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A Manual for
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MANUAL FOR TRAINING OF TRAINERS
CONTENTS
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INTRODUCTION
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PARTICIPATORY TRAINING METHODOLOGY: CONTEXT AND PRINCIPLES
Training as an Educational Process
Role of Training in Social Change
Types of Training: Comparison between Conventional and Participatory Methodologies
Theoretical Understanding of Participatory Training
Adult Learning
Key Principles
ROLE OF TRAINER IN PARTICIPATORY TRAINING
Trainer Roles
Major Trainer Responsibilities and Related Competencies
Importance of Self-development of Trainer
Concept of Personality
Theory of Self-development
Learning Exercises
4
DESIGNING A TRAINING PROGRAMME
Assessing Learning Needs
Interpreting Training Objectives
Contents and Methods Linkage
Illustrative Designs
SMALL GROUP
Small Group and its Relevance
Small Group Processes
Small Group Development
Small Group Facilitation
Learning Exercises
LEARNING-TRAINING METHODS
Considerations for Choosing a Training Method
Different Training Methods
Lecture
Small Group Discussion Method
Structured Experiences
Case Study
Role-play
Simulation
Video
Learning Exercises
EVALUATION AND FOLLOW-UP
What is Evaluation of Training?
Methodology of Evaluation
Follow-up and its Significance
Methods of Follow-up
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4
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
4
INTRODUCTION
T raining has acquired an important status in the range of development efforts throughout the wor d. India
I is no exception. In recent years, most governmental and non-governmental programmes of development
in India have utilised training in a variety of ways.
However, much of this training has been carried out in a conventional methodology which has been an exten
sion of the formal system of class-room education. Despite the rhetoric of participatory and learner-centred
training, the practice has been quite the opposite. Most training programmes are still conducted in the formal
teaching mode.
Secondly, most persons engaged in training in the various developmental sectors (health, adult and non-formal education, rural development, urban development, income-generating, women’s development, worker
education, etc.) have themselves had no systematic learning opportunity to act as trainers. In fact, systematic
development of trainers has not been given sufficient attention in our context.
Two years ago, we started a programme of Training of Trainers, largely to build internal training capacity
among various non-governmental organisations in the country. Most of the participants in this programme
were engaged in training at grass-roots level. This programme was run in a three-phased manner, details of
which are given later.
The participants in this programme suggested the need for developing a manual for trainers, particularly focus
ing on participatory training methodology. They felt that no such resource book was available locally to as
sist them in their ongoing training efforts. This manual has been prepared in response to the above needs.
It has been designed in a manner that several sections can be independently used. Each section contains
theoretical inputs, practical guidelines and examples of methods used.
The preparation of this manual has been a collective exercise and a large number of people have contributed
their materials, designs, exercises, etc. The process of preparation of this manual, we believe, is an ongoing
one and, therefore, additional materials can be subsequently added as they become available.
We hope that this manual will be useful to trainers engaged in development programmes in both governmental
and non-governmental sectors; field workers, adult educators and community organisers; and a wide range of
other activists concerned with the problems of development in the country. This manual can be used as an
input in various programmes of training of trainers, as resource materials for the trainers, and as a guide for
ideas and experimentation for field-workers.
We would like to invite you to contribute your reactions to and further materials for this manual.
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ARTICIPATORY TRAINING METHODOLOGY:
CONTEXT AND PRINCIPLES
TRAINING AS AN EDUCATIONAL PROCESS
I he overall purpose of all training is learning: learning of new skills, attitudes, concepts, behaviours, etc.
I To that extent, training is an educational activity. It has a definite meaning in the broad spectrum of educa
tion.
People’s education takes several forms. Formal education implies schooling, non-formal education generally
includes adult education. Education in a broad informal sense also takes place when people engage in daily
practice and struggle.
In general, Gaining as an educational process implies non-formal education, but in a purposive, directed
sense. Training generally connotes a structured event, where some focused educational process occurs.
This structured educational process is generally equated with transfer of expertise from the trainers to the
trainees. The responsibility for planning, organising and conducting is thus assumed to be that of the trainers
alone. In this sense, training becomes similar to formal education or schooling, only of a shorter duration.
However, training as an educational process can also have an alternative meaning.
An Alternative View
I raining should be viewed as an educational process, which involves the creation and acquisition of knowI ledge, awareness and skills. It is not only for ‘knowing more', but for ‘behaving differently’. The focus is
not upon information alone — mere knowledge in itself is insufficient — but upon consciousness-raising. It
helps in building up one’s critical consciousness, examining one’s values, attitudes and orientations.
When we talk of training as an educational process, we are oot referring to the formal educational process, but
a non-formal one, which is an on-going process. It is a process of growth, of discovery; a process which acti
vates both trainers and learners in a common learning situation. It enables an individual not only to deal effec
tively with others, but also to understand oneself in terms of needs, feelings, motives, past experiences, etc.
It helps clarify how information leads to awareness and in consolidating people’s fragmented perceptions,
leading to a clearer understanding of the totality of their situation. Thus it becomes a learning process, with
emphasis on learning and not on training. This shift in emphasis is crucial in this alternative view.
Training sows some seeds of learning and education. It should help liberate people from the burden of ready
made patterns thrust upon them by dominant cultures, and encourage people to investigate the nature of real
ity from their own experience. Its methodology is experience-based, open-ended, individual and group-cen
tred and largely here-and-now. A given training programme may provide a definite structure to this educa
tional process by creating a systematic opportunity for reflection and analysis.
Thus viewed, training is a dynamic, creative process which is necessary for improving and strengthening one’s
work and crucial for developing an authentic analysis of the social, economic and political context of the work.
Effective action ultimately depends upon this.
However, training cannot be equated with a set of techniques. Its educational thrust is to be viewed in a histor
ical, socio-political context. Value-free or neutral training is a myth. Every training has an underlying normative
bias, even if that bias remains implicit. This ideological underpinning of training needs to be understood and
highlighted. Only then can training have a role in social change.
PARTICIPATORY TRAINING
1
ROLE OF TRAINING IN SOCIAL CHANGE
P’l oes training have a role in social change? Specially, does participatory training have any role in social
L/ change?
Our answer to the above question has to be based on our understanding of what is social change and how it
takes place. Underlying our assumptions of social change is our understanding of the present nature of the
society.
In our context, the society is characterised by a small section of the various kind of elite who own and control
a large amount of resources (land, capital, machinery, etc.). This section is well-informed, powerful and wellorganised, and dominates the economic, political and cultural life of the society. On the other hand, there is a
vast majority of people who have no control over resources including their own labour. They are ignorant,
weak and unorganised; they are the vast majority of workers, labourers, small farmers, tribals and women. Of
course, there are several categories of people in between these two classes.
Given this structure of the society, the meaning of social change implies improvements in the lives of this vast
majority of the people in the direction that they consider appropriate for themselves. Hence, the process of so
cial change entails informing, mobilising and organising this vast majority of people such that they can identify,
articulate and struggle for their common interests. Unless the poor and the weak become informed and or
ganised to act collectively in their common interests, meaningful social change cannot take place.
Thus, social change implies:
• Conscientisation of the poor
• Empowerment of the powerless
• Organisation of the unorganised
Viewed in this way, the process of*social change will require changes in the individuals, groups of individuals
and in the systems and structures of the society. Participatory training can play a limited, but crucial role in
facilitating this process of social change. This can take place in several different ways:
1. Individuals can use the learning opportunity provided by training for personal changes; e.g. understanding
• the dynamics of society and social change,
• their own strengths and weaknesses,
• their potential role in this process of social change.
2. Individuals can acquire relevant knowledge and skills through this learning opportunity to play their mean
ingful role in social change.
3. Groups and individuals can learn how to function as an effective team and a building block for the larger
organisation in this process.
4. Individuals and groups can experience, in a microcosm, the possibilities of participatory and democratic
functioning during the training programme itself and thus learn to experiment with their own visions of an
egalitarian society.
5. Individuals and groups can acquire appropriate values and attitudes necessary for building such an alterna
tive society.
To the extent that training creates an opportunity for learning, and learning entails change, the participatory
training programme creates the necessary experience of personal and collective change. As well, such
change process may provide useful insights to facilitate this process of change on a wider scale.
It is clear that structural aspects of social change do not occur during the training programme. Steps need to
be taken outside the training programme to bring about significant changes in the structures and systems of
the society. However, it is possible that certain seeds towards this structural transformation are sown during
the training itself and they flower later through additional important steps outside the context of training.
In this way, participatory training makes a limited contribution towards the process of social change and does
not claim to lead, on its own, to social transformation. However, it makes an important contribution towards this
process.
PARTICIPATORY TRAINING
2
TYPES OF TRAINING
t is perhaps useful to elaborate the meaning of different training methodologies used at present, in this
section, a brief comparison between conventional and participatory training methodologies is made.
Conventional Training
In conventional training, a learner is looked upon as an empty bottle to be filled up by the trainer. -In this
methodology, the trainer defines what is to be taught and how to teach that. This approach to training believes
that trainers know everything and learners do not know anything. The trainer defines what a particular set of
learners need to learn and how these learning needs can be met. Learners do not have any other role except
passively learning during this whole process. In this approach, learners’ participation in the learning process
is minimal; they are bound to learn whatever the trainer teaches. Because of this basic belief, this training ap
proach, on the one hand, does not allow learners to participate actively and, on the other, gives total control
over the process to the trainer. Hence everything in this type of training, from defining the objectives to evaluat
ing the learner, is done by the trainer alone. He becomes the central point around whom the entire process
moves. So one can say it is a trainer-centred approach, not learner-centred.
Assumptions Underlying Conventional Training
The following are the major assumptions underlying the methodology:
1. The acquisition of subject knowledge by participants leads to action.
2. Individual action leads to improvement on the job.
3. The participant learns what the trainer teaches. Learning is a simple function of the capacity of the particip
ant to learn and the ability of the trainer to teach.
4. Training is the responsibility of the trainer and the training institution.
Participatory Training
Participatory training methodology believes that people cannot be developed, they can develop themselves
through their own actions.
The participatory training approach encourages participants to see themselves as a source of information and
knowledge about the real world. Participatory training refuses to accept that people do not know anything. Par
ticipatory training recognises the value of popular knowledge and encourages people to participate in their
own learning process. When they are encouraged to work with the knowledge they have from their own experi
ence, they can develop strategies together to change their immediate situation. The process of learning during
participatory training is controlled by the participant, and not by the trainer. The trainer plays the role of a
facilitator in this learning process. This process of involving participants in the learning process gives them a
sense of empowerment: they start recognising their existing knowledge and its value. For this methodology,
the synthesis of popular knowledge strengthens the educational experience of the participant. As they begin
to appreciate what they already know, they are more open to seeking new knowledge, and they actively share
in the collective responsibility for seeking new knowledge, which enhances the learning process. Thus they get
a feeling of ownership of that knowledge. Participatory training becomes a tool, a strategy for social change
when people start valuing the process of collective analysis.
So the first task of participatory training is to create an understanding that change is possible, that it is possible
to change one’s situation. The second task is to enable individuals and communities to identify what types of
change they wish to achieve and how to go about attaining that.
PARTICIPATORY TRAINING
3
)
rHEORETICAL UNDERSTANDING OF
PARTICIPATORY TRAINING
eople cannot be developed; they can only develop themselves. For while it is possible for an outr sider to build a man’s house, an outsider cannot give the man pride and self-confidence in himself
as a human being. Those things a man has to create in himself by his own actions. He develops him
self by what he does; he develops himself by making his own decisions, by increasing his understand
ing of what he is doing, and why, by increasing his own knowledge and ability, and by his own full par
ticipation — as an equal in the life of the community he lives in.
— Julius Nyerere
To learn about the origins of participatory training, it is important to understand the origins of participatory re
search.
Participatory research methodology, as an approach within adult and popular education, has more recent
past. It developed in response to the inadequacies in the conventional research methodology in the field of
adult education during the 1960s. Adult educators and other concerned social scientists struggled to develop
a research and educational methodology which would lead to a practical, effective response to the realities of
under-development.
Thus the principles and methods of participatory training are derived from many theoretical disciplines within
the social sciences. Basic principles of adult education are a central foundation of participatory training. These
principles assume a commitment to adults participating actively in the world, deciding what they want to learn
and the best way to learn it. The out-dated notions of too old, too poor and too primitive to learn are rejected
in participatory training.
Ideology of Participatory Training
The starting point for understanding the underlying framework is a world view. How does a society function?
A historical analysis of present society indicates that a large number of people are poor, unorganised and op
pressed, and a few are rich, powerful and dominant. These two sets of people have conflicting sets of in
terests.
The social relations between these two sets as classes of people determine how a society functions. Social
transformation occurs when the poor, dominated and oppressed people develop collective organisation and
act in their common interests. And the process of social transformation thus becomes an ongoing struggle.
It is in this context that the role of knowledge becomes critical. Firstly, the oppressed people mostly lack infor
mation, skills and the tools to acquire knowledge: Secondly, the dominant classes have increasingly used
knowledge and information to maintain their domination. In the Indian context many examples like Eklavya can
be traced in history, where poor people were not allowed to acquire knowledge. In the last three decades and
in the coming future, knowledge continues to be one of the major sources of power and control. The media
and the institutions producing research expertise and knowledge are used to control the thinking of the oppres
sed. The oppressed are made to believe that inequality is inevitable, that they are not experts and they do not
know anything. So they have to feel dependent on the dominant classes. On the other hand, participatory re
search believes that people have knowledge and they can acquire knowledge. People's knowledge in some
cases may be authentic and accurate, and in some cases it may not be so. This knowledge is known as popu
lar knowledge in the field of social sciences. Participatory training facilitates the recognition of popular know
ledge. This process of recognition and valuing of popular knowledge contributes to the awareness-raising and
empowerment of the people.
It is in this context that participatory training has a meaning and contribution to make. The central question,
therefore, is: whose interests should training serve? And the answer: participatory training must serve the in
terests of the poor and oppressed.
Hence, participatory training methodology is essentially a methodology of social transformation by the oppres
sed and the dominated, through the contribution of knowledge in creating awareness, empowerment and or
ganised collectivity.
PARTICIPATORY TRAINING
4
Participatory Training: an Educational Process
Essentially, participatory training is an educational process. This educational process is based on the assump
tions of adult learning. The participatory training approach encourages participants to see themselves as a
source of information and knowledge about the real world. When they are encouraged to work with the know
ledge they have from their own experience, they can develop strategies together to change their immediate
situation.
This educational experience takes places in several ways as described below:
1. Existing popular knowledge is recognised and valued
Participatory training starts from the assumption that participants already possess some knowledge. Particip
ants do not start with a clean slate. In participatory approach, the synthesis of popular knowledge with existing
scientific knowledge strengthens the educational experience of the participants.
2. New knowledge is built on the existing knowledge
In participatory training, the starting point for creating new knowledge is the existing knowledge that people
have, particularly the authentic elements of it. As people begin to appreciate what they already know, they are
more open to seek new information. This desire to seek new information and knowledge enhances the learning
process.
3. Participants learn to exercise control
The participatory training puts emphasis on the active participation of learners in generating their own know
ledge. This encourages them to take responsibility for their own learning. It is this active posture which consti
tutes a powerful impetus for learning and for learners to exercise control over their learning.
4. It becomes a collective process
One of the elements of participatory training is the promotion of collective responsibility for seeking new know
ledge. As a result, participants learn to get together, collectively seeking and analysing information.
5. It creates informed options
The very process of collectively analysing a given situation throws up various alternatives. As part of the pro
cess of analysis, options are debated on the basis of concrete information. As a result, participants are able to
accept and reject options on an informed basis. This creates a sense of empowerment which is based on the
confidence that information has been interpreted and understood.
6. Actions emerge out of this analysis
The very act of involvement in the process of analysing a given reality creates a sense of ownership of that
knowledge and willingness to transform that situation. The participants are then able to take concrete action.
PARTICIPATORY TRAINING
5
ADULT LEARNING
A major challenge that confronts most trainers is how to reach across to adults. Various efforts in Adult
/A Learning and Adult Development have so far brought in their wake frustration, anger and even cynicism.
We sometimes hear derogatory passing-by-remarks to the effect, “Oh, these men and women (adults) will
never learn — and never change. Leave them alone!”
Adults Learn, Adults Grow, Adults Change! contrary to the belief that learning once having taken place is
difficult to alter, and learning is the sole preserve of children and adolescents. Adult learning is based on prin
ciples and conditions different from the formal set of learning principles.
The main differences are:
• Adults learn what is of interest to them.
• Adult learning is autonomous.
• Adults use personal experience for their learning.
Thus, ineffectiveness of programmes for adults may have partly to do with lack of understanding about the var
ious principles and conditions of learning and the integral role adults play in their own learning process.
Main Learning Principles
1. Adult behaviour changes in response to various pressures — both internal as well as external. Therefore,
adults can and do learn throughout their lifetime.
2. Adults enter learning activities with a perception about themselves that influences the learning process.
This perception is based on their past experiences as interpreted and valued by them. This, therefore, in
fluences new learning.
3. The past experience of adults needs to be valued and nourished during the learning process. Otherwise,
adults may feel worthless or threatened by the learning process.
4. Adults learn best when the environment is safe, accepting, challenging and supportive.
5. Adults enter learning programmes with immediate and personal needs, problems, feelings, hopes and expectations. The ‘here and now’ feelings must be respected and recognised, if their motivation to learn is
to be enhanced.
6. Solutions that adult learners seek must come from their own understanding and analysis, and be con
gruent with their life-style and functioning.
7. In skill-oriented learning, there should be active participation on the part of the adult learner in these ac
tivities which use the relevant skills.
8. Continuous monitoring of progress on their learning needs to be done by adults. Relevant information and
feedback are essential and should be available to the adult learner.
9. Success in satisfying the expressed learning needs and achieving a desired objective is a powerful rein
forcer for further learning. Therefore, this element should be built into the learning programme.
10. Learning creates several emotional feelings in adults — excitement, agitation, tension, confusion, dis
orientation, fear, frustration, etc. Stress and anxiety can hamper a learning process and should be sensi
tively tackled.
11. Different adults learn differently. The variety of learning styles and preferred modes of learning necessi
tate a heterogenous design for learning by adults.
PARTICIPATORY TRAINING
6
Adult Learning is best facilitated in an atmosphere which
• encourages the people to be active
• promotes and facilitates the individual’s discovery of personal meaning
® recognises people’s right to make mistakes
• accepts differences
• tolerates ambiguity
® encourages openness, self- and mutual respect
• is a cooperative process, and
• encourages peership among learners.
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PARTICIPATORYTRAINING
7
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PRINCIPLES OF PARTICIPATORY TRAINING
[3 ased on the preceding analysis, the main principles of participatory training are derived: (a) The primary
principle of participatory training is that it is participant-centred. The training arises out of specific needs
of participants as articulated by them; it focuses on their objectives as opposed to trainers’; and, the particip
ants maintain control and influence upon the methods of training. In essence, participation is both a basic
value underlying this method of training as well as an instrumental requirement whereby trainees learn through
participation. The participation of trainees determines content, location, duration and methods of training. It
also ensures that the trainer is not seen as a know-all but more as a co-traveller on the path of joint exploration.
In reality, it may be difficult to ensure this strict requirement of participation. In many instances, the trainer pro
motes participation through stimulation, encouragement, withdrawal and patience. It is, therefore, important to
realise that joint influence is exercised by both the trainer and the trainees, rather than a one-way influence of
either.
(b) The comprehensive nature of participatory training necessitates combined focus on awareness, know
ledge and skills. Awareness of one’s own situation and the overall socio-economic reality is important.
Awareness-raising, therefore, has to be an important element of such training. Similarly, knowledge-acquisi
tion is a very common objective of all training programmes. Thirdly, learning new skills must be built in such
training programmes. The actual combination of these three foci may vary from one programme to another,
but every programme must aim at a minimum component of each of these three.
This combined focus of awareness, knowledge and skills makes the choice of training methods complex. Each
of these three foci is best accomplished through a particular method. Awareness-raising is most aptly
achieved through a dialogue among trainees and between trainer and trainee. It entails critical examination of
objective and subjective reality. Knowledge-acquisition is most efficiently done through lectures, talks or read
ings. Relevant and precise information can thus be disseminated and absorbed. Learning of skills calls for
practice. Learning new skills or sharpening existing ones demands practice opportunity within the training
programme itself. Thus a combination of training/learning methods is utilised in participatory training.
(c) Another important principle of participatory training is learning through the experiences of the particip
ants. This experiential approach relies heavily on the past experiences of the trainees. A systematic sharing
of trainees’ experiences related to the themes of training is undertaken. These shared experiences are then
analysed collectively by the trainees and the trainers together. Insights are then drawn from these for all. This
principle underscores the need for valuing all types of human experiences and not placing a priori judgements
on their validity.
Another aspect of experiential learning is generating common experience during training itself. This is ac
complished through simulations and exercises designed to provide experiences to participants on themes of
training. These exercises help to generate data during training itself which are then analysed by the trainer and
the trainees together to enhance learning. It is the combination of past experiences and the here-and-now ex
periences generated during the programme that provides materials for learning.
(d) Creation of suitable learning environment is a crucial consideration in participatory training. It has been
observed time and again that trainees need an opportunity to first unlearn and then relearn. Both these proces
ses can be highly threatening to a person.reaming implies acknowledgement of a current deficiency, and thus
resistance may develop easily. It is important that the learning environment be such that trainees are accepted
as they are, feel psychologically safe to experiment and take risks, enjoy mutual support, and feel confident
that whatever happens in training will not be used against them later. These elements of suitable learning en
vironment are not easy to build and, therefore, it calls for special attention on the part of the trainer. It is impor
tant to realise that such an environment does not develop automatically.
Another ingredient of learning environment is stimulation. A training programme must continue to be interest
ing and should continue to motivate trainees to learn. Lack of enthusiasm and interest can set in rather quickly
and effort needs to be made to check such trends.
(e) An important ingredient of training is its utility in day-to-day life and living. What is learnt in a training
programme needs to be transferred to real life situations. Transfer of learning needs to be carefully planned
as it does not take place automatically. In order to ensure effective transfer of learning to real life situations,
the training programme must provide the opportunity to plan this transfer. It can be accomplished through a
method of action-planning where participants identify a few problems in real life that they want to solve, plan
PARTICIPATORYTRAINING
8
for their solution and identify new insights being used in this solution during the last phase of a training prog
ramme. It is important that clear, conscious and enough attention is paid to transfer of learning.
(f) When participation is valued, training becomes a social event. Participatory training entails a social pro
cess where the training programme becomes a temporary organisation. It is important that this temporary or
ganisation follows values, norms and principles which are congruent with the training objectives. This has to
be consciously ensured.
(g) Since participatory training is geared towards building a group or an organisation, the focus of training
has to be a group. It is not then the concern to develop all skills and impart the same knowledge to all individu
als but to ensure a distribution of skills and knowledge in such a fashion that all the required ones are available
with the group as a whole.
Moreover, part of the training has to aim at building and strengthening the group. Group development, there
fore, becomes an important ingredient of such a training programme. This group development effort also
needs to be made in the light of the preceding principle whereby the creation of a temporary organisation is
recognised. Group development also constitutes an important step towards building a suitable learning envi
ronment. In consideration of all these aspects, participatory training must contain group-building processes
and interventions.
(h) Finally the trainer’s behaviour is an important element in participatory training. While in technical training,
the technical expertise of the trainer is'the sole requirement, it is not so in participatory training. Here the
trainer's own behaviour and value system is equally critical. For one, the trainer needs to be aware of his/her
own self and be sensitive to others.
The trainer has to have skills in working with groups and a keen sense of observation of individual and group
processes. Moreover, the behaviour of the trainer should be congruent with the aims, values and principles of
training. At no point during training should he/she appear to be expressing a value that is in conflict with the
essential core of participatory training. Such small, trivial matters as seating, talking, eating and dress can re
flect one’s values. Particular attention needs to be paid to avoiding an attitude of bossism and superiority over
trainees. Humility can help in this regard: openness to others' ideas can facilitate participation. These de
mands on the trainer can be quite overburdening but they have to be recognised and dealt with by each trainer
himself/herself.
PARTICIPATORYTRAINING
9
ROLE OF TRAINER IN PARTICIPATORY TRAINING
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ROLE OF TRAINER IN
PARTICIPATORY TRAINING
I
n participatory training methodology, the main objectives for the trainer are two-fold: a) stimulating critical
faculties of learners; and b) creating conditions for learning. In order to achieve these twin objectives, the
trainer plays multiple roles before, during and after the training. Each of these roles requires a particular set of
competencies and entails certain corresponding responsibilities. The related competencies can best be under
stood by seeing them as consisting of three components: knowledge, awareness and skills. An effective per
formance of any role involves the use of more than just one competency. In this section the key trainer roles
in the three phases of training are first identified — pre-training, during training, and post-training. Sub
sequently, major trainer responsibilities, and corresponding competencies, are also described.
These roles and responsibilities are presented here as distinct, though they are at times overlapping, and
mostly inter-related in reality. Many of these roles, responsibilities and competencies may appear common to
conventional and participatory training, but there are some distinctive elements for participatory training as
mentioned here.
TRAINER ROLES
The various trainer roles can be seen in three distinct phases: pre-training, training and post-training.
A. Pre-Training
1. Training Designer
The role of identifying and translating learning needs into objectives, content, and designing the programme
• collecting and identifying learning needs
• listing objectives
• working out related contents/methods/materials/exercises
• sequencing the contents/activities
• identifying resource persons
• preparing and selecting learning materials
2. Administrator/Organiser
The role of ensuring and meticulously planning in advance the facilities, learning materials, required equip
ment, participants and other related components of the training event and the coordination of the programme
logistics
• choosing venue and time
• selecting and scheduling facilities
• regularly communicating with the trainees regarding the programme plans
• identifying and arranging the needed support system at the training venue
• scheduling the time of co-trainees and resource persons
• distributing training materials
• arranging resources
ROLE OF TRAINER
1
B. During Training
1. Facilitator
The role of guiding the learning process so that individuals learn from each other and the group functions ef
fectively
• eliciting opinions
• enhancing participation
• focusing trainees’ attention on their potentialities
• summarising and synthesising information
• organising groups such that issues and needs are addressed
• intervening in the process
2. Instructor
The role of presenting information and concepts, clarifying objectives, creating and sustaining a structured
learning environment and helping generate new learning
• providing information and concepts
• directing structured learning — role-plays, simulations, games and discussions
• using learning aids — films, audio-tapes, video-tapes and other materials
3. Counsellor
The role of supporting and guiding individual trainees during periods of stress and strain and helping trainees
to assess their potentialities and personal competencies, so as to enable them to reflect, grow and change
• developing a rapport with trainees
• showing genuine interest in directing their process of growth
• communicating on a one-to-one basis
• organising sessions to enhance self-confidence and self-esteem of some individuals
4. Recorder
The role of maintaining records of the process and content to enable monitoring, analysis and documentation
• observing keenly both flow of content and process
• maintaining detailed notes on a daily basis
5. Evaluator
The role of assessing the impact of the training programme on the trainees
• planning evaluation mechanisms
• using written as well as verbal reports to assess an event
• utilising the evaluation design to assess individual changes in behaviour, attitudes and knowledge
• forming steering committees to assist in day-to-day evaluations
• conducting mid-term reviews
• sharing reflections and analysis with co-trainer
• providing relevantfeedback
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6. Organiser/Administrator/Manager
The role of managing all the related tasks during the programme, managing time and space boundaries
• managing time and space for each session
• solving problems related to accommodation, tood, etc.
• organising reservations, departures/arrivals, reimbursements, etc.
• managing the learning situation (session timing, breaks, off-time, etc.)
C. Post-Training
1. Report-Writer
The role of preparing a report of the training programme
• organising the relevant information for the report-writing
• disseminating the reports to all participants, and others interested
2. Follow-up Coordinator
cThe role of continuing contacts with individuals and their organisations to assess impact of training on the or
ganisations and individuals and providing the necessary follow-up support whenever needed
• communicating at regular intervals
• inviting feedback from both organisations and individuals
• collating learning needs for the next event, if so designed
• providing support in the field
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MAJOR TRAINER RESPONSIBILITIES AND
RELATED COMPETENCIES
Every trainer role involves a number of related responsibilities, which have been identified as follows:
1. Identification of trainees’ needs
2. Designing the training programme
3. Preparation of trainer
4. Administration
5. Trainer role during training
6. Organisation during training
7. Monitoring and evaluation
8. Follow-up
In this section, these trainer responsibilities and the related competencies (knowledge, awareness and skills)
are presented (see chart also).
1. Identification of Trainees’ Needs
This responsibility entails a process of identifying who the trainees are, what they are doing, and what their
learning needs are. This lays the foundation for the design of the training programme.
Competency
(a) Knowledge:
• getting detailed information about individuals and organisations: contextual data
• collecting general and specific learning needs of individuals: knowledge of different methods of needs —
assessment, e.g. self interviewing, questionnaire, etc.
• theoretical underpinnings of participatory training methodology: the philosophy, principles and theory of this
training approach which distinguish it from a conventional training approach
(b) Awareness:
• a keen and sensitive understanding of the expressed needs of learners
• an emotional and intuitive identification with those needs: using one’s own insights of the social context of
learners to grasp the real meaning of those needs
• realisation of the potentials and limitations of training
(c) Skills:
• sensing high frequency receptiveness; attuned to the subtle nuances of individual expressions
• analytical: ability to identify and critically analyse the collected information
• survey: ability to plan and conduct a survey of learning needs
• synthesising: condense, collate and compile information into meaningful categories
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2. Designing a Training Programme
This responsibility involves detailed planning of the programme, setting objectives, determining contents,
sequencing and choosing appropriate methods
Competency
(a) Knowledge:
• contents and relevant materials
• available methods
• materials available
• resource persons available
• a framework within which the objectives of the training programme have been defined and the contents
sequenced
(b) Awareness:
• sensitivity to the specific group of learners based on perception of their needs and requirements
• perception of how and why the contents are planned and flow in a particular sequence
(c) Skills:
• ability to design a need-based programme
• flexibility in planning and implementation of the design
• preparation of materials
• less ability to use different methods of needs assessment, e.g. projective questionnaires, sentence comple
tion, interviews, etc.
• facility with language
3. Trainer Preparation
A much forgotten and taken-for-granted area, this responsibility stresses the need to constantly develop the
self. Since development of the trainees is an important consideration of a training design, this development
can only result when the trainer also goes through a similar process. Special effort is needed before each train
ing programme.
Competency
(a) Knowledge:
• understanding what constitutes and promotes self-development
• contept areas
• sources and resources available for self-development
(b) Awareness:
• understanding one’s own strengths and weaknesses
• acceptance and understanding of self
• a learning orientation
(c) Skill:
• ability to seek and direct one’s own learning process
• ability to build up self-confidence
• skills in self-growth
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4. Administration
This responsibility entails planning and coordinating staff and logistics.
Competency
(a) Knowledge:
• identifying availability of facilities needed for the training programme
• cost analysis
(b) Awareness:
• sensitising self to understand the specific requirements of learners during training
• understanding the requirements of a learning environment and physical facilities needed to support that en
vironment
(c) Skills:
• administrative: ability to administer efficiently and effectively
• managerial: identifying resources needed and acquiring those resources
• anticipatory: ability to foresee the requirements of training beforehand
5. Trainer Role During Training
This is the central responsibility of a trainer.
Competency
(a) Knowledge:
• knowing how adults learn, acquire skills and develop attitudes; recognising differential styles of learning
• understanding how groups form, develop and terminate: group process
• contents of the programme
(b) Awareness:
• group dynamics: recognising what is happening in a group at a given time
• sensitive to the different levels of learners
• dynamics of trainer-trainee relationship
(c) Skills:
• communicating
• active listening
• motivating the learners
• facilitating groups
• summarising
• flexibility in approach
• use of training methods
• relationship-building
• role-versatility
• energising learners
• inspiring
• using self as a model
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6. Organising During Training
This responsibility involves the organising of time, space, facilities and equipment during the training event.
Competency
(a) Knowledge:
• locally available resources and materials
• support staff locally available
(b) Awareness:
• a critical understanding of what the learner’s anxieties and concerns are during training
• what could be done to relieve these anxieties, how to respond to those concerns
• requirements of training design
(c) Skills:
• organisational: time and place
• management: foresight, tactfulness, flexibility and ability to handle crisis situations
7. Monitoring and Evaluation
This responsibility entails a continuous process of monitoring during the programme and evaluating its impact
afterwards.
Competency
(a) Knowledge:
• Knowledge of the techniques and approaches which can be used to monitor and evaluate the programme,
e.g. feedback, steering committees
(b) Awareness:
• individual monitoring: responsive to individual needs and concerns
• group monitoring: aware of underlying dynamics that affect individual and group learning
• understanding issues that need monitoring (like male-female relationship)
(c) Skills:
• collecting and scanning information
• analysing relevant findings
• recording
• gathering information through probing, questioning
• using different methods of evaluation
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8. Follow-up
The trainer is responsible for the follow-up after the training programme.
Competency
(a) Knowledge:
• framework and long-term perspective
• methods of follow-up
(b) Awareness:
• potential and limits of follow-up
• leaming-in-action: sense the constant tensions that individuals experience in relating theory to practice
• type of support needed by individual learners and the entire group
(c) Skills’
• collecting and analysing information
• report-writing
• flexibility in using different follow-up methods (distance and in-field follow-up methods)
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Major Trainer Responsibilities and Related Competencies
RESPONSIBILITIES
KNOWLEDGE
AWARENESS
SKILLS
1. Identification of
trainees’ needs
Context of trainees and their work,
methods of needs assessment,
methodology of participatory
training
Learning needs, potential and
limits of training, social system
Sensing, analytical, survey,
synthesis
2. Designing the
Training Programme
Framework for defining training
objectives and content sequencing,
training materials, resource
persons
Sensitivity to group of learners,
content linkage and sequence
Designing, use of methods of
needs assessment, flexibility in
planning, language, prepar
ation of materials
3. Trainer preparation
Content knowledge, sources and
resources for self-development
Self-strengths and
weaknesses as a person and
trainer, learning orientation
Self-learning, growth, confi
dence building
4. Administration
Facilities needed and available for
training
Learners’ requirements and
learning environment
Administrative/managerial,
anticipatory
5. Trainer role
(during training)
Principles of adult learning, group
functioning, contents training
Group dynamics, trainer-trainee
relations and differentials
related to training
Use of self as a model, inter
personal competence,
communication, listening,
involving/motivating learners,
inspiration/leadership.
energising, openness to learn
ing. summarising, group
facilitation, use of methods
flexibly
6. Organising
(during training)
Locally available facilities and
resources
Participants’ anxieties and
concerns
Organisational (time
management, tact, foresight)
7. Monitoring &
evaluation
Methods of ongoing monitoring
and evaluation
Issues needing individual and/
or group monitoring
Collecting and analysing
information, recording, use of
different methods of evaluation
8. Follow-up
Follow-up framework and
methods
Potential for follow-up, learning
in-action support needed by
individual and groups
Analytical, use of methods
flexibly, writing reports
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SELF-DEVELOPMENT OF THE TRAINER
I n the conventional training methodology, the trainer needs to be merely an expert on the content. Only the
I cognitive development of the trainer is emphasised, and the self and the sensory/emotional development of
the trainer is not even mentioned.
However, the development of the self of the trainer is extremely important in participatory training methodol
ogy. The question is: why? The following are some of the main reasons for the development of the self of the
trainer:
1. The trainer needs to have the understanding of the self concept
We all have our concept of ourselves. For many of us, this concept may not be clear. The essential question
is: Who am I? The trainer needs to have the understanding of his/her identity so that s/he is able to portray
himself/herself clearly and play the trainer’s role effectively without acting out the problems of his/her identity.
If the trainer’s identity is not clear to himself/herself, s/he is likely to impose this on the learners.
2. Understanding of oneself creates the basis for understanding others
The trainer needs to understand his/her strengths and weaknesses, his/her concerns and anxieties, etc. If I
know what excites me and what irritates me, under what conditions I learn best, what my anxieties and con
cerns are while learning, what enhances my self-confidence, what angers or pleases me, when do I perform
best, how I relate to similar or dissimilar others, then I can begin to understand how participants experience
these during training. My understanding of my own self can become the basis for my understanding others. I
cannot understand others unless I understand myself.
3. Respecting myself as the basis for respecting others
The trainer needs to accept herself as she is, with her strengths and weaknesses, qualities and complexes.
Only then can she accept others. If I cannot accept myself then I cannot accept others as they are. If I do not
accept others as they are, then I will not value their experience, and therefore will not encourage others to
value and use their experience.
A similar approach can be taken with respect to respecting others. If I respect myself, only then can I respect
others. Others respect me only when I respect myself. It is important for a trainer to respect others as they are.
Showing respect to others is also showing concern to the world of other persons. This is crucial for a trainer.
And the trainer will be able to do so only when she can respect herself.
4. Understanding one's development as the basis for understanding others’ development
I must know how I grow and learn; then I can begin to understand how others grow and learn. I must know my
development tasks and roles: what it is that I need to learn next. Then I can begin to appreciate how others
can define their own development tasks and roles. If the trainer has to grow then she has to understand her
own developmental tasks and roles; and therefore, go through the developmental process herself; then she
can understand how others do so.
5. Using self as a model
In participatory training methodology, modelling is an important mode of learning. Participants learn by emulat
ing the model presented by the trainers. This can happen even if the trainer does not want to become a model.
However, a trainer in participatory training needs to use herself explicitly and directly as a model. For example,
if participants have to maintain high levels of energy, the trainer has to demonstrate her high level of energy
throughout the programme. If trust and openness are to be built as an important element of learning environ
ment, then the trainer has to herself demonstrate trust and openness. This direct use of self as a model is cru
cial in participatory training. And a trainer can do so only if she knows herself as well as how to use herself as
a model.
6. Using self as an instrument
If I want to measure the temperature of this room, I can use a thermometer. In the same way, if I want to mea
sure the energy level among the participants during the training programme, I can look at my own energy level
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~ ~
~~~
as an indicator. By understanding my own feelings and emotions and reactions at certain points, I can attempt
to understand the emotions and the reactions of the participants. If I am feeling bored and tired, perhaps others
are also feeling likewise. In participatory training, the self of the trainer is the only instrument s/he has to mea
sure various elements during the training programme. And for this self to act as an instrument, it has to be
calibrated such that it correctly and authentically reflects the temperature of the room. The calibration of the
self of the trainer requires a high degree of sensitivity about one’s and others’ selves.
7. Building flexibility in the programme
The flexibility of the participatory training programme largely depends on the flexibility of the trainer. People
vary in terms of flexibility — some are extremely rigid, and some are so flexible that they do not have a mind
of their own. Flexibility in this case implies the ability to take the decision and then to change it in the light of
additional information or argument. Unless the trainer herself has flexibility in her personality, she will not be
able to promote flexibility in the programme. The same applies with respect to openness. I can be open to new
information, ideas and arguments only if I have openness in myself. The participatory training programme will
lose its meaning if it is not open and flexible. Hence the self of the trainer also has to be flexible and open.
The above reasons point towards the critical need for developing one's self both as a person and as a trainer
in the participatory training methodology. The development of the self is not merely to develop cognitively, ac
quire new concepts and information, but also emotional development, sensitivity to one's reactions, needs and
emotions and development of sensitivity to others.
A trainer may not be able to function effectively in participatory training programmes unless she develops her
self constantly.
Meaning of Self-Development
Development of self implies several different things. In reality, these different meanings can overlap, but it is
useful to understand them distinctively. In this section, some of the main meanings of self-development are
elaborated.
(i) The most important meaning of self-development is to develop a realistic self concept. This implies develop
ing a positive and healthy appreciation of myself, my capabilities and my limitations. It implies overcoming my
negative self concept in some cases, and excessively unrealistic self concept in others. This is necessary so
that each person can begin to deal with the world on the basis of his/her strengths.
(ii) Another important meaning of self-development is to acquire internal control over myself. In many cases,
we depend on others to define our self. We need to develop our own definition of ourself and not allow our de
finition of self concept to be exclusively and totally determined by others. It helps in creating a sense of initia
tive and self control in each person
(iii) Another meaning of self-development is to develop the cognitive, affective and the behavioural aspects of
ourself. This implies developing and sharpening our cognitive capacity; this also implies becoming sensitive to
my own emotions and feelings, developing the ability to articulate and express them and sharpening emotional
capacities; the development of the behavioural aspect of self entails developing a wide repertoire of behaviour
appropriate to different situations.
(iv) A very crucial aspect of self-development is to create a sense of congruence between different aspects of
self. This implies an internal congruence and consistency between cognitive, affective and behavioural as
pects. This also implies that our behavioural aspect represents authentically our cognitive and affective as
pects — our actions are congruent with our thoughts and feelings. This is one of the major challenges in selfdevelopment.
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I
SELF-DEVELOPMENT
elf-development is an important issue for trainers, both for their own development as well as that of the
trainees. Therefore, it is important to understand what is self and what is self-development.
What Is Self?
We all face, at different points in our life, some basic questions like ‘Who am I?’ ‘How do others see me?’
‘What do I want to do?’ ‘Do I like who I am?’ etc., etc. Different religions and sects prescribe different ways to
seek oneself. Thousands of books are available, and all kinds of workshops, labs, and sessions are being or
ganised on this theme.
What is this elusive self that one is in search of? Is it a treasure to be discovered at the end of a journey? Or
is it a mirage?
Self is what is within us — a combination of our knowledge, values and attitudes. We develop a concept of our
self over a period of time. This self concept can be a positive and high one, where! consider myself as gener
ally all right, capable, active, etc; it can also be a negative and low one, where I do not like myself and consider
myself incapable. In the course of our work with the poor and marginalised populations, it is not uncommon to
meet people with a very low self concept: such people believe that they are good for nothing. We can also
come across people who have an unrealistically positive self concept where they overestimate their own
capacity and believe that they can do anything. Some persons have a realistic and balanced self concept. The
important thing is to recognise that each person has a self concept.
Aspects of Self
We can look at three broad aspects of self: cognitive, affective and behavioural. In reality these three aspects
interact and interrelate with each other. But they do express three distinctive aspects of a self.
(a) Cognitive:
The cognitive aspect of self represents a person’s intellectual capacity; it describes one’s conceptual tools and
represents the information-processing, analysing and storing aspect of self.
The ability of a person to monitor his environment and to become sensitive to other individuals and cues from
the surrounding situations refers to his cognitive aspect. This aspect of the self recognises the value of infor
mation from outside.
People differ in their cognitive aspects; some may have a highly developed cognitive capacity, some others
may not.
(b) Affective:
The affective representation of self is a person’s emotional aspect. The roots of this aspect are in the early ex
perience of the child — the experience of having been touched, the experiencing and expression of feelings,
etc. This is the basis of the development of the affective aspect of self. And the feelings, their experiencing and
expression, are based on our emotional self.
People vary in their emotional development. Some are able to experience and express their own feelings and
be sensitive to others; some are not.
(c) Behavioural:
The behavioural representation of self is its manifestation to others in everyday life. Our behaviour provides
the basis by which others view and judge us. Our clothes, our speech, our mannerisms, our bodies — all these
provide the basis for representation of self.
This aspect of self provides the basis by which we represent other parts of ourself. What is visible to others is
our behaviour; others infer our attitudes and value, our concepts and meanings, from our behaviour only.
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Our concept of our self influences us a great deal. We tend to act in a manner which conforms to our self con
cept. We tend to accept information consistent with our sense of ourself and tend to reject information that is
inconsistent.
Our self concept is also shaped by what others think of us. Others’ views of ourselves can also influence the
way we behave.
Thus self concept is a significant factor in our self-development.
Openness of Self
Self-development also means development of an open and flexible self. Openness as a quality of self is an
important one, for us, not only as trainers but as human beings. We prefer to relate to people who are open,
rather than closed; we like open personalities, rather than secretive ones. Developing openness is therefore a
main challenge in self-development. And-developing it in a manner that does not make oneself vulnerable to
exploitation by others.
A framework generally found useful to understand oneself and the development of openness is described
here. It is commonly known as Jo-Hari window, as shown in the diagram. It describes the relationship of myself
with other persons. There is a part of myself called open self which is known to me as well as known to others,
there is also an area of myself known to me, or not known to others — hidden self. Then there is a part of me
which I do not know, but others know — this is my blind self. And finally there is an unexplored part of me which
is not known to either me to others.
JO-HARI WINDOW
Known to me
Known to
others
Unknown to
others
Unknown to me
1
OPEN
SELF
:i
BLIND
SELF
I
J
HIDDEN
SELF
UNEXPLORED
I act on the basis of the part of me which I know — this is my self concept. Others relate to me on the basis of
what they know of me — this is their sense of me. The two are not identical and they can cause difficulties in
my relationship with others.
Building of relationships, becoming close and intimate and developing friends implies a larger part of the open
self. We are open about our self with some, and not with others. We come close together when we share with
them about ourselves. This is known as self disclosure. This is a common process. We all engage in self dis
closure to varying degrees with different persons.
Another way to extend the open self, as well as to reduce blind self, is to get to know more about those parts
of me which I do not know, but which others know. This is possible only when others share with me their views
of myself. This is known as feedback.
The process of self disclosure and feedback generally go together. And it is mutual between two per
sons. These processes are crucial to understand and practise if we want to develop ourselves.
i PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE FEEDBACK
Feedback should:
• be solicited, not dumped
• be specific and clear
• seek understanding
• be descriptive, not evaluative
• describe one’s feelings without imputing
.» be constructive
motives to others’ behaviour
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How to Plan for Self-Development
The following steps are generally used in planning for self-development:
(a) Identify developmental areas
One can identify aspects about oneself that one would like to develop; for example, I want to reduce my ag
gressiveness or I would like to be able to say no without feeling guilty, etc.
(b) Prioritise these needs and assess their importance over the next few months
There may be several aspects of oneself that one would like to develop. Accordingly, one should assess what
is more important and needs immediate attention. Choose one priority area to begin with
(c) Identify obstacles in self and in environment
A thorough analysis of what the impeding factors are that are likely to block this process of self-development
should be identified. This could involve looking inside oneself — behavioural patterns, attitudes, tempera
ments, etc. One needs to also look into the environment, other people and situations that can crea.e obstacles
in the process of self-development.
(d) Planning activities
The next logical step is to decide how to go about improving that aspect of oneself. This entails detailed plan
ning of activities that need to be carried out in order to achieve this goal. A time frame also needs to be de
veloped for this plan.
(e) Seek others* help
Self-development plans invariably necessitate seeking help from other persons. It is rather impossible to de
velop oneself in isolation, all by oneself. We need the help of others - our ^l'6^^®5’
friends etc — to be able to engage in self-improvement activities. For example, if I want to develop my ab y
to express my emotions clearly, then I may request one or two persons I regularly interact with to provide me
with encouragement and feedback in this regard.
(f) Monitor self-development
itself.
Are you ready for self-development?
• are you open to new information and ideas about yourself?
• are you sensitive to your own needs?
• are you prepared to face the pleasant as well as the ugly aspects of yourself?
• are you willing to acknowledge that you are not perfect?
• are you willing to face some pain in this process?
• are you flexible enough to evolve alternative plans and strategies for yourself?
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i
PERSONALITY
What is it?
\ A / e use the word Persona,'tyt0 re^er t0 certain types of characteristics in a person. For example, we say,
V V “he has a good personality” What do we mean by this? What is personality? And how can we under
stand it?
In some ways, all human beings are alike; in some ways, each person is unique. It is this similarity and unique
ness in each person that makes the study of personality useful.
Personality of a person represents the sum total of his/her physical characteristics, behaviour, attitudes, val
ues, etc. In practice, it implies how each person understands and reacts to a given situation, how different
people react differently to the same situation, how our values get formed, how we behave in a particular way,
etc. In this sense, personality of a person is a complex being; it is also an important thing because personality
seems to be an important aspect in our daily life.
The understanding of how personality is formed and why it behaves the way it does may be useful to us from
several points of view:
(a) it helps us to understand ourselves and our own personality;
(b) it helps us to understand how individuals and groups behave in a given situation;
(c) it helps us to understand our own actions and reactions much better;
(d) it helps us to develop one’s personality in a manner that one finds desirable.
Therefore, as a trainer, understanding of personality, its concept and development in general can be of im
mense use for us in our trainer’s role.
How is it formed?
>
Our present personalities are a sum total of our past experiences. The way we have been influenced by others
right from our childhood, and the way we have acted on our environment, jointly contribute to the building of
our present personality. There has been a lot of debate about the relative importance of environment in shap
ing personality. Whatever may be the debate, it is clear that the environment in which we are born, and grow
as a child and mature as an adult, has tremendous influence in shaping our personality. Yet, the individual per
son also acts on the environment to shape the environment according to his/her personality.
Thus, the personality is an outcome of the twin processes of the manner in which the person has been influ
enced by his/her environment and significant persons in the environment (parents, teachers, other significant
authority figures, etc.) and the manner in which each person acts on his/her environment. Altogether, it is a
combination of external influences and internal initiative.
Common Aspects
The influence of environment, different as it is for each one of us, may explain the differences among human
beings. There are also some common phenomena in each person which provide the basis for shaping a per
sonality. In this section, we look at three such aspects:
(a) Id, Ego and Superego: Freud outlined three aspects of a personality and called them Id, Ego and
Superego. Id represents the pleasure principle — seeking of pleasure and avoidance of pain is the concern of
each child right from birth. Ego represents the reality principle — relating to seeking information, analysing it
and acting on that information. Superego represents the normative aspect — definition of what is right and
what is wrong, what is desirable and what is undesirable, etc.
When the child is born, it first operates on the pleasure principle, Id. Gradually, it develops its reality principle
— Ego. The demands and messages, dos and don’ts, exhortations and directions coming from significant
others (namely authority figures) constitute the Superego.
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Each personality has these three aspects — Id, Ego and Superego. In fact, the complex internal relationship
between these three elements constitutes a personality. Understanding personality then implies understand
ing Id, Ego and Superego, and how they interrelate.
(b) Defence Mechanisms: In order to seek pleasure and avoid pain, particularly in a manner that is allowed
by a given social order, each person develops a series of coping mechanisms known as Defence
Mechanisms. These mechanisms are useful in protecting our personality in certain situations of crisis; but their
excessive use also makes the personality defensive.
Some of the key defence mechanisms are as follows:
Rationalisation
In the face of an opposing point of view or information, explaining
away one's behaviour with justification and reasons.
Repression
The unpleasant experiences and opposing information are forgotten,
suppressed deep into one’s subconscious — it is best to forget painful
things.
Projection
Attributing the cause of failure or an unpleasant event to someone else
other than self.
Displacement
If the desired goal is not achievable, shifting to substitute goal as
desirable one ■
Regression
Behaving in child-like fashion as a mechanism to seek pleasure
Fantasy
Imagining gratification instead of reality.
These different mechanisms become a part of each personality and are used automatically in different situa
tions. The understanding of one’s own defence mechanisms helps us to understand how to use them in a ba
lanced and appropriate fashion — neither becoming vulnerable nor becoming defensive.
(c) Needs and Motives: It has been suggested that each person has a series of needs which provide the moti
vation for action of a certain type. While a set of these needs is considered common across all persons, the
objects seen as satisfying those needs differ for each person.
One of the common frameworks of human needs has been presented by Maslow. As shown in the figure, Mas
low describes a hierarchy of needs. Physiological needs of food, clothing, shelter, etc. are the first order
needs. Once these survival needs are somewhat satisfied, the next order needs of security and psychological
safety become active and the motive for action. Our needs for love, affection and friendship are the social
needs — the next highest order need. These are followed by the need for esteem, recognition and accep
tance. And finally self actualisation needs are the highest order needs.
f
Self
5
actualisation
Self esteem
Social
Security
Physiological
MASLOW S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
In this framework, each higher order need becomes active when lower o. 'er needs are satisfied. In order to
understand the personality, we can look at the needs of the person that have been satisfied, and which have
become active. The needs which are activated but not satisfied provide the motive for action of that personal
ity.
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16
Personality Development
Personality is a dynamic entity, it grows, changes and develops over a period of time. In fact, static personality
is almost like a dead person. Several models of personality development have been propagated. Some people
believe that most of the personality is formed in the first five to six years of one’s life. However, while the early
years do create a blueprint of the future personality, they may not determine the entire personality. A useful
framework of personality development is a chronological model of successive life stages developed by Erik
Erikson. This can be a useful framework to understand one’s own personality development and that of others.
Model of Personality Development
Erikson emphasised that personality development continues throughout the life cycle of an individual. Each
stage of development has both a positive as well as a negative component. There are eight stages of develop
ment:
1. Trust vs. Mistrust (up to 1 year)
The degree to which a child comes to trust the world, other people and himself/herself depends to a large ex
tent upon the quality of care the child receives. If basic needs are met, discomforts removed, the child is cud
dled, fondled and talked to — positive feelings towards people develop.
Inconsistent, inadequate, rejecting behaviour fosters basic mistrust, creating an attitude of fear and suspicion
in the child. These experiences determine whether the child develops basic trust or mistrust in his/her person
ality.
2. Autonomy vs. Doubt (2-3 years)
Children acquire a greater sense of ‘autonomy’ at this stage of life. They discover their several accomplish
ments — walking, running, climbing, control over muscular movements, etc. Recognising these needs of the
child and letting him/her do what s/he is capable of doing at his/her own pace and time builds in the child a
sense of autonomy.
Over-protection, critical, negative attitudes create a sense of ‘shame and doubt’ which is carried forward in the
child’s future personality.
3. Initiative vs. Guilt (4-5 years)
With increased control over motor activities, interest in all kinds of play and explorative activities as well as
curiosity about things around increases. Fostering and encouraging such attitudes forces a sense of initiative
in the child.
Inhibitions of exploratory play, constant criticism and deriding the child about questions asked foster a sense
of guilt.
4. Industry vs. Inferiority (6-11 years)
This stage sees children developing love for the parent of the opposite sex. Besides, social norms are under
stood and adhered to in the games played by them, reasoning prevails and the child becomes capable of de
ductive reasoning.
A sense of industry is enhanced when the adolescent is praised and rewarded, encouraged to build practical
things, construct models, etc.
If such activities are looked upon as mischief-making, mess-creating, it encourages a sense of inferiority.
Teachers and other significant adults in the adolescent’s environment also carry considerable influence along
with the parental influences.
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17
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (12-18 years)
This stage sees growing maturity — physiological, social and mental — in the adolescent. S/he has to cope
with different roles and arrive at a sense of who s/he is, where s/he has been and where s/he is going.
An individual who reaches this stage with a cumulative vital sense of trust, autonomy, initative and industry de
velops a meaningful sense of ego identity. The reverse happens for the negative experiences — role-confu
sion occurs, fragmented sense of personal identity emerges. The individual does not have a sense of who s/he
is, where s/he belongs, etc. Delinquents often exhibit such confusion.
Some adolescents deliberately seek a negative identity — which to them is preferable to having no identity at
all.
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (18-30 years)
Intimacy means the ability to share with and care about another person (including members of the opposite
sex) without fear of losing oneself in the process. Building close relationships with members of the other sex
takes place at this stage. A sense of isolation is experienced when close relationships are not fostered.
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (30-45 years)
At this stage, an adult has become established in his work or profession, family life is stabilised, and he begins
to extend his concerns to issues outside his immediate environment. Helping others grow and learn builds
generativity in personality. Those who fail to establish this sense of generativity tend to stagnate with their pre
dominant interests catering only to their own personal needs and comforts.
8. Integrity vs. Despair (45 years and more)
This last stage corresponds to the period when the person’s major efforts are nearing completion.
A sense of integrity evolves if the individual is able to look back upon his/her own life with a degree of satisfac
tion. But despair accrues if the individual is dissatisfied with his life, and looks upon it as a sense of missed
opportunities (if this didn’t happen, I would have done so and so...) and the realisation that it is too late to start
all over again.
An important thing to be stressed upon in these eight stages of personality development is that an individual
need not get ‘fixed’ or stuck upon any particular stage of life if issues are not resolved then. Depending upon
situations, the individual can get out of his/her negative experiences at a later stage too, and move into the
next state. Similarly, an individual who may have successfully completed a stage, can also regress and move
backwards, due to some severe setbacks or emotional upheavals in his/her life experiences.
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18
LEARNING EXERCISES
Microlab
A self-contained package of exercises, which helps prepare participants to benefit maximally from a training
programme, microlab is essentially a kind of laboratory training. Some highlight features of the microlab are:
- learning through experiencing
- experimenting with one’s behaviour
- mutual help
- openness in sharing feelings, experiences, concerns
- discovering and searching for solutions
Characteristic features of a microlab:
1. It helps unfreeze participants: it helps reduce inhibition and increase participation
2. It encourages participants to discover themselves through their own experiences
3. It enhances participation, through certain activities and exercises,it helps participants unfold and get to know
each other
4. It stimulates thinking. The nature of the interesting activities and exercise, arouses considerable
enthusiasm and curiosity on behalf of participants
Sample microlab for self-development:
This process helps participants to focus on the self, and go through an experience of self-disclosure and self
reflection through a process of sharing
Time:
Two and a half hours
Steps:
1. Use a large hall for the purpose, so that participants can walk and sit freely
2. Participants are requested to leave all their papers and bags elsewhere
3. Each activity is timed between one and five minutes; the trainer needs to feel the pulse of the group
4. The participants have an intense emotional experience at the end of the exercise; only a brief sharing is
done, if at all
INTRODUCTION
Move
-What have you learnt about yourself today?
- Share it with one other person
Move
- Choose a partner, compliment him/her for something he/she has done well in the last two to three days
Move
- Sit in triads with members of both sexes
-Think of a situation where you felt happy
- What made you happy? Share with each other
-What makes you sad? Describe a situation where you felt sad
Move
- Choose a person you feel close to
-Tell him two of his/her strengths and two weakness that you might have noticed so far
Move
- Choose a triad
-Think of situations when you feel lonely. Describe it to each other
-What are you afraid of? When do you feel vulnerable? Share it
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Move
- Be in touch with your feelings
-What is happening to you inside?
Move
- Form a triad
-What is one thing that you think others in this training group do not like about you? Share it. Why?
- Show affection for each other
Move
- Choose a new partner.
-What kind of other actions irritate you, make you angry? When do you compete with others? Share it
Move
- Choose a dyad (with a member of the opposite sex)
- What kinds of difficulties do you face in working with persons of the opposite sex? Why?
- Have you faced this type of difficulty so far in this programme?
Move
- Be in touch with feelings in yourself
- Inclusion collage
-Why do you feel this way? Share with one other person of your choice
- Stay with yourself!
- With a person depicting the centre of the training, choose to stand deciding whether you feel very close, or
distant from the centre
Who Am I?
Objectives:
To increase understanding of self
Materials:
Paper, pen
Time:
45 minutes -1 hour
Process:
1. On 10 different sheets of paper answer the question ‘who am I’, as quickly as possible
2. Rank in order each of these statements i.e., No. 10 to the statement you would be most willing to discard,
etc., No. 1 to the statement which you would be least willing to discard
3. Reflect upon these statements to understand your cognitive map - did you depict yourself as an object or
adjective, etc.
Adapted from Organisational Psychology - David Kolb & Mclntyre/Prentice Hall, Inc., New Jersey,
U.S.A.
Self Awareness and Development
Objectives:
1. To reflect upon one’s past life and experiences
2. To examine key influences that have had an impact on the present self
Time period:
1-11/2 hours
Participants:
Group of learners
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Process:
1. Introduction of exercise.
2. Participants are asked to choose any place in the room, where they could relax in any form they decide.
3. Facilitator slowly gives instructions to participants:
a. Recall your earliest memory, think about it. Was it pleasant? Was it unhappy? Who were the key people
in your life? What were you doing? How do you feel? Note it down.
b. Go back to your memories when you were five years old. Who was there? What were you doing? How
do you feel? Note it down.
c. Go back to your memories when you were 10 years old.
d. Do you remember any critical incident before 10 years.
e. Memories when you were 15 years old.
f. Memories when you were 20 years old.
g. Memories when you were 25 years old.
4. Write down your memories if you like.
5. What were your main concerns?
6. Who were the main persons who influenced you? And how?
7. Who are you? Describe yourself - at least in five sentences.
8. What do you want to do in the future? Write it down.
9. What will you plan as your self-development goal for the next six months? Prioritise them.
10. How will you plan for your self-development?
i. Which is your most important goal?
li. Whose help do you need?
iii. What are the obstacles you will face?
iv. How will you handle them?
v. How will you monitor your progress on self-development?
Remarks:
Participants can share these with one other person, if they so desire
Congruency Exercise
Objectives:
To increase understanding of blind aspects of self
Materials:
Paper, pen
Time:
1 hour
Process:
1. Write down 10-15 spontaneous completions to the statement “I believe...”
2. Categorise these responses into one of the following:
Something I believe which:
a. I have never shared with anyone publicly.
b. I have shared with a few people.
c. I have shared with many people.
3. For each of the responses in the first step, list behaviours congruent with the above categories.
4. Choose a partner and discuss with him/her your findings of the above.
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Self-Identity
Objective:
To discover and learn about self
Materials:
Board and chalk
Time:
45 minutes
Process:
1. Ask learners to pick up anything (an object, a flower, etc.) in their environment that they personally identify
with.
2. Share and discuss:
i Why did you choose it?
ii What does it represent to you?
iii What are the factors in your self and the environment that make you feel this way?
iv Do you want to change this image of self? How?
Who am I?
Objectives:
This exercise helps to promote the participants’ self-awareness and confidence in expressing themselves. In
many of the later meetings, participants will think about knowing themselves better and whats important to
them. They identify many different parts of themselves or “roles.”
Time:
30 minutes
Materials:
Newsprint and felt tip pens (or blackboard and chalk)
Process:
1. To start, explain to the participants that they will be thinking about themselves and whats important to them.
We need to know ourselves before we can solve our problems.
2. Tell the women that they are going to play a game called ‘Who Am I?’.
3. Divide the women into groups of five or six members. Meet separately with each group and instruct the group
to think of all the possible things they “are". Explain that the teams will then compete to see which team
thought of the most. Take about five minutes for this step. (Some examples of “Who Am I? are. mother, wife,
sister, teacher, nurse, aunt, member of a certain association, farmer, seller, etc. The responses do not have
to be formal “jobs," but "roles” that the women have in their lives.)
4. Now, start with the first member of the first team, and write her answer on the paper. For preliterate groups,
draw a stick figure or symbol. (Note: To increase excitement, each item can be on only one list!)
6. Record the responses of a member of each team in turn. After all have responded, begin again with the first
person. When the teams have no more answers, the team with the longest newsprint list is the winner . But
— explain that they’re all really “winners”. They had a good time and found out more about themselves!
7. Your job in the discussion is to guide the participants in examining what they do and how they live. Here are
some questions to use:
• Which of these parts of yourself or “roles” did you choose yourself? Which was in some way given to you.
• What are some of the things you do in your different roles?
• Which roles do you like? Why? Which don’t you like? Why not? Could you change these things.
• Are there some things that you would like to do or be that are not on the lists? How could you do or e
these things?
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Ideas to take home:
Participants should end this activity feeling an appreciation for the many things they are and do. Show your
appreciation for the women and their different roles too. Also, point out to them the roles they chose themselves.
There are some areas in which they have choice in their lives
Take a five-minute break.
Reference: Working Together — A Handbook of Activities for Women’s Learning and Action by
Suzanne Kindervatter
Interpersonal Perception
Objectives:
Self-development cannot take place in isolation. An important aspect of self-development is to check one’s per
ception of the self with other people - do they see me as I see myself? This exercise helps validate certain per
ceptions of the self as well as re-look at aspects in the self that are not congruent with others’ perceptions.
*
Questionnaire:
45 items
Time period:
90 minutes
Materials:
Pen, paper
Process:
1. Participants are divided into triads according to their choice.
2. Each participant is given the questionnaire and asked to fill it himself/herself on column A.
3. Then other two members of the triad fill the questionnaire for each other on columns B and C.
4. The responses are then shared; similarities and differences identified: reasons for those perceptions are
also analysed.
5. Each participant can then prepare a window for himself/herself.
Remarks:
This exercise can be very useful after the input on Jo-Hari window, and principles of feedback.
Continued
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Interpersonal Perception
A
B
c
Are you someone who
1. keeps trying until you succeed
2. listens carefully to others
3. takes an active role in a group
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DESIGNING A TRAINING PROGRAMME
DESIGNING A TRAINING PROGRAMME
eveloping an appropriate design for meeting the learning objectives of a group of learners is one of the
most creative and challenging first steps in any training effort. However, this step of designing a prog
ramme has not been paid enough attention in most cases. Some trainers take this step very lightly because
they feel they already have considerable experience in conducting training programmes. They give major em
phasis to conducting the training programme than its preparation before the programme.
The design of a training programme is the preliminary blueprint which becomes a basis for its actual conduct.
Therefore, a design should contain training objectives, contents and their sequence, training methods, time
plan for each session, identification of learning materials and other resources required, ongoing monitoring
during the programme, post-programme evaluation and a broad plan for follow-up.
THE DESIGN PROCESS
I he process of designing a training programme follows a series of steps. Steps in the design process are
I shown in the chart. The first step is to identify the learning needs. This provides a basis for the entire de
sign. We need to understand clearly what a group of learners needs to learn. On the basis of these learning
needs, specific training objectives are interpreted. These training objectives provide the framework for the
training programme. The contents of training are then derived from these training objectives. An appropriate
sequence of training is then made whereby it is determined how to start a programme and how to end it, how
to sequence the various contents to flow during the entire duration of the programme. Choice of appropriate
learning-training methods is then made and a decision regarding time for each content area and each session
is also made.
In this chapter some of the major steps in this design process are described in detail.
ASSESSING LEARNING NEEDS
I he very first step in designing a training programme is to find out the different learning needs of a group of
I learners. Why should a training programme be conducted? This question can be answered only in the
context of a particular set of learning needs. Many times trainers tend to assume learning needs of a group of
learners and straightaway outline the training objective. Despite our past familiarity with a group of learners
and vast experience in training, it is our contention that this step of assessing learning needs should be under
taken carefully and seriously.
What are learning needs? Learning needs are those things which a person or a group of persons needs to
learn in order to meet some of their specific requirements. These requirements can vary, e.g. to become an
effective farmer, a village health worker, an organiser, a facilitator, etc., etc. Learning needs should be distin
guished from interest. A person may be interested in becoming an organiser, but he may already have the
necessary competence needed for the same, so mere interest is not the basis; we need to identify learning
needs separately.
Secondly, it is not always easy to identify a precise focus of learning needs; we tend to start with a more
generalised set of learning needs. In order to evolve concrete training objectives and a design which meets
those, it is crucial that learning needs are identified specifically and precisely.
Needs Assessment
However we may identify learning needs, a variety of methods is used in assessing the learning needs of a
group of learners. In a sense, the attempt is to seek certain information. Therefore, it is important to identify
the sources of that information as well as methods that can be used to elicit that information.
DESIGNING A TRAINING PROGRAMME
1
Sources of Information
As shown in the box, a wide range of sources exists that can be used to assess learning needs of a group of
learners. Clearly, learners themselves are the most direct source; we can find out from the learners what they
want to learn. We can find out from people who know the learners what those learners may want to learn. For
example, you can ask what an animator should learn in order to become a more effective animator. Similarly,
we can find out from members of the community with whom that animator works what that animator should
learn further. The point is that individuals and groups who regularly interact with learners are also useful
sources of information about the learning needs of learners.
Sources of Information
Learners themselves
Others who know the learners
Job requirements
Records
Others
individually, collectively
colleagues, community
individual jobs, organisational work
reports, documents, past training reports
literature, newspapers, magazines
A very common and useful method of assessing learning needs is to look at the job or the work that learners
have to perform. The nature of their work and requirements of their work become a source of information about
their learning needs. This exercise can be done for each individual learner, for the entire group of learners as
well as for an organisation as a whole. The basic requirements of the work specify the range of competencies
needed and matching that range with the competencies already existing provides the gap — learning needs.
Existing records, documents and other such materials can also become useful sources of information. These
records can be minutes of meetings, progress reports, performance review documents, etc. They can also be
records of events and problems that a group of learners might have already worked on. Looking at the prob
lem that arose, how it was analysed and how it was solved could provide the basis to identify future learning
needs for a group of learners.
Previous training conducted with some similar set of learners and reports of the same could also be a source
of useful information. If we are doing a series of training programmes for tribal youth, we are dealing with simi
lar sets of learners and previous programmes can be a basis to highlight the learning needs for the future prog
rammes.
Besides these, several other sources of information can be used in assessing learning needs. We can use
existing professional literature, articles in newspapers and magazines and other books, etc. as useful ways to
get the information.
The important thing to remember is that any range of sources can be used to obtain information about the
learning needs of a group of learners.
DESIGNING A TRAINING PROGRAMME
2
Methods of Information Collection
The challenge is to use these sources of information creatively in order to acquire the relevant information.
Methods of information collection vary considerably and can depend on sources of information. When we col
lect information from learners and other individuals, we can use interviews. Interviews can also be used with
a group of learners by creating a group discussion. Questionnaires are also a useful method of collecting in
formation from learners as well as other persons around them. Questionnaires provide an advantage of being
used extensively without the necessity of face-to-face interaction as in interviews; questionnaires can be sent
far away. Sometimes, pre-determined tests are also used to assess learning needs. For example, in asses
sing literacy skills of neo-literates, simple tests are administered. As a result of these tests, we can identify the
learning needs of that set of learners. However, pre-determined tests can be culturally biased, and may not
yield authentic information. Study of records and documents is an appropriate method when they are being
used as a source of information.
In some cases, actual field observation is a useful method of collecting information. We observe learners and
a group of learners in their own context, doing what they mostly do. This observation can then be used to infer
learning needs. Another variation of observation is what is called participant observation. This means that
one observes even as one participates in a setting.
Whatever methods of collecting information seem appropriate, they must be used effectively to assess learn
ing needs of the learners. It is a crucial first step that determines the efficacy of the design of a training prog
ramme. We need to know the learning needs correctly, precisely and clearly.
i
DESIGNING ATRAINING PROGRAMME
3
1
1
INTERPRETING TRAINING OBJECTIVES
"T" he learning needs identified earlier provide the basis for interpreting training objectives. In order to evolve
I a realistic and comprehensive set of training objectives, several factors have to be considered to interpret
those learning needs into training objectives. Some of these factors are briefly enumerated here.
(a) Limits and Potentials of Training
As has been described earlier, training has several potentials; from individual change to group change. Train
ing also has limits. Training cannot accomplish everything that a group of learners may need to learn. For
example, building unity among a group of tribals is a broad objective which cannot be totally fulfilled during the
training programme. What a training programme can do is, however, create an experience of hOw to achieve
unity and understanding of what the implications of not becoming united are. Similarly major individual learning
may not take place in a single training programme and therefore may need to be broken down into smaller
training objectives. To become an effective organiser may require a series of training programmes and not just
one. Furthermore, no. single training programme can accomplish the entire range of learning needs of a group
of learners. It is useful to separate different sets of learning needs and design separate programmes for each
set. For example, trying to combine how to use modern agricultural techniques and how to become an effec
tive organiser of landless labourers may be somewhat difficult.
These limits and potentials of training can be used to narrow down learning needs into a realistic set, around
which training objectives can be developed.
(b) Background of Learners
Understanding of the context in which learners live and work is an important factor in developing training ob
jectives. The knowledge of learners’ competence, attitude, interest, etc. can help us to define the scope and
depth of learning suitable to a given issue. Whether the learners are able to attend only half-day programmes
or three-day programmes depends on their context and this is useful information in interpreting training objec
tives.
A thorough and deep understanding of the background of the learners helps in developing appropriate training
design. For example, training programmes with poor rural men may have to take into consideration shorter
time span of attention (1 Vz hours, also the need for frequent beedi breaks); programmes for poor rural women
may need to take into consideration their need to bring their young children along with them.
(c) Needed Competency
During identification of learning needs, we look at the needed competencies for a group of learners. The com
petencies needed to do the work well are again used in interpreting objectives; for example, animators may
express their own perception of what competencies they need to learn. But those responsible for designing a
programme may have to use their own understanding of what is the meaning of an effective animator in order
to interpret training objectives. This becomes particularly important in identifying the competencies needed in
order to perform the task well.
(d) Feasibility Factors
Some basic feasibility factors have to be considered at this stage too. These include available human and
material resources. The availability of human resources will determine trainer competency available at a given
point and may influence training objective. Availability of material resources can also determine the duration
of the programme or size of learners’ group. These feasibility considerations may be necessary to break down
overall objectives into smaller modules and spread the entire learning process over a series of training prog
rammes.
Various other considerations can also be brought in while interpreting training objectives. The important point
is that training objectives must be concrete, specific, relevant, manageable and feasible.
DESIGNING A TRAINING PROGRAMME
4
CONTENTS AND METHODS LINKAGE
T he contents of a training programme are directly derived from the training objectives. Each objective may
I require a certain set of contents. For example, if one of the objectives is to understand socio-economic
reality in India, the content will have to include various existing aspects of society. We need to develop, there
fore, a framework which helps us derive contents from given training objectives. Our framework of society will
determine what contents I will use in meeting the objectives of understanding socio-economic reality in India.
For example, I may focus upon unequal distribution of land and other resources in the society. Another trainer
may have a different framework and a thoroughly different set of contents. This is important to understand.
Several considerations then need to be brought in to specify the depth and scope of contents. Some of the
main considerations are given below:
1. Level of Learners
Our understanding of the learners and their level determines the depth and extent of particular contents. The
observation of the learners and knowledge of their past experiences are useful indicators in this determination.
For example, understanding of socio-economic reality in India will have different depth of coverage for a group
of illiterate tribals as learners vs. a group of experienced community organisers. Clearly an intimate knowledge
of the existing knowledge of learners is important in designing scope and depth.
2. Strategy of Training
Each training programme is necessarily a part of an overall training strategy. Sometimes this strategy is not
explicitly envisaged. Clearly articulating a training strategy helps us in locating the training programme we are
designing in this broad context. This then helps us in determining the scope of contents. For example, if our
training strategy of building organisational skills in field workers comprises a series of programmes and
field-based follow-up, then the content like socio-economic reality in India can be handled at different stages.
A broad content area can be broken down into smaller elements and covered in stages. It has to be dealt with
differently for different training strategy. This entails having overall strategies of training clarified before the
starting of the training programme.
3. Size of Learners’ Group
The depth and scope of the content gets influenced by the size of the learners’ group. If the group comprises
15-30 learners, who are more or less homogenous in their background and orientation, then the same can
be dealt with in greater depth. If the group is much larger and heterogenous, then the depth of the content may
be limited.
Other factors that affect the depth of a content area include the number of trainers and other infrastructural
facilities available. Sometimes external constraints determine the scope and depth of a broad content area.
In any case, it is useful to have a detailed outline of each content area derived from a specific objective. Merely
saying ‘understanding of socio-economic reality in India’ is not enough; which aspects of socio-economic real
ity will be covered and in what depth is also important to describe.
DESIGNING A TRAINING PROGRAMME
5
Sequencing Content
Having identified different content areas, the sequence or flow of different contents needs to be specified. The
important thing in sequence is to determine how the entire training programme will flow from the beginning to
the end; and how one content area follows another. Several important considerations can be used in determin
ing a useful sequence. Some of these are as follows:
1. Training Model
One way to establish a sequence is to have models of training clearly articulated in terms of levels of learning.
There can be several models as shown below:
Model A states that content related to the individual is dealt with first, moving on to the group, then to the vil
lage and then to the society. It is a micro to macro model. Model B moves from society to village to group to
seif — macro to micro. Model C is a combination of these two where you start with macro, come to micro and
then move again to the macro — from society to village to group to self to group to village to society.
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Each model has some advantages and disadvantages. In the first model, we start straightaway with the self
and the programme ends with the society. This model is appropriate when a group of learners and trainers
have already established good rapport and can deal with issues of self right away. For a group of new learners,
other models may be more appropriate. Starting from the society as in model B can be least threatening to in
dividual learners and can gradually help them to deal with issues of their own self. For a group whose learning
needs focuses on self-development this is a very appropriate model.
The third model is the safest model where we start from a distant and non-threatening content of society and
gradually come close to the learner’s self and again end with the macro society focus. This is useful when the
group of learners want to use a training programme partly as a way to deal with some of the social issues. This
helps in ending the programme again with society focus.
In any case, an appropriate model must be evolved to provide a sequence to the contents of the training prog
ramme.
DESIGNING A TRAINING PROGRAMME
6
2. Logical Framework
A logical framework is necessary to determine the sequence of contents. For example, if the training objective
is to acquire skills in group facilitation, this content can only be dealt with after the learners have understood
group functioning. This kind of logical framework is useful to determine the flow of the content areas.
3. Setting Stage
Sometimes one content area is used to set the stage for the next one. For example, understanding of self-de
velopment and self reflection can be facilitated if group processing is done first. This group processing sets the
stage for processing the self. The consideration of setting stage becomes crucial when a content area is more
delicate and crucial for the overall learning.
A good design uses various contents in an effective way, setting one stage after another.
4. Past Experiences of the Trainers
Of course, each trainer uses his/her own past experiences in establishing the flow of content. We know from
our experience what works in the beginning for a particular group of learners, what later, and what in the end.
We also know from experience which sequences have worked and which have not. Therefore, a trainer uses
his/her past experiences in establishing the sequences of contents.
5. Other Considerations
There are some other considerations in establishing the sequence of contents. Introduction of the programme
and the learners has to be done first in the design. Similarly, if we want to conduct action planning during train
ing itself (in order to transfer learning from the training to the real life situation), then it has to come right in the
end. Similarly, planning for follow-up also has to be done towards the end of the programme.
Ongoing monitoring and review also have to be built in the design from the very beginning. It is useful to have
a brief evaluation exercise at the end of the programme. Of course, post-programme evaluations are also
necessary. Similarly, Ongoing monitoring of the flow of the programme, including mid-term review, has to be
placed in the design from the beginning of the programme.
The important thing to.keep in mind is that these are relevant considerations in establishing the sequence of
contents. The flow of content — its sequencing — in a training programme needs to be done consciously and
logically and not on an ad hoc basis.
Having established the sequence, choice of appropriate learning/training methods needs to be made. These
choices have several considerations (see next chapter for details); however, design of a training programme
includes methods as well.
The design of a training programme, howsoever tentative it may be, must include time plan for each day and
each session. It should also include a list of learning materials that will be needed. These learning materials
comprise reading materials, audio-visuals, etc. Identification of these materials is done on the basis of this
design. The preparation of these learning materials then proceeds. Similarly, identification of resource persons
needed is made on the basis of this design. The design helps us to identify types of resource persons needed
for different parts of the design. Identification of resource persons to be involved in the training programme can
then begin.
DESIGNING A TRAINING PROGRAMME
7
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Overall goals
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/Learners’ context\
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ILLUSTRATIVE TRAINING DESIGNS
Youth Training
Background:
The training programmes conducted by PRAYAS, Rajasthan are to help people become more critically aware
about their various problems and collectively join in the understanding and resolution process.This would involve
sensitising the youth in the development of alternative leadership patterns in the interest of the tribal com
munities.
Training Objectives
1. To develop critical awareness of some youths about the problems faced by the tribal communities.
2. To expose them to a critical process of socio-political-economic analysis.
3. To concretise their desire for the need for change and discover appropriate alternatives.
4. To help evolve a plans of action and understand their roles in the same.
5. To clarify the role of the staff of PRAYAS in supporting these youth leaders in their work.
Participants:
Youths (male) from the neighbouring village/hamlets, 15-20 in number, between age group 20-30 years.
Duration/ Place of the Training Programme:
Three to four days residential programme, during the harvest period, at the PRAYAS campus.
Contents and Methods:
Content
Training Method
Introduction
Sharing with
group
Dyad-sharing
Plenary session
Listing past
members,
sharing experi
ences, short
lecture on
PRAYAS
Small group dis
cussion and
collage making
General
discussion
Role-piay, sharing
in small group
Plenary session
Role-play
Analysis in
Plenary session
Plenary
Discussion
Reading
Small group
discussion
Case study
Expectations of the training programme
Role, history, ideology, problems of PRAYAS
as an organisation
Problems of their community
Main forces that have created the social system
Understanding local agents that perpetuate the
present exploitative system
Recognising the value of change and examining
various alternatives
DESIGNING A TRAINING PROGRAMME
Training Method
Content
Exercise for
each participant
Groupings on
common
approaches to
the problem.
Role of youth in bringing about the above
changes and action-planning.
Evaluation and Follow-up:
Sharing in the general plenary — mid-term evaluation and after-training evaluation. Follow-up plans to be made
during the evaluation session.
Model of Training:
The model is essentially micro to macro to micro.
Remarks:
Use of local songs, folklore, cultural programmes, interspersed in between the programmes to depict the vari
ous nuances'of life of the tribals and their relationships with the power brokers.
Designed by: Preeti Oza, ‘Prayas’ Village — Devgarh (Devalia), Via — Partapgarh Dist Chlttorgarh,
Rajasthan — 321 621
DESIGNING A TRAINING PROGRAMME
Training for Village Sangha Leaders
Background:
SEARCH, based in Bangalore, organises several training programmes to help develop capabilities and skills
among different groups. This training programme designed for village sangha leaders is to motivate them to
work more effectively in developing closer links with the villagers and the voluntary organisations working in that
area
Objectives:
1. To enhance understanding of societal analysis
2. To understand functioning of voluntary organisations
3. To sharpen skills in conducting meetings, decision-making, writing applications and keeping records
Participants:
20 village sangha leaders and office bearers of the sanghas, educational qualifications — between class 5 to
8, 20-30 years in age
Content
Training Method
Group building
exercise
Questionnaire
2-3 p.m.
3.15-5.30 p.m.
7-9.30 p.m.
Introduction
Administrative information; group interaction
Pre-course assessment
Seeking expectations from individual parti
cipants
Synthesis of expectations and classification
Micro agricultural analysis
Micro agricultural analysis
9.30-10.30 p.m.
Debriefing of simulation
Day 2
9-10 a.m.
Reporting and group issues
10-1 p.m.
2-4 p.m.
Micro political analysis
Micro political analysis
4.15-5.30 p.m.
Debriefing of simulation
7-8 p.m.
8-11 p.m.
Moderatorship, its role and function in a group
context
Cultural night
Day 3
9- 10 a.m.
10- 11 a.m.
11.15-1 p.m.
2-5 p.m.
Reporting, group issues
Micro and social analysis
Understanding caste and religion issues
Debriefing
Group discussions
7-9 p.m.
Report writing
Lecture practice
Day/Timing
Day 1
9-11 a.m.
11.15-1 p.m.
DESIGNING A TRAINING PROGRAMME
Plenary session
Flowchart
Simulation—
Monsoon
Group
discussions
Flow chart
Simulation—
Star power
Lecture and
discussion
Role-play, social
games
Day/Timing
Day 4
9- 10 a.m.
10- 11 a.m.
11.15-1 p.m.
2-3 p.m.
3.15- 5 p.m.
7-10 p.m.
Day5
9 a.m.
9.30- 11.30 a.m.
11.45-1 p.m.
3 p.m.
3.30-5.30 p.m.
7-10 p.m.
Day 6
Day?
9- 10 a.m.
10- 11 a.m.
11.15-1 p.m.
2-5 p.m.
Content
Reporting and group issues
Linkages between micro economic, political
and social systems
De-training
Voluntary organisations
(Societies Registration Act, Funding, Role
and functions, etc.)
Planning for field visit
• People’s understanding of the present society,
voluntary organisations
• Organisations vs. sangha leaders understandings
• How to conduct a meeting (objectives,
precautions, etc.)
Field visit
(for groups of 5 participants each)
Meeting with the villagers
Training Method
Discussions
Lecture
Lecture
Lecture
Dialogue
Return to training centre
Evaluation of field visit
Future suggestions
Cultural night
Reflection and
discussion
Unstructured-session —
Existential issues raised by participants and
problems
Question/answer
Reporting, community and group issues
Consolidation
Evaluation (Post course assessment)
Personal evaluatory profile, faculty feedback
profile, faculty development profile
Designed by: Badal Tab, SEARCH, Bangalore
DESIGNING A TRAINING PROGRAMME
Questionnaire
Training for Adult Education Animators
Introduction:
A 10-day training programme was organised by Vikas Niketan — a rural organisation in Orissa— for village level
adult education animators
Objectives:
To equip the trainees with the knowledge, awareness and skills needed in conducting adult education sessions
in the villages
Participants:
Thirty (male). Background of participants: age group 20-35 years, should know how to read and write in Oriya,
should have leadership and organising skills. Selection of participants: two names proposed by the village; one
is selected
Resource Persons:
Trainers from a nearby voluntary organisation; government officials should be involved
Strategy of Training:
From micro to macro (from village to society)
Day/Timing
Content
Training Method
Day 1
5 p.m.
6 p.m.
Welcome and introduction
Administrative arrangements
Game: Icebreaker
Formation of
committee
Day 2
8 a.m.
Awareness song and reporting ‘Our Villages’
Small group dis
cussion
Role-play. Large
group discussions
Large group dis
cussions
Small group dis
cussions
Small group dis
cussions
Lecture
9.30-11.30 a.m.
2.00 p.m.
Depiction of ‘Our Villages’. Debriefing of the
above
Song
Problems existing in ‘Our Villages’
4.15 p.m.
6.30 p.m.
Summarisation of various problems and its
causes
Indian social situation analysis
Day 3
8’00 a.m.
8.30 a.m.
11.30 a.m.
2.00 p.m.
4.15 p.m.
6.30 p.m.
Song
Reporting session
Indian economic situation
Indian political situation
Debriefing and analysis
Song
Indian religious situation
(Superstitions, casteism, rituals)
Consolidation and summarisation
Methods of adult education (Problem-posing
education — Paulo Freire)
DESIGNING A TRAINING PROGRAMME
Lecture
Discussion
Simulation
Role-play
Small group dis
cussion
Small group
reporting
Lecture
Day 4
8.30 a.m.
Lecture
4.15 p.m.
Song and reporting
Formation of generic words
Problem-posing discussion
Adult education
Debriefing and analysis
Adult educational models
6.30 p.m.
A model adult education session
Role-play
Simulation
Case study
Review in small
groups
Demonstration
Day5
Morning
Afternoon
Song and reporting, field visit
Review, field visit
Discussion
2.00 p.m.
Day 6
8.00 a.m.
2.00 p.m.
Song and reporting
Group interaction
How a village organisation can help people’s
development
Reporting in large group and analysis
Role of village organisations (Gram Sangh,
Mahila Mandals, Yuvak Sanghs)
Problems in the formation of village organisations
3 p.m.
4.15 p.m.
6.30 p.m.
Reporting in large group
Maintenance of registers of village organisations
Effective functioning of village organisations
9.00 a.m.
11 a.m.
Day?
8.30 a.m.
2.00 p.m.
Song and reporting
Leadership and styles of leadership
Leadership
Analysis
Leaderships in each one’s village
3.30 p.m.
4.15 p.m.
6.30 p.m.
Reporting in large group
Leadership
Role and functions of village animators
7.30 p.m.
Reporting
Day8
8.00 a.m.
10.15 a.m.
2.00 p.m.
6.30 p.m.
Song and reporting
Adult education and community health
Curative measures undertaken by the villages
Awareness song
Common diseases in the village:
simple remedies
‘Prevention is better than cure’
DESIGNING A TRAINING PROGRAMME
Exercise
‘Who is missing
Case study in
small groups
Discussions
Small group dis
cussions
Lecture
Case study
Small group dis
cussion
Lecture
Fish-bowl demons
tration
Game — ‘Whois
the leader’
Small group dis
cussion
Case study
Small group dis
cussion
Lecture
Small group dis
cussion
Lecture
Film show
Day 9
8.00 a.m.
8.30 a.m.
11 a.m.
2p.m.
4.15 p.m.
6.30 p.m.
Day 10
8.00 a.m.
8.30 a.m.
Awareness song and reporting
Government offices in the village and their
functions
The functioning of the government machinery
in the villages
Awareness song
Problems existing in each group’s village
Reporting in large group
Role of cooperative for people’s development
2.00 p.m.
4.00 p.m.
Awareness song and reporting
A critical analysis of the problems existing in
the villages (reasons and remedies) and the
role of village organisations and cooperatives
in redressing them
Evaluation
Valedictory function
7.00 p.m.
Cultural programme
Designed by: p K Jose, Vikas Nik etan, Muniguda 765020fKoraput - dist., Orissa
DESIGNING A TRAINING PROGRAMME
Lecture
Small group dis
cussion ; Role-play
Poster-making
Lecture
Small group dis
cussions
Questionnaire
Discussion
Training Women Village Health Workers
Background:
Gram Vikas, a rural-based organisation in Orissa has been working in the field of health, with a view to building
the concept of self-reliant communities and encouraging use of simple, tribal and herbal curative services.
Health forms but a part of the larger development process taking place. Health training involves building a cadre
of health workers from among the community.
Objectives:
1. To expose the participants to a feasible health care system, with a view to encouraging local practices and
becoming self-reliant
2. To expose them to the working of the Government’s Primary Health Care Centre
Participants:
Illiterate women, who have had little or no exposure to what’s happening outside their environment
Duration/Time of Workshop:
Two-day residential programme during the pre-harvest period
Content
Day/Timing
Training Method
Day1
6- 7 p.m.
7- 8 p.m.
8- 9 p.m.
Introduction
Dinner and songs
Common health problems in the villages
Self-sharing
Day 2
8-10 a.m.
Collating above problems
10.15-11 a.m.
Concept of health
11.30-12.30 p.m.
Actions taken for health care
Songs
Pictures
Lecture
Discussions
Dialogue
Small group dis
cussion
3-4 p.m.
6-7.30 p.m.
8.30 p.m.
8-8.45 p.m.
8.45-10.00 p.m.
10.15-11 p.m.
11-12 noon
12-1 p.m.
• Herbal medicines and their use
• Analysis of their health centre.
Who is responsible for our health
Primary Health Care, functions of PH.C.
staff, their role in a village
Curative, preventive and promotive health care
Summarisation
Reflection on the health game
Their role as health workers
Summarisation
Meeting with concerned government medical
officer
Consolidation of their learning and plan for
future
Small group dis
cussion
Lecture
Lecture
Posters
Health games
Small group dis
cussion?
Pictorial symbols
Question/answer
Designed by: SanJu, Gram Vikas, Narasinghpur, P.O. Mohuda, Via — Berhampur, Orissa - 760 002
DESIGNING A TRAINING PROGRAMME
.•
Training for Mahila Mandal Mothers on Preventive and Promotive
Child Health Care
Background:
The Child In Need Institute (CINI) has been working in the field of promotive and preventive health care for poor
women and children. In order to achieve the above a series of training programmes is conducted for the village
mothers, school teachers, local dais and indigenous practitioners.
Training programmes for mothers (members of Mahila Mandals) receive special attention because the mother
is the most important and influential person in deciding the child survival issue. Mothers also make good health
workers. In this context, the training programme has been designed. It is aimed at disseminating knowledge
about improved child-rearing practices and thereby bringing about a reduction of child morbidity and mortality
in the community.
"fralning Objectives:
1. To impart basic skills in preventive and promotive aspects of child care with special reference to oral rehydra
tion therapy (ORT), growth monitoring and immunisation.
2. To increase the knowledge and awareness of the .mothers regarding better weaning practices and proper
nutrition.
■
4
1
Participants:
The participants are 24 Mahila Mandal mothers, six members from four Mahila Mandals respectively’ They
come from a lower socio-economic background,living within a traditional village social system. They are mostly
wives of agricultural labourers and small farmers. They have had no formal educational training nor any training
in child health care.
Duration and Venue of Training :
It will be a 10-day non-residential training programme, to be held at the CINI campus.
Content to be Covered :
Basic components of child survival messages; elements of growth monitoring, oral rehydration, breast feeding
and immunisation (GOBI-FFF), female education, family spacing, food supplementing, along with basic
elements of nutrition.
Training Methods to be Used:
1. Group discussion
2. Demonstration (of ORS and weaning foods)
3. Field visits
4. Case studies
Field Visits:
i. To CINI’s under-five clinics and Nutrition Rehabilitation Centre
ii. Home visits to Daulatpur (a neighbouring village)
iii. To other successful Mahila Mandals
iv. To CINI’s income generation programmes at the Shyamoli farm
v. To the nearby Primary Health Centre
■r
Assessment:
An evaluation of the course would be done by the trainees themselves and a simple verbal assessment list of
trainees will be done at the end of the course. Particular areas of weakness will be identified.
Follow-up:
1. A baseline KAP study on ‘Child Survival’ will be conducted, and based on this KAP study any changes in
knowledge, attitude or practice is to be observed in a mid-line and an end-line survey.
2. Feedback from the health workers will be taken from the field for future plans.
3. A refresher course for five days will be planned which would be based on practical field problems.
Designed by: Dr. K. Pappu, Dr. P.K. Goswami, Child In Need Institute, 24 Parganas, West Bengal
DESIGNING A TRAINING PROGRAMME
MB
1
Training of Trainers
Background:
The Society for Participatory Research in Asia organises a three-phase Training of Trainers programme. This
training programme is for activists in the field who are conducting training at the grassroot level. This training
aims at building internal training capabilities in field-based groups. Each phase is held for 8 to 10 days. The
second phase is held four months after the first phase and the third phase likewise after Phase II. Practice ses
sions are built into the programme between the phases. The following is the design of Phases I, II and III of the
Training Programme.
Training Objectives:
1. To develop an understanding of the role of training as a strategy in social change.
2. To promote self-development of participants as trainers.
3. To develop an understanding of elements in and methods of designing training programmes.
Background of Participants:
Thirty participants (both men and women) come from different groups and organisations from all over the coun
try. They should be conversant in either English or Hindi. Two-person teams from the same organisation are
preferred.
Duration of Training:
A nine-day residential training programme is held at a rural training centre.
Day/Timing
Content
Training Method
Day 1
3.00 p.m.
20 mts.
Arrivals and lunch
Introduction
Form dyads and
choose one an
other, preferably
one male and
one female
45 mts.
Reporting in group
TEABREAK
4.15 p.m.
30 mts.
30 mts.
What were your feelings when you started
from home?
What are your expectations of this
programme?
Reporting
Consolidating on flipchart
Administrative arrangements
Formation of steering and culture committees
Fivesmall group
discussions and
sharing (choose
own group)
DINNER
8.30 p.m.
15 mts.
60 mts.
Day 2
8.30 a.m.
Overview of Training of Trainers,
Phases and content of Phase I.
What things are you working towards in
changing the society?
Change strategies and models
DESIGNING A TRAINING PROGRAMME
Four small group
discussions (group
formed by trainers,
based on language
organisation)
self-study
9 a.m.
10a.m.
60 mts.
Reporting of last night’s session
What is the role of EducationTTraining in
social change?
Reporting in large group
Previous evening’s
group discussion
Each group re
presentative reports
LUNCH
2.30 p.m.
60 mts.
60 mts.
Ice-breaker
Summarisation of above
What are the responsibilities of aTrainer?
What are the competencies of a Trainer?
(to be videofilmed)
Reporting and Summarisation
Cultural evening
Individually
charting in
plenary
four small groups
(like-minded;
similar level, type
of training expe
rience )
Day 3
8.30 a.m.
9.00 a.m.
9.30 a.m.
11.15 a.m.
11.45 a.m.
Introduction to participatory training/Understanding Participatory Training Principles
Ice-breaker
Summarisation
Principles of Adult Learning
Which of these above principles have been
used in designing this programme?
Group Reporting and Summary
Small Group Process and Development
Self-study
Lecture
Small group dis
cussion
Lecture
LUNCH
2.30 p.m.
5.30 p.m.
Group Process Observation
Video-review
T wo group discus
sions (language
groups)
Group Process:
(Leadership, decision-making, communication)
Debriefing
Exercise
DINNER
8.30 p.m.
Day 4
8.30 a.m.
9.30 a.m.
Ice-breaker
Small Group Development
Discussion in Plenary
Characteristics of an effective team
Presentation in Plenary
Video-Review of Small Group Development
Self-study
Small group dis
cussion (form own
groups)
LUNCH
2.30 p.m.
4.00 p.m.
Trust (feelings regarding trust)
Debriefing
Trainer - Trainee Relationship
DINNER
8.00 p.m.
Reporting Plenary
Video - Review
Group - Inter group Process
DESIGNING A TRAINING PROGRAMME
Exercise:
Trust-Walk
Small group —
Depiction on a
chart (form own
groups)
Day5
8.30 a.m.
onwards
Ice-breaker
Self-study
Absence of Authority: Withdrawal and its
implications; Power and Authority
Debriefing
Trainers to absent
themselves from
session
LUNCH
AFTERNOON OFF
Day6
8.30 a.m.
11.30 a.m.
Ice-breaker
Relevance of Self-development in Partici
patory Training Reporting and Summarisation
Learning (Theory and form)
Small group
discussion
Exercise. Learning
style inventory
Readings
LUNCH
2.30 p.m.
Interpersonal relationship
3.10 p.m.
4.00 p.m.
4.30 p.m.
Jo-Hari window and principles of feedback
Readings
Clarification of the above exercise in triads
Exercise: Inter
personal percep
tion in triads
Lecture
DINNER
8.30 p.m.
Self-development
Microlab
Ice-breaker
Self-analysis, past history, future projectives; planning self-development
Exercise
Day 7
8.30 a.m.
LUNCH
2.30 p.m.
What are the considerations that go into a
training design?
3.30 p.m.
4.00 p.m.
Summarisation
Design Process
Small group dis
cussion after in
dividuals note down
their points
Lecture
DINNER
8.00 p.m.
Training Designs and Critique of Designs
Reading case
studies and
critique in small
groups
Ice-breaker
Designing Training Programmes
Methods of Need Assessment
Interviewing
Evolving contents for Phase II of Training
Programme
Self-chosen
Self-study
Lecture
Practice in
dyads (video)
Fish Bowl Exercise
Day 8
8.30 a.m.
9.00 a.m.
10.00 a.m.
11.30 a.m.
DESIGNING A TRAINING PROGRAMME
LUNCH
2.30 p.m.
Sharing design of Phase I training programme
4.00 p.(n.
Leftover topics
DINNER
Individual Feedback from Resource persons
Cultural Evening
Resource persons
share in Plenary
Readings
Day 9
8.30 a.m.
10.00 a.m.
11.00 a.m.
Ice-breaker
Back Home Planning
Follow-up
Evaluation/Review
Share with group the results of evaluation
Individually and in
Organisational
Teams
Discussion
Questionnaire
LUNCHTOGETHER
DEPARTURES
Phase II
Objectives:
1. To further sharpen skills in designing training programmes.
2. To practise various training methods; lecture, structured experience and small group facilitation and develop
skills in the same.
3. To increase understanding of several areas like societal analysis, communication, evaluation methods, inter
group process, group process, group facilitation, problem-solving, power and authority and self-develop
ment.
Venue:
Training was held at a training centre in West Bengal.
DayfTiming
Dayl
3 p.m.
Content
Arrivals and lunch together
Ice-breaker (group song)
Re-entry
1. What did I learn in terms of knowledge/
awareness/skills in Phase I?
2. Having used the above, what do I feel
about it?
Review of designs prepared by participants
Training Method
Exercise in three
small groups
(formed by parti
cipants)
Three small groups
(Organisational
teams together,
formed by trainers)
Administrative Issues
Day 2
8.30 a.m.
Afternoon
5.00 p.m.
Song
Composing the detailed syllabus
Designing Training Programmes
Review Designs prepared by participants
(continued)
How to write a training report
DESIGNING A TRAINING PROGRAMME
Self-study
Lecture
Three small groups
Lecture
6.30 p.m.
Planning Trainer Sessions (contents and
methods were decided upon)
Three-member team
to be formed by
participants
themselves
(seven teams)
Day3
8.30 a.m.
8.40 a.m.
6 p.m.
Module Session by Trainers, Song
Structured Experience, Lecture, Case study,
Role play
Training Methods
Break
Simulation
Lunch
Debriefing of simulation
Consolidation and conceptualisation regarding
Experiential Learning and Trainer Role
Role of facilitation
Feedback to Trainers
9 p.m.
Team-Planning
9.30 a.m.
10.30 a.m.
10.45 a.m.
1 p.m.
3p.m.
4 p.m.
Self-study
Lecture
Monsoon
Lecture
Self-study
Feedback
solicited through
trainees individually
Day 4
8.30- 11.30 a.m.
11.30- 1 p.m.
2-10 p.m.
Team preparation fortheir sessions
Personality Development
Team preparation
Lecture
Day5
8.30-1 p.m.
Module: Societal Analysis
2-6 p.m.
8-11 p.m.
Module: Communication
Module: Problem Solving
Team 1 (Video)
Team 2
Team3
Day 6
8.30 a.m.
2 p.m.
8 p.m.
Module: Group Process
Module: Group Facilitation
Video-Review of team I and II
Team 4
Team5
Module: Inter-group process
Visit to the host organisation
Team 6
8.30 a.m.
2p.m.
Module: Evaluation
Video Review: Team Sessions
9p.m.
Cultural Evening
Team?
Video review
with resource
person
Individual Feedback
Day 7
8.30 a.m.
11.30 a.m.
EVENING OFF
Day8
Day 9
8.30 a.m.
Group Song
Managing Simulation
Learning Agenda for Phase III
Review programme
LUNCH AND DEPARTURES
DESIGNING A TRAINING PROGRAMME
Lecture
Group discussion
Individual
Feedback
Phase III
Objectives:
1. To further increase understanding and conceptual clarity in group facilitation, evaluation, self-development,
conflict resolution, training of tribals/illiterates, team-building and follow-up.
2. To practise facilitation, debriefing of simulation, lecture and report - writing.
3. To evolve a systematic and meaningful follow-up programme for Training of Trainers programme.
Venue:
Training held at a campus in Pune.
Day/Timing
Content
Day 1
3 p.m.
Arrivalsand lunch together
Re-entry
Reflect upon what you’ve done during the
last four months
Planning for next few days
Administrative issues
Training Method
Exercise —
being here, small
group sharing
Day 2
8.30 a.m.
11 a.m.
2.30 p.m.
Group son^
Finalisation of teams for trainer sessions
Styles of group facilitation
Intergroup conflict
Team planning time
Lecture
Lecture
Day3
8.30 a.m.
2p.m.
8 p.m.
Module: Training for illiterates and tribals
Module: Simulation on male-female rela
tionships in society
Team preparation
Video review
Team 1
Team 2
Team 1
Team 2
Day 4
8.30 a.m.
2.00 p.m.
Module: Follow-up
Organisational simulation
(Team Building)
Team3
Team 4
8.30 a.m.
2 p.m.
6 p.m.
Self-development
Analysis of above
Trainer anxiety
8.30 p.m.
Video Review
Laboratory
session
individuals share
their anxieties
Team3
Team 4
Day5
Day6
8.30 a.m.
3 p.m.
Group song
Additional issues to be highlighted
Group facilitation styles
Training of tribals/illiterates
Sharing resources
Additional issues
DESIGNING A TRAINING PROGRAMME
Video Review
Lecture
Participants share
their exercises/
resources
Day?
8.30 a.m.
10.30 a.m.
Group song
Participatory evaluation
Follow-up plans
Discussion on video tapes
Evaluation of programme
Group song
LUNCH TOGETHER AND DEPARTURES
Designed By: Rajesh Tendon (PRIA), Om Shrivastava (Astha,Udaipur)
DESIGNING A TRAINING PROGRAMME
Lecture
Group discussions
Questionnaire
each participant
to add a line in
his/her language
%
SMALL GROUP
J
SMALL GROUP
TT he human interaction in society takes place in several forms. The most common form is interpersonal
I interaction between two persons — I and you. If we look at our daily routine, we will notice that a large
number of our activities throughout the day require interpersonal interaction — interaction with one or the other
person.
At the same time, we spend a lot of our time at work, in life and at home in small groups. A small group is a
collection of more than two persons — beyond the interpersonal. The family is a small group; our work place
has one or more small groups.
What is a Small Group?
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Are 10 people standing at the bus stand a small group? Perhaps not. A collection of people need not be called
a small group. A small group is different from a crowd. How?
A small group has
• a common objective (though not every member of the group may know it fully or agree with it)
• a stable membership (a relatively fixed number of people who remain members of the group over a period
of time)
• a clear boundary (in terms of physical space and time — it can be identified as to who is a member and who
is not).
An evening club, a voluntary organisation, a trade union, a household — these are all examples of small
groups. Normally, a membership of 5-13 persons is considered a reasonable size for small groups. This size
of membership allows for face-to-face interaction; beyond this size, it becomes difficult to do so.
A small group can be permanent (like a family) or semi-permanent (for a 3-year period — the governing body
of a voluntary organisation), or temporary (like a training programme of a week’s duration where seven par
ticipants worked as a group for three hours).
Whatever the size, objectives, permanency or membership of a small group, there are several aspects in
which they are all alike. In this paper, we will look at those aspects in some depth.
SMALL GROUP
1
RELEVANCE OF A SMALL GROUP
Why should we worry about small groups? Why do we need to learn about them? At a general level, we all
need to learn about small groups so that we can play our membership roles in different small groups more ef
fectively. Besides, there is the special relevance of small groups to participatory training. This relevance is
threefold:
(a) Small Group is a powerful vehicle for learning
In a small group, we are able to share our experiences and reflect upon them; others are able to give me feed
back about myself in a small group; the process of interaction with others provides the motivation to learn in a
small group. This small group acts as an arena for generating insights and analysing experiences. The expe
riential nature of participatory training makes it imperative that learners work and learn in small groups.
(b) Small Group is a basis for action and change
In participatory training, learning is seen as a step toward changes in actions and new actions. Thus learners
can experiment with new actions in a small group. They can then use those actions outside the learning situa
tion. The nature of participatory training is such that it promotes collective actions, and hence, small groups
become the context for planning and undertaking such collective actions.
(c) Small Group is a building block of organisations
Organisations of all types rely on small groups. People's organisations develop from the building blocks of
small groups. When activists work with tribals and women and landless labourers to form their organisations,
they start with small groups. Besides, village meetings and camps of women pavement dwellers are also
examples of small groups. The executive committee of a cooperative, a union or a Mahila Mandal is a small
group too. And we can strengthen people’s organisations by creating a strong base of small groups. Thus as
field workers and activists, we work with small groups in the field all the time. Our role in the field is largely a
role of strengthening small groups and making them more effective.
Thus, small groups acquire great significance in our work in the field as well as in participatory training. Small
group provides the essential context of learning in participatory training; we learn in and through small groups.
Small group dynamics — the way small groups function — is also an important content in participatory training.
It is so because we need to know how small groups function, what are its kay dynamics and how they can be
made to function more effectively. Thus we also need to learn how to facilitate small groups. Facilitation skills
for small groups are necessary if we want to strengthen a small group (an executive committee, a village
group, a Mahila Mandal) or we want to ensure that a small group functions effectively to accomplish its objec
tives (like a village meeting or a fieldworkers’ monthly meeting).
It is with this perspective in view that this section looks at small group dynamics and small group facilitation.
SMALL GROUP
2
SMALL GROUP DYNAMICS
et us look at this training programme. A few days ago, we did not know each other. Today we have become
L. a somewhat functioning small group. There is a certain dynamic character to the functioning of small
groups. It does not remain static, it moves and changes over a period of time. It is this dynamic character of
small groups which makes it possible to change them.
Content vs. Process
Every small group starts out with some goals which provide the basic content for the work of the group. For
example, a training group will have specific contents of learning which will be different from the contents of a
village committee formed to tackle the problem of drinking water and health.
The other aspect of a small group is the process — the manner in which the group functions to accomplish its
goals. The process of carrying out the work of the group has influence over the outcome of the group’s work.
Hence, when we want to understand a group and its dynamics, we need to look at the various processes
operating in the group.
Task and Maintenance Behaviours
In the functioning of each group, it is important that certain behaviours are exhibited by the members to per
form the task effectively and to maintain the group. These two sets of behaviours can be done by different
members of the group. The task roles (or behaviours) help in moving the content of the group’s work forward;
the maintenance roles (or behaviours) help in keeping the process of the group’s functioning moving ahead
effectively. The key task and maintenance roles are shown in the box.
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SMALL GROUP
3
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Task and Maintenance Behaviours
The types of behaviour relevant to the group's fulfilment of its task are these:
Initiating: Proposing tasks or goals; defining a group problem; suggesting a procedure or ideas for solving a
problem...
Seeking Information or Opinions: Requesting facts; seeking relevant information about group concern;
requesting a statement or estimate: soliciting expressions of value; seeking suggestions and ideas...
Clarifying and Elaborating: Interpreting ideas or suggestions; clearing up confusions; defining terms;
indicating alternatives and issues before the group...
Summarising: Pooling together related ideas; restating suggestions after the group has discussed them;
offering a decision or conclusion for the group to accept or reject...
Consensus Testing: Asking to see whether the group is nearing a decision; sending up a trial balloon to test
a possible conclusion...
Types of behaviour relevant to the group’s remaining in good working order, having a good climate fortask
work, and good relationships which permit maximum use of member resources, i.e., group maintenance, are
as follows:
Harmonising: Attempting to reconcile disagreements; reducing tension; getting people to explore differ
ences...
Gate Keeping: Helping to keep communication channels open; facilitating the participation of others;
suggesting procedures that permit sharing...
Encouraging: Being friendly, warm and responsive to others; indicating by facial expression or remark the
acceptance of others’ contributions...
Compromising:Wher\ own idea or status is involved in a conflict, offering a compromise which yields status;
admitting error; modifying in interest of group cohesion or growth...
Standard Setting and Testing: Testi ng whether the group is satisfied with its procedures or suggesting proce
dures; pointing out explicit or implicit norms which have been set to make them available for testing...
Every group needs both kinds of behaviour and needs to work out an adequate balance of task and
maintenance activities
(Source: Reading Book for Human Relation Training, 1982 NIL.)
SMALL GROUP
4
SMALL GROUP PROCESSES
O everal small group processes are important in the effective functioning of the group. These are partiO cipation and communication, leadership and decision-making, conflict-resolution, etc. Besides, inter
group dynamics is also an important part of the process. In this section, these processes are being described
briefly.
Participation
Participation forms the essential core of group process. Other group processes depend upon the participation
by members. Levels and degrees of participation in a group can vary. A member can be an active participant
— verbal, volatile, expressing, demanding; or can be a passive participant — quiet, listener, talks very little or
when asked or prodded but generally steers clear of controversies.
The process of participation is set in motion the moment a group begins its life. Lack of participation by mem
bers can kill a group. Participation entails involvement, and not just physical presence. It is not necessary that
every member talks, but it is important that all members are involved. Silent participation in a group is possible,
but passive participation is harmful.
The silent members should not be seen as non-participants since individuals store and synthesise information
during such moments.There is a distinction between silent and indifferent members. Indifference needs to be
brought up and tackled. This would create a positive climate towards building up a group.
Several factors can enhance members' participation in a group:
• The content: is it of interest to all? Does it provide adequate information?
• The physical atmosphere: are people in comfortable surroundings?
• The group atmosphere: accepting, non-threatening attitudes of members and facilitator.
• Members’ personal experiences have an effect on their participation, i.e., a crisis or death at home acts as
a barrier to participation.
• Relevance of issues discussed: is it at the level of the participants? Do they understand it? Do they find it
meaningful?
• Familiarity with group members: do they know each other?
SMALL GROUP
5
Communication
Pattern of communication in a group is a reflection of what is happening in the group at a given moment of
time.
Communication in a group can be between two or more members. Words are generally seen as denoting com
munication. But gestures, eyes and other non-verbal forms of communication are also equally important.
The pattern of communication in a group can be seen by drawing a chart of ‘who talks to whom’. Sometimes,
all members address communication to one person only (hierarchical); sometimes communication is across
all members (democratic). Different patterns of communication have different impacts on a group’s perfor
mance.
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ifci Types of Communication
Communication is of several types:
1. ‘One-way’ and ‘Two-way’
(a) You must have noticed ‘one-way’ communication it you have attended a lecture: only the lecturer talks,
others listen.
(b) ‘Two-way’ communication is when both parties talk to each other. This is a better way than one-way com
munication because:
(i) it helps both persons to talk and listen to each other;
(ii)it helps in making sure both persons understand each other, because both can ask questions to clarify what
the other means;
(iii) it creates conditions for equality between both;
(iv) neither gets bored, as might happen when you sit through a long lecture.
But two-way communication takes more time and effort than one-way communication
SMALL GROUP
6
2. ‘Up’ and ‘Down’
(a) Sometimes we talk ‘down’ to others. Some of us feel we know more about things than those we are talking
to, so we tend to talk to them as if they know nothing and we know all. You may have felt the same way when
some senior official talks to you like that.
(b) In our enthusiasm to create a sense of self-confidence in a learner, we sometimes talk ‘up’ to her. We pre
tend as if we know nothing and she knows all.
Neither talking ‘up’ nor talking ‘down’ to another person Is helpful in communication. Our effort should
be to communicate with others as equals.
3. ‘Verbal’ and ‘Non-verbal’
(a) We communicate to another person through our words (verbal) and also through our gestures, facial ex
pressions and the tone of our voice (non-verbal).
Non-verbal aspects of communication are as Important as verbal.
(b) What we say is important, but it is also important how we say it. You might have come across situations
where someone asks you ‘How are you?’ in a tone that convinces you that she is not really interested in know
ing about you.
(c) You have to ensure that your non-verbal communication matches your verbal communication. So if you tell
a learner that she is intelligent, then through your expression you should not be conveying that she is really
dumb.
(d) In communicating with others, it is also useful to be sensitive to their non-verbal expression in
order to understand whether you are being understood by them or not.
Obstacles to Effective Communication
Sometimes we are able to communicate effectively with another person; sometimes we are not. Some things
act as obstacles to effective communication.
1. Our attitudes and values can sometimes act as an obstacle to communication. We filter what we say and
hear through our values and attitudes. Thus, we talk and listen selectively. Our values and attitudes act like
sunglasses In the communication process.
2. So, when two persons are'communicating, both are wearing sunglasses of their respective values and
attitudes. And if they are different from each other, as is mostly the case, it is possible that they wear different
sunglasses and hence talkand listen to each other selectively because of their different values and attitudes.
3. Pressure of work, the atmosphere in the family, what happened recently, one’s own physical well-being,
all affect our moods and consequently our communication.
4. We should, therefore, be alert and sensitive to the values, attitudes, and moods of the other person we are
communicating with.
5. Because people are different, these differences show in their concepts. For example, if an urban, educated
person wants to meet you, you will specify a time, say 6.00 p.m. If you ask a rural woman when you can meet
her, she will perhaps say ‘after work’. If we do not understand their concepts, we will not be able to communi
cate effectively with them.
6. People have different meanings for the same word or expression. If we want to communicate effectively
with another person we may need to be sensitive to this.
7. Language can be another obstacle to effective communication. Even when we speak Hindi, we realise
that there are so many dialects.
Source: Howto Communicate Effectively with Grass-Roots Women, 1984, UNICEF, New Delhi.
SMALL GROUP
7
Listening
A very important element in effective communication is to listen to what the other person is saying. Through
listening you can also know what the other persons are thinking about you. Listening is an active process
and it can be facilitated by:
(i) paying attention to the person who is speaking;
(ii) hearing the speaker’s point of view with an open mind;
(iii) understanding the feelings behind what is being said (e.g. “I do not want to continue this communica
tion” with the feelings of being hurt or rejected);
(iv) hearing what is not being said or what is implied but not uttered (e.g. "I am not well”, and implying you
should escort her home);
(v) asking questions to clarify what the speaker means to say;
(vi) rewording and repeating what you have heard and checking with the speaker if you understood
correctly;
(vii) summarising main points or principles in the communication.
Many a time we are in a great hurry to say something or react to what we have heard. It is helpful to check
yourself before you speak again, and ensure that you have really understood what was being communicated.
Source: How to Communicate Effectively with Grass-Roots Women, 1984, UNICEF, New Delhi
Helpful Hints for Effective Communication in a Group
1. Seating arrangements affect a group’s communication process. A classroom arrangement is useful for
hierarchical communication; a circle arrangement helps in democratic communication.
2. Ensuring that one person speaks at a time, or else there would be chaos and noise.
3. Discouraging subgroups from indulging in side-talks.
4. Encouraging and supporting all members to speak. Creating a favourable climate so that members feel
comfortable and interested.
5. Respecting individual opinions and suggestions.
6. An understanding of how different members relate to each other outside the group could give a clue to
certain trends in the group's communication.
SMALL GROUP
8
Group Discussion:
The Moderator’s Role in a Democratic Discussion Group
Throughout the discussion
1. Make sure that everyone understands and accepts the task, the problem, or the issues which the
group is going to discuss.
2. Help everyone to participate. Don’t let one or two members monopolise the discussion.
3. Encourage the members to share the opinions, the information, the skills, and the other resources
which they have and which are needed to complete the task.
4. When necessary, clarify what members say through questions or rephrasing. Ask questions rather
than give answers.
5. Encourage members to speak for themselves ("I think ”) and from their personal experience, and to
give specific examples. Discourage them from speaking very generally and making statements like,
“Some people seem to think ”
6. See that members listen to each other and seek clarifications from each other if necessary. Do not
allow interruptions.
7. Keep the focus on the central task or issues.
From time to time
8. Make a summary. This may involve putting ideas together, reconciling arguments, exploring
differences of opinion, and testing conclusions for consensus. Don’t hesitate to draw attention to
differences of opinion.
9. Listen to the feelings being expressed behind the words spoken. Allow the group’s feelings to be
expressed from item to time.
10. If there is a lot to discuss and the group is large, keep in mind the possibilities for breaking into
smaller groups.
11. If you want to give your personal opinions do so outside your role as moderator. Say, for example,
“Speaking personally, as Swamy, and not as moderator, I think ”
12. Keep track of time. At the beginning of a discussion you may ask the members if they want to set time
limits.
13. If the discussion becomes bogged down and people appear bored or tired, suggest a short break (or a
game).
14. Ask the members to evaluate the progress of the discussion.
Source: People In Development by John Staley, 1982. Published by SEARCH, Bangalore
SMALL GROUP
9
Decision-Making
All groups make decisions. But different styles of decision-making are used with different effectiveness. The
manner of making a decision affects group performance, particularly from the point-of-view of implementation.
A decision, if not implemented, has no impact. So, the consideration of implementation is important.
A decision is implemented fully if those responsible for its implementation accept the decision. So
the decision-making process should take into consideration this aspect of acceptance. Involvement of group
members in the process of making a decision increases the acceptance of the decision.
There are various methods of group decision-making:
• The plop: “I think we should introduce ourselves”.... Silence (group decision by omission).
• The self-authorised: “I think we should talk about ourselves, I am....” (decision by one).
• The hand clasp: “Maybe we could talk about our organisation”.... “Yes, that’s a good idea... "(decision by
two).
• “Does anyone object”, or “We all agree” (Decision by a minority on behalf of others).
• Voting: decision by majority.
• Consensus: Essential agreement (not necessarily unanimity) by all by exploring in detail different opinions
and positions.
A group can use all these methods, provided it is conscious of it. One-person decisions are necessary in a
crisis situation requiring quick action by a group; consensus style of decision-making may be more effective
when long-term programme planning is being done.
The choice of method of decision-making should be explicitly made in the light of the nature of the decision
that a group has to make.
Leadership
In general, leaders are considered those who provide direction to others. Here, leadership is seen as a pro
cess in a small group. This is quite unlike the concept of leadership based on personalities. Historically, it has
been assumed that ‘leaders are born’ and have certain personality characteristics.
In the small group dynamics, leadership is not seen as vested permanently in one person. Instead, leadership
functions are performed by different members in the group. A member can provide task-related leadership;
another can provide maintenance-related. In a group, it is possible to observe different leadership roles being
played by different persons at various points in time.
In some small groups, a leader is designated (chairman, secretary, etc.) either by the members themselves
(through voting or consensus) or from outside (the boss, the trainer, etc.). Even in these situations, members
other than the designated leader perform leadership roles. In some cases, the designated leader remains inef
fective while others take over the leadership.
The tussle for leadership is most visible in a small group where the formal leader is available. It is interesting
to observe how this tussle takes place and how it is resolved.
Leadership functions in a group vary considerably. Performing the task of the group requires leadership. But
providing a vision and an inspiration appears to be a more critical contribution of leadership.
One way to classify leadership types is: authoritarian, democratic and laissez-faire. The authoritarian leader
ship is imposing, without concern for members’ needs, opinions or preferences. The laissez-faire leadership,
on the other hand, is complete abdication, where the leadership roles do not get performed, and the desig
nated leader mostly withdraws. The democratic leadership ensures membership involvement in the function
ing of the group^goth authoritarian and democratic types of leadership can be effective, depending on the situ
ation:'What is •nep§6d is.a certain flexibility in the leadership styles over the life of the group.
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SMALL GROUP
10
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Problem-Solving
Most groups regularly engage in solving problems. The process of problem-solving used in the group can de
termine the types of solutions implemented. There are several important steps in problem-solving:
1. Defining the Problem: What is the real problem? Many times we consider constraints as problems. Con
straints are those which are given, we cannot do much about them in the short term. A clear and detailed defin
ition of the problem is very important. What is not a problem? An analysis of underlying causes of the problem
is important to separate symptoms from causes. Sufficient time needs to be spent on defining the problem it
self.
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2. Generating Solutions: Having understood the problem and its causes, the next step is to generate a wide
range of solutions. This step entails creating several possible ideas for solution. It is important at this stage not.
to evaluate any of the proposed solutions, howsoever far-fetched they may appear. Encouragement needs to
be given to merely generate and list solutions.
3. Choosing a Solution: At this stage each proposed solution is systematically evaluated in the light of the
constraints and available resources. This stage is the decision-making stage, and various processes involved
in this are listed earlier. The choice of an appropriate solution should be made after considerable discussion
and analysis.
4. Implementing the Solution: Having chosen the solution, how will it be implemented? Detailed planning for
implementation is generally useful for the solution being implemented. Details of what needs to be done, by
whom, how, when, etc. need to be worked out before actual implementation.
5. Evaluating the Outcome: Did the solution solve the problem? Did it solve it fully or only partially? Has it led
to a new problem? How do we systematically evaluate the outcome of the implementation of the chosen solu
tion? These questions need to be looked into at this stage.
Conflict Resolution
Conflict is inevitable in the life of a group. When members with different experiences, attitudes and expecta
tions come together in a group, differences are bound to arise. These differences are sometimes suppressed,
and not openly discussed. Sometimes, the emotions behind the differences in the two parties make the ex
pression of conflict quite intense and visible. The important thing to remember is that conflicts exist in all small
groups.
Why do conflicts arise? There are a series of reasons. We all face conflicts within ourselves — shall I do this
or that (intra-personal conflict). Conflicts between two persons (inter-personal conflicts) are visible in a group.
Members bring different perceptions, values and knowledge. The greater the differences among members of
a group, the more will be the conflicts. For example, we can expect women and men in a group to differ on
certain issues.
The differences arising out of information, facts and knowledge are easy to resolve. Confusions about roles,
coordination and responsibilities can also be sorted out in the group. The most difficult conflicts to resolve
(they perhaps never get resolved) are those arising out of value-differences. Values are the core of ourselves
— things we believe in. If you and I believe in different sets of things, it is rather difficult to resolve our differ
ences.
The most important thing that can be done in these situations is to understand the real causes for differences.
Why is conflict resolution seen as a process? Because conflicts do not go away; each conflict resolution also
feeds into the next conflict in a group. It is, therefore, useful to see conflicts as a series of differences in a
group, each having some link to the next. How the group deals with conflicts affects the manner of its function
ing.
The following common ways are used to deal with conflicts in a group:
Avoiding:
Smoothing:
Bargaining:
Forcing:
Problem-Solving:
Withdraw from conflict situation, leaving it to chance.
Generally cover up the differences and claim that things are fine.
Negotiate to arrive at a compromise, bargain for gains by both parties.
Push a party to accept the decision made by some leader.
Confront the differences and resolve them on a collaborative basis.
A problem-solving approach implies open recognition, an acceptance of different positions and a desire to
change one’s positions. It can be a threatening process. But open resolution of conflicts creates the possibility
of more creativity and high acceptance in the group.
SMALL GROUP
12
Useful Diagnostic Questions
When you are observing a group, the following questions can help you in understanding and diagnosing the
group process. These are presented here as guides:
Communication Process
1. Who talks? For how long? How often? Who are high participators? Who are low participators?
2. How are silent people treated? How is their silence interpreted (consent, disagreement, interest, fear, etc.)?
3. Who talks to whom? To the group as a whole, to some people in the group, or to no one?
4. Who talks after whom? Is it for encouraging or undoing?
5. Who interrupts whom?
6. Do the members listen to each other?
Leadership Process
1. Which members are higfi on influence? That is, when they talk, others seem to listen.
2. Which members are low on influence? Others don’t listen or follow them.
3. Do you see any rivalry in the group? Is there a struggle for leadership? What effect does it have on other
group members?
4. How are the members attempting to influence each other? Do they rely on coercion, expertise, formal au
thority, personal qualities?
5. How are the members attempting to influence each other? Is their style autocratic, democratic, laissez
faire?
6. How are the people reacting to the influence attempts?
Decision-making Process
1. Does anyone make any contributions which do not receive any kind of response or recognition? What ef
fect does this have on the member?
2. Does anyone make a decision and carry it out without checking with other group members? For example,
he decides on the topic to be discussed and immediately begins to talk about it. What effect does this have
on other group members?
3. Who supports other members’ suggestions or decisons? Does the support result in the two members de
ciding, the topic or activity for the group? How does this affect other group members?
4. Is there any evidence of a majority pushing a decision through over other members’ objections? Do they
call for a vote?
5. Is there any attempt to get all members participating in a decision? What effect does this seem to have on
the group?
6. Is the decision made by consensus? Are differences fully explored? Is there unanimity or full agreement?
SMALL GROUP
13
Problem-Solving Process
1. Is the problem stated in such a way that everyone understands what the group will work on?
2. Is the change from problem definition to solution generation clearly stated so that all group members under
stand the new task?
3. Is it clear to everyone that the work is changing from idea getting to evaluating those ideas?
4. Is it clear to everyone that the work is changing from WHAT is to be done to HOW this is going to happen?
5. Is the transition from planning for action to planning for evaluation being made clearly with the awareness
and consent of all group members?
6. is the evaluation meeting being held on schedule with all parties involved present?
7. Overall, how satisfied are you with the way your group solves problems?
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SMALL GROUP
14
SMALL GROUP DEVELOPMENT
HT" he developmental process of small groups can be viewed in several ways. Firstly, it is useful to know the
1 persons who compose a particular small group. People bring their past experiences (in general as well as
past experience in particular of working in small groups); people come with their personalities (their percep
tions, attitudes and values); people come to a small group also with a particular set of expectations of the
group or the goals of the group they are about to join. Thus the a priori experiences and expectations of per
sons comprising a group can influence the manner in which the group develops over a period of time.
Still, there are some common developmental characteristics of all small groups. These characteristics take two
forms. Firstly, all small groups face certain issues in their developmental process. Secondly, all small groups
go through certain stages in their developmental sequence. These issues and stages are visible in the case
of almost all small groups, though to varying degrees and in varying manifestations. It is, therefore, useful to
understand what these issues and stages are.
Issues
Three central issues are faced by all small groups in their developmental process. These are: inclusion, influ
ence, intimacy.
(a) Inclusion: Members in a small group begin to face the issue of inclusion as soon as they join the group.
Questions uppermost in their minds are: Am I a part of this group? Am I accepted as a full member? How much
am I included in the life of the group? These questions are largely relevant in the early stages of the life of a
group, though they may reappear at a later stage also. When members are entering a group, they are leaving
behind their membership in other groups. Thus the tension of membership is the underlying reason for the
issue of inclusion. The issue gets resolved, at least temporarily, if all the members feel accepted and included.
Full inclusion of all members of a small group may not occur, but even a partial acceptance creates the possi
bility of moving ahead.
(b) Influence: The next issue members of a small group face is influence. Each member wants to have influ
ence in the group, and so there is a fair degree of tussle around establishing superiority of influence and con
trol in the group. Key questions facing the group are: Who has influence in the group? Do I have influence?
How can I have more influence? The resolution of the issue of influence can take several forms. One or two
members establish de facto superiority; a small clique controls the group; or, almost all members actively at
tempt to influence each other. This issue is a very difficult issue for a group to resolve and it keeps coming up
again and again. However, ineffective resolution of the issue of influence can cause considerable obstacles to
the goal accomplishment of the group, and can even lead to splitting of the group.
(c) Intimacy: One of the issues facing a small group is the degree of closeness that members feel for each
other. Members meet their needs for affection and warmth by establishing intimate relationships. Key ques
tions facing the members are: Do I feel close to others? How can I come closer? What can be done so that all
feel close? How can we be an intimate group? In essence, members are concerned about an important aspect
of group life which may remain hidden. In reality, however1, differences may exist in the degree of intimacy
faced by different persons in the group. Close relationships between some may become a source of jealousy
and tension in others. Therefore, resolution of the intimacy issue can release energy in members for utilisation
in task accomplishment.
It is important to recognise that these issues emerge in the proposed sequence: inclusion, influence, intimacy.
But an issue once resolved can reappear in the life of a group. The manner in which these issues surface and
get resolved will vary from group to group. But the important thing is to be aware of them and to be prepared
to deal with them.
SMALL GROUP
15
Stages
Each group goes through certain stages in the development sequence. These stages are, by and large, com
mon to all groups, though their manifestation may be different.
(a) First: The initial stage in the life of a small group is concerned with forming a group. This stage is charac
terised by members seeking safety and protection, tentativeness of response, seeking superficial contact with
others, demonstrating dependency on existing authority figures (trainer or facilitator), complaining about phys
ical and trivial matters (light, sleeping and food arrangements, seating, etc.), certain degree of show-off to the
authority to gain his approval. Members at this stage either engage in ‘busy’ type of activity or withdraw and
show apathy.
(b) Second: The second stage in the group is marked by the formation of dyads and triads. Members seek out
similar others and begin a deeper sharing of self. Continued attention to the subgroup creates a differentiation
in the group and tensions across dyads/triads may appear. The members feel comfort and support in their
dyads/triads and feel strong enough to challenge the authority figure. Strong dyads attempt to show defiance
against authority. Focus on task performance is beginning to emerge, but energy is mostly spent within a sub
group. ‘Pairing’ is a common phenomenon.
(c) Third: The third developmental stage is marked by a more serious concern about task performance. The
dyads/triads begin to open up and seek out other members in the group. Efforts are made to establish various
norms for task performance. Members begin to take greater responsibility for their own group and relationship
with the authority figure becomes relaxed. Dissimilar others in the group are accepted and interaction among
dissimilar people takes place around the task.
(d) Fourth: This is the stage of a fully functioning group where members see themselves as a group and get
involved in the task fully. Each person makes a contribution and the authority figure is also seen as a part of
the group. Group norms are followed and collective pressure is exerted to ensure the effectiveness of the
group. The group redefines its goals in the light of information from the outside environment and shows an au
tonomous will to pursue those goals. The long-term viability of the group is established and nurtured.
It is useful to note that the above stages have a sequential character in the development of a group. However,
a group can slide back from third stage to second, for example. These regressions are common but effective
group development means a renewed effort to reach and stay at the fourth stage.
«
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SMALL GROUP
Elements of Teamwork
There are a number of elements of teamwork. These are not easily achieved, but they are excellent targets
as we work together in groups, committees, organisations and communities.
1. Teamwork requires an understanding of, and commitment to, the tasks and objectives of the group.
2. Teamwork requires the maximum utilisation of different resources of the individuals in the group.
3. Teamwork is achieved when flexibility, sensitivity to the needs of others, and creativity are encouraged.
4. Teamwork is most effective when leadership is shared.
5. Teamwork requires a group to develop appropriate procedures for meeting particular problems or
situations, and for making decisions.
6. Teamwork is characterised by the group’s ability to examine its own process, so as to constantly
improve itself as a team.
7. Teamwork requires trust and openness in communication and relationships.
8. Teamwork is achieved when the group members have a strong sense of belonging.
Source: People in Development by John Staley, 1982. Published by SEARCH, Bangalore
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SMALL GROUP
17
INTER-GROUP DYNAMICS
\ A / hen two groups come in contact, a certain type of interaction occurs. As members feel a part of their
V V own group, they begin to feel distant from members of the other group. Each group develops its own
identity; and more the cohesiveness in the group; the stronger is the identity. When two groups interact, mem
bers tend to retain their own group identity and work towards furthering the interests of their own group.
The need for interaction between two (or more) groups arises if they have to accomplish something in their
own context. Two village groups may want to cooperate with each other to acquire a common facility (say, a
school). In such circumstances, interaction between two groups can generate inter-group conflict, and may
hinder the cooperation attempts.
Inter-group conflicts arise largely due to three broad reasons:
a.
Different Objectives
The two groups may have, or perceive to have, two different sets of objectives. The members of the two
groups may believe that furthering one group’s objectives can hinder the accomplishment of the other group’s
objectives. Thus each group may try to win for itself, at the cost of the other. In such situations, inter-group hos
tility and fighting may occur, and reduce the possibility of cooperation. In such circumstances, it is useful to find
some common objective(s) that can enhance the need and desirability for cooperation. Efforts to build and
maintain mutual trust across groups are essentia! to ensure continued cooperation between groups.
b.
Cultural Differences
Groups may differ on various cultural aspects; for example, groups of men and women, tribals and Patels,
Brahmins and Scheduled Castes, Hindus and Muslims, Tamils and Malayalis, etc. These differences can be
due to language, region, religion, dress, sex and other socio-cultural factors. These differences lead to diffe
rential orientations, perceptions and beliefs among members of the two groups. Cooperation may be hindered
due to these differences. In such situations, it is useful to fully explore and discuss these differences with a
view to respecting the different cultural identities. Cooperation can be built on mutual respect for cultural differ
ences and the need for joint actions.
c.
Power Differences
Groups vary on their relative power vis-a-vis each other. A group of landless labourers may feel less powerful
in comparison to a group of small farmers. Cooperation between such groups is problematic because of the
tendency of the more powerful to dominate the less powerful. The two groups may distrust each other and feel
insecure and vulnerable in the presence of each other. In such situations, enhancing the status and confi
dence of the less powerful may be necessary before cooperation can be initiated.
It is important to remember that the past history of relationships between two groups can substantially influ
ence the future course. In situations of high distrust and hostility, arising out of whatever cause, it is useful to
have a third party present to facilitate cooperation between two groups.
SMALL GROUP
18
*
SMALL GROUP FACILITATION
I A / hy c*° s013*1 groups need facilitation? As mentioned earlier, a small group needs facilitation so that it
V V functions as an effective group and is able to successfully accomplish its tasks. Facilitation of a small
group can be performed by members themselves, or with the help of an outside facilitator. There are certain
requirements for an effective facilitation:
First of all, we need to know what to facilitate. This is where our understanding of small group dynamics can
help. We need to facilitate
• the effective performance of task and maintenance functions in a group (particularly ensuring that mainte
nance functions do get perfomed),
• the effective processes in a group (particularly ensuring that members pay attention to the processes as
well),
• the effective resolution of issues of inclusion, influence and intimacy (ensuring specifically that unresolved
issues do not hinder group performance),
• the smooth transition of the group from one stage to another (specially ensuring that it reaches and stays
at the fourth stage), and
• the task accomplishment of the group.
Besides, we need to have an understanding of the desirable directions for a group. For example, we know
what the characteristics of an effective team are. Now, if we find that a group is not developing these charac
teristics, then we can facilitate the group to move in those directions. Hence, a clear understanding of what an
effective group is is essential to decide what to facilitate.
We may also need to facilitate inter-group interaction, and perhaps collaboration between more than one
group. Inter-group cooperation may be critical for several things (two village groups may need to cooperate to
ensure the supply of drinking water, for example). We can facilitate inter-group cooperation only if we under
stand inter-group dynamics. We need to understand the likely causes of conflict across groups in order to re
solve them effectively.
Finally, we need to know how to facilitate. The models of small group facilitation are many, and we need to
have one which makes sense for ourselves and our context. In this section, one approach to small group facili
tation is presented. It is based on a combination of several models of small group facilitation.
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SMALL GROUP
19
A Model of Small Group Facilitation
How to facilitate a small group depends largely on what our assumption is about how change takes place. Of
course, we are limiting ourselves to changes in individuals in a group and the group as a whole. So we can
intervene at the level of an individual (to bring about changes in him) or the group as a whole. Change can
occur through awareness as well as through action. Hence we can facilitate
• awareness of an individual (in a group): intrusive style.
• awareness of a group as a whole: interpretive style.
• action by an individual (in a group): interactive style.
• action by a group as a whole: inclusive style.
The facilitation styles, therefore, are as follows:
(a) Intrusive: This style believes in raising awareness of an individual in a group as a basis for change. In this
style, the trainer or facilitator intrudes into the life-space of the participant so that s/he is able to see his/her
preconscious aspects consciously. The facilitator articulates what the member does not dare to say; or the
member is continuously pushed to say what remains at his subconscious level. The focus is on raising the
awareness of an individual.
The following episode demonstrates this style of facilitation. In a discussion on team-building, the issue of loy
alty to task or the community was being debated for quite some time.
RASHMI
I didn’t want to do what the supervisor asked us to do. I felt the task was meaningless. People
were suffering, and we were being told to make posters: ridiculous.
AJAY
But you didn’t let me clarify the task.
RASHMI
I felt that the organisation was only interested in doing things for publicity and the others were
working for no reason at all. They were not concerned about the people. For me, my commitment
was to the people, so I decided that I would organise them.
Facilitator
to
Rashmi
You are making a value judgement on commitment. You are saying what you did was right and
what they did was wrong. That your commitment is more than that of the other people in the
organisation.
The facilitator brings to the conscious awareness of the participant the underlying dynamics of her thinking and
acting. The focus is on the individual rather than the group, and on awareness-raising.
(b) Interpretive: This style assumes that change occurs when members of a group become aware of what is
happening in the group as a whole. The facilitator comments about group level phenomena and reflects on
group processes with analytical objectivity. The group members are forced to recognise the group’s culture
and mentality and feel challenged to do something about them. Awareness of the group as a whole is the start
ing point for change in this style.
This can be highlighted as follows:
In a self-development training session, the facilitators did not assert their authority over the session. They were
silent. After considerable silence, several initiatives were made by some group members
SUDHA
When are we going to start this session (Silence. )
I think we should do something on our own.
RAM
ANJALI
In this room?
SUDHA
I am feeling restless...why don’t you suggest something?
(To Ram)
RAM
Yes, yes, let’s start on our own. The facilitators don’t seem to be doing anything.
MEERA
I have faith in the facilitators.
SUDHA
Why don’t you suggest something?
(To Radha)
SMALL GROUP
20
RADHA
I think this is an exercise. I am feeling quite comfortable.
HARI
I think the facilitators have something planned in their minds.
RAJU
Why don’t we think about ourselves?
AKASH
That’s good. Today’s session is on self-development.
Facilitator Some members of the group are unable to cope with lack of structure in the group.
SUDHA
Why lack of structure?...We are just seeing what the group will decide.
(aggres
sively)
MEERA
I think the facilitators know what they are doing.
SUDHA
I have no problem. If the group members are feeling
themselves, we can be by ourselves.
RAJU
No, we are just sitting idle...
(Silence
)
Facilitator The group is divided on the acceptance and rejection of trainer authority.
comfortable
with
Both the above interventions by the facilitator are a comment on the group level interactions and bring to the
focus of the group what is happening. Being primarily analytical, there is no effort by the facilitator to create
conditions or opportunities for experimentation with new behaviours by the members or to support them. The
facilitator function is primarily interpretative.
(c) Interactive: Change occurs when an individual acts differently in a group. Thus the focus of facilitation in
interactive style is new action by individuals in a group. The facilitator creates conditions of openness and
mutual support and encourages individual members to experiment with new behaviours. The facilitator plays
a helper role and suppresses his/her own needs and opinions.
The trainer creates conditions of support and understanding, helping the individual to move forward and exper
iment with new behaviours.
This is demonstrated vividly in the following episode.
In a debriefing session:
Facilitator
(to Veena) Would you like to talk about.what you feel?
VEENA
(hesitant, low) Yes
I am feeling a series of emotions.
I felt restless and then angry.
I was angry with myself
I feel miserable
Facilitator You were angry with yourself?
VEENA
Yes, and there were all these suggestions. I am also angry (back turned to them) with some
members of this group who did not support the suggestions given in the beginning.
Facilitator Would you like to tell this to those members you are angry with?
VEENA
(Turning around) I am upset with Raj, Hiran, Reghu and Anju. I feel they are interested in their
own learning. They do not want to invest in the group at all. And I don’t know why they are here.
They are learning at the cost of the group.
Facilitator They did not say that.
VEENA
But I feel they are not interested in supporting what the group wants to do.
Facilitator Can I give you an alternative formulation? Is it possible that you are upset with them because
they are feeling comfortable and you are not. In a way, you are upset with yourself.
VEENA
I already said that earlier.
Facilitator I am asking you to think about it.
VEENA
Okay.
(d) Inclusive: Change can also occur through new actions by the group as a whole. The inclusive style of
facilitation focuses upon bringing about change in the actions of the group as a whole. And the facilitator does
this by including himself/herself as a member. The facilitator becomes an ideal member and thereby models
new group actions. The total personality of the facilitator, with all his/her needs, opinions and weaknesses, is
accepted as a part of the facilitation process.
*
An intense discussion was taking place, following a team-building exercise. At one point,- the relationship
between the team members of one department to their colleagues in another department was being discussed.
SMALL GROUP
21
The reason why I didn’t want to do the task assigned by the supervisor is that it was not explained
to us why we needed to do it.
The other team members had come to talk to us. In the beginning, because we were so absorbed
MAHUA
in ourselves, we did not pay much attention. Then we wondered why they had come. What
interest did they have in us? In fact, later on we tried to check on them.
Yes, how could we trust these other members? We did not know what their motives were. What
REETA
they were doing. We didn’t know them. We had no contacts with them.
Facilitator What do you mean you had no faith in them and didn’t know them? Don’t tell me that animators
working in the same organisation don’t know each other or have nothing to do with each other.
(angry)
I am not ready to accept that. You mean to say that this actually happens in organisations out
there today?
SHARAD
Mahua withdrew. Stunned silence followed for some time. Then the group moved ahead to examine the
implications of such a relationship.
In this facilitation style, since the facilitator is a member of the group, s/he expresses his/her feelings,
prejudices, needs, interests while helping others to do the same. In this process, the facilitator is a vis
ible, fallible human being with emotional responses.
Clearly, the above four styles contribute differently to different types of changes at different stages of group
development: it is, therefore, important to recognise that all four styles may be necessary in facilitating a small
group. Certain styles may be used selectively in the beginning (like interpretive); certain others can only be
used a little later in the life of the group (like inclusive). It is likely that one trainer/facilitator may not have the
competence to use all the four styles. Hence, it may be useful to have a team of two trainers/facilitators who
can cc. np’ement each other and use the entire range of facilitation styles that are available.
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SMALL GROUP
22
LEARNING EXERCISES
Communication Modules
Objectives:
To improve upon communication skills in relation to
(a) different levels of people
(b) different methods and techniques
Participants:
Twenty-five
Time:
Three hours
Steps
Content
1.
2.
3.
Introduction
Communication
Pitfalls in communication
4.
5.
Discussion on above
Discuss the following in three groups:
(urban, rural and tribal)
a. What are the difficulties we face in communication?
b. What are the solutions?
Reporting in plenary
6.
Training Method
Lecture
Lecture
Role-play
Demonstration
Small group
discussion
Objectives:
1. To increase ability to listen to and understand another person
2. To increase sensitivity to other than verbal modes of communication
3. To increase understanding of various aids used for communication
Participants:
Twenty-five
Time:
Three hours
Steps
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Content
Training Method
Introduction
Communication:
i. Share with your partner some personal incident
ii. Give feedback
iii. Reverse the process
Sharing session in plenary
i. What method did you use to call your partner’s attention?
ii. Were you satisfied by the response and feedback received
from the partner?
Communication — salient features
Active listening
Various aids in communications
Depict ‘Effects of Alcoholism on Slum-Dwellers’ (in 4 teams)
</
SMALL GROUP
Lecture
Dyadic exercise
Lecture
Lecture
Lecture
Role-play or any
other method
8.
9.
Debriefing:
i. Why do you think the method chosen by your team is the
most appropriate?
ii. What were your considerations in selecting this method?
iii. What were the difficulties faced by your group in selecting a
particular method?
When should role-play be used?
Lecture
Discussion
Participation and Communication
Objective:
To understand the process of participation and communication in the group
Materials:
Thread
Time:
90 minutes
Process:
1. Participants are seated in a circle, discussing an issue
2. The person who initiates the session keeps the thread with him/her
3. It is then passed on to the participant who talks subsequently
4. The thread forms a kind of socio-gram and participants wind it around their fingers
5. Discussion
Who talked the most? Who the least? Is participation related to talking?
Communications Exercise
Objective:
To understand the importance of non-verbal communication
Materials:
One large room
Time:
30 minutes
Process:
1. Form dyads
2. Communicate non-verbally with your partner for 10 minutes
3. Reverse roles
4. Share in the larger group:
i. What facial expressions, body expressions, gestures did you use in communicating with your partner?
ii. What feelings, motives, thoughts could you communicate non-verbally? What was difficult for you to
communiate this way?
iii. The importance of non-verbal communication
SMALL GROUP
9
1
Team-Building Module
Objectives:
To understand the role of trust in team building
Participants:
Time:
Twenty-five
Two hours
Steps
1.
2.
3.
Content
Training Method
Introduction
Characteristics of team-building and the importance of trust
Questions:
I. How can trust be built up among team members?
5.
ii. Do you feel that mutual trust exists in your group?
Group Report Presentation, Consolidation and Discussion
Trust in Team Members
6.
7.
i Each team comes to the centre of the room and forms
a circle
ii One by one, each member comes to the centre of the
circle, closes his/her eyes and tries to fall
iii. Team members should save him/her
Debriefing
Group Discussion
Lecture
Lecture
Small group
discussion
Exercise'victim
and Rescuer’
Conflict-Resolution Module
Objectives:
1. To enhance understanding about the intergroup process (cooperation and conflict)
2. To expose the participants to the process of resolving intergroup conflict
Participants:
Thirty
Time:
Three hours
Steps
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
I
Content
"Raining Method
Introduction
Inter-group process
i. Form4teams
ii. 17 pieces of puzzle given to each team
iii. Complete your puzzle
iv. Exchange and negotiate with other team members
v. Group that completes the puzzle first wins the game
Debriefing session
Questions asked:
i. What did you feel?
ii. What happened in your negotiations?
iii. What facilitated and hindered the process of negotiating with
other team members?
Conflict-resolution
(Walton’s Model of Conflict-Resolution)
Consolidation and conclusion
SMALL GROUP
Lecture
Exercise
‘Puzzle
completion’
Lecture
I
Problem Solving
Objective: To explore different ways of approaching and solving a problem
t
Materials: Paper, pen, chalk and board
Time: 45 minutes
Process:
1. Mark nine dots, three in a row on paper or board or floor
2. Ask learners to join the dots without lifting the pen or chalk and without going over a line twice in four strokes
3. Discuss:
i. What did you do in order to complete this exercise?
ii. Was the existing space between the dots sufficient?
iii. Can you draw parallels in real life?
Remarks:
One can focus on going beyond the constraints as a method of solving problems
t
SMALL GROUP
LEARNING-TRAINING METHODS
«
LEARNING-TRAINING METHODS
I he literature on training is full of a wide range of training methods and techniques. These are being used,
I abused and misused, mostly unknowingly. We take a method, we use it; we hear of a technique, we im
plement it. But what is the rationale behind each method? Are all methods alike? On what basis can we
choose methods? Is there any difference between method and techniques? What are the advantages and limi
tations of different methods?
These are some of the questions dealt with in this chapter.
Considerations for Choosing a Training Method
A framework is essential to make the choice of an appropriate learning-training method. Several factors can
be built into this framework. Some of the main considerations in this choice are described here.
1. Focus of Learning
As emphasised earlier, participatory training has a combined focus on knowledge, awareness and skill build
ing. Each of these components facilitates certain kinds of learning, and is best dealt with by a certain set of
training methods.
Knowledge-creation:
Lecture
Reading
Audio-visual Aids
Symposium
Lecture is the most appropriate method for imparting information and concepts. With literate learners, reading
materials can also serve this purpose. Audio-visual aids enhance the quality of a lecture; a symposium is sev
eral persons giving lectures on the same topic. Various such techniques can be used to supplement this
method.
Awareness-raising:
Small Group Process
Structured Experience
Various ways of using small group process and discussion contribute to awareness-raising; different types of
structured experiences promote this type of learning.
Skill-building:
Practice
Demonstration
Apprenticeship
Project
Field Work
A skill can only be learnt through practice; various forms of practice can be created for this purpose.
2. Creating a Learning Environment
i nis is one of the most important aspects of a training programme, since it sets the stage for further events.
To create an atmosphere which is conducive, relaxing, accepting, supporting and at the same time challenging,
calls for using different training methods. A sense of psychological safety is one of the crucial ingredients of a
learning environment.
Some methods amply demonstrate their effectiveness with a certain group of trainees, and may be threatening
to another. Talking in a large group about one’s problems may work with a group of social workers, but may
hamper the process for a group of tribal women. Similarly, some methods provoke questioning and analysis,
others lead to self-analysis and internalisation. Depending upon the subject matter, the training objectives and
TRAINING METHODS
1
the group of learners, flexible use of methods should be made in order to create and sustain a learning envi
ronment. Even though the focus of learning may indicate the use of one set of methods, considerations of
creating and sustaining a learning environment may change the choice of these methods.
3. Valuing Learner’s Experience
All participants come into a training programme with their own sets of experiences. In the process of learning
and interacting with both trainers and co-participants, opportunities for sharing their experiences should be
created. This reflects acceptance, understanding and respect for their experiences. For example, at the start
of a training programme, a small group discussion could be held for participants to share their anxieties while
they set out for this training programme.
Training methods that demonstrate the value of learners’ experiences and encourage them to value and
analyse their experiences can be given a preference at certain early stages of the training programme so that
the basic tenet of participatory training is reinforced.
4. Promoting Learner Involvement
A meaningful training programme is one which seeks to and finds ways of increasing the learners’ involvement
in their own learning process. Individuals come with their varying needs and expectations. Reaching out to all
of them is of crucial importance. This can, therefore, be achieved by using a multiplicity of methods that invite
their active involvement. Use of small group events and inviting their suggestions on design and programme
are two ways of promoting greater involvement in the learning process.
5. Sustaining Interest
It can often happen, especially in training programmes of long duration, that as the days go by the initial en
thusiasm to learn wanes. If the learners are, day in and day out, exposed to mundane, dry and repetitive learn
ing methods this will certainly take place. For example, lectures, if given every single day, tend to get very box
ing, non-participatory and dull. The same subject matter can be creatively handled, if different training
methods are used, and the task is split into various steps.
This choice of training methods can also be made on the basis of the consideration for sustaining interest of
learners.
6. Creating Mutuality of Experiences
As mentioned earlier, a significant feature of participatory training is that learning and training go hand-inhand. Certain methods like small group discussions, role-plays, etc. promote sharing of experiences; others
like simulations create awareness-raising, for both the trainers and the learners.
Certain training methods promote an opportunity for mutual learning; certain methods create the possibility of
training-learning as simultaneous processes. These methods can be chosen to create a conducive learning
environment which emphasises mutuality.
7. Modelling
One of the important ways in which learning takes place is modelling — identifying oneself with a person we
value and respect. Since participatory training draws its strength from a strong trainer-trainee relationship,
often trainees use trainers as their model for learning.
Some methods tend to facilitate modelling; these can be methods where a trainer models a set of learning ac
tivities, say, a model learner. This consideration of modelling can be used to choose appropriate training
methods in different contexts.
Based on these, and other, considerations the choice of appropriate learning-training methods for dealing with
each content area is made. Having broadly decided on the method (say, lecture or role-play) for a particular
content area, we then need to plan the details of that method. The next section provides a brief description of
some major learning-training methods.
TRAINING METHODS
2
DIFFERENT TRAINING METHODS
Lecture Method
"T“ his training method entails a trainer delivering a lecture (speech) to the learners. New information or conI cept is introduced through a lecture. It can arouse interest in the learners and set the stage for what is to
follow next. A lecture can also be used to summarise the topic at the end of a session. It allows the trainer to
cover a great deal of material within a short space of time. A lecture can be supplemented with charts, projec
tions, reading materials, audio-visuals, demonstrations, etc. Reading materials can be used before, as well as
after, a lecture; learners can be encouraged to ask questions during as well as at the end of a lecture.
A lecture can take a range of forms, depending on the lecturer as well as the learners and the subject.
However, in this method, learners in the group play a passive role. There is not much scope for an exchange
of ideas, or participation.
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When should lectures be used?
A lecture is an appropriate training method in the following contexts.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Presenting new information and concepts in an organised way
Identifying or clarifying problems or issues
Presenting analyses of a controversial issue
Stimulating or inspiring the learners
Encouraging further study or inquiry
TRAINING METHODS
3
Some tips for an effective lecture
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
The subject should be prepared ahead of the session
It should be clearly linked to the learning objectives
The introduction to the lecture should be challenging and stimulating
The trainer should be able to deal with the topic in depth within the stipulated time
The trainer should be prepared to tell the participants how the lecture is related to their learning objectives
It should motivate the learners immediately
Use of different aids can be made
Its content should be informative and sequencing should be clear
It should be attuned to the level of the learners
Learners’ participation should be elicited if the duration of the lecture is long
Eye contact with the learners is essential throughout the lecture
Proper seating arrangements should be made so that learners can see and hear the lecture
The trainer should be aware of his/her facial expressions and body movements during the lecture so as
not to distract the learners
Content should be emphasised and not dealt with in a light vein
The trainer should avoid taking on the role of preacher
The language of the lecture should be easy to understand — short and correct sentences
The purpose of communicating information and ideas to the learners should always be kept in mind
Advantages of lecture method
•
•
•
•
Presentation of facts and opinions in an orderly, systematic manner
Learners can be stimulated and motivated further to study and inquiry
Large numbers of persons can attend
Information and concepts can be presented to learners who are not familiar with printed materials
Limitations of lecture method
•
•
•
•
•
Only the trainer’s point of view and ideas are presented
Learners largely remain passive recipients
The impact of the lecture on the learners cannot be gauged
Facts can be distorted by an irresponsible speaker
It can tend to satisfy the needs of the lecturer to lecture at the cost of the learning of the learners
Small Group Discussion Method
Group participation is the basis for small group discussion methods. All members in the group can get an op
portunity to share their experiences, opinions and ideas; they can disagree with the dominant main points.
Such a method stimulates thinking and actively involves all members of the group, if used effectively.
However, such a method is more time-consuming than the lecture. It can be most effectively used in a group
of 25-30 members. In larger groups, promoting effective participation becomes problematic.
Certain conditions have to be met if small group discussion is to be an effective learning method. The aspects
of effective small groCip functioning have been described earlier. It is crucial to remember that effective facilita
tion of the small group is necessary when it is to be used as a learning method. The rationale for small group
discussion should be clear. What is the small group being used for?
The following are some of the main rationales for small group discussion:
•
Clarification: mutual discussion helps clarify the issues and different positions on it.
•
Opinion-building: learners can crystallise their opinion in a collective context.
•
Expression: small group discussion can encourage expression of learners’ experiences and opinions.
Involvement: it can be used to initiate and sustain learners’ involvement.
TRAINING METHODS
4
•
Internalisation: it can facilitate internalisation of crucial ideas among learners.
•
Building climate: it contributes to the building of a learning climate.
Different forms of small group discussions have been in use:
1.
Buzz groups are short duration, three to four person groups used for a specific narrow purpose.
2.
Syndicate groups are nothing but small group discussions.
3.
Fish-bowl is when a small group discussion is observed by another group from outside; and then the out
side group discusses, being observed by the first group.
Limitations of small groups
•
it requires the presence of a facilitator, preferably one for each group
•
it can be very time-consuming
•
learners may not engage in group discussion seriously
•
more space is needed to accommodate different small groups
Structured Experiences
Structured experiences as a training method make deliberate use of ‘experience’ for learning. A structured and
systematic mechanism of using experience for learning is created in this method. The theory of ‘experiential
learning’ provides the basis for this set of training methods (see box).
The experience that constitutes the basis for learning can be of several types. It can be the experience of lear
ners themselves; it can be the experience of persons other than the learners.
Use of other persons’ experience for learning is generally made through the Case Study method; a case study
presentation can be written as well as oral.
Learners can use their past experience for learning. Small group events that use learners’ past experience are
quite common. Role-play is another popular method that uses learners’ past experience for learning.
'Here-and-now’ experience can also be created for learning — this is the shared experience of learners during
the training itself. Various exercises and simulations are used for creating an experience during training it
self, and then learning from it.
While the past experience of each learner is unique, the here-and-now experience can create a shared basis
for learning. These experiences become common learning material, unlike past experience, which is mostly
available with each learner only.
Elements of a Structured Experience
1.
2.
3.
Objectives of the experience—the ‘why’ of the experience.
Content of the experience—what people said, discussed and dealt with.
Structure of the experience—activities undertaken by the group, e.g. exercise, role-play, etc.
TRAINING METHODS
5
Designing Structured Experiences
Before creating a new structured experience, the trainer should find out if any existing structured experience
fits the learning needs of the group, as it is or with some modifications.
All structured experiences have a set of required elements:
1.
A specific learning objective:
• if it is cognitive learning — there should be some concept or hypothesis
• if it is affective learning — awareness of and insight into the experience
• Skill-building — focusing on a specific behaviour
2. A set of stimulus materials that will evolve the specific learning objective has to be identified. Materials can
range from role plays to simulation games to exercises, etc. Materials created should not be too close to the
everyday life of the participants — learning can sometimes be hampered by intensely close involvement. Also,
they should not ‘oversimplify’ reality; otherwise they will be rejected as irrelevant.
3. A form of structure to collect the data generated should be built-in, e.g. notes,sharing verbally, question
naires, guides, etc. This becomes the basis for analysis.
4. A method of analysing the experiential data generated through the structured experience is crucial for
learning.
Structured Experience:Learning Process
Learning from structured experiences is an inductive process, whicn proceeds from observation of experience
rather than from a priori truth. Every structured experience goes through this process of five steps:
Experiencing
This is the data-generating part of the structured experience. This involves participating in some activity, com
plex exercise, group problem-solving or a sharing in dyads or triads. The learning objectives dictate the nature
of the activity.
Learning takes place in this stage through discovery. Whatever the outcome of this phase is forms the basis
for critical analysis and reflection in the next stage.
Publishing
This is a data-sharing stage. Whatever experience each individual has been through needs to be shared with
the group. It involves sharing at both the affective and cognitive level. This can be done through asking ques
tions, discussing, probing, etc.
Processing
This is the key to the effectiveness and potency of the structured experience. It entails systematic examination
of the commonly shared experiences of the participants. Participants are encouraged to look at the ‘dynamics’
that took place and learn from it. If data is left ‘unprocessed’, it could distract the learners and impinge upon
further learning.
Generalisation
Participants need to be able to generalise their experience from the learning setting to the real world outside.
Therefore, principles and hypotheses need to be abstracted from their experience for future ‘outside’ applica
tions.
Theoretical concepts can be brought in to supplement this learning.
Applying
There is no short-cut in this cycle. For structured experiences to be effective, adequate implementation of each
step in the cycle is essential.
TRAINING METHODS
6
EXPERIENCING
(ACTIVITY PHASE)
APPLYING
(PLANNING HOWTO
USE THE LEARNING)
GENERALISING
(DEVELOPING
PRINCIPLES)
(Begin Here)
PUBLISHING
(SHARING REACTIONS
AND OBSERVATIONS)
PROCESSING
(DISCUSSING PATTERNS
AND DYNAMICS)
,
Experiential Learning Cycle
TRAINING METHODS
7
Considerations in Choosing Structured Experience
We can choose an appropriate structured experience based on some of the following considerations:
1.
Depth of Learner Involvement
Learners are differently involved in a learning process — the range being from the cognitive to the emotional.
Depending upon the depth and intensity of learner involvement available and required at a particular time dur
ing the training, and the specific objectives, the choice of a structured experience can be made. Some struc
tured experiences promote deeper learner involvement, and some only superficial.
2.
Learners’ Level of Activity
Learners’ level of activity during a training programme goes through a continuum — high to low. This provides
the much needed flexibility in learning. The choice and sequence of structured experience can then be made
accordingly. Sensitivity to learners’ fatigue is very essential, or else participation will be low. Some structured
experiences demand, and generate, high levels of activity, and some others low.
3.
Goals of the Training
Depending upon the learning goals and what is to be achieved, a particular structured experience that will best
suit the learning needs could be structured.
4.
Degree of Complexity of Phenomena
The subject matter related to the specific learning objectives can range in degree of complexity. If the content
is complex, some types of structured experiences (like simulations) are more appropriate than others.
5.
Stages of Group Development
Groups go through different stages in their life. Some activities are particularly useful at some points in the
group's life, and some can be quite threatening. For example, a feedback design is inappropriate in the early
stages of the group’s life and it is very effective after a certain stage.
6.
Competence of the Trainer
This is a very crucial factor in structured experiences. Since structured experiences can produce unexpected
results, the skill and experience of the trainer is an essential component or else the structured experience will
fail. Simple exercises and role-plays do not require much trainer competence, while others do.
Learning through structured
experience is enhanced when there is:
• a non-threatening atmosphere
• support for experimentation
• openness to learning
• opportunity to practise new skills
• a task which is challenging
• faith in the learners
• mutual support of learner-trainers
• willingness to examine learners’ needs
• potential for application of learning
• competence and skill in the trainers
• encouragement for self-learning and discovery
TRAINING METHODS
8
Experiential Learning
Experiential Learning theory focuses attention on the much-neglected process of adult learning. It critiques the
learning theories that claim that learning takes place during one’s formative years in formal institutions only. It
emphasises that people learn best from their own experiences — which are real, full of feelings and meaning
for the learners.
How is Experiential Learning Different from Other Forms of
Learning?
Other forms of learning
Experiential learning
• learner is a passive recipient
• learner is actively involved
• teacher is solely responsible for learning
• shared responsibility for learning
• involve cognitive processes only
• involves cognitive, behavioural and emotional processes
• impart knowledge
• imparts knowledge, awareness-raising and skill-building
Origins of Experiential Learning
Experimental learning draws its origin from various theories of learning. They are as follows:
a. Learning entails changes in the perception of mental processes of an individual. Learning implies changes
in ways of perceiving. Since each learner is unique and independent, there cannot be one standardised learn
ing process.
Through a process of discovery, experimentation, self-direction, drawing one’s own conclusions, learning
takes place. Learning can also be guided through systematic facilitation and direction by others.
b. Each learner is in touch with the realities being studied. Learning is not merely thinking about situations in
the class-room, but also building on their practical insight to derive conceptual learning. Learning is a process
which constantly seeks critical linkages between work, education and personal growth.
c. Learning takes place when learners are actively involved in reflecting upon their own experiences; an in
tense interaction between their immediate experiences and the conceptual models facilitates learning. Experi
ence becomes the raw material for learning.
d. Learning takes place through a conscientisation process, where there is active exploration of the personal
experiences of the individual, where reflection takes place and contradictions are brought to the awareness of
the individual.
The above principles have important implications for adult learners, since adults learners have a large base of
experience.
1.
2.
3.
Learning must be based on the interests, needs and problems of the learners.
The learner must find personal meaning in the learning process.
The learning environment should help start a process of discovery by the learner.
Experiential learning, therefore, is holistic in nature. It combines experience, perception, cognition and be
haviour . It moves from examining one's experiences in the context of a learning situation, reflecting upon its im
plications and consequences, drawing both conceptual and practical understandings from it and then acting
upon it.
TRAINING METHODS
9
Characteristics of Experiential Learning
1. Learning Is a continuous process
Experiential learning is a continuous process of learning. Concepts are derived from and continuously
modified by experience. With each group, the experience is different; so is the learning.
2.
Dialectic nature of learning
The constant interaction between the learner and his/her environment leads to a process of reflection
action. The learner faces conflicts between different and opposite ways of dealing with the situation. Such
resolution of conflicts leads to learning; new knowledge, skills and attitudes are acquired through the use of
these different and complex modes of individual learning.
3.
Learning is a process of adaptation
Experiential learning involves a process of adaptation. It encompasses all stages of an individual’s develop
ment—from childhood to old age. It occurs in all kinds of settings, formal institutions, workplaces, personal
relationships, etc. It also encompasses adaptive concepts such as creativity, problem-solving, decision
making and attitudinal changes.
4.
Learning is a process of creating knowledge
Knowledge is the result of the transaction between personal knowledge (subjective life experiences) and
social knowledge (cumulative human experience). Since experiential learning involves an interactive
process of learning, every set of experiences that is subject to reflection and analysis, creates a new
learning. Old insights are also refined.
5.
Learning is transferable
Learning has an internalising potential, only if it can be used outside the context of training programme. The
model of experiential learning can be applied to any set of experiences that learners have and helps in
transferring learning to real life practice.
TRAINING METHODS
10
Case Study Method
The case study method involves the use of real life experiences of either an individual, a group or an organisa
tion, other than the learners themselves. This could either be through an oral process or through written docu
ments. Depending upon the subject matter and learning objectives, case studies could either be content- or
process-based or a combination of both. For example, a case study can be on the decision-making process in
a development organisation, or choice of wasteland development strategy, or both.
The purposes of using a case study are:
1. To supplement certain information as well as theoretical concepts presented to a group of learners. In this
way, it helps to elucidate various underlying principles, to further highlight and clarify certain critical issues as
well as to present a living example of how those concepts apply.
2. In the event of understanding the dynamics of any particular situation (especially when it is real), it triggers
a process of reflection and application on the part of the learners. They can draw parallels with their own sets
of experiences or even see the main differences.
3. To discuss and further evaluate varying approaches used in similar or different contextual situations. Es
sentially, what it demonstrates is that there are various ways of perceiving a problem and handling it.
4. To sharpen learners’ analytical and diagnostic skills. It is a good learning exercise and can help systemat
ically build up critical faculties.
5. To expose different groups, for example illiterate tribal groups, to situations and examples of struggles that
would serve as learning models for them.
6. To create new knowledge. Through a process of collective reflection and analysis, new theoretical con
structs can emerge. Often, concepts which have emerged from practice are further refined through such a pro
cess.
Steps
The use of the case study method can be done in the following steps:
•
reading or hearing a case study
•
individual reflection
•
small group discussion (to explore the issue further)
•
extract insights
•
collective analysis
•
summarisation
Advantages
Case studies can contribute significantly to a process of:
1.
option-creating: presenting a wide range of methods and approaches to a similar problem.
2. awareness-raising: understanding the underlying causes and factors that have either enhanced or ham
pered a particular process.
3. further developing planning and analytical skills: using other people’s experiences as valuable insights
and bases for learning.
4.
cognitive inputs: contributing to new understandings and conceptual framework§^—
TRAINING METHODS
11
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5. drawing strength from the experience of others: sharing in similar experiences of others and realising that
one is not alone in one’s struggle; gives renewed faith and confidence in one's work.
Disadvantages
Case study as a method also faces certain limitations:
1. There can be occasions when the focus is shifted orimarily to the subject matter and the feelings of the
people involved are ignored.
2. Finding an appropriate and relevant case study is difficult. There is very little systematic documentation in
the field of training. It is time-consuming to collect information and prepare case studies.
3. Case studies are written either by the person involved in the process or by an outsider or jointly. These are,
therefore, coloured by the perceptions, ideologies, feelings and experiences of the writers involved and can
give-distorted and subjective versions of a given reality.
Facilitator’s Role
The case study method involves a high degree of involvement and participation on the part of both the learners
and the trainers. Asking questions, probing further, clarifying, seeking clarifications, inviting interpretations,
drawing parallels between existing reality and what’s happening in the group — are the various things that a
facilitator does in this method.
The pace of case study analysis has to be kept. What may work with one group of learners may be totally re
dundant for another group. The facilitator should therefore keep in mind the level of learners and the objectives
to be achieved. In the absence of a readily available case study, the facilitator has to prepare one as well. Pre
paring and using case studies requires considerable skill.
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TRAINING METHODS
12
Role-Play Method
Role-play is a structured experience in which learners get an opportunity to act out problems concerning
human relations and human interactions before a group of co-learners and facilitators. It is a conscious at
tempt to examine the various roles played in actual life. This process is then subjected to critical reflection
through effective feedback given by both the observers and the actors.
Since actual or close-to-life situations are taken in a role-play, the dynamics of the various roles can be
explored in depth. Role-plays also provide the opportunity for an exploration of various roles from some dis
tance; this method also makes risk-taking and spontaneous responses possible. Learners do not feel
threatened as in a real situation. This facilitates opportunity for learning.
The emotions of the actors involved in the role-play determine the outcome of role-play. The outcome cannot
be predicted or pre-determined. Learners get an opportunity for becoming a player, an observer, summariser,
clarifier, etc. Besides, they also get an opportunity to practice new behaviours in a role-play.
The role-play can be designed to facilitate understanding and raise awareness; it can also be used to practise
some skills. For example, a role-play can be used to become aware of the power structures in a village; it can
also be used to practise ways to confront that power structure.
Features of Role-Play
1.
It is an activating, energising, involving and absorbing activity.
2. It provides opportunities for developing new insights and sensitivity by looking into oneself as well as
others’ points of view, feelings, behaviours and experiences.
3. It generates valuable data about human relationships and interactions and exposes learners to the
dynamics of a situation.
4. It provides opportunities to bring out hidden attitudes and unexpressed feelings before the group for re
view, thus facilitating a process of checking one's perceptions and attitudes without fear of rejection. This facili
tates practice of new behaviours leading to internalisation of learning.
5. It helps establish causality — understanding stimulus-response situations — why certain behaviours pro
voke certain responses, etc.
6.
It helps in identifying problems both at individual and group levels and analysing them.
7. It serves an evaluation function by facilitating individual and group change through feedback from others
and through self-assessment.
TRAINING METHODS
13
STEPS IN USING ROLE-PLAY
1. The learning objective and subject matter should be specified before choosing a particular role-play.
2. The facilitator should identify a problem or a situation that would be meaningful to the group and would meet
the learning objectives.
3. The problem should be well-defined, specific and not too complex in structure. Otherwise it may not be un
derstood by the actors and the observers.
4. For different roles to be played, either individuals can volunteer or decide among themselves or the facilitat
or may assign roles to different individuals.
5. If any individual is reluctant to portray a particular role, the facilitator should not push it on him/her. This may
result in the individual feeling anxious, nervous and threatened, and impair learning.
6. For learning to take place, the active involvement of the learners is essential. Each actor should be well
briefed about the role to be played. This could be done separately. The observers should also be given clear
instructions about their role, what they have to observe and how they have to record it.
7. In setting the stage, the rationale of the role-play situation should be explained. What it is being used for,
why, and what can be effected through it.
8. During the role-play, if a particular scene is being continued or stretched for too long, or an impasse has
been reached, or real feelings have begun to be developed or the purpose of the role-play has been achieved,
the role-play should be tactfully stopped. Sometimes the role-play can be stopped in between for sometimes
in order to highlight a point and then continued further.
9. Time should be given to participants to distance themselves from their roles after it is over. An icebreaker
could be held then.
10. During the sharing and analysis session, the discussions should be focused on observations, feelings, un
derstandings, and not on opinions or suggestions.
11. If the diagnosis of the problem opens up a whole new way of working out a problem, different role-play situ
ations can be tried to practise new approaches or actions. This will help test the generalisations in more than
a particular case.
TRAINING METHODS
14
FORMS OF ROLE-PLAY
There are various forms of role-play as learning methods.
a. Simple Role-Play
In this form a small group performs the role-play before the observers, or two persons role-play two different
sets of characters and then interchange their roles.
The former helps to develop sensitivity to the feelings of others and the self. In the latter, it can be effectively
demonstrated how diverse attitudes, feelings and personalities react to similar sets of situations. Both sets of
reactions of the actors and the observers can lead to rich insights.
b. Multiple Role-Play
In this, the same situation is enacted by different groups. This exercise could also be simultaneously played in
different groups with observers and facilitators. They then can share their experiences and insights and com
pare data with one another. This can help highlight different sets of perceptions.
c. Socio-Drama
A role-play which focuses on a particular social issue can also be effectively demonstrated during a session.
Participants can then collectively analyse it and discuss the relevant issues and related dynamics.
Advantages
Some key advantages of role-play as a learning method are:
1. It is a simple and low-cost method.
2. It focuses right on the problem and helps learners deal with it.
3. It throws considerable light on crucial issues within a short period of time.
4. It provides low risk opportunities to individuals to experiment with new behaviours and open oneself up —
with support and understanding in the group.
5. It exposes an individual to various points of view as well as diverse reactions to a particular situation, which
may not be possible in reality.
6. It does not require much material or much advance preparation.
Disadvantages
The key limitations of this method are:
1. If the learners are not involved fully, learning can be hampered and the session serves mostly an entertain
ment value.
2. Participants can get intensely involved in their roles and may not be able to look at themselves and the
dynamics from a distance.
3. Role-playing can become an end in itself — roles can be exaggerated, distorted or underplayed. This tends
to reduce its potential for learning.
4. During the reflection after role-play, much attention needs to be paid to highlight dynamics and issues on
which it was based. If enough care is not exercised, reflection can be curtailed or distorted, thereby undermin
ing learning from it.
TRAINING METHODS
15
ROLE OF FACILITATOR
The facilitator has to set the stage for the role-play activity. As a director of the play, clear and precise instruc
tions need to be given to both observers and actors. The facilitator acts as a clarifier, interpreter, summariser
and supporter.
S/he has to be alert to the emotional problems that could develop in the process, and affect both the observers
and the actors. Besides being alert to the involvement of participants the facilitator also needs to monitor and
observe the process during the play.
In the group discussion and analysis following the role-play, care must be exercised not to run down any par
ticular individual. The focus of analysis should be kept at the level of the issues and dynamics, not the individu
als and their ability to role-play.
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TRAINING METHODS
16
Simulation
An interactive learning method, simulation is setting up or re-creating a complex reality situation within the con
text of a training programme. Various roles are assigned to different participants and the exercise takes place
for a specified period of time. Various events and activities are set up to facilitate the interaction between the
actors.
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1
A good example of a simulation is the situation that is created for training aircraft pilots. The real-life training
of pilots on an actual flight may be too risky; an error during learning may prove fatal. So, the real-life condi
tions of air and pressure inside an aircraft, with all the combinations and possibilities, are created in a simu
lated manner. Learning can thus take place without serious risks. Thus simulation is a method of learning with
out facing real-life risks in a situation simulated to approximate reality.
How to Manage a Simulation
Pre-Simulation
There are several steps that need to be followed prior to simulation:
1. The objectives of the exercise should be very clear. What does one want to achieve through this simulation?
This should be noted down.
2. An appropriate simulation should be selected that would best elicit data about the subject matter under
study. One could either use an existing available simulation exercise, modify an existing one or create a new
one relevant to the learning objectives.
3. The rules and instructions of the activity should be clearly defined and written down.
4. Detailed planning of debriefing the participants following the activity needs to be done beforehand — like
what questions will be posed after the experience is over to help generate learning from it.
5. This would also entail being able to anticipate possible scenarios and outcomes, and be prepared to try out
different possible ways of processing the experience.
6. Learning materials to be used for the simulation should be prepared.
7. Roles of trainer and co-trainers should be clearly defined. A good way is to write down the steps of the simu
lation and who is responsible for which step.
8. The place of the activity should be kept ready.
TRAINING METHODS
17
During Simulation
During the activity itself, to ensure an easy flow and to maintain control over the process, the following steps
are essential:
1. The stage should be set for the simulation activity. Clear instructions should be given in an easy, relaxed
manner explaining the objectives of this simulation, as well as the sequence of the activity and roles to be
played. If time permits, one should go over the instructions twice and check with the learners if they have un
derstood them.
2. The schedule and the place to be used should also be made clear. An initial time to let participants get into
their roles is necessary sometimes.
3. The facilitators should observe the process and take notes which could be used in the debriefing later.
4. In the process of the simulation, if the objectives of learning have been achieved in a shorter period of time
than planned, the exercise should be stopped.
5. After the activity is completed, a closure should be clearly announced. The closure should not be too abrupt.
If participants are still deeply immersed in their roles, more time should be given before closing.
6. It would be helpful if a break is given right after the activity, since it will help shift the focus of individuals
away from the scene, as well as give them time to distance themselves from the experience. This is an impor
tant stage, since otherwise participants will continue their roles into the debriefing session. One could play a
simple game or sing or do some other activity to create the break.
After Simulation (Debriefing)
Participants have been through an intense experience and a process of reflection has set in. Therefore, reach
ing out to each participant to explore his/her feelings as well as distancing oneself from the activity is very es
sential for learning.
1. Put a chart up with the questions to be asked, e.g.
• What happened to you in the activity?
• What were your feelings during the activity?
• Are there any parallels in real life?
2. While participants share their feelings, the trainer should write it down on the chart.
It is important to keep in mind that the facilitator does not question or counter the feelings of participants. They
should be accepted as they are; one could further explore them by asking questions like: What happened?
What did you do then? etc.
3. The facilitator should not put down his/her conclusions on the feelings shared. For example, the participant
says: ‘I am feeling anxious.' Facilitator: ‘You are feeling anxious because Sudha treated you like this?’ Such
interpretations should be avoided. Let the participant share why he is feeling anxious.
4. Collate all the sets of experiences shared and draw parallels with what happens in reality. Why does it hap
pen? A discussion could take place on the key issues.
5. As a summary, key points can be highlighted, and conceptual frameworks presented. This provides a clo
sure on the content oHhe activity.
Advantages
1. A simulation creates a learning process which operates on both individual and group levels.
2. The intensity and creativity of the experience involves participants in the activity.
3. It generates a large amount of data for learning.
4. It has potential for transferability of learning — the insights gained can be used back home, if the simulation
is close enough to reality.
5. The end result is not predictable: learning takes place as directed by the learners themselves.
TRAINING METHODS
18
Disadvantages
1. Participants may not immerse themselves fully in their roles. This hampers the interactive learning process.
Also some participants go very deep into their roles and find it difficult to come out, which again hampers learn
ing.
2. Simulation is a very difficult exercise, and requires a competent facilitator to conduct it and also involves
meticulous and detailed planning of every stage of the activity.
3. Sometimes, the effort of the facilitators is spent more on the ‘real activity’, and the data generated is left un
processed. This disturbs the learning process.
4. Considerable skill is required in the debriefing sessions; or else all the data generated willl not be utilised for
any learning.
5. The choice of a particular simulation is difficult. One that is too close to reality can become threatening; one
that is too remote can become irrelevant. The challenge is in choosing and designing simulation that works.
TRAINING METHODS
19
USE OF VIDEO IN TRAINING
\ / ideo is a method of recording synchronised pictures and sounds on magnetic tapes. Television stations
V use it to record their programmes before and during transmission.
When it was developed in the 1950s, video was so very expensive and complicated that only television units
could use it. But today with the growing technological advancement, it has become fairly easy to have your
own Portable Video Camera and Video Cassette Recorder (VCR) and to produce your own programmes. Un
like films, video has a quality of instant replay; immediately after recording, it can be watched.
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Potentials of Video
Video has a lot of potential as an aid to our educational work. Several organisations are using it for their train
ing work. Like several other media, it is a carrier of our thoughts and beliefs. Just as literacy can be used as a
weapon for progressive social change, so can the video. People using video can create a sense of self identity
and self control.
Despite having so much potential, video has its own limitations. It is like any new toy or drug. If people have
high expectations which cannot be fulfilled by video, it may destroy all the existing possible benefits. On its
own video cannot do much. It can focus attention on the real problem but it cannot solve it. Video can be used
for opening a dialogue on..an issue, for information giving, building up confidence, discussions, etc.
There'is a lot of fuss about the technical quality of video. Local production and participation do not always re
sult in a professionally made video film. This i’s mainly because professional facilities are not available at the
local level. Above all, the objective is not to produce professional quality video, the objective is people’s partici
pation, and their efforts to exercise control over this so-called technical toy. Here the process becomes more
important than the final outcome.
TRAINING METHODS
20
When people make their own programmes it gives them a tremendous amount of confidence and enhances
their interest and participation in the entire issue. Even the professionals, when they come to their studio or
home, watch their day’s work on T.V. first of all. The very fact of making such a powerful tool available to
people often accomplishes a great deal by building confidence in their ability to speak for themselves and pre
sent their own views on a situation affecting their lives. It is often this process that people go through in produc
ing a video tape that is much more important than creating professional quality tape. By handling the technical
equipment they gain confidence individually, and the collective process of programme-making clarifies tho
common problem. By beginning to work collectively, they form a strong and active group. Therefore, video can
be a good start for getting together, discussing common problems and trying to find out possible solutions. But
all this can only be possible if proper guidance is given and this is the role activists can play.
Most often video makes its first appearance in any institution as an instrument for training or in any other
framework of education. The audiovisual approach is extremely effective for training.
1. Feedback
One basic use of video is giving feedback to the participants, so that s/he can see what s/he is doing wrong or
right. It helps him/her to improve.
There are a few things to keep in mind while using video for feedback.
a. The trainer must devote plenty of time to simply experimenting with the medium. S/he should allow particip
ants to use it themselves and fool around with it. It will help them to open up to this new medium. It would be
much easier for them to overcome their anxieties before the camera, and they will be able to perform well and
be ready to accept feedback.
b. Utmost sensitivity is needed by the trainer while criticising participants’ performances. Here once again it
should be emphasised that video is a very powerful medium, and an individual is absolutely vulnerable to
thoughtless criticism of his/her appearance, voice and mannerisms.
c. Most people feel easy with the assurance that a particular videotape will be erased after its limited objective
of giving feedback is over.
2. Giving Information
A prerecorded tape can be played back to give information on a particular issue. For example, if you are run
ning a training programme for health workers and want to tell them about Oral Rehydration Therapy (ORT),
video can help. You can play a prerecorded cassette on ORT, explaining the process.
3. Substitute Teaching
In case an expert is not available for a particular session his lecture on video could be the best substitute. This
is the way video is mostly used in traditional forms of teaching.
4. Developing Understanding
Video can be used to develop an understanding about a given area, issue, etc. For example — if participants
want to understand the cultural life of Orissa tribals, they can go around with a portapac (V.C.R + Camera)
and make films. This process of making films themselves will serve two purposes. One, it will give them the
first-hand information they wanted; and two, they will have a recorded programme to explain to others. In the
same way, it can be used on any given issue.
It is perhaps useful to experiment with video. But many trainers/learners may not have access.to it. With some
effort, simple video equipment can be borrowed for such use.
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TRAINING METHODS
21
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LEARNING EXERCISES
Case Study
Brief:
In a small village, a body of a woman was discovered in the fields. She had been raped and then murdered. A
complaint was made to the local police station. A few days later, a poor farmer was arrested on charges of mur
der of the woman. He denied any knowledge of the same. He was given no say in the matter.
The women in the village had found out that the moneylender of the village was the culprit. In a small group,
they met the Thanedar and put forth their complaints along with the harassment they were being subjected to
by the moneylender and his gang. Their voices went unheard.
Days passed.The women's group got stronger and more vociferous. Small meetings were held at different cor
ners in the village. They sought to gather support from the women in the nearby villages. With this massive dis
play of support, they pressurised the local authorities to take stern action against the culprits. Faced with this
onslaught, the authorities had no alternative but to succumb to the pressure and bring the culprits to book. The
innocent farmer was also released.
Discussion:
i. What are the salient features of this case study?
ii. What were the significant actions taken and what were the consequences of these actions?
iii. What are the implications of power and authority operating upon poor villagers?
iv. Could the situation be handled any other way?
v. How do we handle similar situations in real life?
Role-Play
Objective: To demonstrate the evils of alcoholism and its effects on the family
Time: 45 minutes -1 hour
Process:
1. Eight trainees volunteer to participate
2. Explain to them their roles in the room outside
3. The various roles are:
i. drunk husband
ii. harassed wife
iii. crying children
,iv. local liquor vendor
v. neighbour — a woman and her husband (who is non-alcoholic and works in a factory)
3. Explain to them very briefly what they should exhibit in their roles
4. Role-play for 10 to 15 minutes
5. The other members of the groups would be observers. If they wish they can take down notes
6. De-briefing Session
To the Observers:
1. What happened during the role play?
2. What struck you about the relationships that were exhibited?
3. How were the different situations handled?
4. Could it have been done differently?
To the Actois:
1. What did you feel about the role you played?
2. What were your reactions to particular situations? Why?
TRAINING METHODS
Simulation on Team-Functioning
Objectives:
To understand the importance of leadership in team-functioning
Materials required:
Paper, pen
Time:
90 minutes
Process:
1. The structure of the voluntary organisation working in a tribal area is explained to the group. It is as follows:
Director
I---------------------------------------------- 1——
Area Coordinator
Area Coordinator
4
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Animators (5)
Animators (6)
Area Coordinator
4r
Animators (5)
There are also two representatives of funding agencies
2. The various roles are allocated to participants
3. The task of the organisation is explained. Gram Uthan is launching an Adult Education Programme for the
tribals. Each team has been assigned to develop educational aids for the Programme
4. Materials are supplied to each team. Each team has to prepare one aid for the morcha and two aids for the
learners. They can make use of local resources
5. The three area coordinators are asked to play different styles of leadership each; authoritarian, laissez-faire
and democratic
6. The exercise begins
7. Representatives of donor agencies come in between to put more pressure
8. After about 45 minutes, the exercise is stopped
Debriefing Session:
Discussion questions can be:
1. How did you feel being part of this team?
2. How did you feei about the behaviour of your area coordinators?
3. How were the decisions made in your team?
4. What encouragement did you get to complete the task?
Designed by: Noto and Tripati, Gram Vikas; Sanjukta of Pipar and Kanta from Ankur
TRAINING METHODS
Chingari: An Organisational Simulation (Team-Building)
Objectives:
1. To enhance our understanding of team-building and functioning within an organisation
2. To understand teams as fundamental units of operation in organisations
Materials Needed:
Big room (large enough to have two small groups function), role instructions, paper, markers, strings, etc.
Time Needed:
Two and a half to three hours
Steps:
1. The overall structure of the simulation and roles assigned to the participants (13-20 participants) were
explained (general brief is given)
2. Some participants were given special briefs as necessary and again explained the task
3. Two bells were used; one to call attention of participants; and another to indicate passing of a day
4. The simulation is begun and the process is monitored
5. Additional instructions may be given as days pass
6. The simulation is called off either when the week is over or there is a natural break due to some events
7. Take a brief, and have a song or other ice breaker before starting debriefing
8. During debriefing, focus attention on the differential team dynamics in the two project teams, the reasons
underlying team functioning, the manner in which tasks were performed, factors that enhanced or retarded team
spirit, how do teams cope with failures and successes, etc.
9. Start with the team where members feel highly energised or agitated and debrief their feelings first
10. Principles related to team-building and functioning can then be highlighted
Additional Instructions:
1. The Project Officer, Community Health is instructed from time to time to keep his animators on the check,
ready to visit the field ahead of the funder
2. After the second day, a mid-term review to monitor the progress of poster-making is held by the Director. The
MLA joins this review
3. After the fifth day, the MLA comes and selects some posters. Make sure that the selection is based in favour
of one team. The displeasure against one team’s performance must be brought out
4. The Director should pull-up the poor performing team and ask the Project Officer to assess reasons for failure
5. The simulation is called off five minutes afterwards when the teams are sent back to the field
Debriefing:
1. What did you feel about the role you played?
2. How did team function? Why?
3. What were the various factors that facilitated or hampered team functioning?
4. Can you draw parallels with your experiences outside?
Chingari (General Brief):
It is a social development voluntary organisation working for rural development for some years. Chingari has a
Director since its inception who has been the key force in the organisation. It has two main projects: one is com
munity health, another is non-formal education.
Each project has a Project Officer, a field supervisor and four animators.
The organisation is facing a pressing task. Since it is working in a drought-prone area, the organisation has
agreed to put all efforts in a joint action with some other groups in the area. The local branch of CPI is also
organising a morcha at the end of the coming week, to which Chingari has agreed to take some people and
prepare some posters for. The local CPI MLA has personally requested the Director to cooperate in this morcha.
Each team has to make 10 slogans related to the drought situation and print 100 copies each. Each team will
be given some paper and pens for this. The slogans should be as creative as possible since a few of the best
ones will be chosen for display during the morcha. The Director is very concerned that good slogan charts are
produced and all are selected for use at the morcha.
TRAINING METHODS
Brief for Director:
You are very concerned about the future of Chingari and want to make a good impression in the area. You super
vise without too much intervention. You are very concerned that good posters of slogans are produced in time
for the morcha.
When the funder’s representative visits you, you want to make sure that he is happy with the progress of Chingari
so as to ensure continued financial support. If he becomes unhappy, you should try to make sure he returns
happily.
In case of problems in teams, you must deal with them in such a way that the posters are prepared in time.
You should pull-up the poor performance of one team and ask the Project Officer to assess reasons for failure.
Brief for Community Health Project Officer:
You are a serious person who takes the assigned job seriously. You take your role of Project Officer seriously
and believe that it is your responsibility to get the job done by your subordinates. You believe in a hierarchical
style of functioning and respect for superiors.
Brief for Non-formal Education Project Officer:
You believe in functioning in a collective fashion and try to take your team members along.
Brief for Funder:
You represent the European funding agency that has been funding Chingari for several years. You visit Chingari
from time to time and visit the field besides having discussions with the Director and other senior staff. You are
concerned that Chingari pursues its project plans as funded and does not get involved in other unplanned
activities.
Brief for MLA:
You are the local CPI MLA in the area where Chingari works. You have persuaded the Director of Chingari to
make posters for the morcha. You know that this Director is keen to make an impression on you and others in
the area. You attend the review meeting at Chingari and make suggestions for better quality slogans and posters
that you consider good.
Designed by: Preeti Oza, Prayas (Rajasthan), Neelam Sharma, Ankur (Delhi) and Mona Daswani, Sparc
(Bombay)
TRAINING METHODS
<
EVALUATION AND FOLLOW-UP
.1
EVALUATION AND FOLLOW UP
Evaluation
C3 valuation of training programmes has been a much neglected area. Often it has taken the form of a
L-. concluding ceremony. To systematically elicit and analyse feedback from the learners and trainers is a very
important component of a training programme. It helps not only to build up and strengthen future programmes,
but also to reflect and consolidate upon present learning. This chapter will address such important questions
as why evaluation is important, when and what and how to evaluate.
What is Evaluation of Training Programme?
Evaluation is a process of seeking feedback from the learners and others during and after the training prog;
ramme about the various aspects of the training programme.
Why Evaluate?
Evaluation helps in assessing the following aspects of the training programme:
1. The relevance of the training objectives
Are the objectives realistic and meaningful for the particular group of learners?
2. The accomplishment of objectives
Have the training objectives been achieved during the training programme?
3. The appropriateness of the training methodology
Has the training design kept in mind the various considerations of the learners? Are the training methods in
teresting? Is the environment conducive to learning? Were some methods more appropriate than others?
Why?
4. The impact of learning
How have the learners used learning in different situations? Has training made any difference to their field
work?
Thus, evaluation is the mechanism to seek information on the relevance and impact of training.
What to Evaluate?
There are various components of a training programme that need to be assessed at different intervals of time
— both during the process of training as well as after the completion of training. They are as follows:
1. IN THE LEARNERS
a. Attitudinal Changes
Has the training brought about any changes in the attitudes and values of the learner? Does the learner per
ceive certain significant changes in his/her orientation to people, work, self, etc.?
b. Behavioural Changes
Have the learners shown any behavioural changes during the training programme? Have they noticed any be
havioural changes back home?
EVALUATION AND FOLLOW-UP
1
c. Performance Changes
Has the training contributed to any improved performance? Have there been any distinct changes in the func
tioning of the individual learner?
2. TRAINING PROGRAMME
a. Training Objectives
Are the objectives realistic, simple and relevant? Have they been achieved? If so, to what extent?
b. Contents and Training Methods
Is the content covered adequate and meaningful? Are the training methods appropriate? Are they facilitating
or hampering learning?
c. Group Process
Are the groups functioning effectively? Is the group process contributing to learning, or hampering it?
d. Trainers
Are the trainers keeping pace with the learners? Are they too slow or too fast? Are they sensitive to the lear
ners’ needs? Are they competent?
e. Learning Materials
Are they well organised? Are the learners finding them relevant? Are materials appropriate to the contents?
f. Physical Equipment
Is the training facility comfortable? Are the living arrangements all right? Are the food arrangements satisfac
tory? Does the physical environment facilitate learning, or hamper it?
Methodology of Evaluation
Traditional evaluation practices seek passive involvement of learners. Information is generally elicited on the
content part of the training programme. The ‘process’ part is neglected. It is a unilateral process of evaluation
where the results of evaluation are not even shared with the learners. Evaluation seems only to help the train
ers, not learners.
Participatory evaluation, on the other hand, contributes to an effective learning process for both the learners
and trainers. It is not judgemental in nature. It helps to bring out the strengths and weaknesses of the training
programme. It is considered useful both for the learners and trainers.
Characteristics of Participatory Evaluation
Shared Control: Both the learners and the trainers maintain shared control over the process of evaluation.
Developmental: It helps in strengthening the training programme by working out the difficulties faced by
learners and trainers; it is intended as a developmental intervention.
Awareness Raising: It leads to a process of collective awareness-raising. All the learners and the trainers are
aware of what is happening to them at a given moment of time.
Empowering: Because information is shared with the group, and the learners maintain control over the
process of evaluation and its outcome, it becomes an empowering experience.
Mobilisation: Learners are motivated towards contributing to the effectiveness of the training programme
through such an evaluation process.
EVALUATION AND FOLLOW-UP
2
How to Evaluate?
It is important to obtain valid and authentic information for evaluation. Individual learners have their own indi
cators and standards for evaluating. Therefore, for evaluation, feedback can be sought from different sources;
these may be primary and secondary sources.
Primary Sources
There are three primary sources of information-gathering for evaluation purposes. These are:
• The learner himself/herself (first and major source)
• Colleagues (people around the learner — at work and elsewhere)
• Trainers (have seen learners closely)
Secondary Sources
There are three secondary sources as follows:
• Diary (maintained by the learners and others during and after training)
• Records (of training and related activities)
• Reports of organisations (performance and progress reports)
When to Evaluate
Evaluation can be done daily, mid-term or immediately after the training and at specified intervals after the
training.
1. Dally Evaluation
For identifying and resolving problems as they arise, daily evaluations are very helpul. One method to carry
this out is in the form of a steering committee. Members either volunteer to be on the committee or are chosen
by the group members. Membership could also be on a rotational basis, new members joining everyday.
The committee members seek information, reactions, feelings and suggestions from other members of the
group throughout the day. They also keep track of what is happening during the session. At the end of the day,
a meeting of the committee is held. Based on the concerns shared, solutions can be developed jointly and ap
propriate responsibilities can be taken to effect these changes.
The implications of such a process of evaluation are:
• both the trainers and learners take the learning process seriously
• learners may initially ‘test’ the trainers to find out if they are genuinely interested and concerned about them
• ‘dialogue’ between the trainers and learners is carried out daily
• different issues that would have otherwise interfered with the process of learning get ‘aired’ and resolved
• problems get solved as they arise
• both learners and trainers assume joint responsibility for the management of the training
• daily course correction can take place to keep the learning process on track
Sometimes, less structured ways of daily monitoring can also be used. For example, spending some time (say,
half an hour) in the morning on such concerns could also be done to facilitate daily evaluation.
EVALUATION AND FOLLOW-UP
3
2. Mid-Term Evaluation
In the middle of a training programme, a quick evaluation can be held. This is a vital stage for consolidating
the present learning, giving opportunity for catharsis to take place and ensuring relevant direction for the re
maining period of training.
In a group, individual learners can share their feelings, what they feel concerned about, anything that they
have learnt, their reactions to the content and process of the training, anything new they would like to learn,
etc. A sense of where the group is can also be gauged in this way.
Mid-term review can be done orally, through a questionnaire and/or individual interviews. The results of this
evaluation can be used both at the individual and group levels. If some individual learners are feeling low and
disconnected, they can be supported and encouraged by co-learners and the trainers. Modifications can also
be brought about in the topics, pace of the training programme, re-orientation of sessions, etc. for the entire
group of learners.
3. Immediately After the Training
As soon as the training is completed, an evaluation is held to assess the impact of the training impressions
when experiences are fresh in the minds of the learners and this information must be elicited,or else it will get
lost.
This evaluation can be done through oral sharing process in groups, questionnaires, small group meetings
and individual meetings. Suggestions for future training programmes can also be sought at this stage.
4. At Specified Intervals After the Training Programme
Back home, after the training programme, the learner through his/her practice can draw some additional in
sights into the training programme.
To strengthen future training programmes, such insights are very essential. The method of sharing this feed
back can be decided upon by the learners and the trainers. It could be through a questionnaire or face-to-face
dialogue, or both.
Many a time, evaluation conducted after three to six months of the training programme can provide a realistic
assessment of learning. Learners’ assessment immediately after the training programme may be euphoric or
rejecting (depending upon the immediacy of experience); post-training evaluation (several months later) pro
vides a distance from that training experience, and hence a little more realistic and balanced assessment is
possible.
In any case, it is possible, and sometimes desirable, to conduct these evaluations at all the four stages men
tioned above.
EVALUATION AND FOLLOW-UP
4
Techniques of Assessment
Techniques of assessment are essentially methods of collecting and analysing information. The following are
the various methods used:
1. Questionnaire
A questionnaire is a series of written questions on a given topic. These questions are either open-ended or
close-ended. Open-ended questions have not categorised the answers into specific scales. Close-ended
questions provide a scale (for example, good, satisfactory, poor).
Advantages of a questionnaire
Questionnaires are helpful if we are seeking data at multiple points of time. They are easy to administer and
can include a number of questions. Cross-checking is possible, by the use of multiple questions on the same
topic in different forms. They can be easily analysed at one time, as well as at several points of time.
Disadvantages of a questionnaire
It is not an interactive process of evaluation. In the mass of data, emotional responses sometimes do not come
through. It cannot be used with illiterate learners. The anonymous nature of a questionnaire can reduce the
motivation of the respondent in providing useful information.
2. Interview
Interviews are a face-to-face method of collecting information. Specific and concrete data can be generated
through this process. This technique can also be used in a field setting to cross-validate information obtained
through other sources.
Advantages
Since inten/iews are conducted face-to-face, certain non-verbal cues can be easily picked up and some ‘leads’
can be followed through. It provides the opportunity to further explore and probe certain issues in detail.
This method is more flexible than the questionnaire method. It is a good method to use with illiterate people.
Disadvantages
The interview method is a time-consuming process and hence can be very costly. A competent interviewer
who can build up a good rapport with the learner is essential, or else the interview may not provide the desired
information. The learner may hesitate to provide critical information in an interview if s/he is unsure about its
confidenfiality.
3. Observation
Observation techniques are useful methods of collecting data unobtrusively in a natural setting. Data about in
dividual performance, group interactions and organisational culture can be collected by observation. A person
observes and notes information needed.
Advantages
The data about real-life situations can be easily collected. Learners are not subjected to any active interfer
ence. Detailed recording is possible. Phenomena and processes which are complex in nature can be under
stood better through direct observation. The tendency of respondents to give socially desirable answers (“I
learnt a lot”, “It was a good programme”, etc.) is not a problem in this method.
Disadvantages
An inherent disadvantage of the observational method is that it is subject to the biases on the part of the ob
server. Therefore, data collected are coloured by the perceptions of the observer and may not hereij^ff
EVALUATION AND FOLLOW-UP
5
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Also, the gathering of data is limited by the observational skills of the evaluator. Sometimes, opportunity to ob
serve may not exist (like an event that occurred in the past).
4. Records
Organisations maintain numerous records that reflect the various stages of their performance and growth. Re
cords are, by definition, information obtained second hand. However, records are still valuable sources of
information for an evaluator. They provide the background information with which the evaluator can compare
the results of the post-training phase.
Advantages
Organisational records are easily accessible and cost very little to obtain. Since records have been maintained
over a period of time, it is possible to follow the changes that have taken place over a period.
Disadvantages
Interpretation of records should be done with caution, since these records contain ‘selected’ information and
rqay not be reliable. Statistical lies may, therefore, be present; for example, an organisation may look very
healthy on paper, when it is not in reality. Observer bias may also contribute to misinterpretation of records by
the evaluator. Records may not contain all the information needed for evaluation.
It must be recognised that no one single method of data collection is complete unto itself. In combination with
different methods, valuable information can be obtained.
The important thing is to obtain valid and authentic information from a variety of sources and methods. This
provides the opportunity for cross-checking the information so obtained. Also the cost of obtaining information
should be borne in mind when choosing methods. A trade-off may be necessary between the extent of infor
mation needed and cost of obtaining that information.
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EVALUATION AND FOLLOW-UP
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FOLLOW-UP
F" ollow-up to the training programme is essentially meant to continue the process of learning initiated during
I
the training programme. Each training programme creates a set of understanding and ideas which learners
try to implement when they return from a training programme. This activity may require further support — this
is follow-up.
Significance
Everything that is done by learners and trainers after the training programme does not constitute follow-up.
Follow-up needs to be defined precisely and over a limited time frame.
Follow-up is any process of intervention and support provided to an individual and/or group, to further enhance
their learning process, for a specified period of time, following the training programme.
Thus follow-up implies activities carried out to support the learning process after the training programme within
a given time frame.
Essentially, follow-up extends and renews the learning contract that learners developed during the training
programme. This learning contract can be with himself, with co-learners as well as with trainers. However, it is
to be seen as a limited contract for a definite duration, and not an unlimited one.
Follow-up to a training programme can be used for several purposes:
1. Most importantly, follow-up provides support and encouragement, knowledge and resources needed to
implement the learning the learner acquires during the training programme.
2. It can also help to define additional learning needs during the period immediately after the training prog
ramme. To that extent, it helps to continue the learning process by bringing out new learning needs.
3. Follow-up is also used to assess the training programme and its impact on the learners and their work
and their organisations. It is in the period following the training programme that such an assesment can be ef
fectively made. This heips the trainers in redesigning future training programmes.
4. Follow-up provides an opportunity for the learners to consolidate their own experiences acquired during
the training programme. It provides the much needed distance from the immediate experiences of the training.
5. In a broad sense, follow-up can also be used strategically. If training has larger objectives of social change,
follow-up can be used in a strategic way to:
a. foster a feeling of solidarity among like-minded activists and organisations,
b. sustain the process and efforts of cadre-building and formation of networks,
c. strengthen formation of small groups and facilitate a process of building larger and stronger organisations.
EVALUATION AND FOLLOW-UP
7
r
METHODS OF FOLLOW-UP
Follow-up can be conducted in different ways. It can be planned differently for each learner; it can also be done
for the entire group of learners; it can be done for a selected sub-group as well. Methods of follow-up depend
on its purpose and group of learners. Several possible methods are:
1. Direct Methods
These methods entail face-to-face interaction among learners themselves and between learners and trainers.
Examples are field visits by other learners or trainers to the site of a particular learner, meetings of learners
together as well as along with trainers, meetings of all learners or a sub-group.
2. Indirect Methods
Indirect methods do not entail face-to-face contact. These include correspondence on a regular or periodic
basis, initiated by learners as well as trainers; one can also include in it a form of a newsletter or periodical; it
can include questions posed by learners depending on their field problem and experiences and answers pro
vided by other learners and trainers; it can also includd exchange of learning materials developed by different
people, etc.
Direct methods of follow-up are generally more stimulating and supportive. But they require much greater time
and resources. Indirect methods are relatively inexpensive, and can cover a larger set of learners. For exam
ple, a trainer may be able to visit only a few learners in a year; but a newsletter can reach all several times
during a year.
The choice of the method should depend on the needs of the learners and availability of resources. Illiterate,
rural and urban poor learners may require greater use of direct methods; project holders may be satisfied with
indirect methods only. A combination of direct and indirect methods can be generally very effective.
Planning for Follow-up
It is important to plan for follow-up deliberately and consciously. It does not happen automatically. The plan
ning for follow-up should be tentatively done along with the design of the programme. Follow-up should be
considered right at the time of developing this design. Details of the follow-up can be again worked out at the
end of the programme itself, along with the learners.
Depending on the group of learners and the type of learning objectives, considerable time and resources may
be necessary to carry out an effective follow-up. For example, extensive follow-up is much more important for
tribals, rural women and labourers as learners, even though the number of days their training programme lasts
may be small (2-4 days). This consideration needs to be made at the very beginning of the planning of the
training programme so that follow-up does not get curtailed due to lack of resources needed for it. The effec
tiveness of the total training effort depends on a well-conceived and effective follow-up
EVALUATION AND FOLLOW-UP
8
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
6
LEARNING EXERCISES
Ice-Breakers
Ice-breakers are exercises that help break inhibitions, shyness and facilitate interaction of groups’ members
with each other. They help create an atmosphere of friendliness, informality and mutual acceptance.
These exercises can be played at the beginning of a training programme, at the end of an intense simulation or
exercise, or in between sessions.
At these different points, they play different roles. In the first one, they help participants to come out of their shells
and get to know each other. At the end of an intense simulation exercise, they help create the break with the
roles that one was playing and get ready for the next session.
In between sessions, they help warm up and get energised and active for the session.
Ice-breakers can also be used to break the monotony, provide some change, better energy levels, modify atten
tion span, etc. The following are some ice-breakers.
I. INTRODUCTIONS
i. Introducing your partner.
In dyads, participants seek information from each other about their experience, their work, their families. Par
ticipants then introduce their partners to the larger groups. A good one for the beginning of a training prog
ramme.
ii. Home town, villages:
Show a map of the region, towns or localities etc. the participants come from. Paste the map on the board.
Each participant comes forward and writes his/her name and home-town or locality at the proper place. He/she
tells the groups of his/her locality, house, surroundings and neighbourhood. (Adapted from Trace Manual,
Janseva Mandal, Maharashtra.)
iii. Your Favourite Animal:
The facilitator offers the participants a list of animals (or birds or trees) they can choose from. He/she writes
these names on cardboard and keeps them at different corners of the room. The participants are asked to
choose any animal that appeals to them the most; the one that symbolises more closely what they are. Accord
ing to the animal chosen, they move to the different corners of the room and form groups. They share their feel
ings with the group.
1. Why did you choose a particular animal? What appealed to you most about the animal?
2. What did it symbolise for you?
3. Share with the group your likes and dislikes.
iv. Greetings:
Participants are asked to pair up with unknown others and learn each others’ greetings. Then they come
together and greet everyone in the style they have learnt from their partner.
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
Objective
To acquaint members of the group with each other
Time:
One hour
Setting:
Any quiet, large enough meeting place
Materials:
Strips of paper (enough for each participant), each with one line of a couplet written on it. Blackboard and chalk
or newsprint and felt pens
Conducting the activity:
1. Divide the large group into subgroups.
2. Write a sample couplet on the board (e.g., “Where there’s a will, there’s a way”), read it aloud, and explain
that the participants will receive a piece of paper with one line of a couplet written on it. Their task is to find
the person who has the rest of the couplet.
3. Mix up the couplet strips and distribute one to each person. When all of the participants have found the per
son with the other half of their couplet, ask them to sit together.
4. Ask each pair to recite their couplet.
5. Ask each pair to write down their expectations of the workshop on the back of their strips of paper.
6. After 10 minutes ask one person from each pair to report briefly on their discussion of expectations.
Discussion:
The couplets used can be local folk sayings. You might want to use poems or proverbs that will be familiar to
your trainees. The group members will find common proverbs such as “I hear, but I forget; I see, and I remember;
I do, and I understand” take on a new significance in view of workshop goals and the exercise provides them
an opportunity of opening themselves to each other.
^d^ed1^m: From Field Tested Participatory Activities for Trainees: World Education, New York,
WARMING-UP
k Songs:
Songs are excellent ice-breakers. They can be sung in different languages by the participants and other mem
bers can follow the main singer.
At the close of a session, each participant can contribute a line of a particular theme in his/her/our language
and write it on the board. The whole group can then sing various lines of the song together. It becomes a collec
tive song writing exercise.
ii. Movement:
Participants are made to stamp their feet, clap hands, stretch themselves, stand on their toes, walk around the
room, jump as high as they can, etc. These are good re-energisers.
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
TRUST WALK
Objective:
To demonstrate the importance of developing trust among participants and to examine the expression of trust
between participants
Materials:
Chalk out a long path that contains plenty of obstacles and difficulties, e.g.
ground, doors, etc.
stones, steps, bushes, uneven
Time:
One hour
Process:
1. Form two-partner groups. (Members choose each other)
2. Explain to the participants that they will have to undertake an obstacle walk, with one partner blindfolded.
They have to follow the facilitator.
3. One partner is blindfolded.
4. After the walk, reverse roles.
5. De-briefing:
i. How did you fee! during the walk (when blindfolded and when leading your partner)?
ii. How did you feel about being totally dependent for your safety on your partner?
iii. Were you confident about your partner? Did you mistrust him/her? Why?
iv. How did you react at various difficult points during the walk?
v. How did you use other parts of your body?
vi. Does this happen in real life?
vii. Discuss elements of trust between people, organisations; dynamics of trust and non-trust positions.
viii. If the session has been video-taped, review the exercise in light of shared experiences.
Me and My Environment
Objective:
To identify various forces (internal and external) acting upon an individual in a village
Materials:
Chart paper, pen and tape or pins
Process:
1. Draw a figure with a person in the centre of a circle.
2. Draw arrows pointing at the persons inside the circle as well as outside the circle.
3. Discuss what these arrows represent to them and what can be done about it.
4. How can they organise themselves?
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
What’s On Your Mind?
Objective:
To share about oneself with others
Materials:
Candle, matchstick, paper, pen, glue, newspaper and magazine, scissors
Time:
45 minutes
Process:
1. Each person has to make a profile of his/her face on the paper. This can be done as follows: One person is
to hold a candle in a dark place in front of the other person, who is facing the wall, and a paper is to be held
on the wall on the other side. A shadow of the face (profile) will fall onto the paper. This can be traced out in
pencil.
2. Each individual is to make a collage of ‘What’s on my mind?’
3. Share and discuss individual likes, concerns, hobbies, etc.
i. Why do you prefer a particular thing?
ii. What does it represent to you?
iii. Are they precious to you?
iv. Are you willing to let them go?
v. How do they influence your life?
Money Game
Objective:
To understand differential perceptions to a situation
Materials:
Board and chalk
Time:
45 minutes
Process:
1. Explain the problem to the group: A farmer buys a sheep for Rs. 300, sells for Rs. 400; buys for Rs. 500 and
sells for Rs. 600. What is the profit or loss he has incurred?
2. Note down all the answers of the learners.
3. Ask them to explain how they reached their particular solution.
4. Work out the problem (collate buying expenditure and sale expenditure, i.e., Rs. 300+500 = 800(cost price)
Rs. 400 + Rs. 600 = Rs. 1,000 (selling price). Therefore, profit of Rs. 200 is achieved. (Difference between
the cost price and sale price.)
5. Discuss:
i. How do different people perceive a particular problem?
ii. How does each one think s/he is right?
iii. Can you draw parallels in real life?
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
r
Win as much as you can — Intergroup Competition
Objectives:
To highlight the merits and demerits of both the competitive and collaborative models of intergroup relations
Materials:
A large open space or room, chart paper, pen, black-board and chalk
Time:
11/2 hours
0.0
Process:
1. Four groups are formed
2. They are seated as shown in the following illustration:
3. The facilitators stand in the centre of these groups and explain the rules:
4.
i. The purpose of this game is to ‘win as much as you can’.
----------------------------------------ii. The game is to be played in 10 rounds.
iii. Each group has to make a choice between two symbols, X or Y.
iv. The pay-off depends upon the choice made by all The groups. It is as follows:
a. 4 X : Every group loses 1 point
b. 3 X : Groups playing X win 1 point each
1 Y : Groups playing Y lose 3 points
c. 2 X : Groups playing X win 2 points each
2 Y : Groups playing Y lose 2 points each
d. 1 X : Groups playing X win 3 points
3 Y : Groups playing Y lose 1 point each
e. 4 Y : Each group wins 1 point.
5. Groups must not communicate with the other group members during the rounds.
6. In each group, members should agree upon a single choice for each round.
7. Other groups should not know the choices made by one group alone.
8. Two-three minutes are given to make the choice in each round.
9. After the choice is made, the facilitator asks each group their choice, and announces the overall result (say
“two X and two Y”...).
10. Each group notes down their score accordingly, without revealing it to the other group.
11. If any questions are asked, the facilitators’ response should be, the name of the game is ‘win as much as
you can’.
12. The game continues for rounds two, three and four.
13. At the end of round 4, a bonus is announced. The scores are to be doubled. Before the groups are to make
their choices, the facilitator allows one representative from each group to negotiate with representatives of
the other groups for 5 minutes.
14. Rounds 5 and 6 are played.
15. On completion of round 8, participants are all invited into the centre, to negotiate openly.
16. Rounds 9 and 10 are played.
oo —
oo
o o
Debriefing:
i. Who has won the game? Why?
ii. Does winning in a small group mean more to you than winning of all the groups together?
iii. How did you feel in the process?
iv. Can you relate it to the outside world?
v. The effects of competition and collaboration can be discussed.
Reference: Adapted from Handbook of Structured Experiences for Human Relations — Volume II, Pfeif
fer and Jones, University Associates, U.S.A.
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
• Reality Image
Introduction:
The exercise attempts an understanding of different realities in the life of the people with an aim to raise the critical
awareness of the participants regarding these crucial realities in society.
Purpose:
To analyse the images that the poor have of the different realities of their life — land, water, food, housing,
health, etc.
2. To take the participants through a discovery of the new images that these realities should have.
3. Through a discovery of new images, to enthuse them about building a new society.
4. To see how the images we have are closely linked to our socio-economic situation.
1.
Procedure:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Stimulate discussion among the participants about the different realities, through the use of graphic presen
tation, mime, role play, simulation, etc.
De-codify the word (representing the reality) so as to get all the elements in relation to the reality.
Analyse the problematic centred round the reality.
Relate the problematic to the present socio-eco-political situation of the community.
Drive the point home that the present image that we have on the reality is the result of our own exploitative
situation.
Codify the word again with the new enriched meaning and new dimensions that have emerged out of the
discussion.
Let the participants engage in symbolic activity expressing the reality through cultural action.
Points for Discussion:
1. What does this particular reality mean for you?
2. Why do you think we have arrived at that meaning?
3. What underlies the process by which this reality takes on this particular image?
4. How has this image we have of the reality been a means of oppression; how can we make it a means of
our liberation?
5. How does critical awareness of the reality stimulate you to search for a new image?
Conclusion:
The examination of the different realities of the lives of the people leads to an intense reliving of the reality of
oppression which is fundamental to the whole process. Things hitherto unthought of take on new meanings and
become signs of hope. The depth of the analysis and the new awareness generated can intensify the challenge
and consequently the consciousness among the participants who must take responsibility for the transforma
tion of- the present unjust society.
Devised by: Pradeep Prabhu (Kashtakari Sanghathna, Thane)
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
i
A Simulation on ‘Land’
Procedure:
1. Seat the participants in a circle.
2. There should be silence and the group should remain serious. The silence if continued for a while heightens
tension and people get anxious to know what is happening.
3. One of the facilitators enters the group. He is dressed shabbily, looks very grim and depressed, and
clutches a lump of earth in his hands. His demeanour and the way he clutches the earth should indicate
that he is deeply worried, sad and protective about the earth that he is clutching. He walks in silence in the
circle. Stumbles once or twice, then regains his balance. Suddenly he falls and the lump of earth that he
has in his hands shatters. He makes desperate attempts to collect the earth, but is not able. Then in desp
eration he makes four piles of the earth. Next to one he places a glass, another, some money, a third —
some grains of rice, and a fourth he takes in his hands and holds close to his bosom. He stays in that pros
trate position for a while clutching the earth and after a while withdraws from the circle.
4. The facilitator announces that an event has taken place before them in symbolic form and if they would like
to respond to the event they are free to do so. (The event that has taken place is the fragmentation of the
land of a farmer inspite of his efforts to prevent it happening. He loses part of his land to the money-lender
because of debts, yet another part is swallowed up in drink, a third goes to meet his basic needs over the
years and finally he is left with a small fragment of what he originally had.)
5. Allow the participants to respond to the simulation in the way they want, however most of the participants
will be at a loss as to what to do. The whole situation is emotionally charged and they are swept off by the
emotions, basically pain. Hence it may be necessary to prepare some of the facilitators to respond, e.g. one
can go and kick the money after having attempted to crush it with his heel — symbolic of driving the money
lender away; another can attempt to collect the soil — symbolic of trying to win back his land; a third can
kick or throw the glass away — symbolic of action to get rid of drink; a fourth can call other participantsand
collect the mud together — symbolic of collective attempts to regain the land, a fifth can swear an oath on
the land — symbolic of swearing to wrest back what is lost. Once the facilitators begin responding, some
of the participants also begin responding.
6. Analyse what has happened — the symbolic events, the symbolic responses, the emotions that each one
was involved in, etc.
7. Direct the process to the participants coming towards realising that the land which has been till now a symbol
of exploitation can also become a symbol of collective struggle to wrest back the initiative from the exploit
ers.
The Process of Oppression — the Mazdoor Game
Introduction:
The focus of this exercise is on class achievement, the end result of the process of exploitation — oppression
and dehumanisation. It portrays the game of survival, the rules for survival and the mechanisms that ensure the
survival of the ‘fittest’. It shows in ciear language the existence of the poor not as beings for themselves but as
beings for the others, the poor exist for the rich and their life means very very little outside this framework. It
brings into sharp focus the mechanisms of society in which the poor have no chance but to perish so that the
few may survive.
As an exercise that gets to the unconscious of the participants, the game can have a devastating effect. It con
fronts the person with his own existential reality and his future, it disturbs, nauseates, excites him. If systemati
cally and carefully conducted it takes him through an excruciating struggle only to be confronted again with the
categorical imperative — transform society or perish.
Two forms of analysis flow out of this exercise. The first — the analysis of the emotions and reactions of the
players as they go through their roles and play the game of ‘survival’, the tussle within themselves, the conflict
of warring factions in their minds and the impossibility of a resolution of the conflict in the present situation. This
emotional impact holds good for most of the participants and its effects can be seen long after. It becomes impor
tant that close attention is paid to their emotional struggle.
The second is the analysis of the rules of the game and the process that the players have gone through. Th’e
rules of the game have their close parallel in the rules of an exploitative society and the fact that they are inextric
ably caught in these rules. The analysis brings out the dynamics of oppression as a supportive structure for the
perpetration and perpetuation of exploitation, the dynamics of the different mechanisms and structures that lead
to it.
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
The mazdoor game together with the business game forms the hinge of the whole process of the festival. The
days that have gone before and the days to come after are linked to the analysis of these two simulation games.
If played carefully and thoroughly analysed, they bring about the necessary transformation in the minds of the
participants.
Purpose:
1. To understand how classes have emerged and how they operate.
2. To examine the dynamics of class interaction and the outcome of these dynamics.
3. To show how class interests are invariably opposed and how the interests of the oppressed are subservient
to the interests of the oppressor.
4. To analyse certain values of a capitalistic society, like competition, individual initiative, aggression and class
achievement and how these are eventually detrimental to the cause of the poor and exploited.
5. To show how the labour market results in discrimination, selfishness, and division of the workers who are
forced to compete with each other and also against each other to survive and in the end are exterminated
because the oppressor has to survive.
6. To show how these values are not inherent to man’s nature as supposed, but have been internalised by
both the different groups for different reasons, one for individual betterment, one for survival.
7. To show how the structures, rules and regulations have emerged and how power elites rule for their own
aggrandisement.
8. To show how in a compressive society, the state is created by the rich for the maintenance of the status quo.
9. To highlight the end result of the different processes of oppression and the extermination of the poor.
10. To induce in the participants an intense desire to change this unjust society.
Procedure:
1. Seat the participants in a circle so that they can feel their oneness as a group.
2. Read the context of the game.
3. Announce to the participants that they will now choose their roles in this game and they should play their
roles as authentically as possible.
4. Ask the participants to pick up slips on which their roles are written. They pin the slips on.
5. Separate the group into the two groups of landlord and workers/labourers/tenants.
6. Take the landlords aside and instruct them about the selection of an overseer/manager each, and one
policeman.
7. Give the overseers and the policeman separate badges which they pin below their original labourer badges.
8. Read the instructions to each group separately. See that they understand the rules well.
9. Mark out the respective areas: landlord’s bungalow, workplace for each landlord and residence for the
labourers.
For example, The landlord’s bungalow should be a shady place. Each landlord has a separate area, quite large
if the shaded area permits. Place a chair for each landlord if possible. The residence of the labourers should be
in the sun, a small area just enough for them to sit close to each other. The workplace for each landlord should
be in front of his residence so that he can oversee the work being done and the role of his overseer.
10. Announce the first year. Ask one of the landlords to pick up a card indicating economic condition. Read out
the economic condition details given in the card. Announce the task in relation to the economic condition
eg. drought-— there is a total lack of drinking water in the wells in the villages as a result of which the people
are leaving and going across to areas where some water is available. This exodus has resulted in the non
availability of workers. Hence the landlord has decided to build some drinking water wells.
11. Give specifications of the task to be completed. Decide on tasks and specifications according to the local
materials available.
12. At the end of each round the landlord inspects the work of his three sons and decides on the winner. Accord
ingly the prize tokens are distributed. (See organiser’s instructions for number of tokens.)
13. The landlords keep their respective tokens, give the rest to the overseer who keeps his share and pays
wages to the labourers. The red tags are paid when the overseer has enough tokens. When he feels he has
not enough he does not pay them.
14. The policeman collects the fines due.
15. Announce round two and repeat procedures.
16. Conduct as many rounds as necessary. When the determined number of rounds is over, the landlord
announces tjpe wedding of the son who wins and for the same each labourer will have to make a contribu
tion of four tokens and each overseer a contribution of six tokens.
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
6
17. At the end of all the projects, tally scores, first of the three sons, then of the overseers, then of the labourers.
Announce the winner.
18. Call for ransoms. Those who can pay money survive, those who cannot are executed. Make the symbolic
expression of an execution as realistic as possible.
19. Conduct a discussion on the exercise.
20. Analyse the game vis-a-vis the present society.
Points for Discussion:
1. What were the feelings of each category at the beginning when role slips were distributed? Take each cate
gory in turn.
2. What happened to you as the game went on?
3. What were your feelings at being selected overseer and policeman?
4. How did you feel as you went about your role?
5. How did you feel when you/your landlord won or lost?
6. What did you feel at the distribution of the prizes?
7. Who won the game? What does winning mean?
8. Who survived? How did they survive?
9. What did you feel and notice in the game about the spaces allotted, the work, the payment?
10. When did you notice where the game was going?
11. Were you able to predict how the game would end?
12. How do you feel about the results of the game?
13. What are the parallels in real life?
14. In which category do you fit and why?
15. Can the game be played differently? How?
16. Can society be changed to be lived differently?
17. If it can, who will take the responsibility?
18. What do you feel about your responsibility to change society?
Conclusion:
The exercises can have a very powerful impact on the participants, especially in the subconscious because as
the person plays the game, the processes in his subconscious operate and he experiences in no small measure
the reality of his own situation. If the observers are able to pay close attention to the different behavioural pat
terns in the different players and these patterns are linked in the analysis, the person becomes profoundly aware
of the crushing effect of oppression and the destruction of the human person. He then begins to revolt against
the system which oppresses and can be helped to make the profound decision to transform it.
Devised by: Pradeep Prabhu—A Manual for Janta Festivals, Kashtakari Sanghathna, Thane
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
O(
4
ANO
Star Power: Simulation of Inequality
Objectives:
To understand and experience the inequality in societyTime:
Three hours
Materials and requirements:
A large room, squares, circles, stars (made on paper), chips — gold, green, red, white and blue, chairs, black
board, chart paper, pen
Process:
1. Divide the participants into three approximately equal groups - stars, circles and squares. Each person to
wear symbol representing his/her group. Each set of participants sits in a circle, away from the other two sets.
2. Each participant is given five chips.
i. Each square is to be given one gold chip, one green chip and the remaining three are randomly selected
from red, white and blue.
ii. Each circle is to be given one green chip and the remaining four randomly selected from the other three
colours.
iii. The stars are to be given a random assortment of red, white and blue chips.
iv. The only exception is that one star and one circle is to receive the same chips as the square i.e., one
gold, one green and three random of red, white and blue.
3. The chips required:
The total number of chips required is:
i. 5 x number of participants.
ii. Gold chips = number of squares + 2.
iii. Green chips = number of squares + number of circles + one.
iv. Red, white and blue chips should be about equal in number.
For red = 5 x number of participants minus gold + green chips.
Similarly for blue and white chips.
v. Every gold chip = 50 points; green chip = 30 points; red chip = 15 points; white chip = 10 points, blue
chip = 5 points.
4. Explaining the rules:
Tell the participants that this is a trading and bargaining game and the three persons who get the highest
score will be the winners. (Do not tell them that the winning group is going to be given the right to make
the rules of the game.)
ii. Explain the scoring system to the group. (This is written on a chart paper.) Additional points are given it
a person is able to get several chips of the same colour. Five chips of the-same colour = 30 points.
Four chips of the same colour = 10 points
Three chips.of the same colour = 5 points
e.g. A person’s total score if he has five gold chips = 250 T 30 (for five of the same colour).
iii. Distribute the chips to the participants into three small groups — squares, circles and stars.
iv. Explain the rules of bargaining (written on chart paper).
a. Participants will get 10 minutes to improve their score.
b. The scores can be improved by trading with other squares, circles and stars.
c. Persons should hold hands to effect a trade.
d. Only one to one trading is legal.
e. If a participant touches the hand of another participant, a chip of unequal value of colour must be
exchanged.
f. If a pair cannot complete a trade, tney may have to hold hands for the entire 10 minutes of the trading
session.
i.
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
g. There should be no talking unless they are trading and hands are touching.
h. Persons who do not wish to trade can fold their arms. This indicates no further trading.
i. All chips should be hidden. This is very important.
j. Do not reveal to the participants that one group (squares) has been given higher value chips than the
others.
Begin the trading session:
1. Start the trading session. Tell participants it is for 10 minutes.
2. While the trading is going on, the facilitators can put down the initials of each participant on the black board.
3. After 10 minutes of trading, each group should return to the circle of cha -s
4. The scores of each participant should be noted down on the board.
5. Explain the rules for bonus points.
These rules are:
i. Explain that there is a bonus point chip.
ii. Each group would be given three chips — each chip is worth 20 points.
iii. The group members have to decide whom to distribute these bonus chips to.
iv. The chips must be distributed in units of 20 only.
iv. The group has five minutes to distribute the bonus chips, decisions taken should be unanimous. If they
are unable to decide at the end of five minutes, the points will be taken back by the facilitator and no one
will receive them.
6. Start the bonus chip session.
7. End the bonus chip session five minutes later.
8. Record the bonus points received by the participants on the board.
9. The facilitator announces that a circle or a star has a higher number or points than a square, they trade and
change positions. It is announced to the group that the circle has become a square, a star, etc.
10. The second round is started.
11. The process is repeated — bonus session, and changing groups.
12. After the second bonus session, announce that the squares have the authority to make the rules for the
game because “they worked so hard”. If the group wants to suggest rules, the squares will decide which
ones to implement. Give squares 10 minutes to frame rules. Announce the rules that the squares want to
establish to all the participants and start the third trading session.
13. From here on, follow the developments. You may want to stop the exercise if you see that as a result, open
or silent hostility has emerged. In any case, stop the exercise after three full rounds are over. What may
happen is that the rules made by the squares will be to protect their own power. The circles and stars will
either give up, organise, become hostile, or defy the rules. Stop the game when it is clearly evident that the
squares have made rules which others consider oppressive and unjust.
TAKE A BREAK
Debriefing:
The following questions can be asked.
i. What are you feeling?
ii. What happened to you in the game?
iii. How did you feel being a square, circle or a star?
iv. Are there any parallels between the game and the world outside it?
v. What did you feel during the game as you won or lost?
vi. Would there have been any difference if the people who had been circles were squares?
vii. Were the squares acting with legitimate authority? How did they get this authority?
viii. Were things different when a whole group reacted together against the squares, rather than one individual
alone?
ix. Did you at any point feel that you had surrendered your individuality to the group? What happened after
you did this?
Note:
To highlight the role of the ‘Change-agent’ in Star Power, one or two articulate members of the squares could
be selected to help the poor circles and stars. (This should be done after the squares make the rules.) They
should then be left free to handle the situation the way they want to.
Reference: Handbook of Structured Experiences for Human Relations Training—Volume II, Pfeiffer
and Jones, University Associates, U.S.A.
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
I
Simulation on the Role and Status of Women
General Brief:
This exercise is essentially to explore various nuances of male and female roles. The experiential learning of
this exercise is based on exploring the other sex — role and emotions; men therefore play women’s roles and
women play men’s roles.
The setting of the exercise is in a middle-class community. There are slums around the area where some
families are working. There are several events taking place there. A factory is situated close-by. A social service
organisation is situated in the community. It is actively working for the welfare of the people.
Objectives:
1. To experience and explore various dimensions of male-female stereotype roles and social relationships
Materials Required:
Large room, role descriptions on a card, paper, pins, pens, chairs, tables
Time Taken:
two hours
Process:
1. Assign roles to various members of the group. Men to be assigned women's roles, women to be assigned
men’s roles.
2. Brief each member on his/her role.
3. Start the process.
4. After 10 minutes of the e/xercise, the social worker visits family one. She is concerned about the children not
going to school. She has come to motivate the family.
5. After 15 minutes, the second social worker visits family two to help the widowed daughter-in-law to get com
pensation in view of her husband’s death.
6. After visiting family two, the social worker visits family three.
7. After 25 minutes, an announcement is made on the board. Two hundred women have been retrenched in the
factory. The working woman (secretary) has lost her job.
8. The Voluntary Organisation, after a meeting, has planned to open a Women’s Centre.
9. After one hour, there is a cry in the neighbourhood — it has been announced that a slum woman has been
raped.
10. Stop the exercise after nearly one hour and a few minutes of the process. Close the exercise. It can be
stretched if the facilitator feels that more time is required for a natural closure.
11. Break of 10 minutes.
Debrief:
The following questions can be asked:
1) What do you feel about your role?
2) Did you feel powerful, in control of or threatened in the process? Why?
3) To the man:
What did you feel playing a woman’s role? What difficult, situations did you face? How did you handle it? Did you
get any specific insights?
4) To the woman:
What did you feel playing a man’s role? Did you feel any sense of power? How did you handle situations?
5) Discussion on women’s stereotype roles, socialisation patterns, inter-personal relationships, etc.
Roles:
I. Brief for family unit one: Father (unemployed), mother, two school-going children living in the slums.
Father (about 35 years): has lost his job and has not succeeded in finding another one. Passive personality,
caring for and supporting his wife.
Mother (30 years): due to family pressures, this dynamic woman found a job for herself. She is the breadwinner
of the family. Strong, self-confident and despite her husband's loss of job, still supportive and caring towards
him and the children.
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
Children: One boy: •— about five years old; not going to school.
One girl:
about seven years old; non-school going. Both parents were keen that children go to school.
II. Brief for family unit two: middle class family, widowed mother, one son, one widowed daughter-in-law.
The family was affected by communal riots, one son was killed in the process.
Mother (50 years): Traditional, old-fashioned, generally interfering with what is happening.
Son (30 years): Unemployed, irritating person, was keen on marrying the neighbour’s divorced sister.
Daughter-in-law (25 years): Recently widowed, quiet, indecisive, withdrawn, does not get much support from
the brother-in-law and mother-in-law.
III. Brief for family unit three: upper middle class family, husband, wife and husband’s sister.
Husband (35 years): He is an executive, working in a multi-national concern. He is uninterested in what happens
in the family, cannot relate at all to his illiterate wife.
He feels his responsibility is to provide the money to the family to run the house. He cares for his sister. He is
also involved in a relationship with a working woman.
Wife (34 years.): She is passive, illiterate, traditional housewife fearful of the husband, indecisive, feels very
neglected.
Husband's sister (32 years.): A dynamic, strong woman, who has recently been divorced. She has come back
to live with her brother and is a school-teacher. She is ambitious and sympathetic to women’s concerns.
Working woman (20 years): (Middle class background) A good-looking, single woman, she works as a secretary
in a factory. She lives alone and is having a relationship with the executive for the last one year and wishes to
spend more time with him.
Social worker: One male and one female. The man is a middle-aged worker and has been actively involved in
the welfare of the community. He works for a voluntary organisation. The woman is very young — 22 years old,
just out of college and is working in this community for the first time.
Designed by: Seemantanee Khot (Pune), Jaganaddha Rao, (KMDS, Orissa), and Dhruv Yadav (Ankur,
New Delhi)
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
t
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Broken Squares
Objectives:
To experience nuances of cooperation, sharing among members while working as a team
*,
Setting:
Any quiet, large enough meeting place
Time:
45 minutes
Materials:
Blackboard. One set of “Broken Squares” (15 pieces) for each team of five players (use key below to make a
set of 6' x 6' cardboard squares)
1
Conducting the activity:
1. Divide the participants into teams of five players, and assign an observer to each team.
2. Introduce the activity by explaining that the. game they are about to play is a learning experience that will
be discussed later.
3. Mix each set of 15 pieces, and distribute three pieces at random to each of the five players on each team.
4. Say to the teams: “Each member of your team has three pieces of paper. When I say ‘begin’, the task before
the five of you is to form five perfect squares of equal size. Your task will not be complete until each of you
has in front of you a perfect square of the same size as those before the other four players. Here are the
rules of the game:
• No team member may speak.
• Team mehbers may not signal others to give them a piece of paper.
• Members may, however, give pieces of paper to other players on their team.
• You have 20 minutes to solve the puzzle.
• The observer for each team will watch to be sure that team members observe the rules.
5. Tell the teams to begin.
6. Call the time at the end of 20 minutes.
7. Show those players who have been unable to complete the task in the time allowed how to form the five
squares.
D
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F
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Distribution of pieces in each envelope. AEG, BEK, CDO, HJN, ILM.
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
I
8. Lead a discussion about the game.
• Who was willing to give away pieces of the puzzle?
• Did anyone finish his or her puzzle and then separate from the rest of the group?
• Was there anyone who continually struggled with the pieces, but was unwilling to give any or all of them
away?
• Was anyone in the group frustrated?
• Was there any critical point when the group began to cooperate?
• Did anyone try to break the rules by talking or pointing?
9. Allow time for them to suggest lessons they learned.
10. Explain that the purpose was to demonstrate the importance of cooperation in solving problems and that
learners need to share whatever they have, or know, if they are going to learn from each other and find
solutions. This includes taking into account the unspoken needs of others.
11. Invite discussion by suggesting: “Let’s pretend that these pieces of paper represent what enablers and
teachers — and learners — know.” Identify learners as village people, adults in an urban area, or whatever
constituency is appropriate for the people with whom you are working. Ask the following discussion ques
tions:
n .
.. ..
..
• What are some of the things that a field worker or teacher knows? (List responses on blackboard.)
• What are some of the things that the learner knows? (Make a second list of responses.)
Highlight:
1. Importance of sharing; cooperation and understanding needs of others.
2. The importance of looking at all aspects of a situation before making a final decision.
3. There is only one way to use all the pieces and form a square.
Note:
Some things that learners know might include local customs, personal experience and feelings, specific
economic and work problems, interaction with bureaucracies, folk wisdom, religious teaching, etc. Ask the ques
tion:
• Is it possible to solve problems without having all of the pieces — or all that everyone knows?
12. Discuss the two “response” lists. Help participants to see that if any solutions are to be found to the lear
ners’ problems in relation to their own educational needs, they must draw on the knowledge and specific
experience of the learners in the midst of the learning situation.
Adapted from : A Handbook of Structured Experiences for Human Relations Training, Volume I,
Pfeiffer and Jones, University Associates, U.S.A.
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
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Tower-Building Game
I
Objective: To understand the dynamics of exploration in the villages
Materials: Flat stones or blocks
■
Time: 90 minutes
Process:
1
1. In small groups, let the participants make a tower as tall as possible with the flat stones
2. Discuss:
i. What facilitated building up of the tower?
ii. Why did it break?
iii. Does it happen in your life with the groups you are a part of?
iv. What happens to the stones at the bottom of the tower?
v. What can you do about breaking or strengthening the tower?
t
■
r’
r
Who is the Leader?
Objective: To sharpen your skills about group functioning
Materials: One large room
Time: 45 to 60 minutes
Process:
1. One person in the group should volunteer to go out of the room.
2. The group members then choose a leader, who will initiate an action (clapping, pulling ears, etc.) and the
others will follow.
3. Outside person called in to identify who the leader is. Three guesses given.
4. Continue games with different individuals going out.
5. Discuss
i. How did you find out who the leader was?
ii. What were the problems you faced in the process?
iii. Does it happen outside? Why? Why not?
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4 N G Ato
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
ABOUT US
The Society for Participatory Research in Asia (PRIA), New
Delhi is a non-profit voluntary organisation registered under
the Indian Society’s Act.
Participatory Research is a methodology based on the belief
that knowledge is power and therefore contributes towards the
empowerment of the oppressed and the poor. It promotes the
involvement of the poorand theirorganisations and represen
tatives in the creation and utilisation of knowledge in their
own collective interests. Thus, it attempts to challenge the
monopoly over knowledge and its tools in the hands of the few.
PRIA works with local groups and activists involved in the
education and organisation-building efforts and struggles of
the marginalised and underprivileged sections of society.
We provide support through research, training, evaluation,
networking with groups on common issues and preparation
and dissemination of learning materials.
We are a team of 15 people working with several partner
groups all over India.
In the last five years of its existence, PRIA has specially
focussed on primary health care and adult non-formal educa
tion, problems of deforestation, land alienation and large dams,
women and work, women and sanitation, occupational health
hazards and management issues of NGOs.
In the area of Participatory Training (PT), PRIA conducts a Train
ing of Trainers programme for grassroot activists and educators.
It is constantly involved in efforts to promote the understanding
and practice of PT philosophy and methodology by holding
workshops and documenting several efforts in the country.
The text of this manual has been prepared by Suneeta Dhar,
Rajesh Tandon and Rajrih Pandey.
Om Shrivastava has co tributed to the conceptualization
and evolution of this nr <erial.
1
Prepared by Art & Impressions & Printed at Centra electric Press, Naraina, New Delhi.
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