of the Child" and re
viewed "Law for Eotter Outcome of Pregnancy".
©Through International Cooperative programmes, MCH speciality was established In six medi
cal universities, which introduced the participative teaching method. 360,000 township and village
doctors were trained during tile first two waves of training while the third wave of training started in
January 199g and is to be finished by the end of 1894. Through all these training activities, a number
of appropriate techniques were popularized while la the cities, through the Baby—friendly Hospital Ini
tiative, 207 health facilities became Eaby — friendly Hospitals. This year more than 500 hospitals will
become Baby—friendly.
K. Great Achievements
------ MMR: From 1.500 per 100.000 In the early years after the founding of the country to 76. 5 per
100,000 in 1992;
------ 1MR: From 200 —250$^ In the early yeans after the founding of the country to 42. 34 in 1992;
------ NMR(neonatal mortality rate); 33. 91%» (surveillance data In 1992)
-------U5MR: 59. O85$a (surveillance data Ln 1992)
——Total Fertility Rnre:From 5. 8 in 1970 to 2. 0 in 1992;
------ Birth Rate.- From 33. 3lX, In 1970 to 18. 24%, in 1992
------- Morality Rate< From 7. 6%. In 1970 to 6. 2%, in 1992
------- Contraception Rate; 83. 4?^ (1992)
-------Child Xmmdnitation Coverage Rate, 85both at the provincial and at the county level;
------- Number cf persons who received screening fcr maternal diseases by the end of 1993;
32.8J8.041
-------Number of persons who received premarital physical examination by the end of 1933,
3,304,170
------ Rate of aseptie delivery Ln the rural areas by the end of 1992:85?$.
. ft'. Challenges
©Large populaiion:
1. 17 billion in 1992 with zn annual increase of 15 million
Low GNP, 370 US dollors
Low literacy rate (especially among women):
78% in cities and -!8% in the countryside (d.--? in 1991)
©There are still 80 million people In ths minority, remote or poor regions wbo are short of the es
sential needs of life.
©The socialist market economy has brought about new situations and new questions to consider.
And a lot problems need to be solved such as resources and the smbleuess of the staff.
©The professional competence of the staff Is far from sufficient.
© There exists a great disparity among different regions in terms of maternal mortality rate, al
though the national average MMR may be lower than that in other countries with similar economic
background. It is estimated that each year more than 20 thousand Chinese women die because of pre
ventable obstetric factors.
©There is also a disparity among different regions in terms of infant mortality rates. A large part
of the infant death happens in neonatal especially early neonatal stage, therefore It is important to im
prov* the ability to treat emergency cases and skills for neonatal resuscitation and to Increase hospital
delivery rate especially tn the rural areas. Thus we arc facing problems in terms of resources and time.
and also problems concerning hov to all orate the available resources.
085% of contraceptfv* measures arc taken by women Ln China. Therefore a large amount of work
is to be done in order to change the traditional Ideas and encourage men to take responsibility in family
planning.
©The health of women and children are b«Lng endangered by sexually transmitted diseases, HTV in
fections, AIDS as well as smoking and pollution of the environment.
V . Perspectives
©Experience in other countries has shown that women ' s education background, their economic
and social status play a critiral role In safeguarding their rights of reproductive health. So their repro
ductive health could be improved If they are given more chances of education and employment.
©By strengthening the service ability of th* current MCH/FP system. MCH staff are encouraged to
work hand In hand with pediatricians and Ob/Gyn doctors to serve the needs of women and children.
©Training of the professional staff is to be strengthened tn order to improve their technical com;<
tence. their attitude and their ways ct service. Criteria concerning the quality of MCH/FP services
and basic service protocols are to be formulated.
©By strengthening health education and counseling ability, the ability of women to make use of the
MCH/FP services win be improved.
■>
©Improvement of reproductive health service means betterment of the st inis of women. China is
seeking to achieve the targets listed in the "'National Programme of Action for Child Development in
China in ISSDs* , which will undoutedly result in the reduction of birth rare.
the aduiinistra t i V'.jprudy Juryc
I
have
psychological
and
was nnh-Appy
deprived
boon
of
Still
could.
nqnnl
rights with men
1ity
1
as well
Usually,
anil
the
nt
that
as
to
being
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felt
to do more work
strive
should
law and
before
a society
the whole world..Our
have
reinvent
for
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of
one’s
social
bo aware of
must
I
when
opportunity.
should
to our
tn nur country,
told.
to
only
not
hut nl.sJ'tho equality
Vrninn of Chinn
families,
Lt our
in
r.y
unbalanced.
right
the
women
same time doos his
sibilities.
also
think
person
a
for me without
right:;
respon
our
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nationality
rights can only
and
bo obtained
fulfilling our social obligations.
by well
The 3-.nro.nass can only be acquired through education,
especially
cher,
fundamental
the more
I
education.The
rcalit-e
the
importance
younger
onnorations.
T
who covered
the ago, from
five or
the
longer
learn
this
of
an a
I
of
education
:■ t. u d o :i t
from my
to eighteen
six
tea
,
or
n i nteen .
In
the
in
popularizing education.
is
lagp.lnn
past
forty-five
far
behind.
task in 'Ihbia to
school
For
raise
t.curher s ,
example.
problems In
problem.*
is
wh
But
my
T0
the
the quality
opinion,
level
of
it
in many
1’ an
field's
urgent
leading staff and
■>
.muouIu.
bo a warn
the economic
that
we havo-'Jreat achievements
years,
hnrh
development.
the environmental
tho n u c •* c* o n *.• u nnrV
One nt’
- i t titt I i on
she
on
blgg*?sT
the
who 1 e
doing
they
boss ,
>
V
z2
W
Difficulties in «.cd Strategy for G: rl<
Education in West China
Zheng Bljun, Proffeesor of History Department
Center of ’■'erm' e Studies
of Peking I’ n I v e r s 11 y
I The problem of Q i r i s’d I f f i cu 11 e s In attending school In Improver I shed
regions of West Chino is to be solved.
Education Is tho basis for the improvement of women status. Chlneeo
government put forward ae a goal.
The
realixeation of pritnaliiy
popularizing nine-year compulsory . education and
basically eliminating
illiteracy by the end of this century, and such a goal conforms to the
requirements in ’Nairobi prospective Stratregy". To fulfill this task,
the key lies in the process of developing girls’ education In the western
area, that's because
I. the ten provinces of west china cover a large area,
whore the
imbalance between town and countryside le sinking and where both natural
andhuman uman resources are unexplorted. According to the statistics of
the fourth population census of 1990, of the total
180x10 "
i11iterates, 2/3are women. By 1 993 Academic year, there are 2. 81x10 ‘
school age children who fall to attend school, among whom 1.734x10"
are girls,which amounts to 66.4% of total ,more than half of them living
in the western ten provinces.
Girls of western Impoverished Region,
especially girls of minority nationalities has become an extraordinarily
difficulty-stricken group in a region with unfavorable situations,
and
the difficulties they meet in attending school has turned into a main
obstacle in the popularization of nine-year compulsory Education ,
in
the primary elimination of illiteracy and in the removal of inequality of
educational opportunity between men and women.
2. The problem of girls’ eduucation is the most prominent in provinces
such as Gansu, Qingbai, Ningxia,Guizhou and Tibet, bow school attendence
and high drain rate result directly in high ration of illotoracy among
women. Girls are mothers of the future and , as a result, mothers are
lowly-qualified , girls marry young and give several birth, and poor and
ignorant, young girls have greater difficulties in attending school.
certainly,
the phenomenon can not be isolated from its local social and
historic background as troll as human and natural conditions.
Compared to 1991 Academic year in 1993 in eight experimental schools in
Nicgxia thenumber of girls In school increased by 21. 6%, the percentage
uf girls to students In school increased from 38. 1% to 88%;
girls’
school attendance increase from 70% to 89.6%. In the five schools of
Gansu, the number of girls In school Increased by 16.7%.
the percentage
efgirlts in school Increased .from 35. 6% to 39. 1%,
girls' school
‘nttcndence Increased from 63.9% to 77,8%. In the nine schools in Qinghai,
■iiheuumbe r of girls in school increased by 33. 2%.
the percentage of
sir lain school increased
from 32. 4% to 87. 8%,
girls'
school
ittendenceincreased from 37.2% to 90.8%. This is an unprecedented success
A
'■
2. Through the experiment. ,
we also realize that to develops
<i 1 s’ education in disadvantageous areas is a profound social reform and
U needs the close co-operation between various elements , such as plan,
Atientific
research,
propaganda,
national
and
international
Communication and co-ordination.
Baaed on this understanding,
'To
\ilcome 95 world’s Women Conference -— International Academic Semina
3 Giris’- Education’ was held this August, which was sponsored by Women
v>udy Center of Peking Univers 1 ty,Institute of Educational Research of
•de Three Western Provinces, Qinghai Education Bureau and Qinghai Women
Ssoc i a t i on.
3. based on investigation, an oral history of girls’ education in the
yee provinces in North West Is being written, which is to be published
lit year.
Thia Augst, a conference to assess the experiment on gir1 s’education
western provinces is held In Gansu.
Through scientific
ijessment, the meeting summarized the successful practice of the girls'
yatlon in three western provinces and called on to turn research
4j1tE Into administrative policy and put the development of girls’
ucation as an Important Item on governments’agenda.
5.
I three
Suggestion to overcome the difficulties
| China.
in
girls’
education
in
jSeen In the light of continual development of China in the Zlcentury,
1 diffleult les of girls in attending school Is not a small problem in
’lion, but a matter of importance which Is directly related to the
Isnd continual development of China In the century.So, the Government,
•.Hional
Departments,
All Chinese WomenFederat i on, The
State
Quality Commission and the Communist youth league should put the job
^ie agenda of
importance and create in the whole society an
Iratble environment for girls’ education.
Situation of Girls’ Education Ic Five W o a I e r n Provenc ar
Percent age of fema 1e |
Ration of Gir 1 s’
Elementary
school Attendan
ce % (1 9931
Percentage of
girls In Gradua
ting Classes %
(1 990)
Nation
Bf 82
46. a
41. 85
Gansu
98 08
89. 6
81. 48
Qinghai
78. 62
42. 2
79. 80
N ingx i a
90. 81
42. 5
64. 88
Gu i zhou
86. 59
38. 9
82. 28
Tibet
45. 84
20. 7
Illiterates and Soml111 i teraces among
minority groups to
the population over
16 % (1 990)
....
86. 55
....... ..... ... ,
II.
The direct participation of academic and scientific research
departments in the reaserch and practice of girls' education provides an
important strategy in improving the environment for girls to attend
school.
1. Since 1992, the Institute of Educational Studies In the three
western provinces, Gansu, Qlnghal and Ningxla, has been co-operating with
women studies center of Peking University,
By investigation of the
reasons, studies of the documents and history, and comparative research
on Six
Asian- Pacific Nations,
they put forward the experimental
hypothesis, ‘Integrally improve the environment of girls’educat Ion,
effectively solve the difficulties of girls to attend school" and began
to carry out experiments on girls’ educaton in the three provinces since
Fall, 1 992.
The sample of the experiments is limited to 22 countryside elementary
schools in 16 impoverished counties, the forms, both formal and informal,
range on a large scale, The objects of the study includes all the school
age children within the service extent of the 22 eiementaryechoole.
Besides Han, the nationalities is composed of Hui, Zang, Tu, mongol and
sala. The period covers from September,1992 to July,
1996. After tow
years’
study, the experiment bears out successful fruits and the
environment for girls’ education has been greatly improved and the rate
of girls’ school attendance has increase obviously.
PREPARATORY SYMPOSIUM FOR THE 1995 NGO FORUM ON
WOMEN, SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Beijing, 24-25 September, 1994
Julia Marton-Lefevre
Executive Director
International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU)
Women, unfortunately, do not yet play a significant enough
role in
found
The only other time that
international science.
myself
a
in
full
room
of
scientists
women
at
I
an
international scientific gathering was at the inaugural meeting
of the Third World Organization for Women in Science (TWOWS) in
^ieste in 1938.
national,
meetings on science consist of a
This
men.
Otherwise, sadly, international, and probably
will
surelv
change,
but
large majority of
most
probablv
not
significantly until the next generation.
It is comforting,
as
Executive
however,
Director
of
to believe that I have my job
the
International
Council
of
Scientific Unions, not because I am a woman, but because I was
a qualified candidate for the-job.
I am a little worried that
today too many jobs are offered to women on a token basis..
need,
of course,
to get these jobs,
and once we have them,
We
to
prove our capabilities, but all positions should be given on a
merit
continue
basis.
We
need
therefore
to
our
male
peers
that
belong
convince
we
in
the
to
strive
to
professional
world and indeed that this will not take away from our other
biological talents.
I personally have found mixing a demanding
2 To develop free elementary compulaory education in impoverished areas,
the supp1erontary funds from the government for compulaoryed ucation io
impoverished regions, and the funds of ’Hope Project' and'Buddiug Plan’,
should bo put together and used as a whole. At the oametimo, laws should
be passed to enforce the right and obligations of support and r oc o p 11 o'
of education, and thus guarantee the right of tho group in the m
disadvantageous situation to receive elementary compuloory education.
3. Culturing teaching staff is the most urgent task and national
institutes of advanced education, eap. Normal Universities and Research
institutes of Advanced Education should do something to improve the
situation of girls’ education.
jcb
raising
with
family
a
an
and
invigorating
enjoyable
challenge.
I would like to take this opportunity to explain to you
about
the
two
for
participate
to
women
programmes outside of their countries.
with my own organization,
International
should offer
scientific bodies which
international
opportunities
Research
ICSU,
scientific
in
Selfishly I shall begin
which was established as the
in
Council
became
and
1919
It is an
International Council of Scientific Unions in 1931.
international,
non-governmental
organization
whose
and
therefore
objective
basic
independent,
encourage
to
is
the
international scientific activity for the benefit of humanity
by
upholding
of
principle
the
the
This principle entails freedom ui association,
communication
activities
connection
in
without
any
of
universality
expression,
discrimination
on
the
and
scientific
international
with
science.
basis
of
such
factors as citizenship, religion, age or sex.
While in other fields a variety of organizations were set
up to represent more specific areas of scholarship,
the early
founders of ICSU, in their wisdom, sought to bring the range of
disciplinary
and
national
interests
the
in
together under a single organization.
natural
sciences
This decision has been
an important source of strength for ICSU.
ICSU's
Members
similar
bodies
Science
and
in
are
92
national
(the
China
CAST,
is
one
Technology,
science
or
Association
for
academies
countries
of
of
these),
and
L
International Scientific Unions in 23 disciplines ranging t.om
Several of our Union members,
to geology.
astronomy
in
the
areas of geography, anthropology and psychology, help provide a
much needed bridge to the human sciences.
ICSU Members
supplemented by 29
is
The complex web of
in areas with
Associates
important interface with invigorating activities.
Each Member is perfectly capable of carrying out work on
either at the national level or internationally in a
its own,
It is when activities in areas of common
single discipline.
concern, or of an interdisciplinary nature are desired that the
role of
important.
ICSU is
Thus,
ICSU has,
since
its early
history, pursued a vigorous campaign to protect the freedom to
to easily accede to scientific data and
conduct science and
other
information.
science education,
concern
include
the improvement of the level of science and
developing
in
technology
of
aoLivlticc
and
countries
lately
on
providing
assistance to the scientific communities in Eastern Europe and
the
Soviet
former
activities
Union.
the
been
has
The
principal
creation
of
mechanism
for
such
inter <1 isciplinary
ICSU
bodies in areas such as Antarctic, Oceanic and Space Research,
and the Environment.
In addition
to
these interdisciplinary
there are over 20 in full activity today,
involved
in
mounting
The
environment.
1950s,
’74),
the
and
global
of which
ICSU has long been
concerned
with
the
International Geophysical Year in the mid-
International
the
programmes
bodies,
Global
Biological
Atmospheric
(from
1964
to
Programme
(in
the
Programme
Research
4
1970s),
all pointed the way to the major programmes which are
the pieces of the puzzle I shall explain today.
All of these
activities involve thousands of scientists throughout the globe
driven by the common language of science, a common curiosity to
understand our planet; and the common knowledge that science is
a truly international endeavour.
In my life as Executive Director of ICSU I am constantly
involved in setting up groups of scientists and science policy
persons to work on
international
scientific
issues.
always on the look-out for talented individuals
We are
who can make a
It
is
unthinkable to ignore half of humanity in such a search,
but
contribution
to
the
problems
we
are
addressing.
somehow the talented women scientists are not yet well enough
known to us, and although the efforts we make to find them are
earnest, there is room for a great deal of improvement.
I hope
that occasions such as this one and
to
1995
UN Conference will
talented
women
in
lead
science
areas of societal concern.
and
to
the
the preparations
the
fuller participation of
technology
and
indeed
in
all
WH 2-1
Science and Technology for Women
A Critique of Policy
Padmini Swaminathan
Based on a study of the components of the state’s science and technology policy for women, as propounded
in the five-year plan and other documents, this article analyses the larger question of women’s, specifically feminists’,
relation to the state. The author, citing the failure of policies based on sex-role analyses to bring about the social
changes desired by feminists, challenges the notion that sex-role conditioning can be reversed or removed by ap
propriate state intervention.
STARTING with the Sixth Five-Year Plan.
home full time. Almost no one enjoys
document not explicitly stated but with
the Plan Documents incorporate a chapter
the services of a full time housewife any
which we lake issue are the following
on ‘Women and Development’ highlighting
longer, and most domestic tasks are in
propositions:
the achievements and the tasks undertaken
fact only taken care of because women
(a)
Women’s nature is alien to science (and
and proposed to be undertaken by the
work a second shift. ...The male model
therefore the special need to have a
government and its various bodies to im
of work does not ’fit’ with children
separate S and T programme for
prove the overall ‘status’ of women. These
whatever the childcare arrangements”
women);
initiatives by the government on behalf of
{Sasson (cd), 1987: 165-66].
(b)
Women, again because of their nature,
women are moving forward even before
(b)
The policy pronouncements on ‘science
need a different kind of science.
feminists, both theorists and activists, have
and technology for women’ very sharp
We have regrouped the observations and
fully grasped the implications of these moves
ly reveal the masculine character of the
recommendations of the WG under dif
or their long-term impact. It is crucial to
state (masculine here refers to not only
ferent sub-headings to facilitate analysis
debate these issues from a theoretical as well
the socially constructed structures at
and discussion.
as a practical point of view since government
tributed to men in our patriarchal
policy on ‘Women and Development’, par
cultures but also the naturalistic
I
ticularly in the field of science and
ideology that defines the framework for
technology (which in the chapter on ‘Women
action on the part of the state). These
S and T as a Career for Women
and Development’ is designated as ‘science
policies emphasise among other things
and technology for women’) has built into
the paying of “special attention to
The WG noted that there is lack of
it the socially constructed sexual division of
development of low. ce ( efficient fuels
complete data on the participation of
labour over time.
and systems of delivery of such fuels
women in scientific and technical positions.
Our paper is concerned with the larger
fodder and water supply, particularly
The data made available for individual
question of the relation of women, and more
development of household solar cookers,
establishmcnts/progammes show women’s
specifically of feminists to the state. Hitherto
solar drying equipment; simple
insignificant number and also their represen
it has been assumed (and the Indian plans
technologies for facilitating household
tation at comparatively junior levels with
still assume this) that sex-role conditioning
work... and technologies relevant to
very few women at higher policy-making
can be reversed or undone by appropriate
women's needs" (emphasis ours)
levels. There is moreover, a definite concen
intervention, say, by changing curricula,
(Government of India: Ministry of
tration of women in some subjects like
reforming religious practices, using the law
Social Welfare, 1981).
biology and chemistry with very few of them
for redress of grievances, etc. It has increas
Thus the very conception of ‘science and
taking up courses in engineering, earth
ingly become clear that policies based on
technology for women’ is premised on a sciences, etc.
sex-role analysis are not anywhere close to
sexual division of labour where the details
(ii) According to the WG very few girls pur
bringing about a comprehensive social
of daily life, including child care belong to
sue career in S and T as a result of various
change as desired by feminists.
the domain of ‘women’s issues’.
social and cultural attitudes, lack of requisite
Our analysis of the above question will be
educational and other facilities which would
Our analysis of the state’s science and
done through a study of the components of
technology (S and T) policy for women is otherwise have enabled them to opt for
the state’s science and technology policy for
based primarily on the Report of the Work education in these fields.
women as propounded in the five-year plans
Having located thus the low participation
ing Group on Personnel Policies for
and other documents. We intend to show
Bringing Greater Involvement of Women in
of women in S and T, the WG has recom
that:
mended among others the following
Science and Technology brought out by the
(a)
The manner in which the chapter on ministry of social welfare in 1981. Other
remedial measures:
‘Women and Development’ is conceiv
(a)
Forty fully paid scholarships should be
policy pronouncements of the government
ed and dealt with in the plan not only
reserved for women every year to cover
on S and T for women contained in the fiveforecloses any limited option there might
year plan documents do not in any way add
their entire education in the engineering
have been of ‘including women’ in the
subjects in the Indian Institutes of
to what the above working group (WG) has
main body of the plan, but more impor
stated in its report and/or depart from its
Technology and suitable number of
tant and disturbing, it designates a
framework. The terms of reference of the
stipends should be earmarked for them
number of issues as ‘women’s issues*
in engineering subjects in other institu
WG were as follows:
reinforcing the oppressive effects of an
tions of higher learning.
(1)
To review the extent of participation of
ideology based on what Anne Sasson
women in scientific establishments at dif (b)
A certain percentage of scholarships
calls “the male model of work and the
ferent levels.
from the National Tklent Search should
sexual division of labour implicit within
(2)
To consider the needs and difficulties of
be earmarked to enable women to take
it” “The male model of work explicitly
women scientists that may act as constraints
up courses in science and engineering.
assumes one human being in paid work
in their fuller participation, and
(c)
Restructuring of courses in women’s col
for forty hours or more a week. Implicit
leges and institutions to be taken up
(3)
To suggest suitable measures for
where necessary.
ly, it is presumed that domestic tasks will
facilitating and promoting greater involve
be taken cafe of by someone else at
ment of women in S and T. Underlining the (d)
Text books in science should pay special
Economic and Political Weekly
January 5-12, 1991
59
washing. which art the tasks predominantly
origin of the oppression of women and the
ticipation of women in new fields amounts
performed by women, need special auction.
emergence of the present system of sexual
to nothing but promoting the perpetuation
(c)
The group also recommended that *omen
stratification. Engels believed this to be the
of the ghettoisation of women in particular
s ould not be put in hazardous occupations
result of qualitative changes in production
jobs/occupations with all its attendant evils
and professions vs here they are biologically
leading to the development of private pro
and injustice—a scenario that the feminist
not suited. Nevertheless, science should of
perty. social classes and the monogamous
movement all over has widely documented.
fer a variety of occupations and professions
family. But he assumed that the entry of
critically examined, vehemently opposed but
which are safe and compatible with family
women into social production in a society
has not been able to arrest.
responsibilities. Such occupations could be.
where the means of production have become
for instance, in the fields of electronics, food
This brings us to the role of the state
common property would lead to changes in
processing, agricultural operations, computer
which assumes importance in.the context of
sexual relations. This belief has been
science, architecture, draughtsmanship, etc.
the dependence of the feminist movement
challenged by feminists [Sayers et al, 1987]
The entire set of recommendations (a) to
on the state to redress most of its grievances
(c)
is premised on women's prime respon given the evidence from socialist societies
ranging from violence to securing equal
where the entry of women into the produc
sibility being that of bearing and rearing of
remuneration for work of comparable
tion sphere has not been accompanied by
children, automatically relegating their pro
worth. Through an analysis of the govern
any radical change in the ideology of gender.
fessional life to a secondary level. And while
ment’s National Perspective Plan for Women
On the contrary the sexual division of labour
the report of the WG gives an air of trying
(NPP) [Government of India, 1988], the
has remained intact thus institutionalising
Report of the National Commission on Selfto improve the ‘status* of women par
the double shift the women work.
Employed Women and Women in the Infor
ticularly in the field of S and T, a careful
The WG does not even enter into such
mal Sector (NSCEW) (June 1988) and a
reading of the recommendations starkly
discussions. It just proceeds from the
critique of the NPP (A Perspective from the
brings out what we referred to earlier in our
assumption that S and T should be compati
Women’s Movement), we hope to show how
paper as the masculine character of the state.
ble with women's family responsibilities.
women’s subordination is being restructured
When an analysis starts (like the WG’s)
The tendency to play loose with languages
within a situation where new opportunities
by emphasising what women and men do,
ahd
logic
is
borne
out
by
recommendation
are being provided by a welfare state for
it inevitably raises questions about the sexual
(e)
which talks of ‘hazardous occupations women as citizens and employees. It also
division of labour and about the related divi
or
professions
’
biologically
not
suited
for
reveals the contradictions these new oppor
sion of social life into 'domestic* and 'public*
women and therefore the need for occupa
tunities have produced and which the state
domains, the former comprising women's
tions
or
professions
that
are
safe
and
com
finds impossible to overcome.
activities and the latter those of men.
patible with family responsibilities. The leap
A comment or two on the perspectives
Feminist literature by now has covered quite
from
here
to
characterising
electronics,
food
from which the Five Year Plans of the coun
an extensive ground raising fundamental
processing, computer science, etc. as prefer
try view ‘development* is essential before we
questions in almost all disciplines including
red occupations for women has not been
proceed to the above documents. Precisely
the so-called objectivity and social neutrality
demonstrated just as the leap from pregnan
because much of 'development* is measured
of science and scientists \Bleter (ed), Second
cy
to
the
biological
necessity
or
obligation
in terms of, say, growth rates of agriculture,
Printing, 1988] Suffice it to refer to some
for mother involvement in child care has not
industry and other sectors, the quantum of
of the issues raised and myths exploded in
been established.
different materials produced like steel, fer
these debates .to las bare the futility of try
tilisers cement, etc, amount spent on S and
The emphasis on biological unsuitability
ing to use the state machinery as a means
T, etc, without a qualitiative assessment of
and/or hazardous occupations in the case
to transform the situations of women.
what development has meant to the lives of
of women is questionable. It is more a con
The view that woman’s child bearing func
the people in terms of availability of very
sequence of social prejudice that views
tion determines her productive activities and
basic necessities of life, one finds, plan after
reproduction solely as a women’s issue. As
social relationships is commonly assumed
plan, that the component which really ad
Sayers points out: “As matter of biological
in most disciplines and accepted by many
dresses itself to the vast majority of, special
fact, however, many of substances now ad
scholars. “This reflects the fact th.-t sooner
ly, the rural population (the Minimum Needs
duced on grounds Jor excluding women from
or later in looking for ultimate explanations
Programme) being relegated to the end
certain sectors of industry are as hazardous
of women’s condition, the one irreducible
chapters of the plan document. This is also
to the offspring of me as to those of women”
and incontrovertible difference between
the
section which gets its share of resource
[Sayers, Reprinted 1986: 22-23]. Further,
women and men is women's capacity to bear
substantially axed whenever there is a
while vociferous demands are made to ex
children and this must, therefore, account
resource
crunch.
clude women from certain sectors of in
for all the other dichotomies and ine
dustry on grounds of biological unsuitability
By its very definition, the Minimum Needs
qualities, whether or not they follow
no questions are being asked as to whether
Programme covers the barest minimum
logically. This view unfortunately employs
the jobs traditionally being done by women
requirements of the population, namely,
fundamental assumption of biological deter(leather including tanning industry, bidi roll
drinking water, fodder, fuel, rural health and
minist theories and reflects our own
ing, etc, even domestic services and sweated
sanitation. The Draft Fifth Five-Year Plan
ethnocentric blindness to alternate modes of
needle work that coincide with women’s
[Government of India, Planning Commis
interpretation. It is important to see that,
‘natural’ sphere) are at all biologically safe.
sion, 1974-79] is the only document which
unlike breathing, for example, the biological
The singling out of computer software
spoke of a National Programme of Minimum
capacity to reproduce does not necessarily
and programming as an area where “the Needs aimed at establishing throughout the
mean that one has to reproduce or even be
trend all over the world is to employ relative country “a network of certain essential ser
heterosexually active, nor does it dictate the
ly more women” and therefore a field to be vices on a co-ordinated and integrated basis,
social arrangements for child nurturance and
encouraged and pursued for Indian women given certain predetermined criteria of
rearing or determine how child rearing af
ignores completely the existing literature uniformity and equality” (p 87). More im
fects one’s participation in other cultural ac
which clearly documents that "computing
portant, the Draft recognised that “the em
tivities. Whether or not, we bear, nurse or
is an example of a new industry where jobs phasis placed under this programme on the
mother children is just as much a function
are supposedly rion-sex-typed yet gender integrated planning of various services and
of cultural, social, political, economical and.
divisions are as central in the organisation
facilities with a view to bringing about their
no more importantly, biological factors as
of work here as elsewhere*’ [Game and
physical convergence also necessitates the
whether we are poets or soccer players
Pringle, 1984: 19]. Furthermore, designating adoption of new procedures, for physical
[Bleier, reprinted 1988, 146).
areas/jobs/occupations as "suited” to planning, decision making and the delega
Beginning with Engels (reprinted 1977),
women under the garb of promoting the par tion of responsibility" (p 91). Subsequent
there has been an ongoing debate on the
Economic and Political Weekly
January 5-12, 1991
61
plan documents (including the Fifth. Sixth
Coming to documents that specifically
accruing to the vast majority of women. As
and Seventh Five-Year Plans) while dealing
deal with the position of women ip Jndia,
far as point 6 is concerned we are back to
with the different components of a minimum
we find that, broadly as far as their evalua
square one. The fact that collection of fod
needs programme under separate headings,
tions of the impact of developmental plans
der, fuel and drinking water and such other
have abandoned this integrated approach to
chores arc predominantly performed by
and programmes on women are concerned
the whole issue of survival specially in the
women is no justification for treating them
they have brought out in quantitative and
rural areas. Worse, starting from the Sixth
as ‘women’s issues’; on the contrary 'it
qualitative terms the deteriorating position
Five-Year Plan, a number of such issues
denotes a complete abdication by society of
of the rural population and the urban poor
which should rightly form the domain of so
its responsibility towards the poor and
and of women in particular. Yet underlying
called “planning for a just society”, have
underprivileged in general and of women in
their recommendations is a fundamental
found their way into the chapter on “Women
particular. Point 7 again raises in the absence
assumption that either the state provides ser
and Development’ and are now being seen
of any further details the whole question of
vices or the family, that is, the women in
and discussed as ‘women’s issues’.
the patriarchal structure of the existing
almost all cases, does. The less the state does,
It would be premature to pronounce a
organisations and how a Planning Commis the more is done or has to be done by
judgment on the Draft Approach to the
sion’s “encouragement to women to mobilise
women. This form of feminism automatical
Eighth Five-Year Plan [Government of India,
themselves” can change the character of
ly looks to the state to provide the servicing
Planning Commission, 1990-95] in the
these organisations.
work now being done by women in society
absence of details; but an approach that
It is this inversion of priorities and the
without questioning the complex interrela
begins by treating women as a “vulnerable”
thoroughly distorted perspective from which
tionship that exists between the organisa
section of society can hardly go far from a
the formulation of the five-year plans suffer
tions of production, the domestic sphert and
feminist point of view. The masculine bias
that we consider the chapter on ‘Women and
the limits of state intervention. Given the
in the approach to the whole issue of gender
Development’ and the designation of a
‘male model of work’, the partial services
whole range of issues (which should rightly
justice is revealed in statements such as “The
provided by the stale and the almost static
be the prime concern of society as a whole) traditional role of men, very little change can
first step is a recognition of the dignity of
as women’s issues as totally damaging to the be effected in the quality of Women’s lives,
women’s work and a proper understanding
cause of women’s movement in this country.
with the result that women are forced simp
of its dimensions and contribution in the
From the male perspective (and much of ly to do more and accept a double shift
Indian context” (emphasis ours). The thrust
planning in this country is informed from
To give a few samples.of the recom^nareas identitied by the approach include the
a male perspective) these are non-issues.
dations made by these documents:
following:
(1)
The basic approach would be to em Although men's traditional role has been
The problem of safe drinking water Is very
challenged by women and by changes in the
power women by raising their status and
acute. Poor women have to*spend a number
economy and in society as a whole, it has
of hours every day and have to walk long
bring them into the mainstream of na
remained relatively static. Men’s experience
distance to fetch waler. This responsibility is
tional development not as mere benefi
of a highly segregated labour market and of
exclusively theirs...
ciaries but as contributors and partakers
women (most of them with some paid
There should be increased plan allocation for
along with men.
providing drinking water to villages and step
(2)
Existing lacunae in conceputal frame employment) continuing to carry out
ping up the implementation of programmes
domestic and other services, including child
and data base (referred to earlier) will
as water is a basic right of women
care,
reinforces
sexist
assumptions
that
the
be corrected and applied research en
division of labour which exists is natural and
It is necessary that there should be shifts for
couraged for this purpose.
necessary.
girls at suitable times so that they can assist
(3)
Determined steps will be initiated for
identification of women workers and
their registratioi.. thereby adding to their
Z’’ ♦
Z* PUBLISHERS-OF THE ’
visibility and acknowledging their
contribution.
professional. :
V
krvl ► SOCIAL SCIENCES
(4)
Constraints and hurdles will be remov I.
ed in order to expand their access to and
control over resources, through legal and
administrative action.
(5)
The criteria and processes for determina
tion of wages and social security will be
reviewed and rationalised to provide
recognition and equitable return for
women's work of al[ kinds.
(6)
Women who have been victims of wan
ton destruction of their fragile survival
P., MARTIN DUNCAN
systems for fodder, fuel, water and raw
materials will be encouraged to get
Oiganised so as to play a leadership role
A SET IN SIX VOLUMES
in ecological regeneration (emphasis
ours).
WITH THOUSAND OF ILLUSTRATIONS
(7)
Women will be encouraged to mobilise
Vthemselves to join co-operatives, trade
ISBN 81-7024-344-0 (For Set)
unions, associations and other demo
cratic organisations with a view to realis
ing their full potential for development.
PRICE: Rs. 4,000/- (For Complete Set)_______
Unless the Planning Commission spells
out in detail how these thrust areas are to
be operationalised differently during the
course of the Eighth Five-Year Plan period
8781, PUNJABI BAQH NEW DELHI-110026
than what has been obtaining all these years,
ASHISH
PHONES : 500581, 5410924
it is difficult to foresee any visible benefit
rT Crf 1 Crfl
ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF
NATURAL HISTORY*
A MUST FOR EVERY LIBRARY
A
62
ashish publishing house
Economic and Political Weekly
January $-12, 1991
their mothers in work and go to school.
The commission recommends evolving of a
strategy to promote organising of women on
a large scale. The government should play an
active and positive role in this context.
The National Commission (therefore) places
major responsibility on the political leader
ship for improving the status of the un
protected women and giving them political
visibility which is lacking at present.
[NCSEW]
Problems specific to women have "to be
highlighted in considering issues like fodder.
’ fuel, and drinking water. Since these di rectij
concern women, their involvement in all pro
grammes related to such issues must be given
prominence. Employment of women in
hazardous jobs should be forbidden and
suitable steps should be taken through
legislative measures.
TYaining in the t ine sectors of women’s
employment, viz, agriculture, dairying,
fisheries, small animal husbandry, khadi and
village industries, forestry, handlooms, han
dicrafts, sericulture must receive priority.
[NPP]
flexible, that her participation in the labour
society, a situation that is essentially uniform
force is marginal.
across different social classes, castes and
Furthermore terms such as ‘women
religious groups.
oriented jobs’, ‘occupations hazardous to
[This is a revised version of a paper presented
women’, ‘condensed courses for female
at the Commonwealth Workshop on
children’ used in the recommendations made
Technological Change and Women Towards
by the women’s groups mean implicitly, a
21st Century sponsored by Commonwealth
subscription to biological deterministic
Secretariat and NISTADS and held at New
theories which have been used both to ex
Delhi, February 5-9, 1990. I am grateful to par
plain inequalities and to reinforce them.
ticipants at the workshop for the comments of
Theories purporting to be scientifically
fered. 1 also wish to thank T Maheswari for
established (and policy pronouncements bas
secretarial assistance. The errors are solely my
ed on such theories) suggest that women
responsibility.}
may be biologically unqualified for certain
jobs, either for physical reasons such as be
References
ing too weak or cognitive reasons such as
Bleier, Ruth (Reprinted 1988): Science and
lack of math ability; these need to be critical
Gender: A Critique of Biology and Its
ly examined and questioned. “Repeatedly,
Theories on Women, Pcrgamon Press.
in th? course of history, the pronouncements
— (cd) (Second Printing 1988): Feminist Ap
of scientists have been used to rationalise,
proaches
to Science, Pcrgamon Press.
justify, and naturalise dominant ideologies
Draft National Perspective Plan for Women
and the status quo. Slavery, colonialism,
AD 1988-2000: A Perspective from the
laissez-faire capitalism, communism,
Women’s Movement.
patriarchy, sexism and racism have all been
Engels, F (1884): The Origin of the Family,
supported at one time or another, by the
Private Property and the State, Progress
work of scientists, a pattern that continues
Publishers, Moscow (1977 edition).
The NPP even describes as “heartening”
unabated into.tH^present. ./..In truth, scien
Game. Anne and Pringle, Rosemary (1984):
the setting up of a cell on ‘science nnd
tists are no more protected from political and
Gender at Work, Pluto Press.
technology for women’ in 1982 by the
cultural influences than other citizens. By
Government of India (1981): Report oj the
department of science and technology. This
Working Group on Personnel Policies for
draping their scientific activities in claims
cell has divided the “various technologies re
Bringing Greater Involvement of Women In
of neutrality, detachment and objectivity.
quired for women” into the following four
Science and Technology, Ministry of Social
scientists augment the perceived importance
areas—technologies required for drudgery
Welfare.
of their views, absolve themsevles of social
reduction; employment generation techno
—(1988): National Perspective Plan for Women
responsibility for the applications of 'heir
logies; health and sanitation technologies;
1988-2000 AD Department of Women and
work and leave their (unconscious) minds
Child Development. Ministry of Human
and technologies for minimising occupa
wide open to political and cultural assump
Resource Development.
tional hazards.
tions” [Namenwirth^ M, 1988:29).
Government of India, Planning Commission
The critique of the NPP brought out by
In conclusion it would be pertinent to
(1973): Draft Fifth Five-Year Plan 1974-79.
women’s organisations all over the country
clarify that our objection to th term
—(1990): Towards Social Transformation: Ap
also makes the state responsible for creating
“women's issues” is in fact an objection to
proach
to the Eighth Five-Year Plan
“conditions which allow women to recon
the sexual stratification implicit in its usage.
1990-95: Draft.
cile their responsibilities as worker and
We recognise, however, that issues specific/
Harding,
Sandra
(1986): The Science Question
mother”.
relating to women arc part and parcel of the
in feminism. Open University Press, Milion
Our quarrel with the above documents is
ideology and politics of gender and need to
Keyness.
not just with the implicit and explicit ways
be recognised as such in order to challenge,
Keller, F E (1987): 'Women Scientists and
in which their recommendations endorse the
among other things, the accuracy of binary
Feminist Critics of Science’, Daedalus, Fall
dominant viewpoint that women’s produc
distinctions between men and women.
1987.
tivities are constrained by their child-bearing
Further it is not enough to merely state
Namenwirth, Marion (1988): ‘Science Seen
capacity and by the lack of overall support
through a Feminist Prism’ in Bleier. Ruth
that issues such as reproduction arc not just
facilities and therefore the need for state
women’s issues. This recognition then raises
(ed) (1988). op cit.
intervention in a big way by the inadequate
Report of the National Commission on Selffurther questions about who should provide
grasp of the complexities of the whole situa
Employed Women and Women in the In
support facilities for individuals with young
tion and therefore the limited impact of any
formal Sector. Shramshakti, June 1988.
children and of what kind. And if it is agreed
state intervention.
New Delhi.
that the state has to provide child care, then
Salem. Greta and Sharkey. Stephen (1985):
the criteria by which children are to be
In the first place, it is imperative for the
‘Thmsforming the Social Sciences’ in
socialised need to be determined.
women's movement in this country to get out
Schuster, M R and Van Dyne, S R (ed)
At a different level, another set of issues
of this “women’s issues" syndrome and
(1985).
thrown up by our analysis is that, in multirealise that as far as the economy is concern
Sasson, Anne Showstack (ed) (1987): Women
structural societies such as ours, while the
ed, the role of women is not simply a side
and the State. Hutchinson.
oppression of women is real, oppression and
issue but central to the manner in which the
Sayers, Janet (Reprinted 1986): Biological
its form vary across classes and fractions of
entire production is organised. If we start
Politics: Feminist and Anti-Feminist
classes and in the Indian context also bet
considering at any one moment in time the
Perspectives, Tavistock.
ween caste and religious groups. Conse
array of services needed to provide for the
Sayers, Janet, et al (1987): Engels Revisited:
quently, policy documents that do not tackle
needs of individuals, family household units
New Feminist Perspectives, Ikvistock.
the
gender
issue
from
this
methodological
and society as a whole, the interrelationships
Van Dyne, Susan. R (ed) (19b5): Women's Place
standpoint degenerate into viewing sexual in
between these various services and the signi
in the Achdemy, Rowman and Allahdd.
equality as bring due to merely the oppres
ficance of the almost invisible and/or un
Scott, Joan, Wallach (1987): 'Women’s History
sion of women by men. It is imperative that
and the Rewriting of History* in Farnham,
recognised talks performed by women will
we start approaching gender questions also
Christie (ed): The Impact of Feminist
stand out starkly. By designating such ser
Research in the Academy, Indiana Univer
from the angle that all women do not
vices as “women’s issues** we become part
necessarily share a common situation within
sity Press.
ly to the assumption that a woman's role is
Economic and Political Weekly
January 5-12, 1991
63
Reap the riches
of Nagarjuna
★ The first fertilizer plant in South India to use gas
as raw material for ensuring trouble-free
performance. No dependence on imported
feedstock.
*■ Proven technology from Snamprogetti of Italy
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to operate at nigh levels of productivity.
★ Plant at Kakinada, A.P. in midst of one of the
country's largest fertilizer consuming zones.
Assured gas supply from the same district.
* Cash breakeven at 54%. Assured return under
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tax benefit. Easy payment terms... 25% on
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64
Economic and Political Weekly
January 5-12, 1991
DEVELOPMENT EXPERIENCES IN INDIA
PADMINI SWAMINATHAN'
Development Experience(s) in India: Gendered
Perspectives on Industrial Growth, Employment
and Education
INTRODUCTION
The central conundrum lor feminists when taking stock of the 'status of
women' is whether the pursuit of economic development (particularly
as it is currently practised in almost all third world countries) helps or
harms women. More often than not, development does both; it 'helps'
women in so far as the latter are able to find an income and an economic
life outside of their patriarchal household structure; development
harms’ women when the latter arc pushed back into the household
from economic roles thev had hitherto plavcd outside. An assessment
of the sum total impact of economic development on women must
necessarily, among other things, situate the state in the development
process. Almost all third world states have attempted to accelerate
economic development through growth strategies which, however,
exhibit substantial variation in content, form, degree of commitment
across countries, instruments of implementation and over time.'
This paper is a modest attempt to assess to quality of state
intervention in the Indian economy during the post independence period
with particular emphasis on the impact that technological
development 'in industry) has had on industrial development and
labour, women's labour in particular. Such an assessment would broadly
involve an exploration into interconnected themes. Just as governmental
statements of industrial policy have failed Io incorporate labour as an
important and integral component of the total process of restructuring of
the economy, similarly it has proven extremely difficult to graft
gender onto the existing planning process. For convenience of analysis
we borrow a distinction made in literature2 between strategic gender
needs (interests) and practical gender needs (interests) to bring out the
limited impact that government interventions (on behalf of and for
women) have had; more important, the Toom for manoeuvrability'
seems to be shrinking with the uncritical adoption of new policy
approaches.
Madras Institute of Development Studies, Madras.
Social Scientist, Vol. 22, Nos. 3-4, March-April 1994
61
Strategic gendn^keeds are based on an analysis of women's subordi
nation to men; oWving out of this is the strategic gender interest
which seeks as an alternative, a more equal and satisfactory organiza
tion of society than that which exists at present, in terms of both the
structure and nature of relationships between men and women.2
Practical gender needs are formulated from concrete conditions of
women's experience: 'they do not generally entail a strategic goal such
as women's emancipation or gender equality, nor do they challenge the
prevailing forms of subordination even though they arise directly out
of them."* In planning terms, policies for meeting practical gender needs
focus on the domestic arena, on income earning activities, and also on
community level requirements of housing and basic services. This is
based on the perception which makes women primarily responsible for
dome1.tic work involving child care, family health and food provision
and also the community management of housing and basic services. This
identification is done, more often than not, by women themselves,
thereby preserving and reinforcing (even if unconsciously) the sexual
division of labour.
It is our submission that, by and large, the 'women's question' in
India has got reduced to and is now almost completely identified with
meeting practical gender needs, particularly at the level of gender
policy and planning. While individual writings on the subject uncover
the ideological basis of the persistence of gender inequities, a content
analysis of the state's plan documents, its periodic policy statements,
the major documents brought out by the women's movement in India,
show the dominance of practical gender needs over strategic gender
interests both in the conception and in the transformation of these
policies into programmes of action?
The proliferation of NCOs and voluntary associations has, to a
large extent, enabled the state to withdraw into the background and
act more as a funding body; the NCOs and voluntary organisations, on
the other hand, not only have a limited charter but are constrained to
fulfil targets and/or show quick results if their sources of funding arc
not to run dry. Hence, meeting practical gender needs are becoming an
end in themselves without any scope for transformation of these into
strategic gender needs. Hence the feminist perspective and content of
the women's movement has been considerably diffused if not lost
altogether.
In such a milieu, the movement has had very little time and even
less inclination to perceive the women's question' against macro pro
cesses at work in the economy. This reduction of the women's question to
practical gender needs has had a very deleterious impact inasmuch as
neither the planning process nor statements of particular policies deem
ii imperative to incorporatc/intcgrate gender perspectives onto their
main agenda. Whatever attempts have been made thus far have been
of an add-on nature and hence have only a token value.6
62
SOCIAL SCIENTIST
•
In an attempt to place women's economic position within an overall
context we focus our attention on the recent Industrial Policy Statement
of the Government of India to bring out, among other things,
<i) the ineffectiveness of the state's intervention in the Indian
economy and the increasing disjuncture that this has wrought on
the different forms of production in the economy;
(ii) the parasitical existence and functioning of the organ ped
private industrial sector (particularly the large familv-based
business houses) which have been under no great compulsion to
innovate and/or compete on the international market, thereby
imparting to the economy a structural rigidity from which the
economy is unable to extricate itself and become rcallv dynamic.
(ii i) the impact, particularly on labour, consequent upon the attempts
to send the economy on a global trip.
We focus next on the gendered pattern of development and the
implications for gender of the policies being pursued in the economy in
the name of 'equity' and 'efficiency'. That labour planning docs not
term part and parcel of any industrial policy is an important but
neglected aspect of the story of employment in the country.
■'.cnscqucntly the debate on the question, namely, whether or not the
liberalization measures of the Indian government will increase or
decrease the demand for labour, tends to get stcnic and/or is carried oh
m a vacuous framework inasmuch as there is no real evaluation of the
industrial performance of the country over the years. From a gender
perspective there is need in the first place, to place the whole issue of
the employmcnt/uncmploymcnt/undcremploymcnt of women within
the overall macro discussion of technology and labour. Further.
without labouring the (by now well-known) fact of the extremely
narrow base of women's employment as far as the organized sector is
concerned, we focus our attention more on the cducation/skill level of
even those (few) women workers designated as such by the Census. The
issue being highlighted is the need to constantly strive for some parity
between the drive to acquire state-of-the-art technology (to compete on
an international level and scale) and the upgradation of knowledge
and skill level among the population. The basic educational level of
the labour force, and within this of women labour, is so abysmally low
(as revealed by Census data), that even assuming the new measures
throw up employment opportunities on a reasonably large scale, it is
not dear how far the existing population with its present skill level
will benefit. The problem gets compounded in the case of women, since
here the question is not just of bridging the (literacy) gap between men
and women, but also fighting patriarchal and class oppression that
inhibits provision of a conducive atmosphere and access to women to
acquire skills and high quality continuous training.
DEVELOPMENT EXPERIENCES IN INDIA
63
INDUSTRIAL GROWTH: A MACRO-PERSPECTIVE
While government will continue to follow the policy of self-reliance
there would be greater emphasis placed on building up our ability to
pay imports through our own foreign exchange eamings. Government
is also committed to development and utilisation of indigenous
capabilities in technology and manufacturing as well as its
upgradation to world standards.
. . . There is a great need for promoting an industrial environment
where the acquisition of technological capability receives priority.
In the fast changing world of technology the relationship between
the suppliers and users of technology must be a continuous one ...
With a view to injecting the desired level of technological
dynamism in Indian industry, government will provide automatic
approval for technology agreements related to high priority
industries within specified parameters. Indian companies will be
free to negotiate the terms of technology transfer with their foreign
counterparts according to their own commercial judgement. The
predictability and independence of action that this measure is
providing [sicl Io Indian industry will induce them to develop
indigenous competence for the efficient absorption of foreign
technology. Greater competitive pressure will also induce our
industry’ to invest much more in research and development than they
have been doing in the past.
. . . Government will fully protect the interests of labour, enhance
their welfare and equip them in all respects to deal with the
inevitability of technological change. Government believes, that no
small section of society can comer the gains of growth, leaving
workers io bear its pains. Labour will bermade an equal partner in
progress and prosperity. . . Intensive training, skill development
and upgradation programmes will be launched.
These arc excerpts from the Government of India's Statement on In
dustrial Policy made on 24 July, 1991.7 Yet almost two years after this
declaration of intention there is very little discussion (and even less
visibility) of the substantive impact of the policy. The fact that any
attempt to operationalize the contents of the policy would require fun
damental structural changes in the production-structure of the economy
is not being openly and squarely faced; the debate on the other hand
has degenerated into one of discussing the pros and cons of free trade
versus protection. One disturbing, even negative, fallout of the ineffec
tiveness of state intervention (at times even harmful) has been that
there is hardlv any serious, informed debate on the quality of state
intervention, particularly the difference this can make to an economy.
The proponents of a liberal technology import policy argue that
liberalization measures ate essential to raise the overall technological
competence, productivity and output growth of Indian industry. It is
DEVELOPMENT EXPERIENCES IN INDIA
h2
SOCIAL SCIENTIST
INDUSTRIAL GROWTH A MACRO-PERSPECTIVE
In an attempt to place women's economic position within an overall
context we focus our attention on the recent Industrial Policy Statement
of the Government of India to bring out, among other things,
the ineffectiveness of the stale's intervention in the Indian
economy and the increasing disjuncture that this has wrought on
the different forms of production in the economy;
(ii)
the parasitical existence and functioning of the organized
private industrial sector (particularly the large family-based
business houses) which have been under no great compulsion to
innovate and/or compete on the international market, thereby
imparting to the economy a structural rigidity from which the
economy is unable to extricate itself and become rcallv dynamic.
(iii)
the impact, particularly on labour, consequent upon the attempts
to send the economy on a global trip.
(i)
We focus next on the gendered pattern of development and the
implications for gender of the policies being pursued in the economy in
the name of 'equity' and 'efficiency'. That labour planning docs noi
lorm part and parcel of any industrial policy is an important bul
neglected aspect of the story of employment in the country.
Consequently the debate on the question, namely, whether or not the
liberalization measures of lhe Indian government will increase or
decrease lhe demand for labour, tends Io get sterile and/or is earned on
in a vacuous framework inasmuch as there is no real evaluation of the
industrial performance of the country over the years. From a gender
perspective there is need in the first place, to place the whole issue ol
the employment/uncmploymcnt/undercmploymcnl of women within
the overall macro discussion of technology and labour. Further.
without labouring the (by now well-known) fact of the extremely
narrow base of women's employment as far as the organized sector is
concerned, we focus our attention inorc on the education/skill level of
even those (few) women workers designated as such bv the Census. The
issue being highlighted is the need io constantly strive for some parity
between the drive to acquire state-of-the-art technology ito compete <;n
an international level and scale) and the upgradalion of knowledge
and skill level among the population. The basic educational level of
the labour force, and within this of women labour, is so abvsmallv lowfas revealed by Census data), that even assuming the new measures
throw up employment opportunities on a reasonably large scale, it is
not clear how far the existing population with its present skill level
will benefit. The problem gets compounded in the case of women, since
here the question is not just of bridging the (literacy) gap between men
and women, but also fighting patriarchal and class oppression that
inhibits provision of a conducive atmosphere and access to women to
acquire skills and high quality continuous training.
While government will continue to follow the policy of self-reliance
there would be greater emphasis placed on building up our ability to
pay imports through our own foreign exchange eamings. Government
is also committed to development and utilisation of indigenous
capabilities in technology and manufacturing as well as its
upgradation to world standards.
. . . There is a great need for promoting an industrial environment
where the acquisition of technological capability receives priority.
In the fast changing world of technology the relationship between
the suppliers and users of technology must be a continuous one .
With a view to injecting the desired level of technological
dynamism in Indian industry, government will provide automatic
approval for technology agreements related to high priority
industries within specified parameters. Indian companies will be
free to negotiate the terms of technology transfer with their foreign
counterparts according to their own commercial judgement The
predictability and independence of action that this measure is
providing [sicl to Indian industry will induce them to develop
indigenous competence for the efficient absorption ol fc reign
technology. Greater competitive pressure will also induce our
industry to invest much more in research and development l han they
have been doing in the past.
. . . Government will fully protect the interests of labour, enhance
their welfare and equip them in all respects to deal with the
inevitability of technological change. Government believes, that no
small section of society can comer the gains of growth, leaving
workers to bear its pains. Labour will bermade an equal partner in
progress and prosperity. . . Intensive training, skill development
and upgradation programmes will be launched.
These arc excerpts from the Government of India's Statement on In
dustrial Policy made on 24 July, 19917 Yet almost two years after this
declaration of intention there is very little discussion (and even less
visibility) of the substantive impact of the policy. The fact that any
attempt to operationalize the contents of the policy would require fun
damental structural changes in the production-structure of the economy
is not being openlv and squarely faced; the debate on the other hand
has degenerated into one of discussing the pros and cons of free trade
versus protection. One disturbing, even negative, fallout of the ineffec
tiveness of state intervention (at times even harmful) has been that
there is hardlv any serious, informed debate on the quality of state
intervention, particularly the difference this can make to an economy.
The proponents of a liberal technology import policy argue that
liberalization measures ane essential to raise the overall technological
competence, productivity and output growth of Indian industry. It is
64
social scien:
also claimed that the higher cost of collaboration in the form of outgo
of resources would be more than compensated by gains in output growth
and export. There is rhetoric in the logic no doubt. But the outcome may
well turn out to be different.
Our submission is that a general policy of liberalization per se
and/or a technology import policy per se cannot raise the technological
dynamism or accelerate the growth rate in productivity and output of
Indian industry. The transformation of an economy into a
internationally competitive one (through a liberal technology policy )
necessarily involves a number of stages, including fundamental changes
in the organization of production—if the experience of the East Asian
economies is to serve as some sort of a model.
Over the years the manner in which industrial growth in this cour.
try has been conceived and pursued has led industrialists lo seek max
imum benefits (profits) in the shortest possible time. The easiest man
ner of achieving this has been to tie-up with foreign manuiactures,
which also helps the domestic firm to dominate the market concerned
in a situation of low volume demand thus leading to an overall situa
tion of continued technological dependence. A survey of the available
evidence indicates that the entire gamut of foreign technology agree
ments/ foreign licensing arrangements/ foreign investment approvals
over the years has not made that impact on domestic technology
absorption and innovative capacity and capability so fundamentally
imperative lo hold one s own in the international market.
Further, the first thing to note about the country going global is that
while domestic economic concerns such as unemployment, inflation.
nationalization/privatization will not go away, increasingly
international and transnational political issues will tend lo upstage
them. Among the fundamental changes that have occurred in the world
economy (elaborated in detail, among other, by Peter Drucker/* and of
immense importance to the economy of the LDCs are:
the fact that the primary product economy has been 'uncoupled'
from the industrial economy. For all non-farm commodities
(various products, minerals or metals) world demand is
shrinking. The amount of raw material needed for a given unit of
economic output has been dropping. In 1984, for every unit of
industrial production Japan consumed only 60 per cent of the raw
materials required for the same volume of industrial production
in 1973, that is eleven years earlier;
(b)
in the industrial economy itself, production has been delinked
from employment. Restructuring of the production process has
led to a progressive decline in blue collar employment.
(a)
An analysis of the manner in which labour is enmeshed with the
industrial structure is crucial before contemplating restructuring of the
production process. In the American system the rise of big business was
DEVELOPMENT EXPERIENCES IN INDIA
65
consequent upon the development of managerial hierarchies and
scientific management (read Taylorism) which brought in collective
bargaining and lhe welfare state. In Britain the existence of a powerful
trade union movement, prior to the establishment of big business.
limited the power of management to reorganize work according to the
principles of mass producnon.
In Japan, however, the intense class struggle that took place was
resolved by the establishment of welfare capitalism within the firm;
by and large the company rclinguished the right to (ire workers in
exchange for a company union and no resistance to organizational
change.* The form ot the resolution of the class struggle during the
critical stages of the development ot industrial capitalism has had a
powerful effect both on the definition oi manager and worker and on
lhe terms of relation between the firms and the government. The
occupational pinnacle tor a blue-collar workers in America and Britain
is foreman or front line supervisor, the ranks of management being
dosed. A career ladder lor a svorkcr in a Japanese factory, on lhe
contrary, can progress Imm group leader to production supervisor upto
production manager.'0
The relevance of the above discussion to the Indian context lies in
the following:Technological dynamism implies restructuring of the production
process to be effective which again demands that production
processes be flexibly organized to adapt to changing technology.
(b)
Flexible production processes mean changes in the quantity and
quality of labour requirements; they arc premised on a high
degree of horizontal mobility of skilled labour.
(c)
The fact that the component of labour fhaking up organized sec
tor employment in India is very small need not be laboured. Fur
ther all official data sources bring out the decline and/or stag
nation in organized sector employment during the decade of the
eighties (when economic growth, particularly industrial
growth, has been relatively high as compared to the previous
decades). This fact combined with the phenomenon of less labour
requirement consequent upon (technological) restructuring of the
production process cannot but lead to further retrenchment ol
labour.
(d)
Hitherto, retrenchment from the 'organized' sector has always
meant swelling lhe ranks of the informal'/unorganized' sector.
with its attendant evils of low wages, no enforcement of protec
tive legislation—in short, exploitation of the highest order
Neither does the state lake care of the retrenched workers.
(c)
Even the most powerful of the trade unions in the country work in
a rather uncoordinated fashion. It has-been noted elsewhere
that for any given amount of union power, unemployment is
(a)
DEVELOPMENT EXPERIENCES IN INDIA
SOCIAL SCIENTIST
lower if unions and employers coc^^iate their wage bargaining
either across industries or nationaW. What works worst of all
. is strong but uncoordinated unions.11
(f) The historically defined antagonistic relationship that
characterize Industry and Labour makes it difficult for the
Indian industry to break with Taylorism. Under the changed
economic environment this break is imperative in order to
compete on the basis of superior products, higher quality, more
reliable delivery times and shorter product development time.
The potential for improving the conditions 01 work has not been
systematically pursued by the trade union movement. Tor
example, unions could seek greater job security for their members
in exchange for an agreement to develop real production
flexibility based on the skill-centred factory.
(g) That women workers make up less than ten per cent of organized
sector employment is a well-known fact. The declining rate of
employment in the organized sector and therefore the greater
adverse impact of this on women workers is only one part of the
story; what is more serious from our point or view (which wdevelop in the sections to follow) is the existing low skill level
of the female population combined with a high rate of nonattendance of schools on the part of female children
particularly in the rural areas.
i no most vital, at the same lime, the most difficult factor in forging
and maintaining linkages between different actors in the whole drama
of industrial development is political will—which factor, in our view.
has been instrumental to a large extent, in imparting to the East zksian
economies a very high degree of integration, particularly as far .is the
industrial sector is concerned.12
In contrast, the Indian industrial sector presents a picture of a
fractured production system. In other words, the multiplier and
feedback effects which should be generated as part of the process of
diffusion of technological capability and which should in turn form
the basis for complex production-systems-link between firms of all
sizes (with bonds of interdependence that arc forged by flows of goods,
services and information) have over the years and in the absence of a
conscious policy of nurturing, got truncated leading to a considerable
degree of dis-integration of the industrial system.
Inspite of this, a major assumption of the liberalization measures
now being pursued in the country is the uniformity of forms of
production across the country coupled with an absence of discussion
(both theoretically and otherwise) of the differential impact of such
measures on
(i) different segments of the population, even assuming uniformity
of the form of production;
(ii) diffcid^ segments of the population given the wide variety and
hiera^mical nature of the forms of production.
PERSPECTIVES ON EMPLOYMENT
To put the above discussion thus far in a nutshell, what the industrial
development experience in India documents is an almost complete lack
i of coordination between government (read strategic planning), industry
(read private sector) and labour (read trade unions). Carrying the
; argument and analysing the problem from a gender perspective brings
out very starkly the fact that while women arc very essential to the
success of a nation's development effort, it does not necessarily follow
that development improves conditions for women either practically
and much less strategically. Our emphasis on women's status does not
imply that development necessarily helps all men; the focus on
women's status, however, is to draw attention to the persistence i f
(gender) inequities in development, stemming from not just inaccessibil'
ity (for women) to fields directly related to technology, education and
employment, but also from ideologies that surround the acquisition oi
technical competence and the structural arrangement that reinforce
-.tereotvpcs marking scientific fields and expertise as male
1 o change gender stereotypes and widen opportunities we need to (a>
understand sexual hierarchy as a combined product of culturally
.(rated social ideologies and the material conditions of womens and
men's lives, and (b) appreciate the fact that sexual division ot learning
and work arc not immutable behavioural specialisations to be justified
as function or as vestiges of early human evolution. Rather, the school
and the workplace arc cultural and political environments where rules
and norms arc perpetuated and legitimated by contemporary ideologies
of exclusion, segregation and avoidance.13
The data that we have assembled from. several official sources
document how remarkably resistant to change have been precisely
those that need to be transformed. The data on employment and
Lxlucation of women in general and of women workers in particular also
show how far removed from ground realities arc our policy makers and
planners . No assessment and/or estimate has been made of the lalxnir
(and kinds of labour) requirements of the new industrial liberalization
measures. More serious, there is evaluation of the existing
educational/skill level of the population in general and of labour in
particular to even gauge how far this labour will be able to take
advantage and/or even adapt to the emerging situation.
We begin with an overview of the position occupied by women as
workers, using the standard Census definition of work; we then move on
to a discussion of the educational level of the population, particularly
of the working population. Sex-wise and age-wise data relating to
child population and to scheduled castes and scheduled tnbes point to
68
DEVELOPMENT EXPERIENCES IN INDIA
SOCIAL SCIENTIST
the multi-dimensional level of the problem that needs to be examined
to understand why women are where they arc in the conventionally
defined work force of the Census.
Much detailed and painstaking work has gone into unravelling the
'statistical purdah' imposed by existing concepts and methods of
measuring labour force participation to make visible the vital and
productive work done by women particularly in the rural areas. The
official 1981 Census shows only 16 per cent of the rural working-age
female population as economically active (compared to 53 per cent for
males). But more careful data collection procedures and more inclusive
definitions of economic activity result in much higher female
participation rates. Tor example, when women who work part-time or
those whose main activity is collecting Juel fodder, or working in
dairy, poultry’ or Kitchen garden production for the family arc added
to those in the conventionally defined labour force, the female labour
force participation rale rises to 51 per cent—only 13 percentage points
below the male participation rate (Table 1).
Table 1
Rural Male and Female l_atx>ur force I’ariKipanon Kaio
(By different data source-* and definitions)
Data Source (Definition)
Census, 1981
(Main Worker*)
NSS. 1983
(Mam Worker*)
NSS. 1983
(Main and Marginal Worker* )
NSS. 19K3
(Main, Marginal and Code 93 Worker*)
Note:
Source:
Male ( 7)
73
Fema;<
15
61
?9
63
39
M
'I
’Marginal Workers arc those who engaged in economically proa-ct^.activities less than 183 days in the year.
’’Code 93 activities include fuel, fodder And water collection ana work in
dairy, poultry or kitchen garden production for the familv
Bennett, Lynn Women, Poverty and Productivity in India*. draft circulated to
participants tn joint World Bank-Planning Commission Wori>nop on Gender
and Poverty in India, December 5-7, 1991, New fX-lhi (nurnw
We do not wish to enter the debate on the visibility/ invisibility of
women's work. Our main purpose, on the contrary, is to assess the
quality of even this small portion of the population designated as
workers by official data sources. This exercise is not only to highlight
the fact the country invests far less in its women workers than in its
working men, but more important, to bring out the complete dissociation
between the assumptions and expectations of the new economic policies
(namely rapid economic growth, particularly industrial growth and
consequent beneficial impact on the population), and the actual ground
69
realities (given the existing level of literacy, level of skill and
employment composition of the population).
Tables 2 and 3 give an idea of the
(i) composition of (main) workers sex-wise and activity-wise
within each social group;
(ii) composition of (main) workers, sex-wise and group-wise within
each activity.
The sectoral break-up of occupation reveals that women make up a
substantial portion of the agricultural workforce in India. Agriculture
accounts for 37 per cent of India's CNF and employs about 70 per cent ot
the working population of the country and almost 84 per cent of all
economically active women. Although almost all rural women are
involved to some extent in agriculture, the nature and extent of their
involvement varies widely and is strongly influenced by economic
status and the caste and ethnic background of their household.
Female labour force participation rates arc noticeably higher among
scheduled caste and scheduled tribe population than among the rest ol
the female population. Further, scheduled caste and tribal women
account for nearly half of all the female agricultural labourers,
although they make up only about a quarter of India's rural female
population.! *
A feature particularly notable for the decade 1971-1981 is the
increase in the ranks of female child labour, especially when at the
same time, the incidence of male child labour had gone down in rural
areas (Table 4). Analysing the trends in women's employment for the
decade 1971-81, Banerjee has shown, among other things, that the
number of girl workers in both rural and urban areas had increased
faster in states where the workforce participation rates of women had
gone up faster; further a small part of the increase in female
agricultural workforce was accounted for by rural child workers for
whom most of the increase in absolute numbers as well as in the
proportion was concentrated in agriculture.13 Composition of the
workforce by sex and activity according to the 1991 census is nowavailable and shows an increase in workforce participation rate for
women between 1981 and 1991 (Table 5). However, unless and until an
age-wise classification of the composition of workforce is made
available it would be premature to gloat over the increased
participation rates for women.
Growth in women's share of employment in industries and services in
India has lagged behind not only that in the South East Asian
countries, but (except for Nepal) even behind the other South Asian
countries. Moreover, In3ia is one Of the the few countries where
women s share of employment in the more modem sectors has actually
decreased as growth in female agricultural employment outplaced
female job creation in the remainder of the economy.16
70
DEVELOPMENT EXPERIENCES IN INDIA
SOCIAL SCIENTIST
Between 1911 and 1961 the ratio of female workers t®nalc workers
in manufacturing declined from 489 to 225 per 1000. During this period,
only four industries—food, beverages and tobacco; textiles; wood and
wood products; and ceramics—accounted for over 90 per cent of women's
employment in manufacturing.17 However, while data relating to the
1971-81 decade suggest that this declining trend may have been
reversed, official data giving average daily employment in factories
submitting returns indicate (Table 6):
a declining trend in employment for adult women during the
decade of the eighties,
(ii)
an increase in < mployment of adolescent girls,
(iii)
an increase in employment of girl children.
(i)
Further, two notable developments that have taken place during
the period (1971-81) include,
a 5 per cent drop in the combined share of four industries that
traditionally accounted for 90 percent of women's employment
in manufacturing;
(ii)
the emergence of some new industries in the chemicals,
metallurgical and engineering group as important employers ot
women.1"
(i)
This seemingly positive sign needs, however, to be interpreted with
caution. Industrial classification data amalgamate workers employed
in firms varying widely in size, technology levels and employment
conditions. Women tend to be concentrated in those parts of the
production process and in those units (often in rural areas) that use
labour-intensive techniques which are often indistinguishable from
women's traditional home tasks.
The percentage of all women (and all men) working in the various
types of labour relations by type of industry is indicated both in the
Census and the NSS data. These data show generally that:
women arc concentrated at the 'casual' end of the continuum in
terms of labour relations, with family relationships
predominating;
(b)
women have less opportunities than men for becoming producers
in their own right—fewer women than men are single worker or
employers, and,
(c)
women are more heavily represented in household production
than in non-household production.
(a)
A Labour Bureau study of the socio-economic conditions of women
workers in the 'Manufacture of Chemical and Chcmica' Products’ and
'Food Products (except tea, coffee and sugar) Industries' carried out
during the period March to June 1983, concretely explicates some of the
71
period 1950-81 rivaled that women's employment in lhe two
industries covered by the Labour Bureau study had witnessed an
almost steady increase. A comparative study of the distribution of men
and women workers by level of skill and broad occupational groups was
made in the course of the study. For this purpose, men and women
workers employed in the sampled factories were classified into the
following occupational groups:
(i) Professional, Technical and Related Personnel
(ii) Administrative, Executive and Managerial Personnel
(iii)
Clerical and Related Workers
(i\' Production and Related Workers ( including supervisory )
(v) \Vatch and Ward and other staff
Production and related workers were further classified into
supervisory, skilled, semi-skilled and unskilled categories. Based on
the above classifications, the percentage of men and women workers in
different occupational groups is reproduced in Table 7. This table
clear; / brings out the placement of women workers in the job hierarchy.
.'.fore than 90 per cent of the women workers in these two groups of
industries were unskilled workers. The position regarding the
employment of women in professional, technical, administrative ,
executive, managerial and supervisory jobs was also found to be highly
unsatisfactory.
PERSPECTIVES ON EDUCATION
The dominance of technology today and tt’s direct relationship to
formal education has sharpened the significance of lhe debates
surrounding the inequities in women’s educational access and
achievement on the one hand, and on the other by the structure and
ideology of science and knowledge in general—lhe latter being
currently shaped by the priorities of the production system rather than
by wider social needs.
In what follows we have put together data from the Census
indicating the educational level of the population in general and of
women and girl children in particular to bring out the continuing gaps in
school attendance, achievement and literacy between men and women.
Tables 8, 9 and 10 give an idea of the markedly higher rates of
illiteracy among women in general (75 per cent) which gets more
pronounced in the case of scheduled caste (90 per cent) and scheduled
tribe (92 per cent ) women. By breaking-up the literate population to
get ar. idea of the levels of education, we find that those women who
have managed to go beyond Higher Secondary and/or obtain a
Graduate Degree, form less than one per cent each of the total female
population. In the case of scheduled caste and scheduled tribe women,
hardlv one ner cent eo bevnnd even sernnd.irv school ITnhln R 1
"I • I I ‘ I ai.,.; !..Al
Ihc educational level of the (main) workers of Ihewopulation is
even more dismal. While almost 50 per cent of male main workers are
illiterate, in the case of women (main) workers, illiteracy is almost 85
per cent. Since a majority of the women workers are concentrated in the
agricultural sector, cither as cultivators and/or as agricultural
labourers, we have provided details regarding their educational level.
Almost 88 per cent of women cultivators and about 92 per cent of women
agricultural laborers are illiterate, as against 59 per cent and 75 per
cent respectively for men (details in Table 9).
Table 10 details the educational level of the urban population in
general and urban main workers in particular. (We need not labour the
fact of the urban population having better access to educational and
other infrastructural facilities vis-a-vis the rural areas.) It needs to be
pointed out that only 23 per cent of the total female population live in
urban areas of which only 12 per cent constitute main workers as per the
Census. 52 per cent of the total urban female population and almost 57
per cent of urban female main workers arc illiterate. The Census also
provides (for the urban population only) the technical
degrees/diplomas obtained by urban population by industrial
classitication. Needless to add, data show that Ihc skill level of urban
females and ol urban female main workers to be abysmally low except
in the field of teaching.
Table 11-15 provide details of the school attendance and levels of
education of children by sex, residence and activity. They bring out
quite starkly that:
(i) almost 65 per cent of female children (both rural and urban)
in the age group 5—14 years do not attend school;
(ii) this figure of non-attendance at school increases to 73 per
cent for female rural children when broken down by
residence.
(b)
Almost 94 per cent of female child workers (age 5-14 years) do
not attend school;
(c)
Even among those female children not working, only 37 per cent
attend school;
(d)
In the case of scheduled caste female children, almost 85 per cent
in the age-group 5-9 years and about 74 per cent in the agc-group
10-14 years are illiterate. For scheduled tribe female children
the figures for the respective age groups arc 89 per cent and 82
per cent.
(a)
This then is the the educational quality of the population in general
and of women and female children in particular as depicted by official
data sources. It is clear that rates of illiteracy and gender difference in
educational level are greatest in the rural and particularly among
scheduled caste and scheduled tribe women. The findings have
important implications for development policy and particularly so in
IN INU1A
,3
the current phase of the opening up of the economy where the emphasis
is on the importation of sophisticated technology to make the economy
internationally competitive. Unless we have special programmes
focussed on female children and women, gender disparities may not just
persist but may even become greater given that there is an increasing
incidence of female children joining the ranks of workers and not
attending school. The pursuance of sex and class-neutral policies
without addressing/correcting initial imbalances cannot but exacerbate
existing inequities. To quote Elliott and Kelly:
It is difficult to equalize opportunity once some groups have
established an initial lead, and even more so with current
constraints on increasing educational investment and government
employment. After actively discriminatory policies have set
inequalities in motion, sex-neutral policies are sufficient to maintain
established patterns. Thus the educational gap continues, as docs
the clustering of women in low-paid service occupations.20
Moreover, there are two further problems that have to be contended
with: one, literacy and the completion of some basic education no longer
guarantees a place in the labour force as in the past. As large numbers
of students complete primary school, employers begin to require still
higher levels of attainment for the same jobs. ’This points to an
important function of educational systems: they can be used as flexible
sorters of the national labour force responding to changing national and
international market conditions.'21 Micro-level studies have revealed
Ihat this sorting affects women more adversely. In a study of women's
labour in the textile industry of Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, Baud has
shown how mill management has drastically changed recruitment
procedures by setting up a series of requirements: 'Workers must be
educated up to the tenth standard, be 18-21 years old, and have a
certain weight and height. The result is that women are excluded from
recruitment in 34 percent of the mills currently.'22
Two, our data show that except in the case of the teaching
profession, the percentage of female population going in for technical
education is negligible. Questions of accessibility will have to be
complemented by research in institutional arrangements and social
ideologies to explain how systems perpetuate the status quo and how
they might be transformed.
CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS
Among the issues thrown up by our paper we would like to highlight
the following:
SOCIAL SCIENTIST
The educational level of the (main) workers of the population is
even more dismal. While almost 50 per cent of male mam workers are
illiterate, in the case of women (main) workers, illiteracy is almost 85
per cent. Since a majority of the women workers are concentrated in the
agricultural sector, cither as cultivators and/or as agricultural
labourers, we have provided details regarding their educational level.
/Mmost 88 per cent of women cultivators and about 92 per cent of women
agricultural laborers arc illiterate, as against 59 per cent and 75 per
cent respectively for men (details in Table 9).
;
Table 10 details the educational level of the urban population in
general and urban mam workers in particular. (We need not labour the
fact of the urban population having better access to educational and
other infrastructural facilities vis-a-vis the rural areas.) It needs to be
pointed out that only 23 per cent of the total female population live m
urban areas of which only 12 per cent constitute main workers as per the
Census. 52 per cent of the total urban female population and almost 57
|h.t cent of urban female main workers arc illiterate. The Census also
provides (for the urban population only) the technical
< legrccs/diplomas obtained bv urban population by industrial
rlasstf’cation. Needless to add, data show that the skill level of urban
females and or urban female mam workers to be abysmally low except
m the icld of teaching.
Ta. 1c 11-15 provide details of the school attendance and levels of
education of children by sex, residence and activity. The\ bring out
quite starkly that:
(i) almost 65 per cent of female children (both rural and urban)
in the age group 5-14 years do not attend school;
(ii) this figure of non-attendance at school increases to 73 ;\r
cent for female rural children when broken down by
residence.
(b)
Almost 94 per cent of female child workers (age 5-14 years) do
not attend school;
(c)
Even among those female children not working, only 37 per cent
attend school;
(d)
In the case of scheduled caste female children, almost 85 percent
in the agc-group 5-9 years and about 74 per cent in the age-group
10—14 years arc illiterate. For scheduled tribe female children
the figures for the respective age groups arc 89 per cent and 82
(a)
per cent.
This then is the the educational quality of the population in general
and of women and female children in particular as depicted by official
data sources. It is clear that rates of illiteracy and gender difference in
educational level arc greatest in the rural and particularly among
scheduled caste and scheduled tribe women. The findings have
important implications for development policy and particularly so in
DEVELOPMENT EXPERIENCES IN INDIA
the current phase of the opening up of the economy where the emphasis
is on the importation of sophisticated technology to make the economy
internationally competitive. Unless we have special programmes
focussed on female children and women, gender dispanties may not just
persist but may even become greater given that there is an increasing
incidence of female children joining the ranks of workers and not
attending school. The pursuance of sex and class-neutral policies
without addressing/coerecting initial imbalances cannot but exacerbate
existing inequities. To quote Elliott and Kelly:
It is difficult to equalize opportunity once some groups have
established an initial lead, and even more so with current
constraints on increasing educational investment and government
employment. After actively discriminatory policies have set
inequalities in motion, sex-neutral policies arc sufficient to maintain
established patterns. Thus the educational gap continues, as does
the clustering of women in low-paid service occupations.*0
Moreover, there are two further problems that have to h* contended
with: one, literacy and the completion of some basic education no longer
guarantees a place in the labour force as in the past. As large numbers
•)f students complete primary school, employers begin to require still
higher levels of attainment lor the same jobs. This points to ar*
important function ot educational systems: they can be used as flexible
sorters of the national labour force responding to changing national and
international market conditions.'21 Micro-level studies have revealed
tliat this sorting affects women more adversely. In a studv ot women s
1. hour m the textile industry of Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, Baud has
shown how mill management has drasticaUy changed recruitment
procedures by setting up a series of requirements: 'Workers must be
educated up to the tenth standard, be 18-21 years old, and have a
Certain weight and height. The result is that women arc excluded from
recruitment in 34 per cent of the mills currently.’22
Two, our data show that except in the case of the teaching
profession, the percentage of female population going in for technical
education is negligible. Questions of accessibility will have to be
complemented by research in institutional arrangements and social
ideologies to explain how systems perpetuate the status quo and how
they might be transformed.
CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS
Among the issues thrown up by our paper we would like to highlight
the following:
DEVELOPMENT EXPERIENCES IN INDIA
74
SOCIAL SCIENTIST
The dismal performance 01 Indian organised industry is only
partly due to bureaucratic rules and regulations and largely
stems from an inflexible production structure that is unable to
adapt rapidly to changing global and domestic environments.
(b)
The quality of state intervention in the economy has been so poor
that it has not been able to compel the private sector to deliver
the goods despite vast resources having been made available to
this sector. While much ink and paper, and public and
Parliament time, has been used in denouncing the public sector.
hardlv any evaluation worth the name exists of the
performance of the private sector.
(c)
There is not even a conceptual realization that imparting
dynamism to the industrial sector ipso facto implies that a
labour policy be made an integral part of the industrial policy
(d)
Whether or not the new policies will generate employment is
onlv one aspect of the problem (for which again lherc ha> to be a
comprehensive evaluation of the components of the policy,';
more important in our view is the existing pattern of
employment and the quality of this emploved/emplovable
population in terms of its skill and educational achievements.
(el Macro discussions of policy and government decisions to
intervene in the economy assume a level of neutrality as far as
the impact of their decisions are concerned and/or assume that
disadvantaged sections of the population—women, scheduled
castes and tribes—can be helped to overcome lheir disadvantage
though 'appropriate' actions/policies. I low 'inappropriate
these interventions have been, particularly in the case of
women, has been clearly indicated in the data we have
assembled on employment and education.
(a)
That there is need for intervention is not being questioned; the
intervention required however is of a quality and intensity not
hitherto attempted in the country precisely because of the absence of
that political will which can command authority and demand
performance. The only alternative under such circumstances is a
combination of continuous struggle from below and laving bare of the
machinations of the statc-busincss-burcaucratic nexus. There is of late
an increasing awareness and reporting of the kinds of problems facing
the country which a liberalization policy per se far from solving will
onlv exacerbate given the existing distortions in the economy. We
would like to refer, in conclusion, to two of these issues which have to
do with our educational system.
First, The overemphasis of higher education in third world
countries, almost all of it at public expense, and before attaining
universal or near universal primary education has left the initial
imbalance between different classes/sections of the population, and
particulariy between men and women unaddressed. Blaug finds this
phenomenon to be a complete reversal of the pattern that obtained in
some of the pronunent advanced countries that were underdeveloped 5 I
or oO years ago, particularly Japan and the former Soviet Union.-3 The
expansion of education in these countries was marked by a deliberate
policy of attaining umversai or nearly universal primary education
before expanding secondary and higher education. Further, to quo.e
Blaug,
Mot only has third-level education been the fastest growing level of
education in Africa. Asia and Latin America since 1950, but the
spread of unit costs between the first and third level of education
vanes from 12 m America and Europe to 1:50 in most of Latin
America to 1.100 in Sub-Saharan Africa; in short, in most of the
Third World, one higher education student costs as much as 50 to ICO
pnmarv education students. So whatever the complex nature of the
world financial crises in education, the nub of the problem in the
Third World is clearly the enormous expense of university
education, which, paradoxically, falls almost wholly on the public
purse.-4
India is among those countries which has allowed heavy public
subsidization of higher education, while allowing vast sections ot its
population, particularly women, and, scheduled castes and tribes, to
languish for want ot a primary education.
A second set of issues w hich is not being taken note of in a scrioux
manner is the obsolescence and stagnation of technology education in
the country. An impression being created is that the most important
issue is the provision of suificient financial resources, laboratory
buildings, classroom equipment and associated facilities. While these
kinds of hardware and building facilities are no doubt necessary
conditions, they are not, as a former director of I IT, Madras, put it. the
critical issues.23 To quote the director,
The main issues are concerned with the curriculum, subject contents,
teaching of design methodologies, problem-solving approaches, as
also exposure to industrial and manufacturing processes, which make
technical education distinctively different from others. About 30-35
years ago, when technology was not as complex as it is todav and the
amount of material that one had to study in engineering institutions
was quite limited, the type of educational training provided had a
degree of completeness in the sense that a person soon after
graduation could take up a job and fit well into the stream of
activities ... In spite of its tremendous importance in engineering
education, however, as the curriculum underwent changes every few
years, design-oriented courses soon found their way out. and todav
' engineering education has become a second-rate science resembling an
SOCIAL SCIENTIST
applied physics course, and complet^fdevoid of :!s characteristic
features and identity . . . Two agencies that could have come forward
and asserted themselves were the Indian industries, and,
engineering professionals' societies. Both these agencies have been
silent spectators of the gradual deterioration of technical education
The industries, which are user agencies of trained technical
manpower, have also remained aloof [emphasis added).-®
This, as wo sec it, is part of a larger problem of what Dcyo calls the
'political economy of social policy formation . Examining the social
policy differences among the East ?\stan NICs, Dcyo argues that. East
Asian social policy (particularly government role in education and
wage determination) has been driven primarily by the requirements
and outcomes of econ-.mzc development policy, unlike the situation in
Latin America, where extra-bureaucratic political pressures have
played a more prominent role in shaping social policy.-'
In the zeal to liberalize the economy and make it market oriented it
is sought to confine the role of the government in India to the minimum
by making it responsible for social infrastructure. The point not being
realized is that even this minimum intervention, if it has to be
effective, has to be more explicitly and directly linked to a wellconccivcd economic growth.
Table 2
Composition of Main Workers by Ser and Activity within each Social Croup
Total (For All India)
Activity of Mam Workers Males
Females
Scheduled Castes
Schedule•d Tnbvs
Males
Females
Males
177513406 •14^3168 28515.377
(100.00)
(l(X).00) (l(X).(X))
77590670 14932165 91576-11
(43.70)
(33 20)
(32.11)
(ii) Agnc lubourcrs
34731846 20767858 11905029
(19.56)
(46.18)
(41.75)
(in) I louschold Industry 5647030
913777
2063890
[V (a)J
(3.18)
(3.20)
(4.59)
(IV) Other Workers
59573861
7209254 6538930
(111, IV, V(b) and
(33.56)
(16.03)
(22.93)
9.329191
(100 00)
15O3IS7
(16.12)
6344331
(68.00)
338725
(3 63)
1142648
(12.25)
11733619 7210)69
(100 00) (100 (X))
8792565 3162200
(59 60) (43.86)
3846309 3328589
(26 07) (46.17)
185717 126148
(1.26)
(1 75)
1929028 593132
(13.07)
(823)
1 Tnil.il Main Workers
of which
Cultivators
(i)
VI to IX)
Note:
Source
Figures within brackets indicate percentages to totals.
Same as Table 1 and
Census of India 1981—Senes I, India, Part II-B, Primary Census /Xbstract
Scheduled Castes
Census of India 1931—Scries I, India, Part II-B (iii) Primary Census Abstract
Scheduled Tribes.
■
§
= a
KS Ki
25 2- ,
78
SOCIAL SCIENTIST
DEVELOPMENT EXPERIENCES IN INDIA
79
Table 4
Table 5
Child Workers in India (below 14 vcars of age): by Industrial Category and So
(Percentage Change between 1971 and 1981)
Composition of Workers—bv Sex and Activity (1981 and 1991)
Percentage change between 1971 and 1981 m
Total Child Population
(Rural • Urban)
Males Females
Rural
Males
Females Males remaics
Total Child Pop.
*14 21
of which
Total Child Main Workers
-5 7
of which
(I)
Cultivators
-7.1
(ii)
Agne Labourers
-6 7
(in) Livestock, Forestry,
Fishing, 1 lunting etc.
-22.9
(iv) Mining & Quarrying
-8 1
(v)
(j) I louschold Industry *17 6
(b) Other than
Males
Females
Males
Females
Total Population
343930123
Total Workers (Main ♦ Marginal) 181080212
(Workers as % of total population)
(52.65)
of which
3536806
(i)
Marginal
(as % of total workers)
(1.95)
177543406
(ii) Mam
(as 7* of total workers)
(98.05)
321357426
n3524774
(19./-7)
433791705
223506153
(51.52)
402813817
91397489
(22.69)
18551606
(29 20)
44973168
<70.80)
4272674
(1.91)
2I9Z33479
(98 09)
25205055
(27 53)
66189434
(72.42)
14932165
03.20)
20767858
(46.18)
2063890
(4.59)
7209254
(16 03)
87717381
(40.00)
45815X30
(20 90)
7310270
(3.33)
7X3899QH
(35 77)
22871441
(34 55)
23X3357
(13 56)
3062529
(4 63)
1142177/
(17 26)
Composition of Main Workers
(i)
Cultivators
(as % of Main Workers)
(ii) Agne. Labourers
(as 7. of Main Workers)
(in) 1 lousehold Ind. Workers
(as % of Main Workers)
liv) Other Workers
(as 7. of Main Workers)
Source.
Computed from
1. Census of India 1971, Series-1, India, Paper 3 ol 1972, Economic
Characteristics of Population (Selected Tables) B-l, Part A
2. Census ol India, 1981, Sencs-1 India, Part lll-A(l), General Economic Tables
B-3. p. 240-43.
1991
1981
Urban
For 1981:
For 1991:
77590670
(43 70)
34731816
(19.56)
5647030
(3.18)
59573861
(33 56)
Same as Table 2
Census of India-4991, Scncs-I, India (Paper 3 of 1991) Provision'!
Population Totals*1 Workers and their Distribution
SO
I
SOCIAL SCIENTIST
Table 6
Average Daily Employment in Factories Submitting Returns: oy broad AgeCroups and Sex (1951-1985)
Adults
Year
Males Females Males
2217336
(87.61)
1956
2566463
(89.04)
1961
3115014
(89.08)
1966 3695511
(90.83)
1969
3749337
(90.63)
1974
4187272
(90.33)
1078
449K891
(89 98)
1979 4622346
(8? 90)
1980(p)4/>: 761
(90 20)
1981(p)4826212
(90 52)
19*2(p) 4.803372
(89 92)
1983(p) 4683.838
(90 51)
1984(p) 4715042
(90 45)
1985(p) 4638839
(90 45)
1951
Note:
Source:
Adolscents
283584
(11.22)
294809
(10.23)
368052
(10.52)
362468
(8.91)
379253
(9.17)
429773
(9.28)
48.8141
(9.76)
506953
(9.86)
491989
(9.55)
4 91842
(9 22)
524216
(9 81)
476745
(9.21)
482613
(9.26)
4747-18
(9.26)
18561
(0.73)
11393
(0.40)
7234
(0.21)
6C~
(0.17;
3650
(0.09)
4279
(0.09)
4103
(0.08)
39 jl
(0.08)
3502
(0.U7)
5822
(Oil)
5023
(0.09)
4994
(0.10)
3087
(0.06)
3797
(0.07)
Children
All Croups
Grind Tou
Females Males Females Males Females
4366
(0.17)
5334
(0.1S)
3341
(0.11'
(0.U3)
2703
(0.06)
7566
(0.16)
4479
(0.09)
4831
(0.0'/)
4903
(0.10)
3237
(0.06)
2638
(0 05)
5958
(0.12)
7208
(0 14)
5509
(0.11)
5152
(020)
3057
(0.11)
2405
(0.07)
•739
(0.04)
1518
(0.04)
1519
(0.03)
2029
(0.04)
1858
(0.04)
1555
(0.03)
1997
(0.01)
1820
(0.03)
1148
(0.02)
1517
(0.03)
2181
(0.01)
1738 2241249
(0.07) (8336) (11.43)
1253 2580913 30139&
(0.04) (89.54) (10.46)
441 3124653 372334
(0.01) (8935) (10.65)
918 3704227 364654
(0.02) (91.04) (8.96)
324 3754505 382280
(0.01) (90 76) (9 24)
2791 4193070 440130
(0 06) (90 50) (9.50)
2310 4505023 494930
(0.05) (90.10) (9 90)
1940 4627855 513724
(0.04) (90 01) (990)
2718 4650818 490635
(0.05) (90 30) (9.70)
2716 4834061 197845
(0.05) (90 66) (9 31)
49-18 4810215 531832
(0 09) (90.01) (9.96)
2327 4689980 484030
(0.04) (90 60) (9.40)
3343 4719646 493161
(0.06) (90 54) (9 46)
3792 4644817 48-10-19
(0.07) (90 56) (9 44)
2536544
(lOO.CC,
2562309
(103 00)
3496957
(103.00)
4068881
(100 00)
4136735
(100.00)
4o332(X)
(100.00)
4999953
(100.00)
514159*
(100 00)
5150153
'100 (KB
53319(V,
(100 (X)j
5342017
(l(X).(X))
5175010
(100.00)
5212810
(100.00;
5128866
(100 00)
1. p - Provisional
2 Figures within brackets indicate percentage to row totab
3 Sex wise break-up of 5307 workers not available, hence included only in the
final total.
1. For data upto 1979 —See Table 4.25 of Child in India. A Statistical Profile
Govt, of India, Ministry of Welfare, New Delhi, 1985, p. 473.
2 For data between 1980 and 1985, see Table 2.2. of Statistical Profile of
Women Labour (third Issue), Govt, of Inr.'ia, Ministry of Labdur,
Chandigarh, 1990, p. 11
8
1-J j “5
■5 |1 =§
I ’
I | ’ 3 11
°s ~ § °0
3g:=3| °g
8§ sj s§
3'5
|
S
DEVELOPMENT EXPERIENCES IN INDIA
83
Table 8
Educational Level of the Indian Population —By Sex and Social Croup (1981)
Irtioni of IVcwct Worlm in MtnufucU
Total Population
Scheduled Caste
Scheduled Tribe
Leve’s of Education
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Total Population
343930423
(100.00)
321357426
(100.00)
53489079
(100.00)
49811647 26007967 25558913
(100.00) (100.00) (100.00)
Literate
(without Ed. level)
49644471
(14.43)
27763144
(8.64)
6629599
(12.40)
2514730
(5.05)
3099015
(11.92)
Female
110347
(432)
Primary
46770288
(13.60)
26077285
(8.11)
5220109
(9.76)
1764630
(3.54)
1781300
(6.85)
539248
(2.11)
Middle
23860862
(339)
13340557
(4.15)
2600601
(4.86)
716843
(1.44)
899952
0.46)
260962
(1.02)
Ma trie/Secondary
20385734
(5.93)
7510275
(2-34)
1314812
(2.46)
274543
(0.56)
401324
(1.54)
100052
(039)
Higher Sec/Inter
7425067
(2.16)
2395980
(0.75)
451944
(0.84)
63216
(0.13)
107081
(0.41)
22223
(0.10)
Non-lcchmcal
diploma not
equivalent to degree
108960
(0.03)
67196
(0.02)
4176
(0.01)
1380
(neg.)
976
(neg)
236
(neg)
Technical diploma
or certificate not
equivalent to degree
1052525
(031)
273952
(0.09)
50201
(0.09)
11465
(0.02)
14421
(0.06)
3696
(0.01)
Graduate degree
and above
7037661
(2.05)
2317891
(0.72)
278361
(0.52)
32178
(0 06)
63769
(0 24)
13560
(0.05)
Per cent Literate
46.9
24.82
30.94-
10JO
24.48
800
Per cent Illiterate
53.1
75.13
69.06
8920
75 52
92.00
Note:
Source
Figures within brackets indicate percentages to totals.
1. Census of India—1981, Series 1 India, Part III-A (1), General Econorrjc
Tables
2. Census of India —1981, Senes I India, Part IV-A (I), Social and Cultural
Ta bits (Scheduled Castes)
3. Census of India —1981, Senes 1 India, Part IV-A (iv) Social and Cultural
Tables (Scheduled Tnbes)
84
SOCIAL SCIENTIST
DEVELOPMENT EXPERIENCES IN INDIA
Table 9
Table 10
Educational Level of (Main) Workers: 1981
Levels of Education Total Main Workers
Cultivators
Agricultural Labourers
Males
Females
Males
Females
Males
Females
Total
177543406
(100.00)
44973168
(100.00)
77590670
(100.00)
14932165
(100.00)
34731846
(100.00)
20767853
(100.00)
Illiterate
89890879
(50.63)
38027466
(84.56)
45340410
(58.44)
13172842
(88.22)
25931182
(74-66)
19176447
(9234)
Literate
(all levels)
87652527
(4937)
6945702
(15 14)
32250260
(41.56)
1759323
(11.78)
S800664
(2534)
1591411
(7.66)
Literate without
Ed. level
19563591
(11.02)
1851092
(4.12)
9454068
(12.18)
646077
(433)
3344473
(9.63)
657252
(3.16)
Primary
2742359
(15.45)
2290354
(5.09)
11922999
(1537)
790154
(5.29)
3636287
(10.17)
732378
(3.53)
Middle
16736611
(9.43)
851786
(1.89)
t>417865
(8.27)
250303
(1.68)
1299923
(3.74)
171212
(0.82)
Matncu'ation/
Seconds ry
13666459
(7.70)
849437
(..89)
3282389
(4.23)
62417
(0.42)
437985
(1 26)
28308
(0.14)
1 ligher See/
liitvr/l’re-Univ.
4057226
(2.29)
22x341
(0.49)
797852
(1.03)
6921
(0 05)
60334
(0.17)
1738
(001)
Non-tcchntcal
diploma not
equivalent to
degree
80132
(0.03)
28024
(0.06)
11759
(0.02)
246
(neg)
1939
(0.01)
110
(neg)
Technical diploma
not equivalent
to degree
824398
(0.46)
178617
(0.40)
32721
(0.04)
299
(neg)
4307
(0 01)
317
(neg)
Graduate
and above
5300520
(2.98)
674049
(1.50)
330607
(0.43)
2527
(0.02)
15418
(0.04)
364
(neg)
Note:
Source:
85
Figures within brackets indicate percentages to totals.
Census of India—1981 Series I India, Part III-A (i) General Economic Tables
Census of India —1981, Senes 1 India, Part III-A (ii) General Economic Tables
Urban Population and Workers Classified by Industrial Category, Educational
Level and Sex
(1981)
(Percentage Distribution)
Educational Ixvcb
Total
Urban population and % of total
(Rural ♦ Urban)
Illiterate
Literate (without Ed. Level)
Primary .
Middle
Matric/Scc
Higher Scc/Intcr/Pre Univ
Non-technical diploma not
equivalent to degree
Lech meal diploma not equivalent
to degree
Grad. Degree other than
technical
Post-Grad degree other than
technical
Total Urban Population
Main Worhtri (Urban)
Males
Females
Males
Females
83876403
73803768
40712501
5370183
2439
34.17
14.40
15.71
12-34
1134
5.00
001
22.97
5213
1287
13.68
905
673
2.52
1105
2293
27.10
8.87
17.18
14.23
1659
5.56
0.06
11.94
57.03
5.27
731
4.49
9.81
3.11
027
0.70
0.20
1.12
1.73
3.90
1 81
5.95
5.16
1.0
050
1 68
230
0.04
0.21
0.03
0.01
028
neg
0.01
0.07
005
neg
032
neg
071
0 36
0.01
0.02
051
neg
006
0.67
002
neg
252
neg
Tech, degree/diploma = deg or Post-grad
(i) Eng. Technology
(li) Medicine
(1 ii) Agn <5c dairying
(iv) Veterinary
(v) Teaching
(vi) others
Source:
Census of India —1981, Senes I India, Part HI A (i)
General Economic Tables, B-5, Part A (for Urban)
Table 12
School Attendance of Children by Sex: 19,
(5-14 years)
Total Child Population
(Rural + Urban)
of which
(i)
Total Attending School
(Rural + Urban)
(ii) Total Not Attending School
(Rural t- Urban)
2.
Total Child Workers
(Main + Marginal)
(2 as %of 1)
of which
(i) Total Attending School
Ki) as % of 2]
(ii) Total Not Attending School
((ii) as % of 2)
3.
Total Child Non-Workcrs
(3 as % of 1)
of which
(i)
Total Attending School
Ki) as % of 3)
(ii) Total Not Attending School
[(Hi) as % of 3|
1.
Source
Economic Activity a^BSchool Attendance of Children By Sex and Residence
(5-14 years)
Males (%)
Females (%)
93532864
(100.00)
86064380
(100.00)
49519942
(52.94)
44012922
(47.06)
8110810
(8.67)
29916843
(34.76)
56147537
(65.24)
5526555
(6.42)
261609
(3.23)
7849201
(96.77)
85422054
(9133)
82047
(1.48)
5444508
(98.52)
29834796
(93.58)
49258333
(57.66)
36163721
(4234)
(I)
(ii)
80537825
(37.04)
50703029
(62.96)
Computed from: Census of India, Scries I—India Part IV-A, Soaal and
Cultural Tables, (Tables C-3, Part A, C-3, Part B, and C-4).
Females
Males
l. Total Child Population
of which
Attending School
Not Attending School
2. Total Main Workers
a as % of 1)
of which
Attending school
Not Attending School
3. Total Marginal Workers
O as % of I)
of which:
Attending School
Not Attending School
4. Total Non-workers
(4 as % of 1)
of which
Attending School
Not Attending School
Source
Rural
Urban
Rural
Urban
73050750
20482114
67101915
18962165
4834%
51.66%
6696333
(9.17)
6937%
30.63%
738865
(3.61)
27.48%
72.52%
3504569
(5.22)
60.52%
39.48%
252488
(133)
049
9951
644063
(0.88)
0.61
9939
31549
(0.15)
020
9930
1721693
(2.57)
036
99.64
47805
(025)
3331
66.19
65710354
(89.95)
2030
79.70
19711700
(96.24)
4.17
95 83
61875653
(9221)
5.11
9439
18662172
(98.42)
5336
46.64
72.03
27.97
29.68
7032
61.48
3852
Computed from: Series I - India
Census of India, Senes l-Indla, Part IV-A. Social and Cultural Tables, (Tables
C-3, Part A, C-3, Part B, and C-4).
88
DEVELOPMENT EXPERIENCES IN INDIA
SOCIAL SCIENTIST
Table 14
Tabic 13
Educational Level of Children of Scheduled Castes (All Areas) (0 -14 years)
Educational Level of Child (Main) Workers —Rural * Urban, 1981
(Below 14 years of age)
Urban Main Workers
Total Child Workers
lllitera tc
Primary .
Middle
Matric/Sec.
1 iigher Sec. /Inter/Pre Univ
Non-techmcal diploma not
equivalent to degree
Tech, diploma not equivalent
to degree
Note:
Source
0-14
89
Levels of Education
Males
Females
Maks
Females
739102
(100.00)
469123
(S3 47)
127725
(17.28)
25681
□.47)
3150
(43)
221
(neg)
252514
(10CJG)
195067
(77.25)
25241
(10.0)
4132
(1.64)
472
(0.19)
22
(neg)
6698743
(100.00)
5342133
(79 75)
574730
(8.58)
85659
(128)
6920
(0.10)
437
0.01)
3505185
(100-00)
3117111
(88.93)
168601
(4.81)
22721
(0 65)
973
(0.03)
32
((neg)
26
(neg)
5
(neg)
36
(neg)
(.neg)
8
(neg)
5
(neg)
47
(neg)
9
(r^g)
>o
Figures within brackets indicate percentages Io totals.
Census of India 1981, Series I, India, Part III A (i) General Eco. Tables, B-5, Part
A (for Urban), B-5, Part B (for Rural)
0-4 years
5-9 years
10—14 years
Males
Females
Males
Females
Males
Females
Total SC Child
Population
6958012
6813608
7946081
7300127
7162648
6071322
(as percent of total
population of all
4gC>)
(13.00)
(13 68)
(14 80)
(14 66)
(13 39)
(12.19)
Illiterate
(as per cent of total
population
of the relevant age
6958012
(100.00)
6813608
(100.00)
5899512
(74.24)
6180838
(34.75)
3346928
(46.71)
4502336
(74.16)
1986673
(25 00)
1077906
(14 77)
184OZ1I'
(2 5.6»)
733r7\
59896
(0 25)
35383
(0.48)
162SOI |
(22 7I|
682015
(11 23)
331436
(4 63)
1512)
(0 21)
146115
(2.41)
full
(0 1!)
751
(0 01)
50
(neg)
319
(neg)
27
(neg)
119
(neg)
24
(neg)
Rural Main Workers
group)
(jicratc without
eJucanonal level
(12.O9|‘
tduc.iti.Mul Level.
Primary
Middle
Matruc/Sec.
1 Ugher Scc/Inter/
Pre Univ
Non-technical
diploma not
equivalent to degree
Technical diploma
run equivalent to
Soarce
r
Census of India 1981, Senes I, India, Part IV A (i) Social and Cultural Tables
(Scheduled Castes)
SOCIAL SCIENTIST
90
DEVELOPMENT EXPERIENCES IN INDIA
Table 15
Educational Level of Children of Scheduled Tribes (all Areas)
(0-14 years)
0-4 years
10-14 years
5-9 years
Levels of Education
Males
Females
Males
Females
Males
Females
Total ST Child
Population
(ns per cent of total
population of all ages)
Ulitera to
(as per cent of total
population of the
relevant age group)
Literate without
educational level
3366832
3417147
3379194
3817415
3427798
3175288
(12.95)
(13 37)
(14 92)
(1)94)
(1321)
(12 42)
3366832
(160.30)
3417117
(100.00)
3105942
(80.07)
3408595
(89 29)
201206
(58 70)
1’599. •
(81.57)
755229
(19.47)
399753
(10.47;
t>0>447
(13 50)
339513
(10 69)
1SO23
(0.46)
9067
(0.2?)
-
501337
(14 63)
10? 906
(3 06)
.3839
dill)
170
(neg)
1979*0
(6 24?)
4 >8 36
(1 44)
Nnn-hvhriical diploma
not equivalent to
dvgrix-
9
(neg)
i
(nc>9
Technical diploma
not equivalent
hi degree
2?
(neg)
13
(neg)
Educational Level
Primary
Middle
Ma trie/Sec.
1 lighcr 5x7Inter/
Pre. Univ
‘xmree
iO(rr
,1
(neyj
Census of India 1981. Sen es 1, India, Part IV-.A (i) Social and Culti irai Table*
(Scheduled Tnbcs)
NOTES AND REFERENCES
I am extremely grateful to Dr. C.T. Kunen, S. Ncelakantan, M.S.S. I’andian
and Kumkum Sangari for helpful comments and suggestions m finalizing this
paper, .ind to R. Dharumpcrumal for statistical assistance and production oi
:hc paper. Needless to add I alone bear responsibility for the views expressed
in the paper.
I.
What follows has been taken/summarized from Caroline O.N. Maser, Gender
Planning in the Third World: Meeting Practical and Strategic Gender Need-;.
World Development, Vol. 17, No. 11, 1989, pp. 1799-1825.
3. Molyneux, M., "Mobilization without emancipation? Women's interests, state
and revolution in Nicaragua,' Feminist Studies, Vol. 11. No. 2, 1985.
Also quoted in Moser, CO.N , (1989), op. at
4. Ibid.
5. For an elaboration of this and related points sec Swaminalhan, Padmm;
Gender in Indian Planning: A Critique’, in Sebasti L Raj (ed). Quest for Gender
Justice, T.R. Publications, Madras 1991. Swaminalhan, Padmini, Science and
Technology for Women: A Critique of Policy’, Economic and Political WrcVv,
Vol. XXVI, Nos. 1 Ac 2. January 5-12, 1991.
6. Ibid.
7. Text of Industrial Policy Statement, The Economic Times, (Bangalore cd.) July 23.
1991.
8. Peter Drucker s 1990s', The Economist, Vol. 313, No. 7625, October 21, 1989. Skv
also Srinivasan, P, 'Global Trends and Indian Industry’ Bulletin, Madras
Development Sen.mar Series, Vol. XXI, No. 10, October 1991.
9. ’Peter Druckers I99OV, The Economist, op.at.
10. Best, Michael II. The New Competition: Institutions of Industrial Reitructurin^.
Polity Prevt, U k 1990
11. The Cursed Dole", The Economist, Vol. 320. No. //26, September 28 October I
1991. pp 16-17.
12. There has been a spurt ot literature indicating die manner nt which political
pioccssc* Lave been effectively used in making- the market and making the
market function . Sec lor example: Vittorio Cur bo ard San Mok Suh (cd*’.
Structural Adjustment in a Newly Induslrtalued Country: the Korean
Experience. A World Bank Publication. 1992. Richard P Appelbaum and Jeffrey
1 lenderson (ed). Stales and Development in the Asia Pacific Rim. Sage
Publications, California. 1992. S.R. Clegg. S.R. Redding (ed.d, Capitalism tn
Contrasting Cultures. Walter de Gruylcr Berlin. New York. 1990 Frederic
C Dcyo (ed). The Political Economy of the New Asian Industrialism, Cornell
University Press, Ithaca and London. 1987.
13. For an excellent overview of the range and perspectives from a gender angla
relating to the question of technology and education, see, Susan C. Bourque and
Kay B. Warren, Access is not enough: Ccnder Perspective on Technology and
Education, m Irene Tinker (cd.) Persistent Inequalities: Women and World
Development. OUP. 1^90
14. For a fairly detailed discussion of the (statistical) aspects relating to women’s
participation in the labour force, see Gender and Poverty m India. A World
Bonk Country Study, Washington. 1991 .
15. Nirmala Banerjee, Trends in Women s Employment 1971-81. Sime Macro-level
Observations". Economic and Political Weekly .Vol. XXIV, No. 17, April 29.
1989, ppWS IO-WS-22.
16. Gender and Poverty ut India, op. at. p. 83 .
17. Maithcryi Krishna raj. Womens Position in Export Oncntcd Industry The Ciwlv
of Female Preference in Employment,’ 1985, (muneo).Quoled in Gender end
Poverty in India, op. al., p. 83
18. Banerjee, Ninnala, 'Some Recent Trenda in the Economic Activities of Women ,
Paper prepared for lhe National Commission on Self-Employed Women and
Women in the Informal Rector. 1988. Quoted in die World Bank Study, op. cit..
p. 85.
19. Government cd India, Ministry of Labour, Socio-Economic Conditions of Women
2.
For a concrete explication of the processes by which the State directed and
obtained economic and social development particularly in the East Asian
economics, see Appelbaum, Richard, I’., and I lendersen, Jeffrey, (cds), States and
Development in lhe Asia Pacific Rim, Sage Publications, California, 1992.
Particularly the article by the editors pp. 1-26, and Frederic C. Deyos The
Political Economy of Social Policy Formation’, pp. 289-306.
Workers in the Manufacture of Chemicals and Chemical Products and Food
Pioducts Industries, Labour Bureau. Shimla, 1986. Table 23, p. 18.
&
92
SOCIAL SCIENTIST
20.
4
Carolyn Elliott and Gail P. Kelly, 'New Directions for Rescarch'jn Gail P.
Kelly and Carolyn Elliott (eds) Women’s Education in the Third World :
Comparative Perspectives, SUNY Press, Albany, pp. 331—43 .
Quoted by Susan C. Bourque and Kay B. Warren, 'Access is not enough’ Gender
Perspectives on Technology and Education', in Irene Tinker (cd.). Persistent
Inequalities, p. 97.
21.
Susan C. Bourque and Kay B. Warren, ibid., p. 98.
22. Baud, I.S.A., Forms of Production and Women’s Labour: Cender aspects of
Industrialization in India and Mexico, Sage, New Delhi, 1992, p. 136.
*'** Blaug, Mark, The Overexpansion of Higher Education in the Third World’, in
Donald J, Savoie and Irving Brecher (ed.). Equity and Efficiency in Economic
Development, Intermediate Technology Publications, 1992, London, pp. 232-244.
24. Ibid., p. 235.
25. Srinath, L.S., ’Engineering a Change,’ Indian Express, Madras, April IS, 1993,
p. 8.
26. Ibid.
27. Dcyo, Frederic C., The Political Economy of Social Policy Formation', op cit.
1
UH 2-/
DATE
HEALTH WATCH
ISSUE 2
Dear Friends:
Since June 1995 when the first issue of HealthWatch
was released, we have received several letters from
all parts of the country. While some were requests to
be put on the mailing list, others sought information
on how to translate reproductive health approach into
action at the grass-roots level. We were overwhelmed
by the concern shown by many to provide health care
to women in remote corners of the country where none
exists. We have included abstracts from a few of these
responses in this issue.
A number of activities have taken place since we
communicated with you last. The most important event,
of course, was the Women’s Conference at Beijing
which was attended by the Indians from all quarters
and constituencies. This issue carries two pieces on
the Beijing conference, one by Ms. Gita Sen and the
other by the CHETNA team. Both actively participated
at the NGO forum and in the official conference
sessions. The Women’s conference further
strengthens our commitment to ensure provision of
reproductive health care to women.
We, as active members of the NGOs, however, have
to put our heads together to see that the commitment
made by our government both at Cairo and at Beijing
is not lost sight of in the bureaucratic maze, nor shelved
due to the reluctance to accept and implement change.
We will have to continue our interactions and dialogue
with the government at all levels. We will also have to
think hard, both collectively and individually, to
identify implementable programmes which reflect our
concerns, keeping the ground-level reality in mind. The
summary of Ms. Cynthia Myntii’s longer piece included
here shows one such effort in this direction. In anther
article, Ms. Leela Visaria pleads for building a
database on reproductive health of women in our
country and reports on a limited effort at data
collection undertaken at the Gujarat Institute of
Development Research.
As indicated in the June Update, our commitment to
the reproductive health approach is closely tied to the
removal of method-specific targets from the family
planning programme. The Government of India has
decided to remove the targets in a phased manner: all
major states have identified the districts of their choice
for implementing the programme while abolishing
For Private Circulation Only
DECEMBER 1995
targets at grass-roots level. Tamil Nadu and Kerala
have decided to make the entire states target-free.
Keeping this in view, we had requested Mr.
Ramasundaram, Special Secretary, Health and
Family Welfare Department, to write an anccount of
the Tamil Nadu experience. It appears in this issue.
We have been thinking about organising a convention
to share experiences and ideas. It will provide an
opportunity to know one another better and presonally.
While the venue, time and mode are yet to be worked
out, we invite your suggestions.
Should we
concentrate discussions on any specific themes?
Once we are able to firm up the place and dates, we
will write to you so that you can plan to attend the meet.
We take this opportunity to invite your contribution in
the form of articles, discussions, reflections and
accounts of experiences as well as suggestions and
comments pertaining to the materials presented and
issues raised. Your feedback will help us to be more
selective, focussed and responsive.
REPORT ON BEIJING
No brief report can really do justice to the Beijing
conference. In this report, therefore, I have only
touched on some aspects of the issues and the
politics of both the NGO Forum and the Official
Conference, and particularly addressed issues of
health and rights.
Huairou: The NGO Forum
The NGO Forum opened in Huairou amid continuing
controversy about the adequacy of the site and the
facilities. The months before had seen a tussle of wills
between the NGO Forum’s Organising Committee and
the Chinese government arising out of the latter’s
decision to shift the Forum site far away from the
location of the Official Conference, which was to take
place in Beijing. Finally Huairou had been accepted,
with the Chinese government promising adequate and
improved facilities.
When NGO participants started arriving in Huairou, it
became clear that the facilities still left a lot to be
desired. Many of the dormitories had barely been
finished and were full of dust; some of the large
buildings that were to hold panels and workshops were
unfinished concrete shells; and the promised access
for the disabled was inadequate enough to force them
to hold protest demonstrations on a number of days.
These were only a few of the problems participants
faced at the Forum.
The point is not whether the Chinese authorities were
trying or not; they clearly were. But one must
remember that the problem was of their own making, a
result of their decision (driven by a paranoia about what
the presence of large numbers of women from
non-governmental organisations would do) to shift from
the original Forum site. And they acted just like a
top-down, authoritarian bureaucracy. If someone at the
top felt an issue was important, it received
attention
and energy; not otherwise. Clearly the needs of the
disabled belonged to the latter category, while
surveillance of human rights groups belonged to the
former.
In all of this, the biggest failure was of the UN itself.
Contravening the practice of recent UN conferences
where NGOs have been recognised as having a vital
and legitimate role, the offices of both the
Secretary-General for the Conference and of the UN
itself distanced themselves from the problems of the
NGOs in Huairou. They left the NGO Organising
Committee hanging in the air as it were. At the peak
of the tension about the facilities and surveillance in
Huairou, UN Secretary General, Mr. Boutros Ghali,
cancelled his planned trip to open the Official
Conference, pleading illness even though he was only
as far away as Bali. Despite rumours to the contrary,
he never put in an appearance at the Fourth World
Conference on Women, thereby showing his
commitment to the world’s women.
According to some, nothing better could have been
expected since the low priority that the UN gives to
this half of the human race is evident in the poor
funding and the weak institutional machinery for women
within the UN system itself. My own belief is that the
UN could not have got away with what it did if this
conference had been about any other issue.
Despite these obstacles, women turned Huairou
into a tremendous opportunity for solidarity,
networking, and an exchange of materials,experiences,
and ideas. Many panels and workshops were of very
high quality, with a depth of knowledge and analysis
that showed how far women’s movements and
organisations in different parts of the world have come
in the ten years since the Nairobi conference. Among
hundreds of workshops, panels and plenaries, three
themes dominated the discussions at Huairou: (i) the
negative impact of structural adjustment and
the
need for alternative development frameworks more
sensitive to the concerns of women and poor people;
(ii) women’s rights as human rights; and (iii)
fundamentalism.
Beijing: The Official Conference
Not surprisingly, these same themes also dominated
the Official Conference in different guises. The most
active and effective NGO caucuses lobbying
government delegations were those on human rights,
health, and economic justice. What was striking was
the extent of coordination between these caucuses
which made the three sets of issues appear
interdependent rather than competing. Human rights
and health were the battleground of the major struggle
between women's organizations and religious
fundamentalists, as had already been foretold by the
experiences of the prepcoms and of the two most
recent conferences, the International Conference on
Population and Development (ICPD) in Cairo and the
Social Summit in Copenhagen.
Women’s Health and Rights
Most of the Health section of the Platform for Action
(PFA) was in brackets going into Beijing. All the
agreements and language reached in Cairo on
reproductive and sexual health and reproductive rights
for women were in jeopardy. Women’s health
organisations appeared to have their backs to the wall
in an attempt to prevent backsliding from Cairo. But
three things worked in our favour in Beijing. First,
unlike ICPD, Beijing was a women's conference, which
meant that the atmosphere in the negotiations was
conducive to concern for women’s needs and support
for women’s rights. Second, in the year intervening
between Cairo and Beijing, many governments had
clearly become more comfortable with the language
and concepts of sexual and reproductive health and
rights. Third, many government delegations included
feminists, including men, who were strongly
sympathetic to women. A striking result of this was the
strong support for feminist positions from a large
number of governments from the South. Among the
best organised regional groupings were those from
Southern Africa and from the Caribbean. India also
intervened effectively on a number of points. Ms. Sarla
Gopalan got a thunderous ovation at the final plenary
when she affirmed India’s support for the PFA without
any reservations. New and articulate voices were thus
speaking for women’s health from among the
governments themselves. It was not so easy for the
Holy See or other fundamentalists to play on the
traditional South-North divide.
What was actually gained in terms of the health
section of the PFA? All the major concepts of the ICPD
-- reproductive and sexual health, reproductive rights,
the treatment of unsafe abortion as a health concern
and the importance of primary health care -- were
protected in Beijing. But we also were able to move
forward on other fronts. The problems posed by
structural adjustment, health care privatization, and a
growing lack of access to health services were
acknowledged. Gender biases in health, especially the
effects of son preference, as manifested in sex
selection and neglect and work burdens of girls, were
clearly addressed. An attempt by the Holy See and its
supporters to bring in anti-abortion language through
the use of the term “foeticide” was warded off. The
document explicitly recognises that “the human rights
of women include their right to have control over and
decide freely and responsibly on matters related to their
sexuality,
including sexual and reproductive health,
free of coercion, discrimination and violence". Abuse,
violence and denial of rights to women in the area of
sexuality is no longer a private affair; it has entered
the public arena in an important way. On abortion, the
document goes beyond the ICPD treatment of unsafe
abortion as a health issue; it calls for a review of laws
that criminalize women who have illegal abortions.
For some time now, cultural relativism has been a
strong argument espoused by fundamentalists on
issues concerning women - recall their attack on the
term “gender" during the final prepcom - particularly
on women’s health and control over their own bodies.
Women’s groups going into Beijing had feared that
there would be an overriding clause giving priority to
traditions, cultures and religions over women’s human
rights early in the PFA.
Health groups were
particularly concerned that, in addition, a double
standard would be applied to women’s health and
bodies through an additional special footnote at the
start of the health section. A major achievement
therefore is that the reference to culture, religion and
national sovereignity (Paragraph 9 of the PFA) strongly
supports women's human rights, and is much better
than the corresponding paragraph in the ICPD - POA.
And there is no further reference to it in the health
section.
Despite these gains, the hard issues of economic
justice remain. The North remained as intransigent as
ever on resources, although as a feminist I wonder if I
really want “new and additional resources” in the hands
of fundamentalist and anti-women regimes. The UN
itself is in such financial disarray that it is doubtful if it
can give support to the world’s women. UNIFEM
appears to have come through its ordeal by fire, but it
still needs funds desperately. One of the few positive
signs seems to be the position being taken by the new
President of the World Bank, Mr. James Wolfensohn.
If his initial actions and speeches, including the one
made in Beijing, can serve as an indicator, there is a
chance that we may see some positive changes in
that hard bureaucracy. But, in the end, the way
forward from Beijing will depend on the spirit,
flexibility, learning capacity, and resilience of the
women’s movements of the world.
Gita Sen
Bangalore
BEIJING: IMPRESSIONS, IMPLICATIONS,
IMPLEMENTATION
Two momentous events took place in China during
September 1995: the NGO Forum on Women called
Look at the World Through Women’s Eyes was
organised in the city of Huairou between August 30
and September 8, 1995, and the United Nations Fourth
World Conference on Women on the theme of
Equality, Development and Peace took place in Beijing
between September 4 and 15, 1995. Approximately
35,000 women from all over the world participated in
the NGO Forum with a view to influence the
proceedings of the UN conference. The majority of
participants were grass-roots level women whose
attendance in vast numbers is unprecedented in the
history of such conferences. Their participation made
it possible to put the Southern countries’ agenda into
the UN official document, Platform for Action. The text
of the document was finalised after 6,000 women and
men representing accredited NGOs from around the
world as well as an equal number of official delegates
debated it at the UN conference. The Platform for
Action will serve as a guideline for national action to
be taken to achieve the goal of equality, development
and peace.
The women at the NGO Forum were committed to
highlighting women’s critical concerns and influencing
the official document using workshops, plenaries,
demonstrations, peace marches, street plays, women
weave, posters, slogans, handouts and exhibitions as
means. An atmosphere of overwhelming solidarity
prevailed, and work was carried out informally and even
joyfully.
Nearly four thousand workshops were organised on the
following major themes: Poverty, Education, Health
Care, Economic Structures and Policies, Sharing of
Power, Advancement of Women, Women’s Human
Rights, Media, Environment, and the Girl Child. About
45 workshops were organised simultaneously on each
theme in a sprawling campus of 26 hectares, lined with
posters, exhibitions, information about and handicrafts
from various countries.
In contrast, the environment of the official UN
conference was extremely formal and the security
arrangements were tight. The stringent security
measures, however, did not dampen the spirit of the
participants and they worked into the small hours of
the night. These women met regularly in informal
caucuses designated for the women’s groups to
debate, discuss and deliberate with the ultimate goal
of influencing the document. Nearly 45 caucuses were
organised on a variety of women’s concerns. NGOs
also consulted with and advised the official delegates
of their own countries with a view to influence them. If
the outcomes were not favourable, they continued to
lobby delegates from other countries. In addition, they
tried to remain present in the working groups meant
for official delegates to keep abreast of the progress
in the various sections of the document.
The NGO Forum highlighted the numerous issues of
women’s health from a gender perspective focusing on
violence against women and reproductive health. The
latter included use of safe contraceptives, sensitisation
of men and problems of mental health. The Southern
countries’ major concern was the provision of
comprehensive health care for women which includes
mental, occupational and reproductive health care
encompassing the entire life span. A strong demand
was made for an affordable, accessible, competent and
gender sensitive health infrastructure as well as trained
personnel equipped with adequate resources, even at
the periphery, to attain the goal of comprehensive
health care.
Dialogue between representatives of Southern and
Northern countries helped to broaden the
understanding of reproductive health to include not only
maternal health and safe birth control methods, but also
the need to address infertility, abortion and violence
as issues which affect women’s social and physical
well-being. Representatives from developed countries
found the Southern countries’ indigenous health
practices valuable and interesting, particularly their use
as a tool for the empowerment of women and the life
cycle approach to women’s health which is holistic and
integrated.
The issues of the Girl Child, apart from being
addressed and emphasised by women, were also
voiced by young girls who lobbied the officials. Sex
tourism, the effect of industrialisation on the health and
development of girls and reproductive and sexual
health of the adolescent were major areas of concern
and discussion. Representatives of the developed
countries showed a keen interest in learning about the
culturally sensitive and acceptable methods of
reaching out to communities, and especially to young
boys and girls.
Inheritance Rights was another controversial issue.
Most of the Islamic countries do not believe in the
equal rights of men and women in this area. The issue
remained unresolved until the end when finally, as a
compromise, a statement which advocated equal
access to property "within the context of national laws"
was accepted.
Other significant highlights of the document include the
reduction of infant and maternal mortality rates,
halving the number of women living in extreme
poverty by the year 2000, reduction in the female
illiteracy rate, the commitment to strive for universal
access to basic education, and the promotion of the
gender perspective in all policy making processes.
Effective implementation of the PFA requires
sensitising NGO and GO leaders to the gender
perspective which should percolate to the supervisory
and field-level workers. Consistent documentation and
analysis by NGOs are also required for the advocacy
purposes and for meaningful and realistic macro
and micro-level planning of the programmes.
Implementation, monitoring and evaluation of
women-centred programmes should be an integral part
of the future agenda of NGOs.
To ensure democratic participation of women
themselves in these development processes, training
women as leaders at the community level should be a
crucial component of all programmes for women so
that they can assume decision making positions at the
town, municipal, village, block and district levels.
The Beijing conference has ensured that the doors are
now open to NGOs to stride ahead in true partnership
with GOs. However, this is just the beginning; there is
a long road ahead before the goal of action and
implementation of the commitments agreed upon in the
Platform for Action can be realised at the national and
state levels.
One resounding message has come from the Beijing
experience: despite the clouds of controversy and
confrontation, it is time for the world's governments
and decision makers to understand that women are the
key to economic growth in developing countries. No
country can eradicate poverty if it ignores women!
CHETNATeam
Ahmedabad
NATIONAL REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
NEEDS ASSESSMENTS: GUIDELINES1
Reproductive health is a new reality, shaped by the
increasingly vocal women’s health advocates all over
the world and by the accumulating evidence about
AIDS, STD and violence against women. These
developments have forced communities to reconsider
the context in which women and men have sexual
relations, regulate their, fertility and have children.
Keeping this in mind, guidelines are developed for the
sta f who would be making systematic assessment of
reproductive health needs of a nation. They are meant
or an open and participatory process, not for an
ekpert committee to' .determine the problems and
issues.
ey describe a process that solicits the
wmoT T °f a Wide range of groups that have
and
° Say °n the subiect - from policy makers
qnionticfo ?are providers t° biomedical and social
advbcatpq’
yOun9 PeoPle to women’s health
medical def f 6 process seeks to avoid exclusively
’ ThisTanlb d °?S ° reproductive health but expects
This is an abridged version.
6
to be scientifically rigorous. A range of tools are to be
employed to seek and analyse information: open
research techniques when it is essential to “hear
people out” and closed research techniques when
measuring the magnitude of specific problems. The
work plan envisages travel outside the capital city,
observation of health services and conversations with
peripheral health care workers and ordinary women
and men. They can be used in such instances where
national policy makers show interest in rethinking their
approaches to reproductive health and are open to
NGO's perspectives.
An operational definition of reproductive health
includes the following aspects:
□ safe and satisfying sex life,
□ capability to reproduce,
□ reproductive freedom,
□ fertility regulation (contraception and pregnancy
termination),
□ safe pregnancy and child birth,
□ healthy newborns, and
0 the elimination of harmful practices and other
reproductive health problems2.
The guidelines outline the first two steps in the
process of planning reproductive health activities. The
first is a systematic identification and ranking of
concerns. Once the priority concerns have been
named, the second step is a separate analysis of each
one of them. The guidelines set out to be a practical
and participatory planning tool for all persons
committed to improving reproductive health.
Step One
Step one of the assessment process is an overview of
reproductive health needs. The specific guidelines for
the preliminary groundwork consist of (a) agreeing on
overall and operating principles of the assessment by
the main parties, viz., the external agency and the main
government institution involved; (b) selecting a national
co-ordinator with a commitment to reproductive health,
a gender-sensitive outlook, conviction of value of
diverse perspectives, and enough time; (c) refining the
division of labour and establishing criteria for
participation; (d) forming a coordinating committee
consisting of policy makers, service providers,
biomedical scientists, social scientists, management
specialists and members of NGOs, and (e) in orming
resident representatives of donor agencies of the
assessment.
Once the recruitment is over, the next action is to
identify the needs. Here the specific guidelines include
(a) hosting of a one-day “launching meeting to give
2 HealthWatch believes that safe portion and reproductive
morbidity are sufficiently important to be explicitly and
separately listed.
visibility and legitimacy to the assessment, to explain
the objectives and benefits, and to invite support and
collaboration; (b) holding the first meeting of the
committee to promote group dynamics; (c) holding field
visits and consultations with constituencies and
ranking emerging concerns qualitatively.
While setting priorities, the committee should meet
again to review the results of field visits and
consultations and prioritise concerns. To identify gaps
in knowledge, literature should be reviewed before a
final assessment is made. Special workshops for
women’s health advocates and activists should be
conducted. A national workshop should be convened
to disseminate results and to plan follow-ups.
Step Two
Step two of the process is the analysis of specific
needs. This brings into focus those concerns
identified as priorities in step one. An in-depth
situation analysis should be conducted on specific
reproductive health priorities. It should cover the
following: (a) decide who should participate in the
process, (b) assess what is known and not known, (c)
review existing policy and legislation, and services that
are relevant, (d) examine other non-programme
influences, and (e) discuss “success stories” of local
experiments to extract lessons from them.
Once this is over, the way forward has to be planned
that includes the following: (a) decide what new
information is needed, (b) plan research and research
strengthening, (c) consider whether policies should be
changed, (d) delineate the ideal services, and (e) chalk
out what needs to be done to reach the ideal.
Finally, once a major concern is identified, specific
activities should be planned. A workshop to brief
constituencies on the results of steps one and two
should be conducted.
The guidelines also include a reproductive health
matrix as an exercise in the assessment. The time
allocated for the whole exercise is around six months,
four months for step one and two months for step two.
Followed systematically, these guidelines will help the
national governments to address themselves to the
reproductive health needs of women and men of their
countries.
Cynthia Myntii
Minneopolis, Minnesota, USA.
A STUDY OF REPRODUCTIVE MORBIDITY
IN GUJARAT: A SMALL BEGINNING
Apart from the findings of a pioneer community-based
study undertaken in a couple of tribal villages id
Maharashtra state by an NGO team called SEARCH
and a few scattered studies conducted elsewheretrs3,
we know little about the status of reproductive health
of Indian women. There are virtually no national level
estimates of prevalence of reproductive morbidity.
Little information is available on whether and from
where women seek medical care.The socio-cultural and
economic characteristics of the women with various
reproductive health problems are not known. Nor do
we understand whether lack of treatment is due to
resource constraint or related to women's low status
in the household.
The lack of information, in my opinion, is due to three
factors. First, the emphasis of the national family
welfare programme has been on the provision of
family planning services and pre-natal care to
pregnant women and not on reproductive health
services which are virtually non-existent in the rural
areas.
Second, those NGOs which provide
reproductive health services along with general health
care to the community do not systematically document
their efforts. Even when information is recorded, it is
not analysed to indicate the extent of infertility or the
level or determinants of reproductive morbidity or
health of women. Third, until recently, health
researchers have paid scant attention to studying
women’s health concerns and needs and thus have
failed to create an adequate database to understand
the status of reproductive health of Indian women.
One of the reasons for not undertaking a study related
to women's health is that it requires multi-disciplinary
team involving social scientists, medical practitioners,
etc. It is not always easy to work in a team when the
members come from varied backgrounds. The social
scientists, on one hand, have raised doubts about the
value of researching women’s reproductive health
because of the belief that women deliberately
under-report their suffering and complaints which they
rarely discuss even with their near ones. It is
therefore feared that the difference between
survey-based estimates of morbidity and clinic-based
community-level estimates would be so wide that the
survey approach may prove fruitless. On the other
hand, it is also argued that some women may report
ailments to a sympathetic listener which are imaginary
and cannot be supported by medical investigations.
Thus there is a possibility that certain ailments may
be over-reported.
Such apprehensions need to be dispelled by
conducting actual studies.One way to resolve the
3 For a review of these studies, see: Shireen J. Jejeebhoy
and Saumya R. Rao, “Unsafe Motherhood: A Review of
Reproductive Health in India” paper presented at the
Workshop on Health and Development in India, National
Council of Applied Economic Research and Harvard
University Centre for Population and Development
Studies, held at New Delhi, January 2-4, 1992.
issue is to follow up reported statements of morbidity
with a medical check-up by way of verification.
Methodologically, such a study can enhance our
understanding of the discrepancy between perceptions
and scientific evidence.
At the Gujarat Institute of Development Research in
Ahmedabad, we have attempted a reproductive
morbidity study in five villages of one of the
prosperous districts in Gujarat state. During May-June
of 1995, we interviewed 322 married women at some
length about their reproductive health and morbidity.
The questionnaire was designed carefully after
consulting the data instruments available from other
such studies and discussing the issues with two local
gynaecologists. The investigators were trained to
enhance their understanding of the gynaecological
ailments as well as local terms and descriptions used.
Following the survey, the respondent women were
examined by a team of gynaecologists. In addition to
the clinical examination, cervical smears were obtained
for early cancer detection. We also provided treatment
or referral service to those women who needed them.
The study is not yet completed, but I would like to share
some lessons and findings.
Preliminary findings indicate that nearly 60 percent of
the women interviewed reported some morbidity related
to their reproductive functions.Majority of them had not
sought any medical care earlier. A sizeable proportion
of the women did not even mention their ailment to their
husbands or other members of the family. Many women
felt inhibited to discuss matters closely associated with
sex and childbearing with any one else, which
prevented them from seeking care. When asked why
they have not sought medical help, their typical
response was that such problems were part of being a
woman; all women have to endure some pain. Distantly
located women doctors and shortage of money also
acted as constraints to seeking health care.
The response to the next medical examination
organised during September 1995 was overwhelming.
Nearly 250 women in the five villages consulted the
gynaecologists. Many women who were not in our
sample also came. Some minor ailments were treated
with medication; others needed further investigations
and were referred. It was clear that there is a vast
unmet need for such services in rural areas.
The study brought home the fact that a priori, there is
no reason to believe that women, if approached with
empathy by women investigators, will not respond
positively and talk about their ailments. I also believe
that, as a signatory of the Platform for Action adopted
at the Cairo Conference, we must endeavour to
strengthen our programmatic efforts and enhance our
understanding of women’s reproductive health issues
by undertaking action-cum-research studies across the
country. The researchers should be encouraged to
follow standard sampling procedures and common
methodologies, including data-collection instruments,
in order to build a very vital knowledge base on
reproductive health in India. The NGOs can also
become active partners in our quest by undertaking
studies in their communities4.
Leela Visaria
Ahmedabad
FAMILY WELFARE WITHOUT TARGETS:
TAMIL NADU’S EXPERIENCE
For over thirty years, the family welfare performance
of states in India or smaller units like districts, taluks,
blocks or even individual government servants has
been assessed on the basis of numerical targets for
Jour major contraceptive methods, namely,
Obterilisations, intra-uterine devices (IUDs), oral pills
and condoms. Among these, sterilisation targets were
accorded the highest priority. The basis for this
approach is the argument that, if the contraceptive
targets are achieved, the birth rate will decline.
But the available evidence does not support this
argument. Kerala and Tamil Nadu have the lowest birth
rates, 18 and 20 respectively, though they have not
been achieving their sterilisation targets consistently.
Conversely, Maharashtra and Punjab have higher birth
rates, 26 and 27 respectively, though they have
performed quite well in terms of sterilisation figures.
Even U.P. has exceeded the family planning target in
three successive years, 1986-90. Yet its birth rate of
35 in 1991 was almost twice that of Kerala.
When one takes this analysis further by looking at the
gfcouple protection rates (CPR) and the crude birth rates
^CBR) in different states, one comes across a puzzle.
No strong negative correlation between the two is
found, though it should be present in theory. For
example, Kerala, with a CPR of 55 percent, had a CBR
of 18 in 1991, while Punjab, with a CPR of 74 percent,
had a CBR of 27 in the same year! There are two
explanations of this paradox: performance figures are
inflated to avoid punishments/transfers and
contraception is adopted by couples at a fairly late age
after attaining their desired family size. The second
becomes a particularly powerful explanation when
sterilisation targets are given to staff from the revenue,
rural development and education departments.
District Level Initiatives
Until 1990-91, the famil welfare programme in Tamil
Nadu was guided by targets, and the results were also
4 If you would like to obtain our questionnaire schedule or
know more about the study, please write to HealthWatch.
consistent with the paradox mentioned above: while
most districts achieved their sterilisation targets, their
birth rates differed widely. The Tamil Nadu government
took note of these facts and during 1991-92 abolished
sterilisation targets for the field staff of revenue and
rural development departments in two districts, Periyar
and Dindigul. This was considered a dangerous
experiment at that time because it was unthinkable that
the family welfare programme could be implemented
without giving targets to the revenue and rural
development staff working directly under the District
Collector. By the end of that financial year, however,
this myth was exploded when both the districts
exceeded their sterilisation targets.
Encouraged by this, the Tamil Nadu government
extended this reform to two more districts in 1992-93.
As Collector of North Arcot Ambedkar district at that
time, I volunteered and received permission to
implement family welfare programme in which the
non-health functionaries were not given any targets.
Several district-level officers cautioned me against this
foolish attempt to modify an “old" programme like
family planning. By October 1992, the performance
figures for the first six months of 1992-93 did not show
any decline in the sterilisation figures. So I went ahead
and abolished targets even for the health deprtment
staff from October 1992. By the end of 1992-93, the
district had posted the best sterilisation performance
in a decade! I documented this experience and
circulated it among other Collectors and senior
officials at Madras.
State Level Reforms
The launching of the Dr.Jayalalitha 15-Point
Programme for Child Welfare and the announcement
of the State Population Policy by the Tamil Nadu Chief
Minister in November 1993 set the stage for state-level
reforms in the family welfare programme. Both these
policy documents emphasised the importance of
maternal and child health services rather than the mere
achievement of contraceptive method targets. By this
time, I had joined the Health Department at Madras
and initiated a two-step reform process: the first step
was to abolish targets for the revenue and rural
development staff in the remaining districts and the
second step was to abolish targets even for the health
staff. We held extensive consultations with
representatives of auxiliary nurse-midwives (ANMs)
about these reforms who gave their wholehearted
support to them.
The first step was ordered by the Tamil Nadu
government in 1994-95. Its salient features were:
□ Abolition of targets for all non-health staff in the
state;
□ Allotment of targets in female contraceptive
methods exclusively to ANMs and in male methods
to the male workers;
□ Removal of motivator fee and motivator certificate;
and
□ Simplification of travelling allowance procedures.
The results were astounding! For the first time
in nearly thirty years, Tamil Nadu achieved the
targets in all the four methods of contraception, while
saving about Rs. three crores in travelling allowance
and motivator fees. In the process, several wellentrenched beliefs were exposed as baseless.
This enabled the government to move on to the
second stage of reforms in 1995-96. Once again, the
salient features were discussed with the ANMs who
supported them readily. The second stage of reform
was characterised by the following:
□ No targets from above even for the health staff;
□ Micro-level targets for reproductive health,
maternal and child health and contraceptive
methods to be fixed by the ANM herself;
D Retention of vasectomy targets for the male
workers;
D Reduction in the number of registers for ANMs;
. Simplified recording and reporting formats for ANMs;
□ Improvements in service conditions of ANMs such
as higher uniform allowance, and loan to buy
mopeds; and
Inclusion of reproductive tract infection and
sextually transmitted disease services in the
programme.
The results till 30 September 1995 indicate that there
is no fall in sterilisation figures, while there is an
increase in the acceptance of the temporary methods,
compared to the same period in 1994.
Conclusions
It is heartening to see that the Government of India
has also initiated a similar process of reforms. It has
allowed every state to declare one or two districts as
“target free”. In the case of Kerala and Tamil Nadu, it
has gone even further by declaring the entire states
as “target free”. The entire issue was reviewed by the
Government of India and the States in the third week
of October 1995 at Delhi. Tamil Nadu had suggested
that a two-step reform process over the whole state
(as done in Tamil Nadu) would be a better option
compared to an abrupt and total abolition of targets in
a few districts without an alternative sytem of
monitoring.
The reproductive health approach, agreed upon by all
nations at the Cairo Conference, emphasises overall
reproductive health as the objective rather than rapid
fertility reduction. Since the Government of India is
already committed to the reproductive health
approach to the family welfare programme, it ought to
move forward by advocating a micro-level planning
approach for the delivery of reproductive and child
health services in all the states. The example of Tamil
Nadu shows that this is feasible in the Indian context,
both in terms of implementation and monitoring5.
S. Ramasundaram
Madras
FROM OUR MAILBAG
After the release of the June update of HealthWatch,
we have received communications from researchers,
newspaper reporters, and other interested individuals
as well as from NGOs, research institutes, university
departments and funding organisations. Some have
congratulated us on our venture, others have sought
help and guidance, still others have sent us
information about themselves. Among others, we have
heard from Annapurna Vancheswarn, P. R. Sodani, S^
Rema, Prabha Kotiswaran, Dinesh Agarwal; Brijesh"
Singhvi, Preeti Kudesia, Nimitta Bhatt, Anjali Widge,
N. Haridasan, Lily Kak and L. K. Paikraj. Of course,
NGOs constitute the majority of our respondents.The
following NGOs have sent us their newsletter or
brochure.
□ Community Health Cell, No. 367, Srinivasa Nilaya,
Jakkasandra, 1st Main Block, Koramangala,
Bangalore 560 034.
Contact: Anjna Srinivas.
□ INDU: Individuals in Development Unity, Sai Niwas,
Khondgewadi, Lonawala, Maharashtra 410401.
Contact: Ratna Bannerjee.
□ Sampark: Parivar Seva Sansthan, 28 Defence
Colony Market, New Delhi 110 024.
Contact: Ruba Bannerjee.
□ Voices: Madhyam Communications, Post Box 4610,
59 Miller Road, Benson Town, Bangalore 560 046.^,
Contact: Sucharita S. Eeshwar.
"
The commissioner of Family Weflare, Andhra Pradesh,
has spread the word about HealthWatch to the State
District Medical and Health Officers and relevant
NGOs. He has asked them to write to the HealthWatch
about their experiences and innovative activities.
This account of the Tamil Nadu experience has
successfully argued for removing method-specific targets
as an efficiency measure for lowering birthrates. However,
there is women’s health perspective on this issue too.
According to it, fixing method-specific targets has resulted
in distorted priorities in women’s concerns. Removing
targets can mitigate the distortions Health Watch.
HealthWatch
c/o Gujarat Institute of Development Research
Gota 382 481, Ahmedabad, India.
Phone: (079) 7474809/10, Fax: (079) 7474811.
□ ESIGN:ABHIKALP-469401, 446873.
LOH T-l
Ioui^V'a £*■■.'. .</ >■:
;«
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7.f
Industrial Training InstitutesAA/omen’s Wing of ITI's in the country and Polytechniques for
women, i raining for rural youth for self employment (TRYSEM) and short training piogammes
of various Boards, also provide training to women. Though 51.2 per cent of ex-trainees were
employed and though their average income was good, the training resulted in considerable
wastage in some areas Major reasons for the wastages were lack of demand for the skill, lack
of adequate support for self-employment, inadequacy of training, and indifference of trainees
towards the job (when they did not belong to poorer sections of the society) For example, a
large number of women take up tailoring and cutting work, but they cannot self-employment
schemes successfully because the markets for the garments switched by them are limited
They do not have training which will help them to expand their existing ventures or start new
ones which require skills in marketing, in acquring credit in maintenance of accounts and
procedures in project formulation Thus training in growth of' entrepreneurship organizing,
general awareness. knowledge of legal matters is also lacking.
Technology
89.
As per the official approach, the technology policy inilndta aims at ensuring that our
natural available endowments, specially human resources, are optimally utilised for a
continuing increase in the well-being of the all sections of the population. However, if an
industry has displaced women, who being in low skilled jobs operate in an area which is prone
to be mechanized. Women being largely illiterate and untrained have little scope of learning
how to operate the new machines or technical devices. The technological research also has
not been directed to alleviating the drudgery of women, improving of specific tools and
machines used by women or in the improvement of health and safety standards of women
workers Research for reducing of drudgery in domestic work has been limited to a few items
like smokeless chullahs, gobar gas plant and solar cooker.The wider area of women’s work has
largely been left untouched Similarly, in the area of occupational health hazards which the poor
labouring women face have not been taken into account while introducing technology.
90.
There are, some short-run measures which are recommended to protect women
from displacement like directives should be issued to all industrial units, specially in the public
sector, that no further reduction in the level of employment of women will be permitted. \
small planning group should be set be yet the Technology Policy Cell to design a format, listing
the criteria for evaluation of all proposals of technology transfer and automation in industries.
So that a view can be taken with reference to women's opportunities for employment.
Schemes should be formulated 'or retraining women released from sick industries or closed
industrial units. There is also a need to develop a long term perspective for technology for
women This could be done on the following lines:—
91.
The Ministry of Labour should prepare a list of those sectors/industries which are
presently labour-intensive and provide employment to sizeable number of women but are
likely to be affected by technology transfer jeopardising their employment opportunities. In
such cases, the pace anddegree of mechanisation should be so regulated and phased outthat
women are trained on the job and be given ot’ er inputs like credit and tools.
92
Projects which result in the displacement of women should not be issued business
licenses and or funded or given concessions or subsides by the Government. Banks and
Corporations.unless the displaced women can be firmly renabilitated in alternative employment.
The r‘ '-pia ,ed women should have the first priority in training for new jobs created by the new
technology.
93
The Project Appraisal Division of the Planning Commission, in collaboration with the
Technology Policy Implementation Committee, should formulate clear guidelines for the
78
approval of import of technology or automation in any given industry, by listing out critical
issues to be considered in technology assessment and valuation.'
94.
The. Inter-Departmental Working Group, set up by the Technology Policy Imple
mentation Committee, to draw up guidelines for technology assessment and evaluation, and
absorption of imported technology, has made a large number of recommendations (1985)
which need to be implemented.
95.
It should be incumbant on the employers to prepare a good feasibility report for
submitting their proposal for a loan to the government for the purpose of technology transfer
to indicate existing capital-labour ratio and changes expected after introduction of technology.
present pattern of employment (sexwise) within the industry at the skilled, semi-skilled and
unskilled levels, and the demand fcr different categories of labour after technology transfer.
96.
All technologies which are likely to directly and indirectly increase women's
workload must be accompanied by other technologies or measures to ease or eliminate these
side effects. In other words, a systems approach should be used to develop packages, rather
than the current uni-dimensional approach. These multi-faceted packages must be gender
sensitive and women biased.
97
The development of new technologies for tradit onal.or even modern occupations,
must be prioritised, beginning with woman's occupations. In other words,, technology
development must .be selective, designed to impact positively on women's work, whether
wage-work or non-wage work.
98. Development of simple or appropriate technology in the form of tools, implements
and protective devices, to remove or reduce the work-related hazards faced by women, must
be given top priority and taken up on a war-footn-g. Mechanisms must be created for involving
the women themselves in the research and development process, so that the results are
appropriate and useful to women.
99. An advisory committee, with some cower of veto, must be set up at Central
Government level to monitor the impact of technology on women. The Committee should also
"actively identify and promote the areas for research and development on pro-women
technologies.
100: Existing technologies, which are not appropriate for women, though they are
almost exclusively utilised by women (e.g. sewing machines, handcart pulling', table heights,
cashewnuts, openers should be redesinged on a priority basis. The redesigning should be
based on anthropometric measurements of Indian women.
101.
Thirty-five per cent of all the research and development funds of national research
and design institutes should be reserved for women's work, including occupational health
studies, and working out ch'anges in these for the convenience of women workers.
102.
An important requirement in this context is of introducing in-built system of
evaluation. The government agencies processing such proposals usually do not have adequate
data on non-technical issues to give adequate weightage to them. Instead of doing a
post-mortem analysis of the impact of production technologies on. employment of women.
there should be an in-built system of such evaluation. A multi-disciplinary group for technology
evaluation may be set up under the aegis of the Ministry of Labour drawing expertise of
several organisations within the government (including Planning Commission, economic
ministries, financial institutions entrusted with the responsibility for analysing choices,
Women sCell of the Department of Science and Technology, representative of TPIC training
institutions and research and development systems) and from non-governmental organisa
tions. Pooling together data and information, the report prepared by the Group should be given
due weightage while considering proposals of technology transfer and should be disseminated
79
widely.
103.
Technology being such an important issue has been dealt with again in the
Chapters on Legislative Protection and Health focussing on the legal aspects and the
occupational health hazards.
Anti-poverty Programmes for Poor Women:
104.
The strategy of direct attack on poverty was formulated in the early seventies and
special programmes for the poor were introduced in the Fouth Five year Plan. However, when
it was realised that "the poor" did not form a homogeneous group and that the different
sections of the poor faced different constraints, specific programmes for various sections of
the poor were formulated. Initially, special quotas (% of the total beneficiaries) were laid down
for poor women,-but subsequently, exclusive programmes for women were also introduced.
105.
The present set of anti-poverty programmes can be broadly divided into the
following broad categories:
(1)
Programmes providing self-employment to the poor,
(2)
Programmes providing wage-employment to the poor,
(3)
Special Area Development Programmes;
(4)
Programmes imparting training for skill formation, and
(5)
Programmes pertaining to land reform.
1
“The major anti-poverty programmes in the country are as follows:
1)
IRDP: The main self-employment programme for rural areas today is the Integrated
Rural Development Prgrammes (IRDP) which is regarded as "a major instrument of
the Government'Strategy to alleviate poverty." Its objective is to enable families
below the poverty line to cross the poverty line through the use of productive assets.
2)
DWCRA: In recognition of the fact that women have benefited only marginally
under vaious rural development programme a pilot scheme was visualised in 1982-83.
This was to be implemented in 50 selected districts all over the country to give a
boost to the invlovement of women in anti-poverty programmes. Since reaching
women in isolation was cosidered to be very difficult, it was decided to adopt a group
approach to reach women in large numbers. Groups of 15-20 women belonging to
families below the poverty line are expected to be organized underthe programme for
,
self-employment. These groups are provided financial assistance (loan and subsidy).
"
technical assistance including training, marketing linkages and other follow up support
to take up the selected enterprise successfully. The specific objectives of DWCRA
are: (1) to improve women's participation in rural development. (2) to improve their
earnings, (3) to help them acquire new skills,_(4) to provide them better access to
credit and to other social services, (5) to reduce their daily work-loan. (6) to establish
meaningful linkages with various other programmes for the development of the rural
and backward sections of the society and (7) to generate marketable output of
women from these activities.
3)
Wage Employment Programmes: Major wage-employment programmes which
provide wage employment to the poor on public (and sometimes semi-public or
private) works are National Rural Employment Programme (NREP) and Rural Landless
Employment Guarantee Programme. A few states such as Maharashtra are also
implementing the Emp oyment Gurantee Scheme.
4)
Special Area Development Programes: Special Area Development Programmes aim
at developing backward areas which are normally by-passed by the general
development process. The main Area Development programmes are Drought Prone
eo
rape’and assault faced by women from employers and officials, her statement be taken as
sufficient proof while the onus should be on the accused to prove his innocence.
Other Safeguards—Property Laws. Desertion,
Widowhood and Maintenance. Prohibition
112.
The woman should have equal rights to ancestral property and even after marriage, she
could claim it as and when she requires it. Also the property acquired after marriage must be in
joint names and she must have the right in the matrimonial property when she is thrown out,
divorced or widowed. The Government should give preference to widows and destitute
women for government jobs, redistribution of land and in providing house sites for the
houseless.
113.
One of the most serious, if not the most serious, problem faced by women workers.
whether home based or not. self-employed or not. is drunkenness on the part of their
husbands and the consequences of this on the women. Wife beating, reduced if not non
contribution towards the family upkeep by the husband out of his earnings, even depriving the
women even of her meagre earnings, inculcating the habit of drink in the children and also in
the women, etc. are some of the evils. Consideration for state revenues should not lead the
government to view "Prohibition" unkindly. At least there must be total restriction on the
production and sale of hard liquor. In the short run. the number of retail outlets should be
reduced, number of days for sale reduced, location of outlets carefully selected, complete
restriction on sale on pay day. payment of wages at.least partly in kind and consultation with
women's representatives on the opening of retail outlets end their locations—are some of the
steps that should be taken.
114.
Drug addiction which is also becoming a menace increasingly calls for similar preventive
action.
Major Areas Of Focus
Technology and Self-employed Women
115.
The question of the effects of the introduction of technology is a highly complex one.
lechnology is constantly entering and transforming all spheres of society. Furthermore, the
effects of technology are felt at many different levels. They may be felt immediately or anytime
in the future; they may be felt in the area where technology is introduced or anywhere else.
nationally or even internationally; they may be felt by only one category of people or by the
whole population; they may be felt in any or all spheres of society—social, economic, political
etc. So. in order to judge the actual effect of a particular technology a multi-level.
multi-dimensional study would have to be undertaken.
116.
Here we will restrict our view to technology which affects work processes in which
self-employed women are involved. We are not attempting to study the multi-dimensional
effects of this technology but merely to make some observations on how self-employed
women have so far been affected, how the negative effects can be scaled down and the
positive effects increased.
Displacement of Self-employed Women
117.The greatest effect of technology in> the work process has been the displacement of
self-employed workers from their traditional occupations. This displacement occurs in a variety
of ways:
(i)
Direct displacement: This kind of displacement occurs when new machines or new
processes are brought in to do work mechanically that the workers were doing
124
manually. Two recent examples are: In the coal mines loading and unloading is being
done by contract labour both men and women The introduction of loading —
unloading machines has directly displaced these labourers. Again, Punjab is famous
for its green revolution Much of the farming operations of Punjab is done by
agricultural labour brought in from Eastern India. Now the Ministry of Agriculture is
encouraging the import of a 'Harvester-Combine' machine which would take over
most ofthe farming process, thereby displacing thousands, perhaps lakhs of
agricultural labourers.
(ii)
Displacement by takeover of market: This kind of displacement has been affecting
mainly small producers and artisans whose traditional markets have been taken over
by machine produced goods. There are abundant examples of this: tradition?1
cobblers have been displaced by shoe companies like Batas, products of potters have
been replaced by plastic goods, handloom weavers are today involved in a life and
death struggle with the powerloom sector.
(iii)
Displacement by takeover of raw materials: Here again small producers are displaced
because their raw material sources are taken over by mechanised sectors. Handloom
weavers for example find it more difficult to get yarn because the mill sector gets first
priority. Camboo workers have to pay exorbitant prices for bamboo because the paper
mills buy bamboo forests en masse.
--------------------------------- --------(iv)
Displacement by destruction of environment: Lakhs of self employed people have lost
their livelihood through large scale change (destruction) of the environment. The most
obvious example is the destruction of forests by the timber industry whereby minor
forest produce gatherers, small and marginal farmers, livestock keepers etc. who
lived off me forest have completely lost their livelihood and had to migrate in search of
new employment.
Effect of Displacement on Women
118.
Although self-employed men and women are both affected by displacement, it is
generally found that the effect on women is much more pronounced. The reasons for this are
firstly, women are usually involved in the most unskilled manual work. These types of work are
the first to be mechanised. Secondly, women are not given training in skills so when their
unskilled operations are mechanised they are not reabsorbed in the workforce. Finally
women's employment is rarely defended, by the trade unions and we have in fact come across
cases where women's employer has been deliberately sacrificed by the unions.
Other Issues of Technology 119.
Apart from the issue of displacement, technology may bring about:-
(a)
(b)
(c)
worker
(d)
A higher production level
A higher income level
A change (for better or worse depending on the technology) in the health status of the
A reduction (dr increase depending on the technology) in the drudgery of the worker.
120.
However each new technology has a different effect and the effect of raising the health of
the worker by outweighed by massive displacement. We are only suggesting that when a
technology is being evaluated all the above issues should be used as criteria.
121.
It is important to emphasise, while dealing with this issues, that technology is 'not given ,
125
not an unalterable thing to be accepted as it is. Technology is developed by research and it is
the need that creates a particular type of technology. This can be seen most clearly in drug
technology where drugs are developed specifically for diseases. The disease determines the
direction of the technological research. Similarly, in the case of work mechanisation, the
direction in which the work process is desired to be altered determines the direction of
technological research. The main question to be asked here is whose needs determine these
technological directions'1 The answer to that question seems to be new technology creates
higher orofit margins for owners of large capital and therefore these owners determine the
technology to be researched and applied. If,however, technology is to be used for the benefits
of the self-employed worker then their needs should determine (i) which existing technology is
implementeo and (u) the direction of technological research.
Pecommendations
(1)
All new technologies should be screened by a high-powered committee from the point of
view of the workers Self-employed women should be an important component of this
committee. The criteria for screening should be given.
(a)
Employment potential
(b)
Income accruing to work
•
—------ -----------(c)
Effect on drudgery
(d)
Effect on health
(2)
Technologies which result in large unemployment should be banned
(3)
Beneficial technologies should be encouraged with tax rebates etc.
(4)
The direction of research Snd development should be determined by the above committee.
(5)
Within the framework of policy, the Equal Opportunities Commission will have the
authority to advise, investigate and decide all matters relating to various kinds of work.
Employment Guarantee
122.
Amelioration of the conditions of poor working women cahnot be the sole objective of our
exercise. We also seek to empower the woman to come into her own. This will be best
achieved if we can create conditions under which'the woman can earn a reasonable wage for
her day's work and she can work on all the days that she is available and willing to work. Our
recommendations, hope, will enable the women workers to earn reasonable wage for her
labour. As for employment, our recommendations regarding fall back wage and retaining
allowance will mitigate her hardship to an extent. But the real remedy lies only in a guarantee
of employment. This employment.guarantee becomes necessary and important in the context
of increasing pauperisation of the rural people, occasioned by displacement from land,
deforestation, large scale drought etc.
123.We. therefore, recommend that the "right to work” which now figures as a Directive
Principle of state policy in our Constitution should be included as a Fundamental Right under
the Constitution. This should be followed by a Central Legislation guaranteeing employment to
all adults who are in need of employment and are willing to work. The law can be on the lines
of the Employment Guarantee law of Maharashtra and should be applicable to the whole of
India, in both urban and rural areas. While all existing employment schemes like NREP and
RLEGP can be pressed into service for providing employment under the proposed law, the
nature of schemes need not be confined to earth work, road making, stone breaking and the
like but ..should be imaginatively drawn up to suit local needs and local resources. In the
drawing up of these scheme, the local people, and more particularly the women, should have a
predominant voice. Activities relating to maternity welfare, child care, nutrition, education,
126
problems, should be given priority.
13.
The State should provide credit to women, and small consumption loans, for
investing in bettering their working conditons.
14.
A comprehensive Health and Safety Act should be evolved and enacted. This Act
should give the workers:
(1) right to information about chemicals and work process at the work-site.
(2)
right to inspect work-sites
(3)
right to demand guards for machinery, monitoring and controlling levels of dusts,
fumes and fibres in the work atmosphere.
(4)
right to demand personal protective equipment, and
(5)
right to stop work if the conditons. are found unsafe.
»
This Act should be evolved in consultation with workers, trade unions and cgncerned
" voluntary agencies.
"
Introduction of new technology
. •
-—-—
15.
Before introducing,any_new-machinerv~equipmenf or process, these should be
screenedTancLapproved by representatives of women~workers involved in that particular
occupation where these are to be introduced.The women workers should have statutory rights
to screen and approve new machinery, equipment or process, or any changes in the existing
ones.
Priorities in research
16.
The Indian Council of Medical Research. National Institute of Occupational Health.
National institute of Design, and such other’brganisations, should undertake occupational
health studies of women's. These should be done with a view to developing simple preventive
.and protective mechanisms and machines acceptable to workers which would reduce health
problems.
.
.
Special emphasis must be placed on the ergonomic aspect of women's work, including
^^rostural problems. Innovation in the production processes which could reduce health
^jroblems ■•should be examined, with workers guiding and advising throughout, and such
innovation be recognised and rewarded.
Technology Related Recommendations
77. We can summarise here some criteria for scrutinising the potential negative and positive
effects of technology on women and their health:
1.
2.
A’l technologies which are labour-displacing must be rejected a priori.
All technologies which are likely to take over tasks currently pverformed by women
(for wages or self-employment) and, therefore, likely to displace them, must oe
placed under women's control by:
a)
b)
c)
166
Training women in its operation and maintenance;
Providing credit facilities to women only for its acquisition;
Being designed for women, with their participation.
169
3
All technologies which are likely to directly and indirectly increase women s workload
must be accompanied by other technologies or measures to ease or eliminate these side
effects In other words, systems approach should be used to develop packages, rather than
the current um-dimensional approach. These multi-faceted packages must be gender-sensitive
and women-biased.
4
The development of new technologies for traditional, or even modem occupation.
must be prioritised, beginning .with women's occupations. In other words, technology
development must be selective, designed to impact positively on women’s work, whether
wage-work or non-wage work.
5
Development of simple or aporopriate technology in the form of tools, implements.
and protective devices, to remove or reduce the work-related hazards faced by women, must
be given top priority and taken up on-a war-footing. Mechanisms must be created for involving
the women themselves in the research and development process, so that the results are
appropriate and useful to women
6. In the specific area of health technology—particularly contraceptives ..and sex
determination techniques—strong and immeditate steps must be taken to withdraw or ban
such technologies where they are actually damaging the health of already vulnerable poor
women. Measures for women's education and health promotion must be strengthened.
7
Priority must be given to the selective or preferential training of women in new areas
of technological development. Schemes like TRYSEML and DWCRA—can readily be utilised
for this purpose.
8 An advisory committee, with some power of veto, must be set up at Central
Government level to monitor the impact of technology on women. The Committee should also
actively identify and promote the areas for research and development of pro-women
technologies.
9. Existing technologies, which are not appropriate to women, though they are almost
exclusively utilised by women (sewing machines, table heights, cashew nut sifters, etc.).
should be redesigned on a priority basis. The redesigning should be based on women's
anthropometric' measurements.
10.. Thirty-five per cent of all the research and development, funds of national research
and design institutes should be reserved for occupational health studies of women's work and
working out changes in these for the convenience of women workers.
Recommendations Related to Future Research Areas
1
Multi-centred studies of health problems of women workers in specific occupational
groups should be undertaken by the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) on a priority
basis. These studies should cover:
(a)
the occupation related health problem—-direct and indirect.
(b)
the general health problems of women workers.
(c)
special stress should be on the effects of the triple burden on women.
2. National Institutes like the ICMR. ICSSR and other bodies should give priority to
research on health problems of the unorganised labouring women. It is a pity that a leading
institute like the ICMR does not even have a women's cell to look into the health problems of
half the country's population. However the present tendency of thrusting research related to
women to a small cell is also questionable. This has implied in practice that the small cell
conducts studies specifically on women, while the major portion of the personnel, research
projects and finances of the institutes focus on men. In fact, what should happen is that while
the entire institute, say. the ICMR or the National Institute of Occupational Health (NIOH)
170
kJH '2-'
4TH WORLD CONFERENCE ON WOMEN
BEIJING, 1995
(A DRAFT)
DEPARTMENT OF WOMEN AND CHILD DEVELOPMENT
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
1994
HIE! Trnip
4RH WIT fefPI RTTR'I
tJ^^TR fen fayn)
LATA SINGH
SECRETARY
TEL 3S3586
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
MINISTRY OF HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT
(DEPARTMENT OF WOMEN 4 CHILD DEVELOPMENT)
SHASTRI BHAVAN. NEW DELHI-110 001
FOREWORD
Over the Iasi few decades, concern tex gender issues and working towards women's empower rient has
become central to the development effort. This is reflected in several documents, initiatives and interventions
ol the Government and Non-Governmental Agencies, internationally, nationally and at local levels
2.
While acknowledging the unprecedented sensitisation that has thus been achieved, there is yet a need
to reaffirm India's enduring commitment tocontinue working in this direrction. The Country Paper briros out the
key areas in which attention needs to be focussed by all actors in the field.
3.
I place on record the contribution made by the National Preparatory Committee and the Working Groups
constituted by the Department of Women and Cpild Development in Government of India They have provided
valuable inputs, which have enriched ttie contents substantially. There have also been informal consultations
with interested persons and NGOs, which have been extremely useful. It has thus been possible to imprint on
the Paper the differ ent and rich nuances of our socio-political fabric. I would Iketo thank in particular Smt. Padma
Seth. Member, National Commission for Women, Dr. Devaki Jain of the Institute of Social Studies Trust Smt.
P. Sujaya of the Indian Administrative Service. Smt. Annie Prasad, Member-Secretary, National Commission
C.
for Women, Smt. Sarla Gopalan. Adviser, Planning Commission, Smt. Padma Ramachandran of Institute of
Urban and Regional Development. Trivandrum, Dr. Hemala'a Swarup of All India Women's Studies and
Development Organisation. Kanpur. Dr. Aparna Basu of the All India Women’s Conference. Smt. Armaiti Desai
ol the Tata Institute of Social Sciences. Bombay. Smt. Kamla Bhasin of Jagori.Smt. Malavika Karlekar of Centre
for Women's Development Studies and Smt. Suneeta Dhar. a women's activist Several other academicians.
activists, NGOs and the officers of this Department have also contributed tothe preparatory processes. Particular
mention needs to be made of the contribution of Shri S.K. Guha of the Dep-xtment. The draft paper is thus the
outcome of collective efforts, without which it would not have been possible.
4.
It is hoped that the draft Country Paper will act as a nucleus around which wider and more broad based
debate can take place during the course of the next few months so as to enable the Government to prepare its
final paper for presentation at Beijing and for strengthening the cote elements of the Platform of Action.
(LATA SINGH)
SECRETARY
Dated : 3rd June. 1994
CONTENTS
— Executive Summary
,
i - ix
I.
Introduction
II.
Overview of the Status of Women in India
III.
India’s Response to the Forward Looking Strategies Adopted at Nairobi conference (1585)
24
IV.
National Machinery for Women's Development
27
. t
6
*
V.
An Alternative Evaluation Framework for Women’s Empowerment
VI.
Gender Issues in Development
31 -
A.
Women in Extreme Poverty
36
B.
New Economic Policies and Their Impact on the Status of Women
40
C.
Environment
42
D.
Health
46
E.
Education
51-
Women in Decision Making Processes
54
B.
Constitutional and Legal Rights Guaranteed to Women
58
C.
Societal Reorientation, Gender Sensitisation and Advocacy
62
D.
Perspective of the Gift-Child and Adolescent Girts
----- VII.------ A.
“
.
67
VIII.
Countering the Threat to Violence Against Women
73
IX.
Concluding Comments
77
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
dTR WORLD CONFERENCE ON WOMEN, BEIJING, 1995
COUNTRY PAPER — INDIA
(A DRAFT)
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
As human development moves centre stage in the global development debate, gender equality and
gender equity are emerging as major challenges. Gender discrimination, though amongst the most subtle,
is one ot the most all-pervading forms of institutionalised deprivation.
FromMexicotoCopenhagen.ontoNairobi and finally toBeijing. is merely tv/o decades of contemporary
social history. However, if one looks at the history of the struggle for women's rights, both in India and the world.
its constitutes one of the most eventful and momentous in recent times.
®
______ Home for 400 million women, a country steeped i.i its plurality of traditions, customs and institutions
and proud of its heritage of eclecticism. India's contribution to the global women’s debate has been righ. diverse
and in many ways, unique. The principle of gender equality has been basic to Indian thinking for over a
century. The nineteenth and early twentieth centuries saw a succession of women's movements, first around
burning social issues like women’s education and widow remarriage and then around the freedom struggle itself.
The Constitution of India, adopted in 1950, not only grants equality to women, but also empowers the State
to adopt measures of affirmative discrimination in favour of women. The Constitution further imposes a
fundamental duty on every citizen to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women.
Inl97)j_he Government appointed a Committee on the Status of Women in India. It had eminent
representatives of the women’s movement and raised basic questions about the socialisation processes ■
inherent in a hierarchical society, about the resource, power and asset distribution patterns and diverse cultural
values of the country. A significant outcome of these broad policy debates in the seventies was a shift in
recognition from viewing women astargetsof welfare policies in the social sector to regarding them as critical
groups for development. This recognition was dearly reflected in the 6th Five Year Plan (1980-5) which
contained for the first time in India's planning history, a chapter on women and development. It conceived of
a multi-pronged strategy as essential for women’s development - a) employment and economic independence
(b) education; (c) access to health care and family planning: (rf) support spnricas to meet the immediate-genderheeds of women and (e) the creation o< an enabling policy, institutional and legal environment. A separate
Department of Women and Child Developmentwas set up in 1985 under the newly created Ministry of Human
Resource Development. The decade snice Nairobi has been the growth of new institutions to interact and to
add to the network that today comprises India's National Machinery.
Present st a ;s of Women
The 1991 Census counted 407.1 million females against a total population of 846.3 million, with a sex
ration of 927.
The 1991 agestructureof female_populationhas shown a shift from the very high proportionedchildren
into a higher proportion of adults in the working age group. This pattern of change is similar for both males
and females.
The country has taken big strides in the first hall of the twentieth century towards elimination natural
calamities like famine and fighting communicable diseases that took a heavy toll of life. The development of
health facilities and establishment of Primary Health Centres in rural areas provided the much needed health
services. Tne Family Weitare Programme was.also launched to.cl>ock population growth. Government took
a number of steps to improve the health status of vulnerable groups, like women. A major initiative was the
launching of the Integrated Child Development Services Scheme (ICDS) in 1975-7G. oy September. 1993,
16.3 million children and 3.2 million mothers were benefiting from it. It has had a significant impact on
the nutrition and health status of women The cumulative impact ol all these measures has been to reduce
modality rates. Female mortality has come down from 12.3 during 1980-82 to 9.8 during 1989-91, while infant
mortality has come down from 1 lOto 1984 in” n same period. Female life expectancy has risen fast to overtake
that o' males During 1986-90, life expectancy was 58.1 years lot females, as against 57.7 for males.
Traditionally, girls in India are married at a very young age, often before attaining puberty. However,
the mean age at marriage has been rising significantly andwas19.5yearsin1991 as compared to I8.3yea/s
mi98l. The population of India has been growing at around 2% ormoreper annum since the decade ending
in 1961. The fall in birth rate has been slower th3n the fall in death rale. Reduction in fertility is also at
a relatively slow pace. The crude birth rate which was very high at 50 per thousand population in the early part
ol the century, declined steadily though slowly and in 1989-91 stood at 34.,The general fertility rate for 1979Bl.whichwas 138.9 births per 1000 females in the reproductive ages, declined by about 10% to 123.2 by
1939-91. The urban rates declined faster than rural rates and in 1991, they stood at 93.3 and 127.2
respectively. The age specific fertility rates also declined for all ages between 1980 and 1991.
I
Despite intensiveefforts.to improve literacy, it is.low. The sex differentials are very pronounced. While
the male literacy rate in 1991 was 64.1%, female literacy rate was 25% lower at 39.3% Rural urban and regional
disparities continue to be wide vts-a-vis women's literacy.
Girls enrolmentin schools has greatly increased at all levels. The percentage of girls intotal enrolment
has also improved. Though school enrolment ratios have been rising, the problem has been that of high drop
out rates among girls.
Employment of women is an index of their economic status. The work participation rate of females has
risen steadily from 14.22% in 1971 (o 19.67% in 1981 and to 22.27% in 1991.. During the 1991 Census.
conscious efforts ^vere made to count women workers more completely and remove their invisibility. Out of
the 22.27% female work participation in 1991, main workers contributed 16.03% and marginal wokers 6.24%.
H is significant to point out that women constituted 90% of the total marginal workers. Ot the total employment
of women, the organised sector employment formed only 4%. A matter concern is the unemployment rates
for female workers in recent years. The rate of unemployment is mote significant lor urban females
at 4.7% compared to 0.3% for rural females.
India's response to the Forward Looking Strategies for the'year 2000 adopted at Nairobi (1985-94): *
Policy Initiatives
■Government has taken several initiatives to improve the status of women.
The National Perspective Plan (1988-2000) is a set of recommendations aimed at the welfare and
development ol women, guided - by the principles relevant to the deve., ,?ment process. While some
recommend, /.ions are in the process of implementaion, others are being processed tor acceptance "Shramshakti'
(1988)—Theteport of the National Commission tor Self Employed Women andWomen in the Informal Sector.
examined all related issues concerning women work force in the informal sector and made valuable
recommendations tor improving their status.
The National Plan of Action tor the Girl Child (1991-2000) was formulated tor the SAARC decade
of the girl-child and built upon a strategy ol ensuring survival protection and development, with aspecialfocus
on the adolescent girl-child. TheNational Expert Committee on Women Prisoners (1986) studiedthe conditions
of women pnsonersin the criminal correctional justice system and made a series of recommendations
suggesting legislation, custodial, correctional and prison reforms relat'mgtowomen prisoners. Their implementation
is being monitored by the National Commission for Women. The National Nutrition Policy (1993) suggests short
term and long term measures necessary to improve the nutritional status of the country, especially women and
children. It is in the process of operat:onalisation
The 72nd and 73rd Constitutional Amendment Acts of,1993 m’ark historic events in the advancement
of Indian Women as they ensure them 1/3 of the total seats and positions of chairpersons in rural and urban '
elected bodies. About 1 million women are estimated to emerge as leaders/decision makers as grass-roots
levels; of these 75,000 will be Chairpersons in the rural areas.
Programme Interventions
Under various poverty alleviation programmes of the rural development sector, 40% of benefits have
been reserved for pQOLWtxnervwhase family annual income is about Rs.6,000 — Rs.11,000. In education,
women's equality is a thrust area. The recent EFA (Education For All) Summit witnessed a commitment at the
highest political' level to increase the investment on education to 6% of GDP. A Legal Literacy programme was
taken up in 1992 when the National Machinery brought out a Legal Literacy Manual for Women. This isaseries
of illustrated booklets presented in simpte language so that even the semi-literates and neo-literates are able
to understand them.
For the firsttime in the history of demographic record of India, an attempt was madeto capture women's
work in the informal sector in the 1991 Census. Welfare and Support Services include hostels for working
women, creches for children and short-stay homes. Governm nt also administes the world's largest child
development programme, the ICDS.
Toeffectachangeintraditional attitudes, integrated multi-media campaigns to project a positive image
of women anc^the girl-child to the community have been launched. To sensitise planners, policy makers and
other implementing agencies, acountry wide sensitisation, orientation and training programme has been taken
up since 1991. Special campaigns to combat atrocities against women have also been initiated.
The 8th. Five Year Plan has adopted- the-Strategy of employment and income generation for
----- mainstreaming-WOrnen into national development; accordingly, both women specific and women-related
departments have re-set their priorities towards creating employment-cum-training-cum-income generation
activities for women.'Simultaneous efforts to boost employment for educated unemployed have also been
initiated to create 3 million additional jobs. Of these, women's claim will be to the extent of 30%. To enable
rural women to have control over their savings and financial resources, the Mahila Samriddhi Yojana of 1993
offers rural women facilities of small deposits, with attractive rates of interest, through the existing extensive
networkof rural post offices. TheNatkxiaiCreditFundforWomensetupinl993,extendscredittopoorwomen
reasonable rates of interest through NGOs working in rural areas, with the objective of boosting selfo
employment and micro-enterprises.
A special programme for adolescent girls has beenlaunched in1993and is aimed atschool dropouts,
with a view to meeting their nutrition, health, awareness generation, self-image improvement, vocational training
and employment related needs.
Institutional Support
The National Commission tor Women, set up in 1992,has amandate to study and monitor all matters
relating to the Constitutional and legal safeguards provided for women, review existing legislations, suggest
amendments and look into complaints involving deprivation of the rights of women Similar Commissions are
also being set up in the States.
in
A-.;-' i. ■' 'i'll monitors27 beneficiary schemes which arewomen-Sf>'Cii>C and women-relalitd to report
■:-V.ly to tlic ■
*c Minister s office. It also monitors indicators teltif’ng to Egi r.iiitv of Women’ tn the identified
sity areas.
the 20 point programme.
A National Resource Centre tor Women is likely to tie tormally set i:p soon and will act as an aj>e*
centre tor gender issues, including efforts ot sensitisation, training, evaluation, documentation, information
dissemination and networking There are reportedly very tew such centres at the national level, world wide and
:v.' in South Asia.
Gender Issues in Development Women in Extreme Poverty
Women still constitute the largest section of the population living in absolute poverty and they
i epresent the poorest of the poor. It is widely recognised that women as agroup and poor women, in particular
have teen adversely affected by the process of growth, economic transformation and development difficult.
Howevpr. women are critical actors in the processof moving their families out of poverty. Therefore.
policies and programmes need to be designed with a deeper understanding ot the characteristics of women
in poverty and the processes that lead to intensification of poverty. Efforts to improve the position of poor
women have to focus on them as economic actors within a framework of their other multiple roles, as well as
the total socio-’political environment. Extreme poverty by definition, implies low absorptive capacity for outside
intervetions.lt must always be remembered, in the context, that the poorest families are the most dependent
upon women's economic productivity and hence the urgency and need tor special attention.
’ Some women in extreme poverty are visible as specially vulnerable groups e.g. abandoned, widowed
or divorced women, sick, disabled or aged. These women are doubly vulnerable, being very poor and also
naving to face institutionaiised-discnmination in various area.':, including mtra-household distribution of
ic-soutccs.
A multipronged approach based on appropriate gender disaggregated data needs to be initiated to
set rigtit the balance of gender inequity in development.
New Economic Policies and their impact on women
India has embarked upon a course ot restructuring its economy and development policy framework
since 1991. The new economic policies consist of both stabilisation measures as well as the Structural
Adjustment Programme (SAP). An assessment of the impact of the policies is made difficult by the fact that
many of it® policies, specially with respect to the SAP, are still unfolding and there is invariably a time lag
of 2-3 years in availability of data for analysis. At present, there is very little disaggregated date, gender-wise,
available f-nm the national statistical agencies. The complexity of assessment is further compounded given
the multiplicity of women's roles.
While stabilisation and structural adjustment policies entailing budget compression, reduction of
Government expenditure and devaluation might in the end result in high transitional costs on the_poor, such
costs tend to be the most for poor women. The nature of such costs tend to be in terms of short-term drop in
employment, greater workload and squeezing out of real incomes forcing women to seek alternate survivalstrategies. While expansion of employment opportunities tend to lake place in export oriented industries.
cash crop cultivation, agro-business, finance and insurance sector and high tech areas, traditional sectors tend
todiminsh in importance. As is known, these traditional sectors are amongst the largest employers of women.
It is. therefore, necessary to integrate the concerns, needsand anticipated threats to poor women,
with ’bg basic development objectives of stabilisation and structural adjustment policies and to continue to
strengthen the social safety net which the Government has.already taken up as a priority measure. Recently.
there has txten a dramatic, over tour-lold.increascinthe outlay ot antipoverty programmes alongwith special
components being reserved ter women in all these programmes. Alternative systems ot women friendly
informal credit, savings ahdtr ainuig and employment schemes have been evolved. Child care services am being
extended, a National Creche Fund has been set up, hostel facilities for working women are being exteni d. a
National Renewal Fund has also been set up under the Social Safety Net Programme. It is necessary to
continue to sustain and expand these initiatives and build in gender sensitivity to the entire macro-economic
policy making process.
Women and Environment
The gender dimensions of the environment debate have been intensified during the last decade.
Environment is seen by deprived millions and poor women among them, as a problem related to the socio
economic sphere, not degradation of the biosphere alone. They are profoundly affected by environmental
degradation. Indian women have been in the forefront of environmental struggles to conserve forests,'“
land and water and havespearheadedmovementsfor a non-exploitative, sustainable and equitable development
paradigms. Gawri Devi of the Chipko movement has attracted world wide attention.
The Planning Commission has described as a challenge establishment of patterns of resources
use which would meet obligations to nature and posterity and be socially just. The problems are multifaceted,
from deforestation, landdegradation, floods, droughts, pollution, slums and squatter settlements toburgeoning
population, loss of biodiversity,adverseclimatic change and scarcity of safe water, etc. Other issues boil down
to the basic ones of people’s control in general, and women's in particular, over basic resources and livelihood
patterns. This is validated in different sectors of ecologically degraded spaces.
Various strategies, like learning from the traditional wisdom ot communities, especially women,
greening of village aid restoring ecological balance by women others, facilitating full participation of women
in initiatives like JOINT FOREST MANAGEMENT PROGRAMME or fora lilte local bodies and cooperatives,
must be taken up on a large scale. Women's perspective, which recognises that meeting human and social
needs are an important as of the goal of economic progress, ust be brought to bear on problems of
environmental distraction arising from inequitable access to necessary survival resources.
Women and health
______
The health situation ot Indian women is intricately related to their status and affects their economic
productivity as well as the performance of their biological and social responsibilities. The consequences
ot gender discriminatmon are reflected in the demographic status of women, in terms of high mortality rates,
especially the maternal mortality rates (MMR) the relatrvety low life expectancy at birth are the unfavourable
sex-ratio. Other adverse indicactors like sporadic cases of female foeticide and unfavourable juvenile sex
ratio show that there is a threat evident to a women's life throughout their life cycle. Even when the'life is
c>c
saved, women often remain under nourished and are under morbidity conditions. It needs to be understood
that women's right to a healthy life is an important as their rights to lite. There has been an increase in stress
and strain levels faced by women due to several factors, which are exacerbated by an increasing trend of
violence against women and especially incidents of domestic violence.
Reproductive patterns are the end result of economic, social, cultural and biological factorsand need to
be understood in the context ot the patriarchal family norms where status is attained only through fertility and
male sones. Women therefore need to be seen not only merefy as Targets’ in the family planning programme,
to extend coverage of contraception. Women need control over their fertility, sexuality and lit* rtuation, in the
first place in order to be able to exercise responsible choices in the matters of parenthood.
Heterosexual ir- 'course ap|X?ars to lx? the single most common mode ol trant;mission of I c 7/AIDS in
India. Studies show that |* iwer-telations between partner sis unfavourably tilled away from women. This effectively
limits their ability to adopt strategies to prevent the killer disease
Il is important to recognise women's health needs and in the context ol |x?i Ion nance of then multiple
ii ' •; The health system also needs to become more responsive to take into account the gender and cultural
d.mcnsions m the prevention and cure of disease.
Education and women
Il is now widely acknowledged that the aim of education is to empower women. Our ing the decade 198191. female literacy rate has increased from 29.8 to 39.42%. The 'evel is low and therefore effectively excludes
women from political, social, economic power, as well as power flowing from information, training, skills and
knowledge Poverty, greater demand tor female labour by poor households, both paid and unpaid, involvement
of girls in activities necessary tor the survival of their families are the primary reasons tor this situation. Distance
of schools, consequent problems of security, absence of women teachers and early marriages also account for
non-enrolment and withdrawal of girls from school.
This major problem needs to be squarely addressed. There is also a need to meticulously review
educational text books to remove gender biases/stereoty pes from them so that the next generation has a more
equitable view of gender roles and relationships. Further, mass based programmes like the Total Literacy
Campaigns (TLCs) to which women have responded very favourably and ones focussing, specifically on women
like the’MAHILA SAMAKHYA' and 'LOK JUMB1SH" as well as greater involvement of girls/women in non-formal
and vocational education would go a long way in encouraging the spread of literacy and education.
Equality of women in dr cesion making
Whilethe democratic polity of India provides the enabling and necessary conditions for greater participation
of women in all spheres of human endeavour, the reality is that women's participation in decision making at ail
levels is still low.
There is wide acceptance of the point that women participating in public life and decision making in large
enough numbers would make a significant impact. Their unique experience and perspectives would enhance
and alter the way problems are looked at for they would be setting new and different priorities in implementing
them in innovative and distinctive ways.
Those obstacles that do not let women participate fully have to be identified and removed. Olten,
structures processes and social mores are the barriers. It needs to be appreciated that the situation is slowly
changing. Instances of women taking decisions which aflect their lives significantly by altering the power relating
between men and women for example in such areas liquor consumption are coming in large numbers. Mention
mu$t also be made ol the women's movement in bringing voices of women into the political process. Yet the
presence of women has not been felt strongly in structured decision making institutions settings and in key
positions of power.
Political participation is broader than electoral and administrative processes. Merely increasing
representation of women may not lead to greater promotion of women's interests over general interests.
Nonetheless, numbers should be large at cruvial levels lor significant and effective exercise of power. Women
should also be equipped through suitable means to shoulder these responsibilities so that representation does
not end in Tokenism'. This is the light in which the 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendment are to be seen, if
their intention of women's political empowerment at the grass-roots level is to be realised.
VI
Legal Literacy
The Indian Constitution not only prohibits the State from discrimination against any citizen on grounds
of sex but at the same time empowers is to make special provisions for the well being of women. To this end.
several legislations have been brought in to promote gender equality. They may be categoriesed as labour laws
cuminal laws, family laws and civil laws. Some laws are not gender specific but they concern the well being ot
women. The National Commission for Women is tasked with the review of existing legislation to make their
provisions more equitnus.
It is to be noted nonetheless that the vast mass of women are poorly positioned to secure full benefits
from Constitutional and other legislative provisoes. This was mainly due to lack of basic awareness of law,
insufficiency of legal litigation. Further, legal remedies for socially sanctioned inequities has only recently - in
sociological and historical terms-been accepted as a feasible alternative in the realm of gender relations. To
facilitate this process, the Government has produced a Legal Literacy Manual, which is a series of f 0 illustrated,
simple booklets on the rights and entitlements of women. Para-legal training, through various strategies, is being
used widely to disseminate the Manual across the country. This is being broadbased..
Societal Reorientation
It would be simplistic to assume that the problem of low status of women in India is primarily attitudinal.
Apparently cultural, it has amat erial base. Hence it is now widely recognised that societal reoriei citation is needed
in different sectors and at all levels.
The family is the primary and apparently a problematic site of gender subordination. Patriarchal values
are constantly reinforced through tradition, religion and other socio-political institutions. Media has a cr itical role
in the construction and promotion of gender stereotypes and negative images of women.
A societal reorientation would create a gender-juat society and imply a radical transformation of all
existing structures and institutions. This may come about through sensitizing of media, mass-based campaigns
and well planned advocacy efforts. Advocacy envisages the need to actively propound empowerment issues for
women ensuring that they remain in focus. Several individuals, Organisations and Institutions can contribute to
the processes. The women’s movement has been successfully adveating several crucial causes.
Appropriate orientation to gender issues and training is another strategy in changing social biases that
seep into policy and programme implementation, keeping women powerless, Then existing programmes of
Government and Non-Government agencies in this area need to be developed further and taken down to the
grass-roots level.
The Girl Child
Despite legal safeguards, the girl-child in India has as yet not b^n given an equal status and needs to
be seen as a special group suffering from several disadvantages. She experiences discrimination throughout
her life and the socio-cultural practices make it difficult for her to overcome the handicaps posed by her unequal
status. Family structures and social values function in such a way that girls grow up looking upon themselves
as inferior and subservient, entitled to much less of everything than sons - less opportunity, less authority, less
property, less status, less power and virtually no choices.
Despite being biologically stronger, then boys almost 1/4 of the 15 million girls born every year, do not
see their 15th birthday.
Malnutrition in young girls triggers a vicious cycle ot under nutrition which spans into adulthood. Girls
thus tail to reach their full growth potential. Sex-bias in healthcare has also been indicated in severl micro-level
studies
Child marriage is declining. However, its persistence in certain pockets is cause for concern Disparities
in enrolment in s«*»ools between boys and girls remains. The same I olds good tor the drop-out rates. Even in
non-for maleducation centres, girls form only1/3 of thetotal enrolment. Alar genumber ot girls work for long flours
t'Oth at home and outside the household but their labour is acknowledged or under-reported n labour statisick.
’ An integrated approach towards holistic development of tfie girl-child is essential tor the creation of a
new environment in which she can be valued and nurtured.
Violence against Women
Over the last decade, there has been a growing awareness ot the phenomenon of violence against
women and children. Violence encompasses not only physical acts, but also innumerable and gestures, innu
endos, familial and social responses and so on, which colour perceptions of how women and girl children are
viewed.
The family is the arena for much of the aggression against women. An extreme case in point is that of
‘dowry death’. Sexual harassment and rape are other instances of the increasing trend of gender-related
violence Violence per sc .s a humen rights issue. It is also to be viewed as one of the serious impediments to
participation of women in the processes and fruits of development. ‘Battered dreams" can only push half of
humanity into depths of degradation. Fear of men and fear of violence creates a vicious inter-generational cycle
of deprivation."
Government and women’s groups have now become.active in not only raising awareness on these
issues but also in working for change. Important legislative reforms, innovatior?-~. in the structure of the police
force-measures to sensitise the law enforcement machinery, coupled with media coverage on events as well
as on corrective action has led to ahithertotaboo areagaining important in discourse and action. Such endeavours
are bsjjng supported and strengthened.
Challenges and Opportunities
Both the Government and the Non-Government sectos, are constantly aware of the challenges ahead.
Absolute poverty and the gradual feminisation of such poverty are the most daunting of ou challenges. The
persistence and reiteration of patriarchal values exacerbate the deprivation of poor women. Women's access
and control over factors of production and social services are minimal. Degradation of the environment, with its
negative impact on women, calls for increased participation of women in environment and natural resources
management Gaps in health care and the process of enlarging women's reproductive choices will need to b^k
addressed. Women will have to be enabled to participate more actively in decision making structures an™
processes. Societal norms which perpetrate discriminatory beliefs and practices call for a complete overhaul.
Mobilizing women, making them awareof their rights and entitlements, sensitising the administrative machinery
and.reviewing legislation to make them more etfectiveTare amongst the areas to be focussed on.
These considerations lead to a new question. Are existing tools ot evaluation and measurement adequate
to capture the essence of what is being advocated as development with gender equity? There is today an
increasing awareness that one of the touchstones of successful and sustainable development is the extent to
which it leads to the empowerment of women. By implication, therefore, it would be necessary to devise
appropriate tools to measure it.
I n working towards a better world for women, the national machinery for women has a central role to play.
It has always been Govenment's conscious policy to work closely with the Non-Governmental sector, the
women's movement and activists. This has proved mutually enriching. Exploring the sedpe for further deepening
viii
and interweaving ot such strategies and efforts .nto ongoing policies and programmes, is always high on the
agenda
It development is about people, it is essential to increase their capabilities to develop themselves. If
women are in a state of economic, social, political and knowledge disempowerment, the imperative is to reverse
this process. Instead of just adding a gender agenda to a development plan, drawn up by the gender insensitive.
the goal should to redraw it from the women's perspective, it is this empwer ment strategy which is today emerging
as an almost unique Indian response to the challenges of equality, development and peace. If women are to be
empowered, it is necessary to provide an expanding network of support services so that they arefreed from some
of their gender shackles. If women are to be economically empowered, they are to be economically empowered.
they are to be provided with alternative forms of informal credit, training, employment, visibility, management
skills and social security. If women are to be politically empowered, the immediate imperative isto make a reality
of the different forms of affirmative discrimination, already in position, so that their'vocies are heard. If women
are to be given access to knowledge and resources, they should be empowered to demand them.
In this scenario, there is tremendous hope-arufexpectation of the emergence of a-re-ordered world,
touched by the principles of dignity, humanity and gender equality. The ambience at this national andinter national
level provides the appropriate opportunities that will make the Platform of Action to be adopted at the World
Conference on Women at Beijing, in 1995, eminently achievable.
w ’ H 7-1
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY FOR WOMEN
ENTREPRENEURSHIP HOLDS THE KEY TO LEADERSHIP
BY : C.P. JAYALAKSHMI
Women in India are vastly under-represented in all areas
of Science and Technology.
"This deprivation amounts
to neglect of 50% of the human potential, which we can
ill-afford," says Lydia Makhubu, a member of the Gender,
Science and Technology Network, who is an organic
chemist and vice chancellor of University of Swaziland
(Africa).
In September 1995, over 30,000 women from the world
over, will meet to discuss issues relating to women on
peace, development and equality.
The idea
is to
integrate development into the lifestyle of the common
people with
the priority of achieving a level of
equality that has been committed by the United Nations
in 1 975 when the First World Conference on Women was
held.
In the years that have seen information age
leap by
geometric proportions, Science and Technology has
been
playing a very key role in inventions and technology
developments that have an impact, the likes of which has
never been felt before.
Thus, on the one hand there is a glut of information and
technology development for reducing drudgery and
improving the lives of humans, while on the other, more
and more people in the developing world are becoming
poorer and facing loss of livelihoods. This is a direct
result of mechanisation which demands
consolidation of
lands and exploitation of the poorest of the poor, hitech wars and pollution.
Does Science and Technology hold the key to overcome the
very problems that it has given birth to?
This is a
topic of concern for the United Nations supported
institution, Asia Pacific Centre for Technology Transfer
(APCTT), which has shifted its office to New Delhi from
Bangalore.
A focal area of APCTT is in increasing the role of women
in technology transfer in the Asia Pacific region. In an
address to a gathering of women scientific personnel
from the Asia Pacific region, APCTT Director Dr. K.V.
Swaminathan said, "it is important for women to feel
strong about their abilities in using and managing new
and high technologies".
Combined with technology transfer facilities, we should
have entrepreneurship development as a key input in
order to benefit women and that gender "indifferent"
entrepreneur will result, when women have access Lo
education and explosure towards use of technologies.
Natural Resources Management, is another area where women
have traditionally had more knowledge and skills. For
example, the Fishing community have women involved in
managing, marketing and preservation of the resources.
Another example where women have played a very key role
but unfortunately not been recognised well enough, is in
the area of sericulture.
The world’s best silk comes
from China where the world conference is proposed to be
held and sadly the status of being- sericulturist for a
woman, has been relegated to a secondary position of a
mere supporter without involvement in1 decision making.
This reflects in many ways that the dominant practice of
women not being in the control of most of the systems of
business and means of production for capital formation,
has perhaps put a different perspective to development,
which prioritises profits only as the key motivation to
success.
■
Contrastingly, a women leader, being sensitive to Nature
and who has a different vision of ^Management’, would
like to view a business as one which, should last long,
be peaceful and should have sustainability over several
decades.
The female view that one strengthens oneself
by strengthening others is finding greater acceptance
and female values of inclusion and connection are
emerging as valuable leadership qualities.
Women leaders would
have to now think beyond farming,
crafts and skill building. The income generation
activities which look at an enterprise for not only self
employment and leadership development, but also to
provide empolyment to. many women, needs to be promoted.
The Government of India has initiated some schemes like
the Mahila Udhyam Scheme to develop! the potential of
women entrepreneurs which is being! taken up by many
competitive and trained women who wou Id like to venture
into the world of business,
However,[ much is needed in
this area of credit and bank i ng
acp i tes for women,
particularly from the rural areas wino wish to set up
mi cro-enterprises.
In order to provide the' training
backup, institutions
like Entrepreneurship Development Institutes, at
Ahmedabad, Delhi, Bombay etc. and a Women’s Association
of Entrepreneurs from Karnataka c l led AWAKE has been
providing training modules and other technical advise.
This, initiative has
helped new businesses to be
established by women.
..
Not only has such efforts being made’in India .but also
in our neighbouring countries like Bangladesh and
Pakistan, where the women have had axcess to
technologies with the support of -<ac|encies like APCTT
and Women in Development (W1D) programmes of several
bilateral support agencies, A
•?
Says an official of the WID in India, 'The status of
women has changed because they had greater skill and
knowledge.
This was primarily due to the fact that
information and training was axcessable to women’.
Who all can be successful to become entrepreneurs ? It
is a question that has haunted the minds of several non
governmental organisations who have been involved in
income-generation and skill development activities. One
of the bigest constraints on application of science and
technology for women has been the lack of marketing
support.
Since most women do not own lands they do not get an
opportunity to avail credit facilities from the banks in
order to invest for businesses which could scale-up to
be a successful enterprise.
This is one of the key
areas of concern for AWAKE, which is encouraging
entrepreneurs.
Technology transfer in micro enterprises as has been
promoted in several areas of the country and the Asia
Pacific region involves low technology, the possibility
of catering to the local markets but which gets limited
in its outreach because it is not growth oriented.
In contrast, a small scale sector caters to a larger
market, is essentially composed of high technology
inputs and has scope for growth.
It also permits the
business enterprise to be upgraded in technology from
time to time as per the market needs.
Women leaders have been found to be better managers
because they found that once they have been exposed to
the various parameters, they take the jobs very
ser i ous1y.
If women need to come to the forefront of use of science
and technology then they must shun their inhibitions.
Entrepreneurship holds the key to leadership for women.
It will also provide an opportunity for women to be
assertive in the business of nation building exercises
and thus prioritising sustainable development as the key
to future of this earth.
-ends-
Page 1 of 4
Community Health Ceil
i-rom:
To:
Subject:
’ Ruin" crutntoiDir.vsni.ner io
<sochara<aysnl.com>; <chrjstva@.acjjonaidindia,orq>; <lciain@).bal.Ysnl.net.in>:
<bmatnew@nls ac.m>: <anitacheria/a>mantraonhne:com>; <sneelar@lawyer com>:
o/isrhart^vsnLcom^
Friday, March 35, 2304 3.55 PM
invitation- CEDAW Training of Trainers 12th to 16th March 2004 at UTCBangalore
Deal'
Friends
Dt.i 12th
SOUTHERN regionat tr aining of trainers on the
CONVENTION ON THE ELIMINATION OF ALL FORMS OF DISCRIMINATION AGAINST
WOMEN (CEDAW) FOR SOCIAL ACTIVISTS AT BANGALORE
12th to 16th March 2004
The National Alliance of Women. India, is pleased to announce the
Southern Regional Training of Trainers for the social activist on the
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against
Women (CEDAW) for Social Activists at Bangalore.
The National Alliance of Women, India is a coalition of women's groups
and organizations in India. It basically evolved as an umbrella
organisation for the several hundreds of groups that came together under
the Pre Beijing exercise that prepared the grass root women to
participate in the 4th world Conference on Women at Beijing. One of its
major objectives is (o monitor Government's Commitments in implementing
the Piaifurm fur Action with special focus on CEDAW and other UN
Conventions and to create awareness amongst the social activist and
lawyers on tae principles of toe Convention.
This training is supported by The International Women's Rights Action
Watch- Asia Pacific (IWRAW -AP), which is a regional organisation
based in Malaysia. It works through collaborative projects aimed at
strengthening domestic application of Human Rights norms in relation to
women's rights. One of its key strategies is to monitor and facilitate
the implementation of the UN Convention of the Elimination of All Forms
of Discrimination Against women.
3/5/04
Page 2 of 4
15AC1S. tiKUUNu AINU AA^.UinAJi
We ail know that ChDAW is the convention on the Elimination of Ali
Forms of Discriminations Against Women. Among the International human
light* treaties, the Convention takes an important place in bringing the
female half of humanity in to the focus of human rights concerns. The
Convention is an instrument to protect and promote equal access and
enjoyment of the rights for women, through law and policy reforms The
Convention is a unique instrument as it is formulated on the principles
of equal rights between women and men in the private and public spheres.
It recognizes the fact that women’s unequal position is socially
constructed because it draw's attention to discrimination against women.
It further obligates governments to mandate development for women
through a framework of legal rights. Hence provides a mechanism for
accountability.
The training advances the argument that development for women has to be
promoted within a rights framework and that the Women's Convention is
one instrument that can be used effectively as a frame work for
litigation and development policy.
The training programme proposes to introduce International standards and
xcmrmst perspective as a basis for claiming women's rights. The
legitimizing of International norms for the actualization of women's
rights in the country' is critical because of the need for universal
minimum standards ofHuman Rights. This is so especially in the light of
rising fundamentalism in our country. We need to engage in the process
ul evolving core set ol Universal norms and standards for women's
rights. If we do not do this, rights for women will be subject to
changing ideologies and shifting economic and political context.
The main focus of the training would be to equip activist with advocacy'
skills through the use of theoretical and practical knowledge and
techniques on the issues of gender and the principles of CEDAW. The
training will be participatory’ in nature and with the help of case
studies.
-3OBJECnVES Or IRALNiNCr
General Objectives To provide knowledge and develop skills hr the
application of the principles of the Convention on the Elimination of
All Formfl of Dicorimination against Women for social aotiviat in order
to advocate the advancement of women utilizing the convention.
3/5/04
Page 3 of 4
Specific Objectives
? Raise awareness of the activists t,r the advantages of busing the
struggle for women's human rights on the feminist principles and
i
Tvi>iii»jm furlilt- nnrmi'
nzilli
rz-» f/'r/»n/v» l.-v ill/-*
mt-vi nonvnoi num oxi iignio Iivuuo, vvitxi opvvinv ivivivnw w txiv
Women.
? Create ciarity on key concepts and principles pertaining to womens
riglits advocated by the Convention: equality, discrimination and State
obligation under treaty law.
? Create familiarity with the obligations that the state has undertaken
through ratification of international human rights treaties and by being
a parry to the recommendations and plans of actions of the UN World
o ricvcfop .NKiiis nJ loculi ryiug me aixcnuimaioty. aspects or me
and the legal system in order to develop a comprehensive approach to
activism.
? Provide knowledge and develop skills necessary' for the practical
application of the principles of the Convention to enable women to claim
their rights
9 To provide the opportunity for networking in order to undertake
collaborative advocacy.
? To develop a pool of trainers in order to ensure that knowledge on
CEDAW reaches more people and to ensure that the norms of CEDAW will the
standard for women's rights activism.
? Develop plans for effective use of the Convention.
NUMBER & CRITERIA FOR SELCTION OF PARTICIPANTS?- 30 only
? The participants should bo an activist engaged in women's rights and
should be comfortable in spoken and written English
? Must have a fair knowledge of and sensitization towards gender and
Human Rights concerns.
? Be pro-active and be able to translate acquired knowledge in day to
(intt activities.
DATES OF TRAINING
12th to 16th March 2004
PROGRAMME and
ACCOMMODATION (for the outstation participants) is arranged at:
UNITED THEOLOGICAL COLLEGE (UTC)
NO. 67. MILLERS ROAD,
(BEHIND CANTONMENT RAILWAY STATION)
BANGALORE - 560 047,
PHONE: 23332844 / 23333438
3/5/04
Pc-^e 4 of 4
1 RAVEL AND ACCOMODAUUN
Accommodation will be provided Tor the outstation participants and IT
class train fare / bus fare will also be provided.
The Out station Participants are required to check in on either 11th
March or by the morning of the 12th March, 2004. The rooms will be
booked for only five days irom 12th to 16th March, 2004. the
participants are required to confirm their participation in advance over
the phone.
Thanking you and looking forward to your reply by phone: 080-26630262
726642053 and h-mail: ruthfajblr.vsnl.net.in, Pax No. 26630262
Yours Sincerely,
RLi'iH MANORAivlA
President. NAWO.
3/5/04
1/12/01 10:04 AM
I of2
U3H- '1JI-
Re: fFwd: HNPFLASH extras: Lesotho MOH ...R End of Conference, Widows Conference]
Subject: Re: [Fu el: HNPFLASH extras: Lesotho MOH Position, PHR End of Conference, Widows
Conference]
Date: Thu, 11 Jan 2001 13:01:17-0000
From: "Karen Garvin” <karengarvinpr@beeb.net>
To: <sochara@vsnl.com>
Many thanks for your interest in our forthcoming conference. Please find
attached an information sheet, conference programme and a registration form.
If you are interested in attending please can you complete and return the
registration form as soon as possible.
With best wishes
Karen Garvin
Conference Organiser
----------- Original Message ----------From: Community Health Cell <sochara@vsnl.com>
Lesotho MOH Position,
Subject: [rwd: HNP
Widows Conference]
PHR End of Conference,
# '•
> He should be obliged if you could send us information concerning widows
> in South Asia or where we could get this info from.
> Thank you,
> Th elm Narayan
Name: Audience -flyer.doc
Type: Winword File (application/msword):
^Encoding: base64
_
Isj Audience -flyer.doc;
Name: Registration form.doc
^Registration fbrm.doc j
Type: Winword File (application/msword)
Encoding: base64
ihjConference Programme.doc:
Name: Conference Programme.doc
Type: Winword File (application/msword)
Encoding: base64
I'Wdgy/s Without Rights
Confeience Programme
6 & 7 February ‘2001
Friends Meeting House, Euston, London
Date:
Venue:
DAY i: Tuesday 6 February
09.30-11.15
•
o
o
n
o
introductory presentations:
Video of Graca Machel, Patron of EWD
Welcome from Margaret Owen
War Widows - Nekibe Kelmendi, Minister of Justice, Kosova
Widows in Action - Dr Eleanor Nwadinobi, Nigeria
Widows in Action - Lakshmi Murthy, India
11.15-11.30
CoFree break
11.30-12.30
Widows stories: a selection of widows speak about the
12.30 — 13.45
Lunen break
personal experiences they have had to face.
13.45 — 15.15 invited participants talk for 10 minutes each on trie activities and
experiences of their organisation.
15.15-15.30
T ea break
15.30-17.30
WORKSHOPS:
•
•
o
o
•
divide in to 5 groups to discuss the following topics
Widowhood & cultural practices
Poverty: inheritance & human rights
Stereotypes of widows
Widows and old age
Child widoy/s and children of widows
17.30 Close of session
DAY 2: Wednesday 7 February
09.30
Presentations:
o Widows in india: presentation by Dr Marty Chen, Harvard University
(20 mins)
o
Widows & AIDS: presentation by Bridget Sleap, PANOS (20 minutes)
o
Widows & War: presentation by Behjag from RAVVA (20 mins)
« Widows & Law: presentation by lawyer, Monica Elias Mhoja, Tanzania,
on land and property rights etc.(20 mins)
11.00-11.15
Conee break
11.30 -13.00
WORKSHOPS: Continue workshops from previous day to
come up with ideas for strategy formulation.
13.00-14.00
Lunch break
14.00-14.15
Patsy Robertson talks on ‘How the UN works’
14.15-15.45
WORKSHOPS: dividing into 4 groups to look at what
widows want the UN, Bi-lateral donors, NGO groups
Foundations and Trusts to do. Formulation of resolutions
and statements.
15.45-16.00 :
T ea break
16.00-17.00
Plenary session:
various resolutions and statements read out and discussed
17.00:
Closing Session
Goodwill Messages from VIPs read out:
Closing remarks from Dr Kate Young, Chair of EWD.
1/12/01 10:09 AM
1 of 1
Widows Without Rights
Conference: 6-7 February ’200'1
Conference
The conference will last 2 days broken into 7 sessions.
These will include:
o plenary talks by international activists
o oral testimonies from widows
o workshop sessions facilitated by international lawyers, widows and human
rights activists to draw out the pro-widow policies that are needed
The main issues that will be addressed include:
o Widows and War
® Widows and AIDS
o Widows and the law
e Vulnerability of widow's to violence & prejudice
• The image of widows
Outputs:
In order to further the cause of widows at the end of the conference we hope to be
able to produce the following:
o a resolution to send to the UN Secretary General, the Commission on the
Status of Women, the CEDAW Committee, and human rights committees of
the UN
• a document outlining policy guidelines for agencies wishing to address
widows’ human rights
l/We am/are very interested in attending Widows Without Rights.
Please reserve places. I encloses cheque for £
(Each place costs £20. Please make cheques payable to EWD).
I hope to attend Widows Without Rights. Please can you notify me nearer
the time.
Name/Title/Organisation:
Address:
Tel no:E-mail address:
Pieaso return to: Karen Garvin, Conference Organiser, 18 Lynmouth Road, London N2 9LS.
Widows Without Rights conference
Date:
6 & 7 February '2001
Venue: Friends Meeting House, Euston, London
Widows Without Rights is the first conference to be held in London focusing
on the human rights violations faced by widows in the developing world. It is
being organized by Empowering Widows in Development (EWD), an
umbrella organisation for grass-roots widows groups in Africa and South Asia.
EWD exists to bring the voices of our many members up to the highest level,
so that international human rights organisations will rise to the enormous
challenge of protecting widows’ rights both from the actions of the state and
from oppressive traditions and customs.
The conference will bring together about 20 representatives of widows
organisations from South Asia and Africa, as well as some international
activists and lawyers. The aim of the 2-day conference will be to:
o alert the international community to the abrogation of widows’ human
rights in the context of the worldwide struggle for poverty reduction and
sustainable development
o
to demonstrate the need to design and implement policies which are
specifically formulated to support widows and their children
o to demonstrate the urgent need, to utilise widows’ rich experience and
knowledge in policy formulation
o to strengthen the capacity and effectiveness of widows groups in
developing countries
The conference will largely be organised around workshops and panels;
formal speeches will be kept to a minimum. We would be delighted if you
were able to join us for what we are sure will be a very informative and
productive conference. Please find attached a brief outline of the conference
with issues that are to be covered and a reply slip to indicate your interest. We
are charging just £20 for each place, which will cover a 'working lunch’ on
both days of the conference and an information pack including a 10 country
study researched and produced by Margaret Owen, founder of EWD. If you
are not the most relevant person in your organization to attend this
conference we would be very grateful if you would pass this information on to
the person most involved in policy work.
If you need any further information please contact: Karen Garvin on 020 8442
1362 or by e-mail karen.qarvinpr@beeb.net.
Conference Management
18 Lynmouth Road » London • N2 PLS
Ph one ! Sa r
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kEELA RAMAN AND VEENA SHATRUGNA
221 -
INTRODUCTION
17
NUTRITION IN PREGNANCY AND
LACTATION
Leela Raman and.Veena Shatrugna
For most women in the underdeveloped world pregnancy and lactation are amongst the
most stressful periods when she sustains a rapidly growing foetus often under hostile
conditions of poverty and overwork. Thus in nutritional jargon pregnant and lactating
women, besides infants and children are said to belong to the vulnerable groups. Their
nutritional needs are more demanding. Ancient Indian, and other medical literature
abound in advice for pregnant women to ensure her's and the baby’s well-being.
The concepts of a correct diet during pregnancy and it’s relationship with malforma
tion, prematurity and small babies were in existence long before the present system of
medicine came into being. However, scientific interest on the consequences of maternal
malnutrition on the mother-child diad increased substantially after the experience of the
two world wars. Apart from the diet, several other poverty-associated factors such as
chronic infections, parasitic infestations leading to intestinal malabsorption, and closely
spaced pregnancies also adversely affect maternal nutrition status. This chapter briefly
discusses the nutritional needs of pregnant and lactating women and consequences of
malnutrition, during pregnancy and lactation.
NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS DURING PREGNANCY AND LACTATION
Introduction
Nutrient Requirements during Pregnancy and Lactation
energy
Proteins
Calcium
Iron
Vitamm A
Vitamin C
B-Complex vitamins
Weight pain during Pregnancy
Effects of Undemutrition on the Mother
. Maternal body size
Micronutrient deficiencies
Maternal mortality
Placental function
Foetal wastage
Complications of pregnancy
Effects of Maternal Malnutrition on the Foetus
Congenital malformations .
Birth weight
Infant mortality
Nutrient stores in foetal liver
Development of brain and mental function
____ ... -Nutrition^and-Lactation ——— ■. -Initiation of lactation
M;ib
----Milk «.~i
volume
Composition of milk
Protein synthesis
Hormonal control of milk secretion
Maintenance of lactation
Breast-feeding Lactation Ameaorrhoea and Nutrition
Intervention Strategies during Pregnancy and Lactation
This section should be read along with Chapter 12, dealing with the recommendations
of dietary allowances for pregnant and lactating women. .
The basis for the additional requirements during pregnancy and lactation is discussed
here.
'
.
Energy
Caloric requirement during pregnancy is increased for maintaining the growth of the
foetus, placenta and maternal tissues and for the increased basal metabolic rate (BMR).
The additional caloric cost of pregnancy for a 50 kg woman has been estimated to be
about 75,000 kcals. The caloric needs are not evenly distributed throughout pregnancy.
In early pregnancy, it is minimal but rises sharply towards the end of the first trimester
and then remains more or less constant for the second and third trimesters. In the first
and second trimesters, the extra energy needs are directed towards the maternal tissues
e. expansion of blood volume, growth of tissues like breasts and uterus and laying
i.
down of storage fat. The increased requirements in the third trimester are mainly for the
growth of the "foetus and placenta besides some increase in maternal tissues as well. 1
Energy requirements are also influenced by the pre-pregnancy body weight, physical ac
tivity and age. The energy requirement for a moderately active non-pregnant adult
woman is about 40 kcal/kg body weight. Indian Council of Medical'Research Nutrition
——
-Expert Group (ICMR 1989) has suggested additional 300 kcal per day during the 2nd
half of pregnancy. WHO recommends an additional 150 kcalTday in the 1 st trimester-and350 kcal/day in the last 2 trimesters.
The.energy requirement during lactation is computed from the energy cost of lacta'
tion and would take into account volume of milk secreted, it’s energy content and the
T7
efficiency of conversion of food energy into milk energy. Assuming an optimal milk
■ output of 850 ml (FAOZWHO expert group, 1973} and conversion efficiency of 80%, the
additional intake of; energy ,redQmmended; during Jactation: by JCMR( 1989} is ;55O kcal
per day for first 6 months. Since Indian women continue to lactate beyond 6 .months
222
TEXTBOOK OF HUMAN NUTRITION,
LEELA RAMAN AND VEENA SHATRUGNA
with reduced milk output, an extra allowance of 400 kcal per day was recommended for
the period 6 months to 1 year. This computation takes into account fat deposited during
pregnancy.
Protein
The additional protein requirement during pregnancy is mainly due to accretion of
protein by the foetus which is around 1000 g, for the entire pregnancy. For this addition
al daily requirement, allowance of a good quality protein like 10 g milk or egg protein
per day has been suggested. In terms of cereal-legume based Indian dietaries with NPU
of 65, this will be about 15 g per day during pregnancy. Women who are chronically un
dernourished and underweight, those with infections and infestations and adolescent
pregnant women, may require extra proteins and calories for repletion of tissue proteins
to enable them to withstand the stress of pregnancy and lactation.
Human milk has a relatively low casein content (20%) with a high whey protein frac
tion. Besides this, milk-specific protein, alpha globulins and IGA are present in large
amounts. The protein content of milk is not influenced by maternal diet and is remarkab
ly low in human milk (around 0.8-1.2 mg per 100 ml) with no significant difference be
tween well-nourished and malnourished lactating women. Nitrogen balance studies in
lactating American and Indian women show that while the American women are in a
positive nitrogen balance, Indian women are in a negative balance during lactation. Thjs
suggests that in the undernourished Indian women the tissue proteins are being broken
down for extra energy needs.
Though supplements of extra energy and protein during lactation has been found to
increase milk volume, there is concominant decrease in protein concentration resulting
in very little alteration in the total protein content of milk in 24 hours.
The protein requirement for lactation has been calculated on' the basis of the quantity
of protein in milk after the first month (1.15 g per 100 ml ) and conversion efficiency
from dietary protein. Since tissue protein accretion in lactation is insignificant, this is
not used for calculating extra requirement for lactation. Based on the optimum milk
volume of 850 ml per day, WHO suggested an extra protein intake of about 16 g per day
during first 6 months of lactation, 12 g per day during the second 6 months and 11 g per
day thereafter. ICMR recommendation is 25 g per day for first 6 months and 18 g per
day from 6-12 months. The higher recommendation is to compensate for the lower NPU
of 65 for the protein derived from cereal-based Indian diets compared to diets high in
animal proteins.
223
Iron
Additional iron requirement during pregnancy is computed from iron needs for foetal
growth, (250 mg) expansion-of maternal tissue including the red cell mass during
pregnancy (400 mg), the iron content of placenta and the blood loss during parturition (250
mg). There is, however, saving (150 mg) due to cessation of menstruation amenorrhoea.
Based on these considerations during pregnancy additional iron requirement for pregnancy
is estimated to be 30 mg daily. No additional requirement has been suggested during
lactation since the saving due to amenorrhoea is believed to take care of the amounts
secreted in the milk.
Vitamin A
Vitamin A requirement for a pregnant woman is not markedly different from that of a
non-pregnant woman (600 pg/day). The additional demand for foetal liver storage of about
25 pg/day may be ignored: During lactation, additional allowance has been suggested to be
about 350 ug of vitamin Aor 1400pgof|3-Carotene.
Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid)
The recommended intake of ascorbic acid for an adult is 40 mg. There are no data to
indicate additional vitamin C required during pregnancy. However, during lactation the
requirement of Vitamin C is doubled to compensate for the amounts secreted in milk.
0-Complex Vitamins
The additional calcium required during pregnancy is mainly that needed for the growth
of the foetus. The total pregnancy requirement is abour30 g of which the term foetus
accrues 275 g, the placenta 1 g and the maternal fluids and tissues about 1 g. Since most
of the foetal growth occurs in the 3rd trimester, it is proposed that 0.5-0.6 g of calcium
be added to the daily requirement of 0.4 g for the non-pregnant state and a
total of 1.0—1.2 g of calcium be given in the 2nd half of pregnancy.
Calcium content of breast milk averages 300 mg per litre in established lactation. To
Thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, pyridoxine: Since, the requirements of B-complex vitamins
like thiamin, riboflavin and niacin are related to calories, the additional amounts recom
mended during pregnancy and lactation are based on the additional calories. Thus the
additional amounts (mg) recommended during pregnancy are 0.2 thiamin. 0.2 riboflavin
and 2 niacin equivalents. The corresponding values during first six months of lactation
are 0.3, 0.3 and 4 mg respectively and during 6-12 months of lactation 0.2, 0.2 and 3
mg respectively. The additional amounts of pyridoxine recommended are 0.5 mg during
pregnancy as well as lactation.
Folate: During pregnancy there is considerable increase in the demand for folates
which are required for DNA synthesis in the rapidly growing tissues. Actually there is
an increased absorption of folate during pregnancy due to depleted maternal stores.
Though vegetables are rich sources of folic acid, the dietary intake of folate among
women of the lower socio-economic classes in India has been found to be only 50-70
pg per day. The recommended daily intake for adults is 100 pg and for pregnant women
400 pg. To reach this level,“the”consumptiorr of green vegetables should be encouraged
and additional folate supplements given specially in the last 12-16 weeks of pregnancy.
During lactation the strain on maternal folate reserves is around 20 pg/day, varying
with the folic acid content and volume of milk. The RDA for folacin during lactation has
been suggested as 500 pg by National Research Council, U.S.A. Folic acid content of
breast milk of Indian women is 16 ng/ml, a figure much lower than 30 ng/ml reported
meet this need,’ a.total allowance-of 1200 mg'daily is, recommended'for the lactating
-wbmerLSuch' an intake should prevent maternal de-mineralisatioriiwhich accompanies
from the wesL At higherJevel of milk secretion the amount of folate lost by the mother.
.would be 25 pg/day,. Additional: allowance .of.£0 pg/day. has been provided for lactation
Calcium
W
.■JisfcKi o< san-Kuu itsttrtjw nhibnbaurii?.
(di :'<<u
TEXTBOOK OF HUMAN NUTRITION
224
^EELA RAMAN AND VEENA SHATRUGNA
W
by the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR). Thus the RDA of folic acid during
lactation would be IfjP pg.
Vitamin Bl2 : The recommended intake of vitamin BI2 for adults is 2 pg per day. In
pregnancy, additional amounts are required for haemopoiesis and liver storage for sub
sequent secretion in milk. During the latter half of pregnancy, the requirements of
vitamin B,2 increase to 3.0 micrograms per day to provide for foetal storage of 50-100
MgBreast milk of normal women contains 300 pg/ml of Vitamin B,2 Based on 850 ml
milk output, the amount of vitamin BI2 secreted is between 0.25-0.3 pg. In under
nourished women vitamin B-12 content of breast milk is lower. It was also observed that
the infants entirely breast fed for long duration developed megaloblastic anaemia. Sup
plementation of the mother with 50 pg of vitamin B|2 as a single dose reversed the
megaloblastosis. ICMR (1989) recommended additional intake of 0.5 pg/day of vitamin
B|2 to cover the needs during both pregnancy and lactation.
From the above discussion it is obvious that in a balanced diet about 10% of calories
should be derived from protein with the remaining calories derived from fats and car
bohydrates according to cultural preferences. Mixtures of cereals and pulses with some
quantity of foods from animal origin can provide all the essential aminoacids required.
Liberal amounts of fresh vegetables and fruits are recommended. It is usual to prescribe
30-60 mg of additional elemental iron, and 0.5 mg of folic acid to all women in the 2nd
half of pregnancy.
WEIGHT GAIN DURING PREGNANCY
A healthy woman gains on an average about 11-12 kg during pregnancy! The usual pat
tern of weight gain consists of a minimal gain of 1-2 kg during the first trimester and a
more or less, linear rate of 0.4 kg/week in the second and third trimester.
The components of the weight gain (g) computed for different periods of gestation
are given in Table 1.
Table 1: Components of Weight Gain during Pregnancy
Weights of gestation
12
13-27
28-40
Foetus
5
1500
3000
Placenta and
amniotic fluid
50
1000
1500
Maternal tissues and
blood
600
6000
7000
Total weight gain
655
8500
11.500
-
Source: Hynen, F. and Leitch, I. Physiology of Human Pregnancy, Blackwell Scientific Publishers,
Oxford London & Edinburgh, 1971.
,
.....
..
n.u j
. ..■uctjto atiui
Maiernal weight gain should follow this normal pattern.’ 'Women 'With, poor igeneral
nutrition priorto^^nancy'and theqiregnant teenagers istibuld increasethc'ir caloric and ■
✓ • protein intakessoas to attain theif ideal weights and achieve a normal total weight gain
225
of 10-12 kg during pregnancy over their ideal non-pregnant weights.- The over-weight
women (20% or more above the ideal weight for height and age) entering pregnancy
have increased risk of complications like hypertension, diabetes etc. Even in this group,
it is not advisable to restrict weight gain by limiting calories. Increased catabolism of
body fat in the absence of adequate dietary carbohydrates results in ketonaemia which
affects the neurological development of the foetus. Hence these women should receive
at least 30 kcal/kg body weight and advised to lose weight by exercise rather than diet
restriction.
While low weight gain in pregnancy is associated with a higher incidence of pre
maturity and low-birth weight, excess weight gain is associated with complications like
pregnancy-induced hypertension — termed as toxaemia or preeclampsia, leading to
perinatal deaths due to prematurity. It would appear that best reproductive performance
is associated with a weight gain of about 9 kg in the second half of pregnancy. However,
women of poor socio-economic class on an average gain only 6-7 kgs during entire
pregnancy. Some of these women actually lose weight after 28 weeks of gestation. It is
not certain whether body fat loss in these women is due to undemutrition or the fat is
utilised for the synthesis of lean body tissues.
'—
EFFECTS OF UNDERNUTRITION ON THE MOTHER
Maternal Body Size
Chronic deprivation of food particularly during the period of growth and development,
results in short stature. In addition to this, early marriage traditional in many poor
societies and pregnancy during adolescence, before the genetic potential of growth is
achieved, imposes additional burden. This results in the poor, growth of the foetus and
birth of growth-retarded child. About 50% of girls in rural and urban poor societies in
India are married before the age of 16 and 40% of adolescent pregnant girls are below
the age of 16.
Due to the immaturity of the pelvic bones there is a possibility of having contracted
pelvis and consequently surgical intervention. A recent study by the authors in the
adolescent' pregnant girls has shown that the surgical intervention due to cephalopelvic
disproportion was of much higher order in the adolescent girls than in the adults.
Micronutrient Deficiencies
Besides the small body sizes impoverished women subsisting on poor diets have a high
incidence of micronutrient deficiency. These are markedly aggravated during pregnan
cy. Thus, the incidence of anaemia can be as high as 60-70% and the signs and
symptoms of B-complex vitamins deficiency, such as angular stomatitis, glossitis, tin
gling and numbness, burning feet—25-30% in pregnant women from the low socio
economic group, particularly in-higher parity women. The serum le.vels_oCroost_oLthe
important nutrients such as serum iron, folic acid, vitamin B]2, riboflavin and vitamin A
are significantly lower in women from low-incbme group as compared to the well-to-do
women. Bone density of the mothers from low-socioeconomic group is also consider
ably lower than the upper-income group women.
Maternal Mortality-
- ,,;- -.
,
;r.;
. Maternal mortality Rtftijdtighan.developing epunbres
.....
RtfJOgOOO.
226
:
/
TEXTBOOK OF HUMAN NUTRITION
A
LEELA RAMAN AND VEENA SHATRUGNA
births). Anaemia and toxaemia seem to contribute to nearly 30-40% or maternal deaths
in these populations, indicating that maternal Ynalnutrition is a major determinant o'
high maternal mortality.
,
‘
have suffered from viral infections such as rubella, influenza etc.
In recent years, the role of folic acid deficiency on the development ce neurotab-JI
defects in infants is being increasingly recognised. Case-control studies have <&wd
beneficial effect of folate supplements in reducing this anomaly among thar who are
highly susceptible as judged from previous history.
Placental Function
In recent years, evidence has accumulated to demonstrate an impairment in placental
function in maternal malnutrition. Earlier opinion that placenta coultTfunction nonnaliy
at the expense-of maternal resources is now questioned.
Birth Weight
Traditionally, the birth weight of an infant has been accepted as an indicator of foetal
well being and growth in utero. Considerable data are available from different parts of
the world indicating that infants bom to mothers belonging to low socio-economic
Foetal Wastage
Severe degrees of protein deprivation and vitamin deficiencies in animals lead to foetal
and placental resorption. However, the extension of this knowledge to human situation
should be viewed with caution, since the extent of deficiency created in animal experiements is not seen in human beings. Besides, the effects of single deficiency can be
studied, in animals, whereas in humins the deficiencies are always multiple. A survey
carried out in Hyderabad, India indicates that 20% of the pregnancies in women belong
ing to low socioeconomic group terminated in abortions and/or still births. However,
this incidence may actually be an underestimate of the real situation as many abortions
would be occurring within few days of implantation and therefore missed as delayed
periods. Taking this fact into account, the incidence of pregnancy wastage could be al
most 30%.
Complications of Pregnancy
| '4
227
cidence of congenital malformations. However, the incidence is much higjterifmfiers
i
group of population have lower birth weight.
The birth weight of infants is influenced by many factors such as maternal age,
parity. heighL altitude, ethnic origin and socio-economic status. Since mothers belong
ing to poor-income groups are lighter and shorter, it may be argued thx ±c Jcer-bsth
weight observed in this population is an effect of maternal size rather than her poor
nutritional status. However, supplementation studies carried out in different parts of the
world have indicated the beneficial role of caloric supplements on the foetal cotcome in
terms of birth weight and subsequent growth of the infant. Low-birth weight is an im
portant cause of high infant mortality rate in these communities.
Infant Mortality
Hyperemesis gravidarum: Many women suffering from hyperemesis gravidarum
respond to high doses of pyridoxine. Tryptophan metabolism is markedly impaired in
hyperemesis indicating pyridoxine deficiency.
Pregnancy-induced hypertension: in developed and developing countries a consis
tently high incidence of severe pre-eclampsia and eclampsia are seen in poor-income
groups of population. Poor antenatal cars due to inadequate obstetric service could be a
contributing factor. In recent years, role of calcium deficiency in the aetiology of pre
eclampsia is being increasingly recognised.
c—
Perinatal and infant mortality rates reflect the health of a society and its heakh-care ser
vices. Over the decades, there has been significant decrease in the infant mortality rate
in most developing countries including India. The major components of infant mortality
i.e. perinatal (28 weeks of gestation to 7 days postnatal) and early neonatal (7 days - 1
month after birth) mortality, are directly related to the health and nutritional status of the
mother during pregnancy. Due to the high incidence of low birth weight and prematurity
in poor communities, perinatal and neonatal death rates are also higher and contribute to
almost 60% of infant deaths. A close association has been shown between the incidence
of prematurity, low birth weight and perinatal mortality on one hand and severity of
anaemia in the mother on the other. Besides anaemia, other conditions such as pregna
ncy hypertension, placenta praevia and other complications when associated with poor
EFFECTS OF MATERNAL MALNUTRITION ON THE FOETUS
nutritional status, result in much higher perinatal deaths.
Congenital Malformations in the Foetus
Nutrient Stores In Foetal Liver
Dietary deficiencies, single or multiple, are known to produce congenital malformations
in experimental animals, main deficiencies being protein, B-complex vitamins and
vitamin A. In humans, it is very difficult to establish a relationship between dietary
deficiencies and congenital malformations for various reasons. Firstly, the severity with
which the deficiencies are produced in animals is never encountered in human situation.
Secondly,' since many factors operate simultaneously in human pregnancies, it is dif
ficult to pinpoint to any specific aetiological factor. Thirdly, unlike in animals, human
Many of the nutrients are adequately stored in intrauterine life to meet the immediate
~ postnatal needs of-the infant. Il was believed that foetus being a parasite, it derives and
stores the nutrients at the expense of maternal reserves"even itTsevere maternal malnutri
tion. However, body composition studies of the foetuses bom to poor-income-group
mothers in India showed substantially lower values for several nutrients. Stores of iron.
folic acid, vitamin B12 and vitamin A were 50-60% of the reported values for Western
women. The implications of such poor stores are obvious particularly since the breast
pregnancy is of long duration and nature has enough time to eliminate abnormal ova in' in^Sincefqetal.wastage.Js.high in
milk of the mothers of poor income groups is also deficient in most of these nutrients.
Associated repeatedjnfections tend to further deplete the already deficient stores of the
infants tlius leading to:anaemia and other deficiencies during early infancy. Bone den-
229
TEXTBOOK OF HUMAN NUTRITION
LEELA RAMAN AND VEENA SHATRUCNA
sides of the neonates bom to undernourished mothers are lower a^Bnpared to the in
While the first t'^fcnethods may be of value in countries where breast feeding is on
time schedule, in countries like India where the feeding is done on demand, accurate
.228
fants of well-nourished mothers.
Development of Brain and Mental Function
The peak period of human brain growth is in the last few weeks of intrauterine and first
six months of extra-uterine life. After this the brain growth slows down. Insults during
these phases can be expected to affect brain development and lead to poor mental func
tion. Chapter 15 discusses this subject at length.
NUTRITION AND LACTATION
Lactation is a physiological process. A variety of mechanisms determine the initiation
and maintenance of Lactation.
measurement of milk output is difficult.
Despite these limitations, studies carried out in Hyderabad, Baroda and Gambia indi
cate that the milk output of undernourished women is quite satisfactory and adequate to
meet the caloric needs of infants in the first 4-6 months. This is despite the fact that the
women continue to take poor diet during pregnancy and lactation without any additional
supplements. Also, lactation in these women continues for long lime satisfactorily.
However, recent studies show that milk output measured in terms of growth of the in
fant, is related to the maternal body weight. Women with weights below 40 kg and poor
weight gain during pregnancy may have poorer lactation performance, as evidenced by
growth faltering of infants offer 3—4 months of age. While increase in the energy and
protein intake of mothers by supplementing the maternal diet improves milk output, it
also results in early return of menstruation and fertility.
Initiation of Lactation
Composition of Milk
During the first 2 or 3 days after birth, a small amount of colostrum is secreted. In sub
sequent days a rapid increase in milk secretion occurs, and in most cases lactation gets
reasonably well established by the end of the first week. In primiparas however, the establishement of lactation may be delayed until the third week or eVen later. Generally,
therefore, the first 2 or 3 weeks are a period of rapid lactation initiation. This is followed
by the longer period of maintenance of lactation. These two phases are not caused by
precisely the same stimuli, but the basic physiological mechanisms that are operative are
For a given individual the composition of milk is influenced by the amount secreted, the
stage of lactation and the-timing of its sampling during the day. There are considerable
individual variations among the lactating mothers. Milk from mothers of premature in
fants has been found to contain higher nitrogen (protein) content than similar samples
similar in both cases.
Milk Volume
from mothers of term infants.
Except for vitamins and fat content, the composition of human milk appears to be
largely independent of the state of nutrition of the mother (Table 2), at least until mal
nutrition becomes severe. Even after prolonged lactation (2 years or more), the quality
of milk produced by Indian and African women appears to be relatively well main
tained, although the quantity may be small. Severely undernourished women during
time of famine manage to feed their babies reasonably well.
The uniqueness and importance of human milk as against the breast milk substitutes has
now been accepted world-wide. The mere fact that the mother is breast feeding does not
ensure that the lactation is satisfactory, and the amount of milk produced corresponds
either to the productive capacity of the mother or the nutritional requirements of the in
fant. Many factors influence milk production, mother's nutritional status-being one of
them. Nutritional requirements during lactation mainly depend on the volume of milk
produced, duration of lactation and the composition of breast milk to meet the-requirement of the growing infant.
Though numerous studies have been done to measure the milk output during dif
ferent periods of lactation, none of them are fully reliable because it is impossible to
measure daily milk production without interfering with natural breast-feeding.
Protein Synthesis
Proteins present in normal milk are specific to mammary secretions and are not iden
tified in any quantity elsewhere in nature. The proteins in milk are derived from two
sources. Some are synthesized de novo in the mammary gland, and others are derived as
such from plasma. Plasma-derived proteins are found primarily in the early secretory
product colostrum. Thereafter, the three main proteins in milk (casein, lactalbumin, and
beta-lactalbumin) are synthesized within the gland from amino acid precursors All the
essential and some of the nonessential amino acids are taken up directly from plasma,
but some of the nonessential amino acids are synthesized by the alveolar cells of the
gland.
Various methods used to measure the milk output are:
--
- -I.
2.
3.
Test feeding-by weighing the infant before and ‘after feeding under standard condition.
Measurement of the volume of expressed milk.
Oral administration of deuterium oxide (D2O) or other stable isotopes to the
mother and measuring the excretion of D2O in the serum or saliva of the
mothers and infants.
- Hormonal Control of Milk.Secretion._ _____________________
The stimulus for active milk secretion comes largely from the hormone prolactin, which
acts on mammary alveolar cells and promotes continual milk production and release.
Maintenance of milk secretion however, requires other galactopoietic factors. It is
believed that the significant increase in the activities of the enzymes lipase and trans
ferase during lactation is stimulated by prolactin. Hormonal control of the-glycerol
,'precursors and the enzymatic1''release of fatty acids (leading to-the formation ,of
Bcopic
I r th; r .•
..-•••
23.0
TEXTBOOK OF HUMAN NUTRITION
LEELA RAMAN AND VEENA SHATRUGNA
23F
triglycerides) has been associated not only with prolactin, but alsa^ith insulin, which
stimulates the uptake of glucose into the mammary cells.
WP
ethinyl oestradiol or 1^^100 pg of mestranol) indicate that lactation is inhibited, and it
Table 2 : Effects of Undernutrition on the Composition of Breast Milk
may be a dose-related suppression of the quantity of milk produced. Therefore, hor
monal contrceptives should not be prescribed when the mother is breast feeding.
Well-nourished
mother
Energy (kcal)
Protein (gm)
Fat (gm)
Lactose (gm)
Calcium (mg)
670-750
9-11
38-45
68-70
340
140-150
38-41
3-5
O.2-O.5
400
30
13-50
1900-2500
140-160
360-370
1.47-1.77
100-110
41-84
Phosphorus (mg)
Magnesium (mg)
Zinc (mg)
Iron (mg)
Copper (pg)
Iodine (pg)
Selenium (pg)
Vitamin A (IU)
Vitamin Bi (pg)
Vitamin B2 (pg)
Niacin (mg)
Vitamin B6 (pg)
Folate (pg)
Vitamin B12 (pg)
Vitamio C (mg)
Vitamin D (1U)
2.5-30
• 40-52
22
Belavady and Gopalan (1959)
Jelliffe, B. (1979)
Suckling stimulation is widely accepted as the most effective means of maintaining ade
quate lactation. This is mediated through prolactin and is believed to be of greater sig
nificance than the milk ejection reflex itself. There is considerable evidence in human
subjects that the restriction of suckling significantly inhibits lactation. Artificial suckling
stimulation in the form of manual expression or a breast pump has been repeatedly
recommended as a means of increasing milk yield or maintaining yield in the absence of
the baby. Feeding on demand optimally stimulates the lactation process.
Although sucessful lactation can continue as long as adequate suckling stimulation is
maintained, a gradual fall in the amount of milk produced generally occurs after 12
months. This drop in milk output is largely related to reduction of demand and cessation
of recurrent stimulation of the nipple by the infant.
640
10.6
33-34
72
280
117
30
I.I-I.3
0.13
17.0-210
NA
NA
790
153
220-230
NA
60-70
13
NA
19-30
NA
Note: NA — Not available.
Compiled from:
Maintenance of Lactation
Breast Milk/litre
Undernourished
mother
Bamji et al (1986)
Bourne. G.H. (1989)
Oestrogen, for example, affects milk secretion, probably by influencing prolactin
level through the pituitary. The nature of oestrogen effect however, depends on the level
of oestrogen in the blood. When the blood oestrogen level is low (as in the adolescent
non-pregnant non lactating women), there is no prolactin secretion. If the blood level is
normal, as occurs in parturition, the pituitary gland discharges prolactin. When the
oestrogen level is raised beyond the point of adequacy, as occurs in pregnancy, the out
put of prolactin is again inhibited. For this reason oestrogens are used to arrest lactation
-=after the loss of the baby-in the neonatal period or when lactation is undesirable, as-in
the case of severe engorgement of the breast. The inhibitory effects of oestrogens on
milk production are less in the period of established lactation than in the early weeks of
its'initiation.
The effect of oral contraceptives containing combinations of synthetic oestrogens
and progesfogens on lactation has received considerable attention. Studies on the use of
combined-.pestrogen-progestin contraceptive pills (usually..containing .30-50 pg of
BREAST-FEEDING LACTATION AMENORRHOEA AND NUTRITION
■" Apart from the beneficial effects of breast-feeding on infant nutrition, it is a very impor
tant method of contraception. The hormone prolactin which is secreted by the anterior
pituitary gland in response to baby’s suckling has an. anovulatory effect. In many
societies sexual abstinence is practiced during lactation ameriorrhoea. This too helps to
increase the'birth interval.
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INTERVENTION STRATEGIES DURING PREGNANCY AND LACTATION
Maternal undemutrition is a major factor in intrauterine growth retardation (IUGR).
Simplest solution of reducing the incidence of IUGR would be supplementing the
mothers with extra calories to increase the birth weight and thereby reduce the incidence
of low birth and its unfortunate consequences. However, supplementing all women
through a special programme would be expensive. Besides, only 35% of the mothers
give birth to low birth weight infants. In the other 65% some adaptation mechanism
seems to be operating to overcome the effect of maternal undemutrition. Till such time
that information on nutrition in pregnancy is available to every mother, alternative
,
strategy would be to identify the mothers at risk and intervention planned for these
mothers.
'>/The risk factors such as maternal weight below 40 kg, weight gain < 6 kg during
pregTiancy, haemoglobin < 9 gms, maternal ages < 18 or above 35 years, and also earlier
i
history of still births and bad obstetric history may be taken into consideration in ident-------tifying-womenat risk of giving birth to low birth weight infants.-The screening method-- ...._ ....
I;
may help in identifying the nutritionally high-risk mothers and thus would be of practi■
cal significance..
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, Besides this, the correction of anaemia with proper distribution of iron/folic acid
I.;
tablets (a national programme in India) would also reduce the incidence of low birth
K
weight due to anaemia especially due to folic acid deficiency.
In all these efforts, the role of traditional health workers is.yery important since these
K peoptefonij.the.b«H5o^pJ;^riiral.set-up,,Today,.they are,thq.mos^.easily accessible
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