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DEVELOPMENT
MANAGEMENT
Needfor Capacity Building
in Community based NGOs
PremChadha
A*
DEVELOPMENT
MANAGEMENT
Needfor Capacity Building
in Community based NGOs
Prem Chadha
Society for
Participatory Research in Asia
42, Tughlakabad Institutional Area, New Delhi - 110062
Introduction
In the past, training programmes have been conducted in South
Asia to strengthen the managing capacity of NGO staff. Yet, the
issue ofa lack ofinfrastructurefor systematic institutional devel
opment and managerial capacity-building of NGOs continues to
be raised. The grounding complexity in management of social
change efforts has made this challenge all the more daunting.
It wasfelt that a status study ofthe needfor education and training
in the field of Development Management for NGO staff, and
available provisions, neededtobe made. Accordingly, in August,
1993, PRIA instituted a study in collaboration with Institute for
Development Research, Boston. Other institutions that showed
active interest in this study are Action Aid, Bangalore; Oxfam
America, New Delhi; UNNATI, Ahmedabad; and SSK, Lucknow.
For this, some 70 persons - mostly from NGOs - were met, and
theirperceptions obtained.
The study was intended to:
a.
assess the needfor Development Management Educationfor
senior NGO staff and leaders in India and South Asia;
b.
assess the range, type and access ofavailable Development
Management education provisions within the region;
c.
recommend strategy for fulfilling gaps, if any, in future
provisions ofmanagement educationfor NGOs in the region.
Prem Chadha
August, 1995
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Contents
Some significant characteristics of
the development sector
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2.
Differences from other sectors
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3.
The business NGOs are in
11
4.
Nature of problems to be addressed
15
5.
Nature and extent of the need for DME
21
6.
Critical attributes of a DME programme
27
7.
Profile of an effective NGO manager
28
8.
Profile of a potential DME student
33
9.
The curriculum and pedagogy
35
10.
Faculty characteristics
44
11.
Types of continuing education programmes
45
12.
Other relevant benefits envisioned
47
13.
Implementation issues
48
14.
Annexure
50
i.
Some significant
characterstics ofthe
development sector
A sector can be said to have come into being when like-minded organisations working for causes,
which have community ofinterest in terms of ends and means, relate to each other in meaningfully
integrated ways, to bring about a kind of defined structure - a somewhat loose-knit system of
which each individual NGO functions as a primary sub-system.
Most sub-systems of the sector will, indeed, be the mainstream organisations - the organisations
that more directly seek to achieve the known and shared purposes with which the sector identifies
itself. But, there will also be several sub-systems in the nature ofauxiliary organisations which make
it possible for the mainstream organisations to function more smoothly and more cost-effectively,
focusing on their primaiy tasks with minimum distraction - sticking, so to say, to their knitting.
The extent to which a mainstream organisation is required to work beyond its primaiy tasks, outside
its forte, and expend energy and other resources to mobilize its inputs, or for absorption ofits outputs
in the larger environment, to that extent its effectiveness on the primary tasks will be low, motivation
of its human resource will suffer for want of achievement, and even the other resources will be used
sub-optimally.
A sector, thus, implies a supra-structure, within which different types of constituent organizations
observe a degree of division of labour, and a concommitant interdependence. The auxiliary
organizations are a creation of some mainstream organizations - grass-roots or service delivery - by
implicit or explicit consent. These are, accordingly, essentially enabling, rather than controlling, in
nature.
These auxiliary organisations perform functions that are ofmore or less of equal relevance to several
mainstream organizations. Ifthese functions are performed by specialist organizations, these become
more time, cost and quality effective. These organizations are expected to so function that they enjoy
credibility with other organizations in the sector. These auxiliary organizations can be expected to
provide support by way of
a) Valid credible information. Most NGOs are suspicious of the information generated by the
governmental and other organisations that are not believed to have ends and means similar to
the NGOs.
b) Relevant researched knowledge. In an environment where knowledge is said to be doubling
almost every 2 to 3 years, for NGOs to select what is relevant to their own local or regional, or
programmatic context becomes a mammoth task by itself.
c) Critical organizational and programme-related tools, tried and tested in other but similar
situations.
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d) Assisting access to finance, e.g., funds for bottom-up planned programmes, and projects; or
funds for organizational costs etc.
e) Education and training, such that the NGOs are able to recruit human resource with knowledge,
skills, awarenesses, values and commitments conducive to their work and internal environment.
f) Platform and expert support, for organized and data/experience based advocacy.
g) Legal aid, etc.
It may be useful to undertake an exercise to map out the extent to which the NGO sector is structured
to effectively support its constituents; and determine the role that auxiliary organizations can be called
upon to play in view of the present stage of its evolution, and its contemporaiy needs. This will also
involve determining the level and quality ofintegration - forward and backward - among the various
organisations. This exercise seems significant in so far its potential to synergize the initiatives ofseveral
individuals and organizations in the sector is concerned.
For a study on the need for management education, it is important to understand how significant
people in the sector view it, because it is this sector - diversely perceived by its constituents - that
any education programme will have to serve.
Mission and strategy
Much of the current Indian NGO movement may have little or no roots in India. A question arises
as to howmuch ofthe impetus for their work comes from the expressed concerns ofthe contemporaiy
society?
Development work has not undergone significant change in the last 20 years or so. The new economic
policy may be a favourable change, which most NGOs have yet to relate to their own work. NGOs
need to examine whether these (reforms, away from controls) call for change in their own perspectives?
If the society undergoes change, can NGOs remain unaffected? Given the current reality, an area
that therefore may need reflection on the part of Indian NGOs can be their approach towards the
market. Their concern for the poor - a large segment living outside the purview of the market - often
prompts them to go in for state or welfare support, perhaps wrongly counterposed against the market.
While this was understandable (though hardly less contestable) in the days ofthe cold war, it is clearly
an anachronism today. Should the development effort not concentrate its energies into bringing the
weaker sections of society into the development mainstream?
Similar questions might exist in respect of NGOs in some other South Asian countries also. Besides,
institutions, by nature, have strong tendencies to be self-seeking. There is, therefore, always the
need to reflect on some questions of internal concern, like, why growth? - is it an end by itself?
- what is the nature of clout, political or apolitical, that NGOs need to make the desired impact
in their contemporary environment? - and so on.
Leadership approaches
Many development professionals have been part of one or the other political thought. Their entry
into the voluntary sector may have been either due to disillusionment with the ideology they once
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practised, or their preferance for the voluntary sector over another organization of a more explicitly
political nature. This may have led to an ideologisation in the voluntary sector, which influences the
NGOs’, view of the contemporary reality.
There also seems to exist a perceptible view that moves to professionalise the working of NGOs by
imparting management education may be incompatible with several notions about how genuine
development should be brought about.
Human resource development inNGOs
NGOs are a mixed bag, constituting a wide variety in terms ofpersons as well as approaches followed.
People can be so different - in terms oftheir social, economic and political beliefs; including the caste,
class, etc. factors influencing their thinking. Besides, there exists among some NGOs high
competitiveness and intensejealousies, as regards networks, access to resources - governmental or
otherwise, areas ofoperation, ideology, etc. Itis, therefore, a relatively more complex sector to manage
- attempting to deal as it does, holistically with people and communities. All these - the diverse human,
cultural, social, economic and political aspects - become hurdles in NGOs establishing meaningful
and tension-free dealings with the ‘people’, and their other relevant environment.
The scale of NGO operations today is extensive, the scope of their activities is fairly wide-spread;
and it would not be inappropriate to say that the voluntary sector has indeed come of age. The
development work has assumed considerable proportions. Currently, the Government in India alone
reportedly spends around Rs. 30,000 crores per annum only for rural development. Besides, there
are, at least for the time being, other sources offunding. So, money may not be a critical constraint
for N GO effectiveness. The real constraint maybe scarce availability ofthe socially committed competent
people. Human Resource Development within NGOs can, therefore, not wait any more. It is time
that the various relevant issues are confronted openly, and their implications properly understood.
Types of NGOs
NGOs are involved in diverse activities such as activism, service delivery, income generation. Different
sources classify NGOs through different perspectives. Seven such (‘A’ to ‘G’) are listed below. An NGO
may possess one or more of the following dominant characteristics:
A.
* More efficient (compared to the state) delivery of programmes
* Efficient programme delivery, combined with ‘organizing’ ofthe community to take over the
maintenance ofgoods and services created through programmes
Using programmes primarily as opportunities for conscientization and wider social develop
ment
* Conscientization and social action to the exclusion of development programmes
* Assisting agencies in one or more of the above activities (PRADAN, 1988)
*
B.
*
*
NGOs engaged in alleviation of suffering - cost-effective relief in disaster/sickness etc.
NGOs engaged in mitigating poverty, not through a radical approach. They heal the wounds.
Compassion, caring characterise their work. Cost-effectiveness is not a critical criterion
* Radical organizations, that believe poverty is caused by certain established societal processes
e.g. Marxists, Gandhians look for structural solutions. The criterion for their strategy is the
extent to which their intervention will ‘shake the foundations’
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*
c.
Alternative seekers, e.g., alternate technology, community health. They are not trying to change
the society. Cost effective innovation is their criterion
* Grass-roots community-based organizations
* Alternative seekers - much the same as described at ‘B’ above
* Public service contractors, who deliver services on behalfofother agencies e.g. the government,
international NGOs
D.
*
*
Intermediate NGOs - who do not see direct fulfillment of the mission of development
Field-based NGOs - who see the direct fulfillment of this mission
E.
*
*
Constructionist NGOs
NGOs who use dissonance as the base for their interventions
F.
*
*
*
*
*
Interest organizations, who pursue specific interests or programmes
Support organizations
Organizations attempting to impact on specific problems
Personalised organizations
Critical intellectuals
G.
* Some NGOs are not at all like contractors
* Some NGOs areJust like contractors
* Some NGOs are worse than contractors - no accountability, no quality control, no
monitoring
Networking and collaboration
Criteria and motivations for networking among NGOs vary widely - from ‘limited individual scope
or resources’ to large demands e.g. communalism, calling for vast societal mobilisation.
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Differencefrom other
sectors:
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The corporate sector, or the government etc.
Mission and goals
Mission and goals distinguish NGOs from other organizations. Motive ofvoluntaiy sector being service,
more than generation of economic surplus, NGOs have no performance indicator but their
effectiveness. Since NGO effectiveness can be assessed mostly in the long-term, enforcing account
ability in the short-run may often be a problem.
Ideological flavour of the NGOs is another differentiating factor. It is quite apart from the purely
profit orientation ofthe commercial sector, and the bureaucratic orientation that characterises any
governmental pursuit. Also, the drive that pushes one in these organizations and theirwork is different.
NGOs thrive in areas where the commercial sector, since it sees no return on investment, will not
enter.
Whereas the commercial sector generally defines ‘creation ofwealth’ as its primary contribution to
public welfare, NGOs concern themselves with ‘equitable distribution ofwealth’. Here too, motives
ofcommercial organizations and NGOs are different. The commercial sector mostly responds to such
heeds of its consumers as already exist. Need generation is resorted to, but it is rare. Major concern
6f NGOs is not only generation of felt need towards development, but also to go into pathology of
the existing situations and generate such needs as will help mitigate this pathology. This is necessaiy
because, while the commercial sector responds to needs which are above the line ofa minimum standard
ofliving - social, economic etc., the NGOs work to respond to needs which are essentially below this
line.
A demand of sustainability is development of strong and stable grass-roots organization/people’s
organization, such that the beneficiaries assume increasing responsibility to shed their dependence
of NGOs. Such organizations are critical output of the NGO work. In the commercial sector, on the
contrary, there may be a vested interest in maintaining dependence ofthe consumers on its produce.
Commercial sector’s main concern is consumables or perishable goods (sustainable dependence),
whereas the main concern of NGOs is sustainable development.
I
NGOs have a role in basic human development and welfare, rather than to serve secondary level
needs of comfort, convenience etc. NGOs deal with improved functionality of the weaker sections
- women, poor, tribals etc. - to help them become mainstream citizens. NGOs, thus, seek to bring
about sustainable change in the socio-economic life ofthese sections based on socialjustice. In that
sense, NGOs partake in the essential functions of a ‘welfare state’. Yet, their action is not through
any organization wielding the power of the state.
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Strategy and effectiveness
NGOs are neither capital intensive, nor labour intensive in their work. NGOs are essentially people
intensive - facilitation and process intensive. It maybe hard for NGOs to apply traditional management
tools, designed to achieve known and predetermined tangible outputs. The best outputs of NGOs
are often not known in advance, except at a very vague level of generalization.
Development is not a ‘project’ - it is an ongoing ‘process’, into which projects must be integrated.
Projects in development are not ends by themselves - these are only means to the end of sustainable
quality of life for those whom NGOs seek to serve.
Government functionaries have limitations as effective direct catalysts for sustainable development
among weaker sections, for
by their nature they are more suited to large-scale delivery ofservice to a wide-spread population;
their work ethos do not easily provide for positive discrimination, and use discretion in favour
of the needy;
they are programmed to avoid controversies and politically sensitive lines of action.
The power ofNGO action cannot come from the size and financial resources ofindividual organizations.
It can come more from
e
the ability of this sector to fuse together and coordinate the actions of large number of citizens
through networks;
use of high managerial competence as a deliberate tool for poverty alleviation.
NGOs work in an environment which is both hostile as well as uncertain, and requires a high tolerance
of ambiguity. NGOs donot have ‘insulation’ that most established organizations in other sectors have.
So, the NGOs have to be proactive - otherwise they will be in day-to-day fire-fighting, not development.
Performance indicators
The bottomline for NGOs is building people’s institutions; and the process ofworking in partnership
with the people who are beneficiaries oftheir programmes (In Myrada, there are2,300 reported groups
in which decisions are taken).
Since ‘profit’ is not a performance indicator in an essentially non-profit NGO, NGOs have to develop
other tangible indicators to measure their effectiveness against. This is not always easy.
Structure, systems and processes
The structure and processes of NGOs have to be such that, within their defined area ofwork, they
can respond to urgent demands from their constituency almost instantly. NGOs are therefore, often
less organized and weak in systems.
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Since accountability is diffused in the absence of a concrete bottomline, and there is little relationship
between performance and funding, NGOs are exposed to danger of a casual way of working.
Leadership, therefore, becomes more crucial.
NGOs have not shown keenness on local fund-raising. Any NGO, which is not transparent, will not
enj oy popular support for fund-raising - and the deficiency syndrome will continue. Transparency,
therefore, becomes a critical operational requirement; which may not be so in other kinds of
organizations.
Tasks and resources
By the nature oftheir approach to dealing with the social issues, NGOs tend to get into confrontation
With the State and other established institutions . So, diverse sources for resource generation become
crucial. Beneficieries cannot fund NGOs. Donor groups can also get a tarnished image as, say, ‘under
covers’ or ‘foreign agents’. To deal with such a situation, NGO managers require skills different from
those required in commercial work.
Given small size, and limited resources, specialization is harder in the NGOs’ organizational tasks.
Tasks, therefore, become more complex. The required skills may range from fund-raising to activism.
Thus, the “bird’s eye view” and the “worm’s eye view” often get mixed up and difficult to discriminate.
Competition
While it is usual in the commercial sector that organizations in similar business compete with each
other, it doesnot seem unavoidable in the development sector, though there may be professional
jealousies at individual levels. Securing funds does, in several cases, manifest a sense ofcompetition.
Orientationfor development management education
While the very nature of developmental activity makes it susceptible to conflicting approaches at the
organizational level, a training/education package that can accomodate this multiplicity ofinterpre
tation can go a long way in providing a perspective within which these approaches can be meaningfully
situated, discussed and implemented.
10
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The business NGOs are in
The term ‘business’ is used in a generic sense to denote ‘what needs to be managed?' To provide
an appropriate focus for the management education programmes, profile ofthe NGOs, that can be
expected to use the development management education opportunities to optimise their functioning
and the desired outcomes, will need to be broadly understood. This question can be answered in
several ways: what follows is one such.
The organisation
Presently, most N GOs are essentially small. The problems these are engaged with, however, are wide
spread, tradition-based, and such as would need a long time to come to terms with in a way that
an impact can be felt at the societal level. The struggle seems, therefore, unequal. At least four things
emerge:
a) Small NGOs involved in service delivery must be enabled to expand to achieve economy of scale,
and optimal utilization oftheir managerial and specialist skills. Many ofthese NGOs have learnt
to be efficient; some of these have also learnt to be effective; but there seem hardly a few who
have learnt to grow and expand, consistent with their mission and values, survival needs,
effectiveness and efficiency. One factor responsible for this phenomenon may be the fact that
even service delivery NGOs experience the need to maintain an activist posture to feel accepted
within the NGO community. Management education may have a contribution to make in this
situation.
b) There is also a need to reinforce networking of the activist initiatives to generate synergy and
collaboration in pursuit of an unquestionably convergent goal. It is not to suggest that the same
organisation cannot combine activist initiatives and service delivery, though it will make managing
of such an organisation somewhat more complex. Some distinctive demands ofthese two kinds
of activities may be:
their distinctly different orientations;
need for people with distinct personality traits, psychological needs and temperament
etc.; and
divisional structures which may even have distinctly different cultures, norms of work
and behaviour.
Fitting different kinds ofactivities as parts ofthe same organisation calls for imaginative and innovative
structuring; besides explicit recognition and articulation ofthe differences that may, by the nature
of tasks involved, be necessary as regards standards of education, discipline, control and other
processes - even the pattern of remuneration. Ignoring this is bound to sub-optimize efficiency and
effectiveness. Locating these activities at separate physical locations may facilitate tolerance ofthese
differences, and reduce resultant irritation.
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i) All organizations are subject to environmental influences. However, an NGO has to be somewhat
more tactical in this respect to be able to balance the forces created by its donors, its constituency,
its programme strategy, the regulatory authority etc., and yet work within its own vision and
mission.
d) In the traditional sense, NGOs are under-organised, largely on account ofthe management styles
and beliefs practised; like values ofparticipation, means and ends, etc. Any management education
intervention will need to recognize the present state of‘management’ and ‘organisation’ in the NGOs.
The way NGOs and their tasks are structured can provide useful insight into the design of
curriculum. While the component dealing with sectoral knowledge, perspective and history will
necessarily be distinctive, there is a strong view that the content ofmanagementtheory itselfcannot
be vastly different from what is taught in the existing courses on management. Even if this be
so, management theory will have to be carefully sifted for relevance to the NGO practice. Emphasis
on various management functions and disciplines will be different; and surely the manner in which
knowledge is organised will be different - determined by the demands and management problems
of NGOs. Given the current status of awareness on management issues in several of the NGOs,
the need to bridge ‘the learnt knowledge’ with its use in the organisation by the individuals and
the NGOs will also have to be recognized, even facilitated.
Their constituency
Grass-roots NGOs focus their activities on the poor, deprived, and needy segments of population
e.g., women, tribals, landless peasants etc. Accordingly, they work in selected backward and poverty
prone areas, e.g. drought infested.
SupportNGOs concentrate on grass-roots organisations.
Their mission
The most powerful raison d’etre ofNGOs is to bring about change at societal level so as to strengthen
civil society, to create opinions, organizational structures and institutional arrangements through
which the poor can seek equity. To that end NGOs encourage public policies and programs that
empower people to achieve self-sustaining reconstruction.
Theirfunctions
Diagnostic research andfollow-up: Some NGOs essentially review the existing socio-economic
scenario, and develop new foci on socio-technical development, to achieve the following:
-
-
Strengthen the grass-roots level organisations by equipping them with appropriate technological
knowledge and skills in a large variety of areas relevant to their programmes.
Assist in use ofthe acquired know-how for sustained socio-technical development, and improved
quality of life of the poor.
Design effective monitoring and control systems to ensure a better balance between the resource
inputs and the NGO outputs. With involvement of marginalised groups of society, NGOs also
attempt to identify gaps that exists at the grassroots level, in the areas of food, water, appropriate
technology etc.
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Collaboration: NGOs offer their experience of cost effective development to government and other
non-govemment organisations working to improve health status, and social and economic well being
of the beneficiary groups.
Sustainable empowerment in quality oflife: Social change is the essence of an NGOs existence.
The ultimate output of NGOs is improvement in quality of the present and future life of the poor.
This involves enabling the communities achieve self-sustainable improvement through
(a) overall increase in their knowledge and skills in areas which directly affect their standard and
quality of life;
(b) improved economic status;
(c) increased social awareness and education;
(d) organized action; and
(e) service delivery, using their own potential. Mechanical implementors ofothers’ programmes should
not qualify as NGOs.
Economic growth alone is not enough. It is important, but not all. Social and cultural development
is equally important; for although more money helps, what improves the quality of life is what it
is used on: whether more money leads to the desired improvements; or goes into drinking and social
evil? Wholesome growth including income generation, political awareness, social awareness, ethical
and spiritual values, etc. gives rise to certain distinctive flavours in the NGO work:
NGOs are often in a situation of selling products for which there are no ready buyers. They face
resistence even from their beneficiaries. Yet they have to persevere towards enabling them to
achieve enhanced socio-economic and personal status in the society. NGOs attempt this by
improving resource base in the geographical areas where the poor are.
NGOs function as secular organizations; and assist persons on the basis ofneed, not creed, race
or nationality. They function with an overriding concern for the disadvantaged. NGOs respond
to human needs by helping those it serves restore and preserve their dignity, and realize their
potential.
NGOs concern themselves with strategies consistent with optimal long-term use ofland, water
and other available resources.
NGOs concern themselves with alleviating poverty by enabling the marginalised and the weak
to participate for their own sustained development. This they do first by enhancing in-house
capacity of the people’s organizations in dealing with the fast changing demands of the
developmental field; and then by encouraging peoples involvement in planning, implementing
and managing their development processes.
NGOs route their activities through appropriate community-based institutions which would
decide, execute and manage the development programmes. They provide direct support to such
organizations with a view that these can aid capacity of the people to determine their priorities
for development, takejoint action in implementation, and gain access to resources and services
available from government and other agencies.
Empowerment: NGOs are in the business ofhelping people secure their rights, and help them develop
potential such that they can, in future, protect the rights they secure. Therefore, NGOspromote
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activities through optimal use of local resources, and not through charity-oriented welfare
programmes. They provide technical assistance, training, other resources, and management
in combinations appropriate to local needs and priorities.
Furthermore, NGOs support processes that create competence and become self-sustaining overtime.
To enable learning, NGOs implement and promote programmes in the spirit of action research, to
serve as ongoing lessons, and open to continuous improvement in future efforts.
Their beliefs and commitments
Some beliefs and commitments of NGOs were described as follows:
Respectfor constituency: NGOs believe that poor people may be illiterate but they are not ignorant;
that the poor donot lack brains, but they are deprived of opportunities.
Basesfor strategy: NGOs base their strategies on the principle that development of the poor and
the underprivileged in terms ofquality oftheir life requires integration ofsome factors like specialised
skills, perspective management and adaptable technology. They believe that empowerment and socio
economic development can and must go hand in hand.
Quality parameters: Some of the quality parameters that NGOs strive to maintain in their work
are: people’s participation, technical excellence, cost effectiveness, equity and sustainability.
Organizational characteristics: NGOs strive to develop internal systems that are seen to bejust.
They attempt to experience their concern for the poor within the organization - not only in their
programmes. They endeavor to function such that rules and regulations do not dominate the
organization’s culture. As such, they develop flexible organisations which can help people identify
their needs through interactive processes, resulting in the adoption ofappropriate approaches and
support systems.
Profile of NGOs that may use development
management education
It is hard to think of any NGO which can do without use of organized know-how in managing
development and organizations. True, a large part of NGO activity is based on the ‘learningby doing’
principle. While this principle is something inevitable, as well as desirable, itneed not negate or preclude
th^ role of formal training and education for functionaries in this sector.
Yet, NGOs that have some of the following characteristics can be expected to benefit more from
development management education:
Tolerance of ideologies other than their own.
Medium to large scale of operations.
Working on somewhat complex‘task’systems.
Ability to use ‘mentoring’ to orient fresh entrants who have undergone relevant management
education.
• Working in areas like emergency relief, service delivery, logistics development, support services.
• Pay reasonable remuneration to its staff.
•
•
•
•
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Nature ofproblems to be
addressed
Given the clarity ofmission and purpose ofan organization, a maj or function ofmanagement concerns
itself with diluting or overcoming those events and circumstances that stand in the way of the
organization achieving and fulfilling its mission and purpose. An understanding of such events and
circumstances also helps in understanding the nature ofthe organization itself, as also its interaction
with its relevant environment. This understanding is essential to determine the need and content of
management education relevant to the development organizations. As these events and circumstances
undergo change, such change should serve as an indicator that, to remain relevant, the nature and
content of the education needs revision.
There are various ways in which insight into the problem areas can be attempted. Some problems
reported can be classified as:
Perspective related
a. Defining development is hard when different constituencies call for distinctive foci, approaches
and skills. Grass-roots NGOs often overlook the macro-situation, which nevertheless affects their
work. Establishing easily understood linkages between macro- and the micro- is important to
enable groups develop holistic perspectives: e.g., there are several missing links between the
women’s programmes and the other issues impacting on women’s empowerment. ‘Categories of
the under-privileged’ and the ‘issue-based programmes’ have to be seen in tandem to develop
perspectives in development. Otherwise, pre-determined programmes can only lead to creating
dependence on the NGOs.
b. The development scene in India has considerable influence of some political thoughts. While this
is natural, little seems to have been done to develop an integrated ‘development perspective’. In
most other parts of the democratic world development business is far more professional. This
is but one example of the ideological baggage that the development sector in India is carrying,
which may not stand upto systematic scrutiny. Caste politics is another important but complicating
dynamic. Other countries in South Asia may or may not have similar complexities.
Sector related
a. Attitudes ofsome government functionaries towards the NGO initiatives are often more obstructive
than facilitative. This is one of the several problems that NGOs face from their immediate
environment in their day to day functioning. These are hard to overcome by individual NGOs.
Handling these effectively must involve a determined campaign at the sectoral level.
b. NGOs articulate a strong sense of identity as belonging to the “voluntary sector”. Yet, there is
little evidence of demonstrated community ofinterest. Several NGOs report distress on account *
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ofnon-availability ofsector support. Inter-organizational interaction, interaction with government
and public at large seem somewhat under-valued among the other lofty issues talked about in
NGO gatherings and, as such, is a weak area.
c
There is also a strong sense of unique contribution to the development process. These perceptions
seem to represent work ofindividual NGOs more than any organized collective contribution. Little
practical expression is discernable in the form of efforts at the sectoral level to promote, or
to build a body of knowledge for significant development action.
d Most NGOs seem primarily concerned with their own programmes, with a strong operating and
locational orientation. Some agencies do encourage their staff or members of the communities
they work with to take up developmental activities independently. But most do not take any
deliberate initiative to expose, educate and motivate others to join voluntary action.
e
In spite of a high level of social consciousness, grassroot NGOs do not seek, or find themselves
unable to influence the wider socio-economic and policy environment. Voluntary action has
accumulated rich experience and insights. Little, if any, of this is translated into knowledge for
benefit of the NGOs at large, other practitioners, or the general public. Collaboration in analysis
and documentation of programmatic and organizational experience, evaluation of strategies,
dissemination of experience and insights and the use ofresearch for advocacy are by and large
a rare phenomenon, if not absent, among NGOs.
Fund-raising related
a Foreign donor agencies and government programmes are major sources of NGO funding.
Indigenous sources of funding are rare. Programmes seem more driven by financial exigencies
rather than NGO mission, or needs of the constituency.
b Most NGOs donot keep their supporters and donors sufficiently educated around their
organizational needs, or the needs of their beneficiaries. It is also likely that the international
funding may dry up, or at least get reduced. In such an event, most NGOs may not have alternate
sources for their sustenance.
c
NGO staffa re, for some unknown reason, kept out ofthe fund-raising process. A few functionaries
at the top of the hierarchy raise funds. And, they alone are seen to propagate frugality. In the
absence of the staff being aware of the problems in fund-raising, pleas for frugality donot get
appreciated. There also is little effort towards generating income out of NGO activities. Where
some NGOs have made attempts in this direction, they have been subjected to severe criticism
- largely ideology based.
Strategy related
Some observations on problems pointed to aspects of NGO strategy:
a) Working for a long time, some NGOs become kind of emotional about their programmes; and,
as a result, tend to use resources in a manner that creates dependencies.
b) Although stated to the contrary, in actual practice^ the focus of several NGOs is more on the
problems, than on what they see as causes ofthe problems. Also, sustainable development calls
16
for multi-approach, multi-disciplinary strategy. Mostprojects being implemented are too limited
in scope, and short-term: hence unlikely to lead to sustainable development.
c) There is a need to develop and disseminate tools for problem analysis and problem-solving in
the context of NGO work. NGOs’ strategy is often not tailored to situational analysis.
d) NGOsjust oppose: they often donot offer viable alternatives to what they oppose. NGOsareoften
unable to produce hard data to support their opposition or protest.
e) There is tension between dynamism ofthe NGOs versus consolidation of NGO programmes, and
their cumulative impact.
Programme related
Greater visibility, increased funding and the evolutionary cycle of growth among NGOs has led to
a proliferation of action programmes in the social as well as the economic arena. There has not been
a corresponding development of the NGOs themselves as organizations, and their programmatic
competencies. As aresult, programme development, design and management have come to be ageneral
area ofweakness.
Impact related
a) NGOs do not pursue learning on what makes one programme more effective than others. There
are few quality indicators available for contributions or impact made through NGO programmes.
b) In several programmes, the beneficiaries become impatient and intolerant, indicating a lack of
primacy to fulfilment of their needs, especially during natural or communal calamities. Tangible
benefit donot seem to reach the affected population in time; or to the planned magnitude.
Organization related
Leadership aspects:
a. How can the organizations be enabled to expand their activities and services without centralised
control is an issue to which many NGOs have yet to find an answer. Most NGOs show scant skills
in institution-building. There is problem of inability of organizational leaders/managers to
delegate.
b. NGO leaders get so deeply involved in programmes that they devote little attention to educating
staff around performance and organizational realities. In the absence of authentic feedback, the
staff develop unrealistic self-image. Stated organizational values of participation, equality etc.
become their expectations without reference to their contribution or commitment. They begin to
use activism as a facade, through which the leader can usually see; and which, in turn, creates
disillusionment in the leader.
c. NGO leaders rarely share rules ofthe management game openly with the staff. Managerial functions
remain centralised with the leader. Even relevant information, including the rationale for decisions,
may not be easily accessible to the concerned staff.
17
Organization design aspects: There is apparent in several NGOs, a dilemma between a ‘flat’ versus
a ‘l)iierarchical’ approach to the organization design. Considerations for organization design are not
the roles, the tasks, or needs ofthe organization. Another circumstance which NGO managements
find hard to tackle, relates to expansion and growth of operations, and the complexity that it brings
to the organization. Knowledge of organization theory can help a more systematic examination of
these issues.
Organization culture aspects:
a) There is often incongruence between the various aspects of the organization e.g. stated and
practiced values, making it difficult to comprehend reality of the organization. Organizational
values are sometimes also not tuned to the needs of the constituency. Management education
can make deliberations and decisions in such areas more rational, data and need-based.
b) While NGOs need to, and actually practice, some institutional values, they are elsewhere seen
to be questioning the very same values. Unexplained, this apparent contradiction leads to some
internal inconsistencies e .g., with the stated value ofmutual trust, there is a culture ofquestioning
in a manner that is inconsistent with mutual trust. Interpersonal, and communication problems
seem to abound. Also, NGOs mostly tend not to worry about compliance with statutory
requirements; which in some ways contradicts with the stances they publicly take. Same situation
seems to prevail as regards the gender issue.
c) Somehow “efficiency” norms of management are unable to coexist with creative exploration of
various factors that characterise 'challenging’ grassroots activism. Most head-on collisions within
the organization emerge from this process, and often one defeats the other. Paradoxically, their
coexistence should contribute to real transformation . An understanding of this process so
far emerges only from reinventing wheels and rarely through an educational process. Coping
with such organizational dissent in a productive way in a variety of areas (choice of activity,
introduction of new systems, mass resignations, etc.) is a skill most NGOs may need to learn.
d) A DME programme is likely to raise several issues which most NGOs have either not thought
of, or deliberately played down. A question raised was: will the NGOs be able to commit themselves
to the scrutiny, or discipline, of development management as a systematic body ofknowledge?
Presently, in most NGOs there is a divide between some who know, and some who do: will NGOs
be able to change this culturally? - what will this do to the internal power structure? - will this
reality be too threatening?
Financial aspects:
a) Several top leaders are not well-versed in accounts/finance management. Financial controls are
non-existent in several cases. In the absence of astute financial planning little surplus accrues
to the NGOs - which may partly explain why NGOs are not growing as they should. Lack ofplanning
and projections, in terms of proposals, also leads to crises.
b) Most NGOs are not cost effective since internally they are seen as having easy access to funds.
Most NGOs do not have well-considered norms of organizational expenses as ratio offunds used
directly for beneficiaries.
18
Staffing aspects:
a) Owing to rampant unemployment situation, large number ofthose j oining N GOs actually have
no commitment to NGO work or ethos. Most of them enter NGOs for a livelihood rather than
for NGO values, as is the case elsewhere. Ideology as basis ofrecruitment seems more like a myth;
and results in induction of unsuitable persons. This compromises interests of the poor
beneficiaries. Why does one want to do grass-roots work? - is there strong enough intrinsic
commitment? - if so, what is its source? These are difficult to gauge through a routine kind of
selection process; and often remain unanswered as questions.
b) Very few professionally qualified persons, including those from the Schools of Social Work, join
NGOs. Ethos developed in such institutions was stated to be not such that the students can
easily gel in NGOs, that are practising people’s participation.
c) Availability ofprofessionally competent persons depends also, to alarge extent, on what the societal
trends are: what the society values? what does society accept as ‘success’? Young impressionable
bright people, and those who influence their decisions, are usually conditioned to go in that
direction. NGOs have done little to raise wider social awareness around their work and mission.
That is why even where a fewbright young persons want to work with NGOs, they face considerable
obstacles from their families and social context.
Motivation aspects:
a) Retention and development of people is a problem that NGOs face. NGOs pay less compared to
what atleast competent people are worth elsewhere; nor do they endeavour to assure secure careers.
Most people that they attract initially, therefore, are with somewhat low potential. A reason for
not providing career advancement was stated to be the short pro] ect-span because ofthe funding
pattern. This, however, didnot seem to be an issue between NGOs and the funding agencies.
Howto make staff self-motivated and self-directed? - howto retain competent and committed
people on staff? - howto maintain quality ofservices under conditions ofhigh tum-over ofcritical
staff?This problem seems particularly acute in grass-roots NGOs. Due to slow and limited growth
ofthe NGOs, staff experience stagnation both as regards their career and the scope oftheir work,
leading to a lack of material as well as Job satisfaction. Frustration on these counts leads to
turnover of high potential staff. Those with low potential find it hard to quit. Accordingly, they
hang on to the jobs, but cause disaffection among staff.
b) Several NGOs seem to experience crises of identity, their sense ofpurpose, leading to a feeling
of directionlessness. This also has obvious implications for staff motivation.
Human resource development aspects:
a) In the absence of exposure beyond NGOs, most functionaries seem to live a ‘nobody else is like
me’syndrome.
b) There is evident a certain lack of appreciation and internalisation of how public service is to be
carried out.
c) NGOs do not sufficientlyvalue professional competence, and often sacrifice this in favour ofother
considerations such as stated values like commitment, flexibility, participation, etc.
19
d) There is an acute scarcity ofwomen with requisite skills.
e) Advocacy skills/competencies are lacking in most cases.
0 In grass-roots organizations, most staffis under-matric.
g) Perhaps, approach to Human Resource Development also needs redefination in the context of
NGOs; like, how to develop competent people who are committed to give a value to people on
whom they are not dependent for resources?
General aspects:
Some other organizational lacunae reported were:
a) Lack of concern for optimal use ofresources; inability to develop innovative systems suited to
development work and orientation; and to achieve in an organized and systematic way;
b) Inadequate skills for developing effective instruments for mass communication;
c) Insufficient appreciation of the importance of research and documentation for improving
knowledge base of the sector;
d) Superficial awareness of the reality of the poor - social, economic, political issues - among the
field workers;
g) Lack ofwillingness to accept accountability to multiple constituencies; and
h) inability to sustain institutions.
e
20
Nature and extent of
the need for DME
Before determining the purpose and content of any initiative in the area of management education
for development organizations, it will help to understand what the need is. The outcome may indicate
either a quantitative change, i.e., more of the kind that already exists; or a qualitative change, i.e.,
inputs or methods or approaches different from what already exists; or both.
A view was expressed that people cannot be trained in management ofsocial transformation. While
it is possible to contest this view, it may suffice to clarify that a DME programme is expected essentially
to help in the task ofmanaging organizations whose primary function relates to one or more aspects
of the social transformation process; and their programmes and projects.
Human resource development:
a) NGOs are in competition for good human resource with commercial and government sectors.
In several vocations, the left-overs from those sectors come to NGOs. These are people with
low potential, which places a limit on what internal HRD can do. This, in turn, influences the
quality of NGOs work; and reduces the productivity of their money.
b) If NGOs represent groups of educated middle class, outsiders, who seek to align with the poor
seeking change; they need to reassess the modes and tools of engagement, and work out what
added value they are able to bring to the poor and their struggle, what skill do NGOs need and
what skills can they develop in the poor themselves. This constitutes an important rationale for
development of the NGOs’ own human resource.
Thefears and problems:
There was almost a unanimous view that what was available byway of education programmes in
the area of development management was not adequately responding to what the NGOs needed.
Essentially the concern was for a qualitative change byway ofaligning better with needs ofthe NGOs.
Some fears expressed around use of management education in NGOs were:
a) Qualified professionals may feel suffocated in NGOs, where systematic use of management
concepts is rare;
b) Activists feel that professionals come in only when NGOs become ‘prosperous’;
c) There are existing institutions that can provide the human resources needed by the NGOs. Some
ofthese are not getting enough students. We do not know why! Are these institutions not relevant?
or are there too many already? Are NGOs willing and ready to invest time and resources to use
available provisions?
d) Management’ being brought to NGOs will be disastrous, because management requires working
through systems, whereas the strength of NGOs is working through people. The best NGOs in
21
the world are not using management education;
e) First generation NGO entrepreneurs, and some activists may feel threatened by the induction
of professionals in NGOs - there is a psychological dimension. This may even lead to head-on
conflict between the activist and the professional. Multi-tier courses, including self-reflection may
help. Counselling to the top N GO leader is an unavoidable need as well as responsibility of those
initiating formal education in NGO management.
Thesefears, problems and cautions - expressed by afew - did not seem to be widely shared, as
would appearfrom whatfollows.*
Relevance of management to NGOs:
Management is a highly applied field. Body of knowledge which is transferable across types of
organizations is nebulous. As such, context is very important. That is why management education
programmes existwhichare sector or industry specific, e.g. public sector management, cooperative
management, forest management, rural management, and so on. Some principles or parts of the
management education developed in the context of commercial or industrial enterprises, may be
applicable in NGOs, but some parts may not be. Some areas like people management, motivation,
fund-raising, some bit of marketing may be relevant. However, a lot of innovation is possible.
While the management thinking and learning developed in context ofthe commercial enterprise may
have some relevance, in devising a body of knowledge for managing NGOs, which are different from
the commercial enterprises in some very distinct ways, it is critical to take into account the unique
NGO context. The rationale of‘Resources » Transformation » Output’ will not change no matter
what the nature of the sector. It is possible to think of the same concepts for NGOs, but suitable
operational adaptation of these concepts will surely be necessitated. It is important to capture the
NGO experience, and build the management knowledge on a rigorous analysis of this experience.
Initially, a feeling was expressed that management education may not be relevant for the activist
groups. This viewwas checked expressly with some subsequent interviewees. Many felt that such
a generalisation would be inadvisable; that management as a concept is important to all kinds of
organizations. Understanding of management was important for the activists, as they managed far
more subtle social processes, needing core management skills for planning, organizing, strategizing,
implementing to move in the direction oftheir goal - even the resistance movement has to be managed.
They seemed to feel that managing was not a concept relevant only to management ofan organization:
complex activities and processes equally needed management proficiency.
Some others went a step further. They saw management knowledge as empowering even for the
community, and the beneficiary groups; who need to understand the environment and deal with
forces in that environment. Management, according to them, could help narrow down time and space,
thereby expediting the process of development. Their view was that, for achieving this, NGOs have
to build ability of their staffto effectively deal with diverse beneficiaries in the diverse circumstances
influencing them.
It was generally felt that while it is important for NGOs and their functionaries to work in a professional
way Jit was equally important, and perfectly possible, that they do not lose their character, way,
or identity in the process - that the two could be mutually supportive, and not exclusive.
22
Similarities and dissimilarities between development management education and the
traditional management education
•
A question was raised whether a DME programme will be different from the MBA programme run
for business and industry. The answer seems a ‘Yes’ in some aspects, and a ‘No’ in several other
aspects.
The DME program was seen as similar to an MBA programme because both of these fall within the
broad realm ofmanagement; and dissimilar because the object of concern for the DME programme
is not business or industry, but ways and means of confronting the question of development. The
clients in the case of development are the weak, the disadvantaged and the poor who need to be
empowered if they are to share the fruits of development.
Management education (as in MBA) canbe partially relevant in some generic ways to income generating
activities, mass communication, social system delivery, infra-structure etc. A different package will
beneeded for such objectives as making demands, generating awareness, mobilizing action groups,
helping change their attitudes, their work culture, etc.
Propagation of concepts is highly ‘school’ oriented - a particular term or word has had origin in
a school of thought. The word ‘management’ has similar problems. There is a need to go back
to basics - the more correct, the essential ingredients of‘management. One framework, suggested
as ‘basic’, is:
1. Define the ‘system’ one is managing in terms of a general ‘Systems theory’, and describe it
taking a systemic view;
2. State ‘objectives’ of‘what needs to be managed’. Objectives can be stated at various levels of
abstraction.
3. Look at ‘resources’: What is it that we are handling? What are the critical variables of the tasks?
4. Give a meaning to ‘profit’: What is the ‘value-added during the through-put (a) which makes the activity sustainable? and
(b) howis output more valuable than input? In other words, understand logic of this conversion
and consider the social benefits that accrue from this conversion.
5. Develop‘strategy’: assess environment; assess futures and future environment. All the earlier stated
ingredients will again come into play in this process.
In this kind of a broad framework, management for NGOs may not look to be any different from
managing any other kind of activity or enterprise. However, NGOs perceive ‘management’ as coming
from the corporate sector - the enemy who is the cause of the problems that NGOs are struggling
to undo. This perception causes all kinds ofimages which distort the basic meaning of‘management’.
Other similarities in management education stated were:
— Relatively simple principles ofmanagement, e.g. accountability are similar. However, nature and
methods of accountability can be different.
— Commercial organizations are including customers’ needs in their decision-making; poor people
are the customers of NGOs.
23
— Values, dedication, commitment, etc. are stated to be the distinguishing characteristics in NGOs.
In well-managed commercial organizations also values, dedication, and commitment are held in
high esteem, and seen as important.
— Empowerment, meaning that the concerned people develop their skills, sense of autonomy etc.
such that they can take their own decisions, is no different in effectively run corporate organizations
from what it is in well-run NGOs.
Politics is all-pervasive. Commercial organizations use the political process to achieve their goals.
How much should NGOs get involved in the political process? Is it happening that ‘I want to reform,
and I get changed’? Are NGOs able to deal with politics, without getting spoilt by it? These questions
are equally valid, no matter what the sector.
Similarly, there were several points of difference cited:
Management capacity of any organization constitutes the competence ofits human resource,
supported by the soundness of its systems, e.g., information or decision systems. In NGOs, the
purpose of these systems is seen to be qualitatively different from that in the corporate sector.
It is not easy to adapt from other sectors. In NGOs we donot talk about industrial revolution;
■ but we will talk about the history of social issues - planet, environment etc.
Management in NGOs is different from corporate management from a paradigmpoint ofview.
Traditionally, knowledge has been used to comer power. How do NGOs use, or need to use,
knowledge? Redefinition of such concepts will be necessary.
Nature ofthe needfor development management education: Several views were heard in this
regard:
a) Development sector is growing as a distinct alternate sector. It is attracting resources because
ofthe pressure ofsocietal needs; because there are people working hard to respond to these needs.
If other sectors need systematic education and training for management, why should such a need
be questioned for the NGO sector, and assumed that it will forever borrow facilities not attuned
to, or designed specifically for itself.
b) To be effective, NGOs need professional approach in managing resources available to them. Good
will and bonafide good intentions are no doubt useful equity for NGOs to be effective, but
these alone are not going to be enough.
c) Management education for development must first and foremost be directed towards the creation
of a ‘development management professional’, equipped to manage a wide range of issues,
disciplines, and situations inherent in the development work.
d) Good development workers, or other professionals like doctors, engineers, or teachers, proficient
in their fields, are not necessarily good managers .Need for effective management of organizations
like hospitals, universities, or NGOs cannot be denied: as such need for effective managers, so
trained, no doubt would exist. There is need for education programmes which can cater holistically
to development management.
24
e) Management methodologies common to NGOs are not gettingbuilt. Institutionalising DME seems
viable as a useful alternative, as atleast 10 percent of the NGOs in India alone could be looking
for trained managers.
f) In the traditional management education, concepts have been adapted to needs ofthe commercial
sector. So, it can not be optimum for ‘development’ work. DME has to specifically adapt to the
development sector needs: reality has to be looked at from the point ofview ofthe poor - needing
a different paradigm.
g) Products of most existing management institutes cannot start at the start ofthe management
cadre of even the best NGOs. Inducting them at higher levels has the risk of internal staff
dissatisfaction. There is also a question of compatability ofthe action context and the ethos in
NGOs with expectations of the management graduates. A specially designed management
education programme, which keeps the character and the needs of NGOs in focus, and invests
in them alone, can deliver the goods.
h) Industry has been able to attract bright people - this has not happened in NGOs. This may not
happen till NGO managers are enabled to secure the same status and recognition in the society
as other professionals. Availabilty ofcompetent managers has several impUcations for the NGOs:
their economic sustainability; optimum use and sizeofhuman and other resources ofNGOs etc.
i) NGO self-reliance was another logic given to support need for management education for
development organizations. Most NGOs suffer uncertainty around availability of financial
resources. A question often posed was: is donor-donee relationship permanent? NGOs cannot
become self-reliant except through their own efforts; and any such activity will inevitably need
effective management.
Different needs at different levels:
In determining the need for management education for NGOs, one has to differentiate levels at which
NGOs need management manpower. Management education will, thus, need to be addressed atleast
at three different levels:
e
a) Short interventionsfor the heads ofthese organizations: Heads ofNGOs, especially the
founder leaders, rarely see primacy for planned interventions to keep themselves abreast with
the times. This is partly because their role as regards organization policy and strategy is so
entrenched that questioning ofthe policy itself, in practice, either is seldom encouraged, orrarely
occurs. Be as it may, there is surely a need to ensure that learning space is created at the apex
of the organisation.
b) Long duration programme for middle managers: To produce qualified middle level
development professionals, found in eveiy NGO, around one year intensive programme would
be ideal.
c) Periodic trainingfor grassroots activity managers: This third level - the activity manager
at the grassroots situation - is the one that forms the vital core of any kind of developmental
activity, but is seldom seen to be in need oftraining other, perhaps, than in the specific technical
area. His/her managing capacity is often taken for granted. Any attempt to settle the issue of
management education for development would be incomplete if this section is ignored. While a
25
conceptual extended duration programme may not be optimum for this category, short-duration
managerial skillshops, to be conducted locally, in the local language and through a highly situation
specific pedagogy will be useful for the grassroots activity manager.
Objectivesfor a DME programme
The output of such a programme can be visualised to play a useful role, inter-alia, as a kind of
programme manager in such areas as community health, education, vocational guidance and training,
rural development, environmental issues, devising schemes for income generation among the poor,
exploring means ofimplementing the NGO mission, and so on. The objective should lie in the creation
ofa socially sensitive field professional who is potentially equipped to deal with a variety ofsituations.
While designing the course particular stress must be laid on bringing out the innovative aspects of
the individual, in the sense that it should tax the individual’s creative and reflective abilities. This
is critical on account of the relatively low-structure high-ambiguity situation characterising most
NGOs. Success should not otherwise be guaranteed.
e
26
Critical attributes ofa
DMEprogramme
Critical attributes of any DME programme are the essentials around which the programme must
be conceptualised. It is, therefore, important to capture these in advance as far as possible. Some
suggestions were:
*
It must chart out a scope for itself, consistent with the broad purpose and need as identified
from time to time; and then substantially fulfil this charter
*
It must result in improved effectiveness of the organizations that use it, or its products
*
It must work towards providing an integrated framework for management in the development
sector - which its curriculum and pedagogy will enable implementation of
*
The extent ofhuman resource development that it is able to catalyse in the development sector
will be a critical indicator of its success.
*
The number of persons trained by it working in the development sector at any given point of
time will show the relevance of the programme to the sector
*
Its ability to secure feedback from NGOs, and to make productive use of such feedback on an
on-going basis
*
The extent to which its products are able to impact professionalism in the organizations they
join; are able to understand the organization’s expectations, and meet these based on what they
have learnt in the programme
*
The manner and extent of educating its students on how the poor are able to change their lives,
and how external change agents can facilitate this process; knowledge-wise, skill-wise, attitude
wise
27
Profile of an
effective NGO manager
Arole which is currently identified more than any other with the NGO movement is that ofthe founder
leader. A founder leader is essentially a visionaiy, an activist, and also an entrepreneur of sorts.
This leader is often a visionary such that it is hard to visualise the person as apart from
his/her vision. This high integration between the person and his/her vision seems to represent the
hall-mark of an NGO leader. The almost missionaiy zeal of this leader seems to spring from a high
level of his/her expectancy with regard to the vision.
Given such symbiotic relationship between the person and his/her vision, it is easy to imagine the
extent to which his/her self-concept as a person - in fact the very sustenance - emotional and otherwise,
and his/her vision are linked; and which it will be genuinely hard for him/her to negotiate on a
rational plane. The vision has a high subjective-emotive content. It is often not irrational, but because
of the kind ofvalue the individual begins to attach to this vision, and its attainment, the manner
of his/her holding and defending this vision may, to another person, appear more as dogmatic than
rational. The vision seems so much a matter of survival for the leader that it is hard for him/her
to look at it, so to say, objectively. Let it be realized that this is the strength of the individual which
makes him/her the leader, and from where his/her energy and motivation spring.
This leader is also called upon to manage. Managing is a far more down-to-earth, systematic,
rational function; whereas the founder leader works more on inspiration, intuition, and an almost
uni-directional commitment to the vision that energises him. Integrating these two sets ofsomewhat
opposing but essential attributes - those of a visionary and a manager - is, by itself, a tall order.
Compounding this is the confusion that arises out ofexpectations ofothers - particularly the colleagues
in the organization, who often do not differentiate the leader’s role as a founder-entrepreneur from
his role as a manager. For example, the leader can be participative in his/her managerial role - as
s/he must be. But can S/he be participative in respect of his entreprenurial role which is woven
around the very content and form of the vision and mission for realization ofwhich he has set up
the organization? This confusion in his/her two roles may often give rise to postures on his/her part
which may be seen by others more as autocratic than democratic. S/he can certainly be expected
to be flexible and participative around the manner and approach for operationalising the vision and
the mission, with others who s/he believes are genuinely interested in helping him/her realize. This
difference in approach to issues relating to the vision itself, and those to its operationalising may
often appear as inconsistences or contradictions, or even as ‘double-standards’ in his/her behaviour
- although strictly speaking, there may be none.
The most unique among the NGO leaders is the ‘activist’ founder leader. Where s/he genuinely believes
that no one else understands his/her vision as well as him/herself, s/he may also be seen as a loner.
If some others are willing to walk his/her way, s/he will value their association. If others are not
willing to associate on these terms, s/he is happy to walk alone.
Ifthe above descriptionis even somewhat valid, itis unlikely that the activist leader will be a natural
28
organisation person. This person is a leader in the front - showing the way, there are some supporters
who followthe direction, and there is nothing in between. That is the reason, perhaps, why the activist
NGOs are best small-sized. Traditional management role may appear irrelevant to this context. In
fact, if efforts are made to ‘discipline’ this person as an organisation manager, we are more likely
to get a bad manager, and lose a good activist leader. The best ‘use’ of this person in the NGO sector
is to break newpaths, arouse people, generate legitimate developmental needs, and move on. The
follow-up or service delivery necessary to sustain and respond to what s/he has generated will have
to be ensured through another agency which has intrinsic competencies in that area, and which may
be quite different from what the activist leader has to offer.
To elaborate and reiterate, the forte ofthis leader, together with his/her small group is to activise/
energise or organise people around relevant social issues and arouse awarenesses conducive to
development. It is not the function of this group to provide services, which is normal on-going
institutional worl^. This is also borne out by the fact that this activist group is expected to withdraw,
to avoid continued dependence on itself. It seems logical that it is the function oforganizing/activising/
energizing that can withdraw. Service delivery as a function is on-going even in highly developed
segments of society. Sustainability possibly refers to the sustained awareness that people can and
need to make continuing demands on organizations that have constitutional, statutory or civil
responsibility to provide service. Therefore, in case an NGO takes on a service delivery responsibility,
it can only withdraw by ensuring that another agency takes the responsibility for providing on-going
service in future. The dependence on the service remains - what can change is the legitimate agency
to provide the requisite service. This is where advocacy is needed; and which can be done better at
the level of the sector than by an individual NGO.
In fact, initiative of an activist group can become sustainable only ifthe sector can ensure availability
ofservice delivery organisations, either from within itselfor preferably from other sectors whosenormal
function it is to provide such services. Ifthis does not happen, not only the work ofthe activist group
will be a waste, but also the beneficiary group will gradually tend to become immune to further activist
initiatives - past failure ofsatisfaction, and the consequent frustration, will give rise, first to skepticism,
and then to cynicism. It is likely that subsequent activist initiatives themselves will be experienced
by the constituent group as acts ofexploitation. Ensuring sectoral support in terms ofservice delivery
thus is a responsibility concomitant with the activist initiative of need generation - because the
improvement in quality of life can happen only when these two occur in succession.
Management is as relevant to service delivery organisations in the NGO sector, as it is to any other
organisation in any other sector - though the content ofeducation and human resource development,
and its design may have to be carefully worked out.
The objective of a management education programme would be to assist those who undergo such
a programme to develop themselves into effective managers. It is, therefore, important to understand
what an effective manager would be like in the context ofthe development organizations. Descriptions
are available around what attributes make a manager effective in other kind of organizations - say
the commercial/industrial organization, or the government. Very little such documentation is available
in the context of NGOs. The profile of an effective NGO manager provides a picture of the output
that a DME programme must constantly refer to as an ideal - that would continually provide it with
a direction to pursue. This profile must be understood holistically; butthat is not easy. As a somewhat
poor substitute, however, an effort can be made to understand it in its critical components: something
which is being attempted.
29
A. General profile of an NGO manager was attempted through gathering perceptions ofpeople about
some managers they considered effective or successful. Some insightful perceptions forthcoming were.
*
NGO managers have high leadership ability. They are able to carry people with them - not go
ahead, leaving people behind. The gap between the person and the people served is minimal.
♦
NGO manager is different from conventional manager in that -
-
-
s/he closely identifies with ideology of the NGO s/he works for; and wants to materialise
it through her/his work.
s/he realises that operating from donations; s/he is socially accountable for his/her actions
and performance;
s/he works under certain self-imposed norms, e.g., commitment to the cause served by
theNGO;anyeconomically‘profitable’projectundertakenmusthavesociallysignificantvalue;
importance given to the internal consultative process in the work-group enhances the task
motivation, synergy, and conducive climate in the work-group;
s/he possesses demystified knowledge of management and its practice;
*
NGOs need managers who look at implementation of projects, as means for development ofthe
communities. Profile of an NGO manager should include a variety of tools which equip him/
her to function as a professional development worker. S/he will need to be familiar with quantitative
subjects on the one hand and be equally conversant with qualitative issues on the other. This
means that his/her analytical ability must be of a high order. Professional education can help
build such abilities.
*
NGO manager needs to be quick to take decisions/ handle crises at grassroots. NGO managers
require the discipline, and mental rigor that comes by formal training.
*
Given the work environment of an NGO manager, there is a risk to burn-out much faster. So,
she needs greater ability to work with and/ or against several diverse forces.
*
Existential dimensions remain the same: family, friends, social obligations, normal organizational
context. Demands ofthe development sector impose high cost on these dimensions. Those NGO
managers who have thought through these conflicts, negotiated them, and have arrived at a
sustainable balance, do better.
*
Around 20 percent of the NGO Managers are ‘Path Breakers’. The rest are essentially back-up
to the ‘Path Breakers’ - or, at any rate, ready to take that role.
*
One view expressed was that women managers are different from men managers. According
to this view, women function better as team players - possibly on account offamily role ofwomen.
More information may be needed to capture the profile of an activist leader. It may be useful
to develop some tentative models to begin with.
B. Knowledge and skill areas that a successful manager can be expected to possess will be crucial
to transmuting knowledge into practice. Without these, an education programme may produce good
academics, but not necessarily effective practitioners. Some skill areas considered significant, are
classified below.
30
Management Diversity: Because of the relative small size of the NGO, the manager is often called
upon to play multiple roles.
*
*
Ability to take both - ‘bird’s eye view’ as well as ‘worm’s eye view; to keep in touch with ground
reality; at the same time with the global perspective - since NGOs usually donot have the kind
of hierarchy providing a successive distillation of perspectives.
Ability to effectively carry out diverse activities ranging from fund-raising to activism, enjoy
acceptability with the constituency, liaise with high officials, deal with donors, etc.
Enterprenurial skills', like
*
*
*
*
Ability to have clear perspective ofwhat s /he is doing; ofthe relevant segment(s) of society and
his/her ‘clientele’/constituency.
Ability to understand changing or hostile environment, and adapt NGO strategy to it; so that
she doesnot feel fossilised. And to do forward planning in an uncertain environment to sustain
the NGO’s social relevance; to focus on institution-building, management of growth and
diversification.
Ability to manage finances: simultaneously to view outputs in terms of social benefits.
Ability to take personal as well as professional risks.
Networking and advocacy skills', like
*
*
Ability to maintain profile appropriate to influence people in power; consistent with radiating
intrinsic beneficiary interest.
Ability to promote networks for communication - mass, intra- and inter-organizational; which
are culturally contextual, and attractive to media.
Conceptual skills', like
*
*
Ability to process information to arrive at sound conclusions; to understand situations from
different perspectives, e.g. sociological, psychological, managerial, public relations.
Basic analytical skills, and ability to undertake social science analysis for planning, policy-making,
etc.
Leadership skills', like
*
*
*
*
Ability to conduct day-to-day dealings in a balanced and mature manner, notwithstanding the
high access that the NGO leader may have to the corridors of power.
Ability to organize resources - human as well as physical and financial - optimally to achieve
the desired results.
Ability to achieve teamwork in organizations work-groups; and to effectively manage people in
the community.
Ability to get things done, not only through formal authority, but through more acceptable ways,
e.g. listening, consultation, group activities, creative facilitation, creative confrontation.
Group and interpersonal skills; like
*
*
Ability to influence people on whom one has no formal control.
Ability to facilitate the group processes; to participate, and deal openly with views different from
one’s own; to empathise with feelings of others.
31
i
05 080
J
2^5'.
*
Ability to effectively communicate, both in terms of making oneself understood, as also
understanding others accurately.
Trainer skills: like ability to develop others in terms of imparting knowledge, skills, as well as
awarenesses.
C. Appropriate attitudes, mental make-up, values and beliefs are important for authentic, relevant,
and situationally bonqfideu.se ofthe knowledge and skills one possesses. The education process
must be so designed as to reinforce, if not develop these.
Attitudes and mental make up: Some important attitudes and components of mental make-up
mentioned were,
*
*
*
A belligerent bias in favour of the poor, the down-trodden and the needy; to serve their cause
in a manner that explores feasible strategies towards empowering them. Will to succeed in work,
given the constraints of poor people.
A strong bias for innovation. Openness to new ideas and trends.
High tolerance of ambiguity; and of differing perspectives and views in the obj ective reality one
has chosen to work with. Balance ofidealism and materialistic reality. A predisposition to practise
sustainable style in life and management.
The values and beliefs: Some important ones articulated were:
*
*
*
*
*
A strong moral character, and a certain value system that makes the NGO manager stand apart
from professionals in other domains.
Pluralism in democracy, and secular non-partisan approach to issues, with positive discrimination
in favour of the poor. Empathy with the poor in fostering socialjustice and equity. A commitment
to improving their lot, such that lack of success hurts.
A deep commitment to sustainable change.
Professionalism as an integral part ofself-esteem: where reward is contingent upon achievement,
integrity, and excellence.
Collegial approach to leadership.
The behaviours: While knowledge, skills, values, beliefs, attitudes, mental make-up etc. can enable
efficient task performance; for effectiveness in social situations, conducive behaviours are inevitably
critical. By themselves, however, these may fall woefully short of effectiveness. Conduct of a
management programme for NGO managers must model some ofthese behaviours, and highlight
their importance.
*
*
*
*
Behaviours must reflect the manager’s attitudes derived from a world view that seeks upliftment
of the poor and the opressed.
The manager’s behaviour must be transparent, and manifest integrity and honesty ofexemplary
order.
The manager must give genuine respect to others as people.
The manager must manifest consistency in behaviour, values, beliefs, at a level one can comfortably
live with over time.
32
Profile of a potential
DME student
While ‘profile ofthe NGO manager’, is a prototype ofoutput of a management education programme;
‘profile ofthe student’ provides the input into the education process. The education progamme, the
‘conversion process’, must take into account both these ends.
Most suggestions on this behalfrelated to students who would be making their first entry to a career
oriented programme, although there were a few relating to in-service continued education.
Continued education: One set ofviews was that continued education programmes should target
managers with 10 to 15 years of experience. Another preferred focussing on those with 2 to 5 years
of NGO experience. It was felt in both cases that the education programme should use live ‘cases’
from the students’ own experience. In the light of a suggestion incorporated elsewhere regarding
adopting a multi-tiered approach, the above two suggestions can be seen as mutually reinforcing.
Continued education andfresh students: Only NGO sponsored candidates should be admitted
to DME programmes. The sponsoring NGO should bear around 75 percent ofthe cost of all training;
the balance by the individual.
The students must be bright - persons of excellence. DME must not settle for the second best.
Persons admitted to a DME programme must possess high values and commitment needed for
development, as these are hard to develop through an education programme. For the same reason,
they should also possess attributes considered characteristic ofan NGO manager. It will help to develop
criteria and methods for screening, elimination, and selection of students.
Women are able to get acceptance at grass-roots levels more easily. Getting competent women to
work, especially in the grass-roots NGOs, is a major problem. Marriage takes further toll ofcontinued
employment. Efforts should be made to recruit at least 50 percent women in the DME programmes.
Co-education cannot be avoided, but careful planning and continued vigilance will be necessary to
safeguard reputation of the facility.
Fresh students: Fresh graduates, considering career in development, should be exposed to DME;
as, at that stage, much less unlearning is needed. They should be provided educational exposure
before they get ideologically committed. Freshers, so trained can be put by the NGOs on a performance
based fast track.
The basic student profile need not differ from that of students in other management schools, except
that s/he must have serious interest in development. They should be checked for basic analytical
abilities and good communication ability.
They should preferably be from economic groups below certain specified income levels, essentially
to ensure that their background and upbringing are conducive to empathy with the poor.
33
The first screening for selection should be done by the NGOs who can be expected to use these students
after their education. They should look for boys and girls who can be trusted to work in NGOs,
and have the necessary attributes to be groomed to hold responsible positions. Another view was
that selection should not be limited to references from NGOs though that is an important source.
One could also advertise. Around 80 percent students could be taken through the NGOs; and the
balance 20 percent through open recruitment. This 20 percent would then be available for comparison
as a reference group.
To provide optimum opportunity to check the candidates, selection process must be carried out in
an environment similar to the NGO work environment, and may last from 3 to 6 days.
Sponsorship offresh students:A suggestion, seen as viable by several, was that the fresh students
may be sponsored by NGOs intending to employ them after the training, or even otherwise. This
suggestion was on an assumption that many students may not, on their own, be able to afford this
programme; and may not offer themselves, even though they may be otherwise eminently suited.
Students maybe admitted to DME programme based on reference by an NGO. However, the referring
NGO should not be bound to bear the sponsorship costs. An NGO, other than the referring NGO,
may sponsor such a student. The sponsored students should, at option of the NGO, be liable to
serve the sponsoring NGO for the first 2/3 years after completing the programme. In view of this,
field work or project work ofthe student should be with the sponsoring NGO or an NGO ofthe sponsor’s
choice.
a
34
The curriculum
and the pedagogy
Curriculum and pedagogy are the core medium through which any education programme fulfills
its purpose and objectives. These also lend concreteness to expectations. Ideas around these are,
therefore, invaluable. Suggestions received in this behalfcan act as a good starting point for programme
design.
Processfor determining the curriculum and the pedagogy
Management education includes conceptualisation and learning from relevant past experience. So,
it must be rooted in NGO experience and research. DME is expected to be a new body ofknowledge;
a thorough scrutiny ofthe existing knowledge will be necessaiy - some ofit may need to be scrapped;
some of it may be relevant as it is; some of it may need reorientation; but the whole of it will need
to be reorganised to suit the NGO pattern. Scrutiny can be done by (a) undertaking study of the
existing NGO management systems, (b) speaking to a sample of NGO leaders, (c) organizing need
assessment workshops; etc. DME curriculum and pedagogy design can be done best through a small
specialist, inter-disciplinaiy, inter-sector group, including some educationists and aware politicians.
The most critical in this will be the active involvement of at least a few of the user kind of NGOs.
One will need to understand the conceptual frameworks that these NGOs use in the course of their
work. It will help to inventorise existing NGO skills to make learning relevant and effective. Lots of
accumulated NGO experience can throw up the key issues NGOs have been dealing with. Each one
of the NGOs would have faced problem situations as would have to be cautiously and tactfully
managed. It will be useful to know how their mind worked in these situations: what did they do?
- what worked? - what did not work? - what was the degree of their success?
One will also need inputs from other diverse stake-holders; like user NGOs of different thoughts
and schools (Church, Gandhians, Leftists etc.), official aid agencies, concerned arms of the
government, existing educational institutions in related areas of DME, Panchayati Raj institutions,
etc.
A fairly large number of professional people have been working with the development sector - their
experience will be relevant. Dialogue with Schools of Social Work, similar other institutions, and
stalwarts in the field of social action should be useful.
An intensive workshop with participants from major NGOs, and other groups mentioned above, may
help arrive at a curriculum through debate and consensus. The workshop can focus on a draft outline
paper prepared and circulated by a core group. It will be best to avoid building the programme around
any particular ideology or school ofthought. Wide diversity in existing ideologies in NGOs may make
such an initiative difficult.
35
The curriculum
Criteriafor curriculum design
1. The perspective of‘knowledge is power’, and the principles of participatory research, will be
interwoven in the DME programme.
2. Management techniques cannot substitute basic human values .These values are critical in all
managers, but NGOs base their veryidentity on these. DME curriculum must reinforce these
values, attitudes, concerns and behaviours.
3. DME will be different from traditional management education essentially from a paradigm point
ofview; to achieve relevance to the distinct ‘business’ that NGOs are in, to theirvision, mission
and culture. It will also facilitate processes that reinforce and sustain the NGO values and motives.
4. Most organizations find it difficult to bridge the gap between the ‘academic’ and the ‘operational’
faces of knowledge. This is more so in cases of NGOs, where formal management practice is
much less in evidence. Besides, NGOs do not have developed systems to work on, which is usually
given in the other sectors. The curriculum design will give as much attention to bridging this
handicap as the constraints ofan education system permit, without compromising other important
parameters ofimparting applied knowledge. Away may have to be found even to facilitate induction
of the students during their placement in the NGOs.
5. In NGOs, management cannot be looked at as an aggregation of‘disciplines’. The ‘organization
of knowledge’ will be consistent with the way the NGOs are internally structured. Commercial
organizations are generally organized around functions: so, management education mostly
provides functional specialization. NGOs are mostly structured around programmes. This
difference will be reflected in the curriculum design.
6. DME course could focus attention on conceptualizing development issues in the context of
developing countries - in the process ofachieving a certain level ofmodernity against an increasingly
globalised context. This essentially involves defining how such countries can reorient or adapt
their strategies, if not their goals, objectives, or mission in the light of the contemporary
circumstances; and spell out in as clear terms as possible, their revised role and position visqppIcq fn
a-vis those if
it seeks
to pmnnu/pr
empower.
7. This programme centres around processes and mechanisms that contribute to ‘managing’
development in a variety of sub-domains and disciplines, from such mundane matters as
understanding and interpretting a balance sheet to handling such complex questions as secularism
and communal harmony. It should be possible to combine these aspects into an organised coherent
training package extending to about a year - with six months of intensive instruction followed
by four months in the field and another two months to write up a project study.
8. A view was that initially the scope of the programme may be toned down to (a) the internal
management ofthe organization; and (b) management of programmes and NGOs’ interface with
community - HRD in the community, internalization ofthe empowering components ofthe NGO
programmes by the community.
36
9. The general pattern of the curriculum should be a basic course, followed by demand-led
specializations, depending on (a) who are going to be the users; (b) whatis already being done;
and (c) some emerging issues, such as corporate partnerships, NGOs and Panchayati Raj
Institutions, NGOs and the government, NGOs and official aid agencies, NGOs and Market -NGO
entreprenuership, etc.
10. In view of a strong feeling that most NGO functionaries are more comfortable in their regional
languages, itwas felt that some concrete ways of demonstrating sensitivity to this aspectwill help,
e.g., making available to the students glossaries in regional languages. It was also felt that this
could be undertaken only gradually since the demand is likely to be in several languages.
11. Lastly, thecurriculummustobviouslyberelevanttothosewhoaregoingto undergo the programme
- in this context, the level in management at which the DME is aimed - junior, middle, or senior
management. The curriculum will need to be adapted to the desired level.
The curriculum content areas
These essentially represent nebulous ideas about areas worthy of inclusion. Being aggregation of
the suggestions made, these are not comprehensive; yet represent a wide spectrum ofwhat can be
included. Any DME programme, to be concise and manageable will have to define its own boundaries,
as well as its areas of focus.
1. General backdrop
This is to provide a world view, but grounded in reality, of the development sector, together with
an integrated background view ofthe relevant economic, political, social and legal environment.
2. People-centred development
*
Historical evolution of development theories; and diverse development perspectives.
*
Development theoiy and its interpretation. Human Development. Developmentvs underdevelop
ment. Development approaches - top-down vs bottom-up - bridging the divide between macro
and micro.
Technological and infrastructure developmentvs social development. Impact and demands of
middle class.
*
Different strategies for development - the range from struggle to reconstruction; the range from
mobilisation and conscientisation to programme delivery. Development and ethics.
*
Analysis of poverty; its cause and effect. Social problems ofyouth, women, dalits, tribals, old
people etc. Need to redefine social welfare. (The accommodation of “reality” of the poor in
development education often distorts the “reality”. Existing articulation tends to provide only a
black or white choice of language in descriptions and understanding of poverty. This is a vicious
circle which excludes our experiencing the rich complexity and divergence and coexistence ofgood
and bad, strength and weakness and other contrasting realities, which is what real situations
are).
*
Macro and micro economics, with emphasis on social economics. Empowerment, including its
economic development component.
37
3. Actors in development
*
*
Trinity of Civil Society: Society-State-Market.
National and international development agencies of the State: their histoiy, roles, and achieve
ments.
*
United Nations Systenrlts history, agencies, and contribution.
DevelopmentAid: its history, volume, forms, and outcomes. World Bank/Regional Banks/IMF:
their history, and roles; and debates around their role and contributions.
*
National and multi-national actors in the market: their scope, roles, regional blocks, GATT.
Some emerging issues: NGOs and Panchayati Raj institutions; NGOs and government, in the light
of thrust from the official aid agencies that government should work with NGOs; NGOs and
official aid agencies - on account of the possibility of direct links between official aid agencies
and NGOs; NGOs and market (NGO entrepreneurship);
4. Mission-oriented organizations
*
*
*
*
*
*
Character of social change, and the contribution of mission-oriented institutions.
Social institutions - their history and whom they served: a holistic lookat their evolution. Political
institutions and their impact on social institutions.
History of NGOs: their roles, contributions, constraints, and challenges. Global and national
perspective of NGOs: complexity of NGO work and sector; skills and techniques used - their
effectiveness. Social needs vs social accountability. Issues facing NGOs as organizations:
professionalisation, effectiveness, accountability, sustainability.
NGO vision and its expression in mission; as measure of organizational identity and focus.
Definition ofthe NGO in functional terms (purpose); and in ideological terms (approach). Nature,
intensity, and causes of dissonance around ideology.
Relationship between NGOs and their primary constituency: rural/urban, people’s groups and
NGOs - a social work perspective; concept of public service.
5 Strategic management of NGOs
*
*
Definition ofstrategy: how to develop opportunities. Exploration around growth and sustainability
of the NGO movement. NGOs seem to have got stuck in paradigms from the corporate strategies,
which may need to be examined carefully, perhaps modifred and retooled to serve NGO purpose
and used creatively.
Management of external relations: constituency mapping; relations with the government;
influencing government policy/public policy initiatives; regulations concerning development and
development organizations.
38
*
Networking and inter-sectoral partnerships; coalitions and alliances; cooperative ventures and
perspectives.
*
Perspective building: What is the people’s view of data? How can this be used to evaluate the
government and other programmes?
6. Operations
*
Proj ect Management.
*
Programme design and programme planning.
*
Operations management.
*
Programme monitoring and evaluation. Evaluation and monitoring of development. Need to
develop indicators for development. Teach computerised packages for on-line monitoring.
*
Process reflection and documentation.
7. Internal organization
*
Theory of non-profit management; and of under-organized systems.
*
Legal and regulatory requirements; State laws and rules governing NGOs - howto apply them.
*
Values and operating principles - their relevance and importance for NGO work.
*
Operationalising the systems’ concept. Better management ofinternal systems: linkage of systems
and procedures, and the mission of the organization.
*
Forward organizational planning as applied to NGOs. Internal structures for NGOs, including
organizational and participatory structures.
*
Personnel policies and systems: recruitment, orientation, deployment, appraisal, training and
development, separation, reward and punishment, compensation, etc.
*
Issues related to financial viability of NGOs. Financial management, planning and budgeting in
theNGO context, accounts, cost effectiveness, productivity ofmoney, corpus building. Statutory
requirements like FCRA.
*
Selecting appropriate technology, and managing technology in the NGO environment.
*
Information generation and management; infrastructure development for wide dissemination of
information.
*
Resource management Role oftechnology: where is technology relevant? - what is the via-media?
- appropriate technology.
*
Internal review and reflection mechanisms.
39
8. Resource mobilization
*
Forms and flow of national and international funding - the way the project funding system
functions; trends and constraints.
*
Selection ofprogrammes: constituency needs; organizational mission; donor preferences. How
to get resources from organizations that are existing to provide these.
*
Project proposal writing and reporting.
*
Mobilizing knowledge and human resources.
*
Issues pertaining to long-term sustainability ofthe NGO effort. Local and indigenous fund-raising.
*
Funding and direct support to community-based institutions.
Leadership and organization behaviour
*
Organizational perspective ofNGOs: integration of people, tasks, structure, technology.
*
NGO objectives; NGO effectiveness, and its causal factors.
*
Process of building organization - its logic; internal issues ofNGOs; environmental forces
influencing organizational culture and climate - strategy for dealingwith these. Action Research
to prevent organizational obsolescence.
*
Organizational processes: objective setting; participation; conflict and stress management;
communication; team development; management of change; leadership; delegation; decision
making; problem-solving; managing complexity. Place of participation vis-a-vis expert/techno
logical inputs.
*
Organization culture. Is there something like ‘feminist management’? - does it make a difference?
Women’s perspective in organisational management - sensitivity to women’s needs. Howto deal
with the ‘Gender’ issue within the organization? Commitment and inspiration: when organizations
grow large, how does one retain the spirit with which these were started.
*
Organizational values: technical excellence; equity; quality; sustainability, etc.
*
Organization structure: case for a unique basis for NGO design, hierarchy etc.; systems and norms.
*
Organization audit-cum-leaming mechanisms.
10. HRD and self development
*
Human relations competencies development: process and facilitation skills; people’s management
skills; advocacy; political skills.
*
Skills required for development: organizing community groups -urban/rural, women, youth,
others; building rapport; facilitating community thinking around their problems and issues -
40
generating ideas; fostering entrepreneurial role among beneficiaries: how do you get people to
be able to make pickle that is marketable?
*
Development work is not just a job; monetary reward is poor; one has to have other rewards
to remain excited; do we know what our own motivation is? - developing self awareness.
*
Viewing selfin relation to society, movements, own commitments and family. Self-renewal labs
to look at existential issues.
*
Better understanding of the impact of one’s leadership style on the organization, and its
functionaries. Integration between preaching and practising.
*
Self Development: self-critical skills; reflection skills. Attitudinal change.
*
Interpersonal skills: How to work with colleagues, partners, clients, beneficiaries, donors,
government officials.
11. Programme areas
Successful NGOs have diversified programmes. So, skills are needed for diversified operations as
well as expansion in a variety of programme areas.
*
Group technologies; and forward-backward integration for achieving value-added by combining
programmes.
12. Project work
*
Elementaiy social research methodologies.
*
Real-life project in an area relevant to the sponsoring NGO.
*
Short library project in an area of interest.
The pedagogy
*
DME should have alow structure pedagogy - need-based; short courses; down-to-earth; focussed;
with practical orientation.
*
Several people were apprehensive that in a diverse NGO sector, no one model of education might
work. This may be so, but to begin with DME will contend with somewhat broader generalities.
As more experience is gained, greater degree ofdifferentiation and sophistication can be attempted.
Pedagogymustnotbe such thatDMEindoctrinates. ItwillhelpifDMEis supported by appropriate
continuing education programmes, not only for the NGO leaders in order to create a conducive
ambience for the DME products to go to work in; but also to cater to the diversity of the sector
alluded by several people.
*
The pedagogy will be interactive so that management ideas that many NGOs do not subscribe
to can also be explored. Products of DME cannot be expected to work in any one NGO, or any
one kind ofNGOs; and should, therefore, be prepared to be effective in a variety of organizations
41
and situations. In this context, the ‘Action Learning’ model, which enables individuals to learn
by exposure to totally different kind of systems, maybe usefully considered. Another suggestion
for dealing with diversity was to classify NGOs at different levels on the basis of the kinds of
work, leadership, problems etc., and then develop courses or modules suited to each group.
*
Consistentwith the current concerns in NGOs, the education process should be gender sensitive.
*
DME must be rooted in an analysis ofthe NGO problems. The method of education that addresses
this concern most effectively is the case analysis method. The case method is also known to help
develop high conceptual skill among the learners, which seems a necessary part of an NGO
manager’s kit. The ‘examples’ and ‘cases’, to be relevant, will need to be picked up from the NGO
experience. Development of simple case studies - half page to two pages - was suggested, to be
used to teach all principles of management.
*
The target learners, by virtue of emphasis on some other critical attributes, may be low on methods
and techniques, with somewhat weak understanding of market, economics etc. This will need
to be handled sympathetically. Methods and techniques are unlikely to be the sources from which
the inspiration of most of the learners would be springing - their sources of inspiration and
commitment must be the other concerns and attributes for which primacy has been suggested
during the selection process. Learning by doing is likely to be a productive part of pedagogy.
For the same reason, jargon would be resented, so the faculty must use normal NGO language.
Easy to use formats, abstracts of readings, and similar other innovations should also be helpful.
*
Almost 80 percent ofthe teaching could be through simulation exercises - which remove the artificial
differentiation of knowledge, and looks at the totality in an integrated way. This can be a powerful
way ofhelping learners to look at management in dispassionate, operational, rather than valueloaded theoretical, terms - i.e., in systemic terms. Indirect theoretical methods oflearning may
make people more versatile, but such learning lends itselfto several interpretations. With wrong
interpretation ofthe right theory, an efficient manager can even do thewrong things more efficiently.
*
Field placements in agencies which will help take the learners’ backhome activities forward - social
activist groups, pollution control agencies, etc., can be expected to enhance relevant learning.
Selection of placement can be attuned to the managerial problems and social issues related to
the participants’ backhome situation. These placements also help sensitize the placement agencies.
Learners assigned to the field can be asked to maintain a diary, based on which debriefing
discussions could be held.
*
There needs to be balance between ‘action’, ‘research’ and ‘study’ - which are even otherwise
mutually supporting - for developing conducive attitudes among the learners.
*
Pedagogy must consist of intensive participative classroom sessions for 6 to 8 months, a 2 to
3 month apprenticeship in the field and another month or two during which the student reflects
on what s/he has learnt or unlearnt during the programme, and works on a project. Case studies
of actual experience ofNGOs, reading material, seminar presentations and field work will clearly
have an important role to play.
*
Another suggestion related to running a ‘Sandwich’ course - alternating classroom work with field
placements or projects.
42
*
Itwas also considered useful to expose learners to relevant knowledge from ‘non-committed’ people
who are eminent, and above ‘vested interest’ and ‘politics’.
*
Medium of instruction was a matter ofwide-spread concern, expressed as: language will be a
problem; how many are English-speaking? can we have vernacular programmes? While one of
the views was that English language is necessary at managerial level even in NGOs, as interaction
with governments and donors etc. is mostly in the English language; some suggestions to deal
with the apprehensions on the medium of instruction issue were:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Distance learning;
Build training modules for local institutions;
Develop written learning material in regional languages;
Run remedial courses in the English language, or any other language to be used for oral instruction;
At least 2 languages - English and Hindi - should be the media of instruction;
Glossary of important terms can be prepared and explained in a remedial module;
Audio-visual material can be multi-lingual;
*
At a later stage, after the programme has been evaluated, reviewed, and accepted; and it can
be offerred to larger numbers, dispersed centres oflearning, in places closer to where the learners
are, and where linguistic facility can be better provided, could be more effective. This would mean
working through a network structure rather than a centralised structure.
Some of the larger NGOs will have to take lead by providing centres for training with the right
ambience. Indigenous culture, and local language, have to have a place in DME teaching.
*
There were views expressed with regard to the location and ambience for a specially created DME
facility. Some felt this should be on the pattern of Shanti—niketan\ with emphasis on physical
labour and rural activities. Successful students must rough it out.
43
Faculty characteristics
If, in DME, values and beliefs are as important as knowledge and skills, the quality, orientation,
background, values and beliefs ofthose who impart knowledge and skills, and interpret histoiy and
evolution, must be given due place in the overall plan ofthings. This could well be the most daunting
task for those who plan such an educational innovation. Some characteristics one could look for
in the teaching faculty are:
*
Mustbe able to conceptualise her/his experience. Must have NGO value orientation; effective
communication skills; ability to conceptualise, visualise, innovate, and improvise.
*
Must be well-versed in the preferred pedagogy, and be suitable attitudinally, etc. Mustbe eclectic
- not committed to any particular school of thought.
*
Must possess competence and knowledge ofthe field. Mustbe from the sector, with commitment
to teach a course or a module for at least 3 years. Teachers will have to come from out of the
people who are also implementing, so that they remain in touch with the grass-roots reality.
*
Professionals on sabbatical from overseas NGOs should bring different perspectives to the learners.
*
Core faculty must be full-time. Guest faculty must be used for periods varying from one week
to one month at a time.
*
Must be highly committed and motivated to achieve DME purpose. Must have genuine interest
in people, with ability to teach adults, and ability to groom learners as per their potential.
*
Must possess broad-based understanding ofvarious areas besides deep specialization in one or
two areas.
*
Each faculty member must have a back-up person. Such pairing will also encourage pooling
of knowledge and experience for the benefit of the learners.
*
Multi-lingual capability in the faculty for ‘tutorials’ etc. will be invaluable.
*
First programme must bring about coordination among faculty members.
44
Types of continuing
education programmes
When one thinks of education, it is impossible to ignore continuing education. While education
is doubtlessly a long-term intervention, attention to the more urgent problems that act as hurdles
both to learning as well as effectiveness can facilitate and expedite the impact ofeducation. Besides,
NGOs being engaged in acute problems ofthe poorest, the underprivileged and the deprived cannot
be blamed for being ‘in a hurry’ and, therefore, somewhat impatient. Unless they see attempts being
made to assist them grapplewith their pressing problems, it is unlikely that they will develop confidence
in those who initiate long-term educational intervention: acknowledging the immediate problems,
and attending to those seems like an essentialfirst step towards NGO’s commitmentto more sustainable
educational programmes. Some suggestions gathered, giving some preferred attributes ofcontinuing
education programmes, were:
*
For in-service continued education, standards, or a range ofstandards within which all participants
must conform, will be necessary to ensure optimum use of what is offered; because it will be
most economic and efficient ifthe material and other learning opportunities can be focussed at
levels ofintellectual capacities and experience which are somewhat uniform. Classification may
be useful even by the type of organization or activity - support, service delivery, social action
etc.
*
First generation entrepreneurs in NGOs can feel threatened by DME - there is a psychological
dimension. Multi-tier courses, including self-reflection, may help. Counselling to the top NGO
leader is an inescapable responsibility of those initiating DME.
*
For heads of larger NGOs, a total duration of, say, one month could be broken down in even
smaller time spans in deference to their inability to disengage themselves from their organizations
for longer durations.
*
For heads ofmedium-sized NGOs, who donothave formal management exposure, but manage
at gut level, in the age group of 30 to 40 years, sandwich programmes, of longer duration than
one month can be designed.
*
Programmes for managers atjunior levels, who have worked in NGOs for 2 to 5 years, longer
duration programmes can be thought of, using their own cases, and so on.
*
‘Development Entreprenuership’ development programmes, like ‘Entrepreneurs with ethics’,
should be thought oftowards ‘self-reliance’in NGOs. RaviMathai Centre defines development
entrepreneurs as self starters who are motivated to develop self-help groups for the disadvantaged.
They are resource generators, not only resource users. For them, reward will not be material,
but they largely seek satisfaction at a different level.
*
NGOs shouldhold programmeson demand for government functionaries. Joint programmes with
45
IAS trainees should also be considered, which will help sensitize the IAS trainees, as also build
linkages with future administrators.
*
Programmes to sensitize leaders and managers of NGOs on the role of technology in bringing
about development and social change may also be considered.
*
Train leaders of NGOs in using trained managers - in the art of delegation, in succession, in
ability to trust their managers. Train the ‘Moral Leader’ in his role as ‘absentee land-lord’ - and
role negotiation with his ‘Munimjees’.
*
NGO leader profile helps with donors - there are demands from donors for sharing experience
etc. amongNGO leaders.
*
Compressed DME programme for bright in-service managers should be well- received. One large
NGO was thinking in terms of a 6 months to one year programme for their middle managers.
*
Organise short 1 to 2 day workshops for sharing views. Each participant comes with apointof
view that s/he can defend. Does s/he feel the need for a change after interaction? If so, what?
X.:.
46
Other relevant
benefits envisioned
Such an initiative was seen as a major capacity building intervention in the NGO Sector as a whole.
An innovatively thought out programme should be able to provide impetus to some other facllitative
initiatives, such as
*
Creating information Institutions.
*
Supporting institution-building process.
*
Developing models for organizations, and facilitate those models.
*
We have no educational processes which explore the role ofNGOs in the context of strengthening
the civil society. Instead, we focus on developing programme managers and project executors
- committed to monitoring specifities and executing projects. ADME programme can provide a
platform, or a laboratory, to explore and experiment with such larger issues and perspectives.
*
Lead to induction of better calibre human resource in the NGOs;
*
Reach NGOs as a career option to wider sections of the youth;
*
Faculty development can itselfbe an intervention for development of top NGO leaders;
*
DME learning material, if made available to the support NGOs for use, together with faculty
development, can upgrade the quality and span of training programmes run by the NGOs;
*
This initiative can become a forum for the NGO leaders to come together and exchange ideas
on issues of common interest, and thus help net-working;
*
Facilities created could promote research, as well as organised documentation of the NGO
experience.
47
Implementation issues
Some ideas relating to the implementation issues emerged in the course ofthe study. These can give
useful insights into what would be involved in carrying the idea forward, if need be.
A. Standards
*
There is a need for an NGO academy equivalent to ShastriAcademy for IAS trainees, which should
regularly conduct 9 months’ to 1 year intensive comprehensive DME programme for pre-selected
individuals.
*
The programme should be at the same level, and enj oy the same status as the National Management
Programme.
B. Promotional
*
There is a need to generate demand for the DME programme in most NGOs. Those who need
good management do not want it. Sector must have ownership of DME.
C. financial issues
*
As of now for Tata Institute of Social Sciences, such programmes are not financially viable. The
4 months’ programme costs Rs. 11,000 for each participant. This cannot be attractive for lowincome, self-sponsored candidates. DME will have to be a subsidized programme. Government
should not be approached for any subsidy, except for start-up facilities, e.g. land.
*
Sponsorship of students by NGOs is a viable possibility.
D. Facilities
*
Facilities should be created in rural setting, NGO ambience. Students should manage all facilities
and experience the life we expect to offer after education. Have agriculture, dairy, other rural
functions as extra-curricular activities, so thatthe students experience what a poor villager does.
*
Adapt the existing programmes to what the NGOs need, rather than start something new.
*
Rather than having another institution, can we tie up with the existing schools of social work
who can run courses under their extra-mural activities. Upscaling syllabi ofschools ofsocial work
should also be considered. We also need to focus on the schools of management.
*
8 to 10 rather small institutes with 15 to 20 students, managed by a large NGO or federation,
in the near future, is a reasonable hope.
48
*
Facility should be located at aplace where easy Interaction with academia and libraries is possible;
otherwise we may develop a frog in the well perspective.
*
Asystem can be devised, whereby students collect credits across centres oflearning. Their learning
canbe coordinated andmonltored by developlngmulti-disciplinaryfaculty cells.
E. Others
*
Credibility ofthe programme with sector leaders, and their support, will help mobilize the right
people for DME.
*
An approach to organizing aDME programme willbe to develop the desired programme design
(obligations of individuals, obligations of NGOs as employers, content ofthe course- subjects
etc.), and then invite different existing institutions to bid for running this programme. Askwhat
they would bring to the programme.
49
Annexure
List of persons met
Ms. Gurinder Kaur, Oxfam America, New Delhi
2-|
Mr. F. Stephen, SEARCH, Bangalore
3. Mr. Jagdananda, Centre for Youth and Social Development, Bhubaneswar
Dr. (Ms) Gonzanza, International Institute for Rural Reconstruction, Manila,
4
Phillipines
5. Dr. Om Shrivastava, ASTHA, Udaipur
6. Ms. Rita Panikar, Butterflies, New Delhi
7. Mr. Joe Madiath, Gram Vikas, Berhampur
8. Mr. Vijay Mahajan, Dehradun
9. Mr. M. Kamal, Janamitra, Punganur
if). Mr. Deep Joshi, PRADAN, New Delhi
11. Mr. Ashok Singh, Sahbhagi Shikshan Kendra, Lucknow
li. Prof. A.B. Bose, Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi
13. Mr. Raymond Myles. Action for Food Production, New Delhi
14. Mr. Murray Culshaw, Oxfam UK, New Delhi
15. Mr. Kevin Porter, PLAN ROSA, New Delhi
16. Dr. Alok Mukhopadhyay, Voluntary Health Association of India, New Delhi.
17. Prof. Rajesh Dhingra, Institute of Management Technology, Gaziabad
1.
18. Ms. Sue Beumont, British Council, New Delhi
19. Dr. David Arnold, Ford Foundation, New Delhi
20. Dr. Rajesh Tandon, Society for Participatory Research in Asia, New Delhi.
21. Mr. Binoy Acharya, UNNATI, Ahmedabad
22. Mr. G. Raju, VIKSAT, Ahmedabad
23. Mr. S. Ram Kumar, Centre for Environment Education, Ahmedabad
2 4. Mr. Kiran Desai, Centre for Environment Education, Ahmedabad
25. Dr. Hanif Lakdawala, Sanchetna, Ahmedabad
2^. Prof. Anil Gupta, Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad
27. Prof. Ranjit Gupta, Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad
Mr. Vijaj Sherry Chand, Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad
2
2b. Ms. Lisa Thomas, HRD Academy, Ahmedabad
50
30. Prof. Tushar Shah, Institute of Rural Management, Anand
31. Prof. Ganesh Gangare, Institute of Rural Management, Anand
32. Prof. Pankaj Jain, Institute of Rural Management, Anand
33. Prof. Sankar Datta, Institute of Rural Management, Anand
34. Prof. Vallabh, Institute of Rural Management, Anand
35. Dr. R.N. Shrivastava, National Dairy Development Board, Anand
36. Mr. Shailendra Kumar, National Dairy Development Board, Anand
37. Ms. Indu Capoor, CHETNA, Ahmedabad
38. Mr. Anil Shah, Aga Khan Rural Support Programme, Ahmedabad
39. Mr. Salil Shetty, Action Aid, Bangalore
40. Dr. Vijay Padaki, The P&P GROUP, Bangalore
41. Mr. M.S.S. Varadan, Om Consultants, Bangalore
42. Mr. R.R. Mohan, Om Consultants, Bangalore
43. Ms. Pratima krishnan, Kalpataur Foundation, Bangalore
44. Fr. Domnic George, Indian Social Institute, Bangalore
45. Fr. Paul, Indian Social Institute, Bangalore
46. Mr. M.V. Rajasekharan, Asian Institute of Rural Development, Bangalore
47. Mr. Mahesh H. Lobo, FEVORD-K, FEDINA, and ICRA, Bangalore
48. Mr. Aloysius P. Fernandez, MYRADA, Bangalore
50. Ms. Vidya Ramachandran, MYRADA, Bangalore
51. Ms. Seema Khot, Pune
52. Ms. Usha, Streevani, Pune
53. Mr. Kishore Bhave, Samvedan, Pune
54. Prof. S.B. Rao, BAIF, Pune
55. Ms. Bedi, Christian Aid Abroad, Pune
56. Dr. Salil Mehta, Centre for Development Studies and Action, Pune
57. Ms. Vidya Rao, Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Bombay
58. Ms. Prema Gopalan, SPARC, Bombay
59. Mr. Joseph Junior, Nirmala Niketan Institute, Bombay
60. Ms. Ammu Abraham, CED, Bombay
61. Ms. Mani Mistry, YUVA, Bombay
62. Mr. Rippon Kapur, CRY, Bombay
63. Mr. Gabriel Britto, NARC, Bombay
64. Mr. R.K.S. Sudhakar, NARC, Bombay
65. Prof. Uday Mehta, Bombay
■
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66. Prof. Ramnath Narayanswamy, Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore
67. Mr. S. Chelladurai, HEKS, Bangalore
68. Mr. Mercy Happen, VISTAR, Bangalore
69. Dr. Shobha Raghuram, HIVOS, Bangalore
70.
Mr. Augustine Ullathil, Christian Aid Abroad, Bangalore
71. Mr. G. Nagendra Prasad, SEARCH, Bangalore
Prof. K.R.S. Murthy, Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore
I
Prof. GopalValecha, Essae Chandran Institute, Bangalore
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