7050.pdf
Media
- extracted text
-
The many faces of
globalization
- Perspectives for a
humane world order Study of the Group of Experts "World Economy
and Social Ethics" and the church agencies Adveniat,
Caritas international, Misereor, missio Aachen, missio
Milnchen and Renovabis
Published by the
German Bishops' Conference |
Research Group on the
Universal Tasks of the Church
The many faces of
globalization
- Perspectives for a
h umane world order Study of the Group of Experts "World Economy
and Social Ethics" and the church agencies Adveniat,
Caritas international, Misereor, missio Aachen, missio
Munchen and Renovabis
Published by the
German Bishops' Conference
Research Group on the
Universal Tasks of the Church
The many faces of globalization. Perspectives for a humane world
order. Study of the Group of Experts "World Economy and Social
Ethics" and the church agencies Adveniat, Caritas international,
Misereor, missio Aachen, missio Mtinchen and Renovabis. Published
by the German Bishops' Conference Research Group on the Universal
Tasks of the Church
Bonn, January 2000
ISBN 3-932535-40-5 (Deutsche Kommission Justitia et Pax)
Available from Zentralstelle Weltkirche
der Deutschen Bischofskonferenz, KaiserstraBe 163, 53113 Bonn,
Tel. 0228/103-288, Fax 0228/103-335
2
rc r
mW
Table of Contents
Preface
9
1.
Introduction
11
1 1
12
1.3
Ambivalent perception of globalization
Definition of the term and its content
Aims and approach of the study
11
12
14
2.
Manifestations and causes of globalization
15
2.1
Globalization of the economy
2.1.1 Increase in world-wide production capacities
2.1.2 Growth in world trade
2.1.3 Growth in foreign direct investment and joint ventures
2.1.4 Integration of international capital movements
2.1.5 Regional imbalances of globalization
15
16
16
17
18
19
2.2
The socio-cultural dimension of globalization
2.2.1 The model of Western civilization
2.2.2 Communication as a major element of globalization
2.2.3 Individual Mobility
20
20
21
22
3.
The effects of globalization
24
3.1
The economic effects of globalization
3.1.1 The effects of globalization on the commodity markets
3.1.2 Effects of globalization on the financial markets
3.1.3 Effects of globalization on the labour markets
24
24
25
27
3.2
The ecological impact of globalization
3.2.1 Ecological gains and losses
3.2.2 Dissemination of Western production and consumption models
29
29
31
3.3
The socio-cultural effects of globalization
3.3.1 Pluralisation as a consequence of globalization
3.3.2 Particularisation as a counter movement to globalization
3.3.3 Religious communities as global players
33
33
34
35
3
The impact of globalization on the political sphere
3.4.1 Reduction and change in the influence of nation-state policy
3.4.2 Reduction in national democracy and the weakness of
international politics
3.4.3 The creation of an international civil society
36
36
4.
Globalization - Challenges for the religions and the church
39
4.1
4.2
4.3
Joint responsibility in shaping globalization
The world church as a community'of learning
Mandate and mission of church agencies
40
41
42
5.
Basis for social ethical reflection
43
5.1
5.2
Social ethical standards
Ethically responsible shaping of globalization
44
48
6.
Options for action
49
6.1
Policy areas
6.1.1 International legal order and security policy
6.1.2 Self-Responsibility for economic and social policy
6.1.3 Reform of the global economic order and of the international
finance system
6.1.4 Global environmental policy
49
50
51
6.2
Players
6.2.1 Nation-states and communities of states
6.2.2 Transnational enterprises
6.2.3 International civil society
56
56
57
58
6.3
Potential for activity of the Church and its agencies
59
3.4
4
37
38
53
55
Brief notes on the publisher and the authors of the study
The publisher of the study
The Research Group on the Universal Tasks of the Church is appointed
by the Commission for the Universal Tasks of the Church of the German
Bishops’ Conference. It consists of scholars from various disciplines who
study problems related to the global responsibilities of the Church in
Germany
The authors of the study
The Group of Experts on “World Economy and Social Ethics” is a
specialised section of the Research Group on the Universal Tasks of the
Church of the German Bishops’ Conference. It was formed tn 1989 to
consult institutions of the Catholic Church on aspects of global economic
development. The members and aims were chosen with a view to securing
an appropriate blend of economic and social ethical expertise.
Members ofthe Group ofExperts on "World Economy and Social Ethics "
1.
Prof. Dr. Georg Cremer, Lecturer at the University of Freiburg and
associate of the Deutscher Caritasverband, Freiburg
2.
Bemhard Emunds, Oswald-von-Nell-Breuning-Institut, Frankfurt
3.
Prof Dr. Bemhard Fraling, Emeritus Professor of Moral Theology
at the University of Wurzburg and Chairman of the Research Group
5
on the Universal Tasks of the Church of the German Bishops’
Conference
4.
Prof. Dr. Egon Gorgens, Professor of Economics at the University
of Bayreuth
5.
Prof. Dr. Hans-Rimbert Hemmer, Professor of Economics and
Developing Country' Research at the University of Giessen
6.
Prof Dr. Paul Kevenhorster, Professor of Political Science at the
University of Mtlnster
7.
Dr. Hans-Joachim Krekeler, Faculty of Agriculture at the
8.
Clemens Kronenberg, episcopal relief organization Misereor,
University of Bonn
Aachen
9.
Dr. habil. Gerhard Kruip, Director of the Catholic Academy for
Youth, Odenthal
10.
P. Prof Dr. Johannes Muller SJ (Chairman), Professor of Social
Science and Development Policy at the School of Philosophy,
Mtinchen
11.
Ulrich Poner, Executive Secretary of the German Commission for
Justice and Peace, Bonn
12.
Dr. Rolf Schumacher, Central Committee of German Catholics
(ZdK), Bonn
13.
Prof. Dr. Joachim Wiemeyer, Professor of Social Ethics at the
Catholic Theological Faculty of the Ruhr-Universitat, Bochum
Research Assistant: DDr. Johannes Wallacher
Executive Secretary of the Research Group: Dr. Hans-Gerd Angel
6
The church agencies were represented by
Adveniat:
Dr. Christoph Lienkamp
Caritas international:
Prof. Dr. Georg Cremer
Misereor:
Dr. Reinhard Hermle
missio Aachen:
Dr. Josef Estermann
missio Miinchen:
P. Dr. Othmar Noggler OFMCap
Renovabis:
Dr. Gerhard Albert
7
PREFACE
Christians are preparing to celebrate the Holy Year 2000 They are recalling
Redemption by Jesus Christ. "Jesus Christ is the same today as he was yesterday
and as he will be for ever". This is the motto for this Jubilee Year.
Turning points in history' invite us to pause and reflect. What has been achieved?
What new challenges do we face? The 21st Century is approaching, and it brings
tremendous challenges. Globalization is by no means the least of these The
word alone gives rise to a whole series of questions. What precisely does it
mean? Are the worries and fears which it provokes justified? What effects does
the process of globalization have on the poorest of the poor?
At the request of the German bishops, the church agencies, together with the
Group of Experts "World Economy and Social Ethics", established under the
aegis of "Commission X for the Universal Tasks of the Church" of the German
Bishops’ Conference, have decided to write an academic study on the topic of
"Globalization".
The study hereby presented is intended particularly to provide a forum for the
questions and concerns of church partners in the One World, and to shed light
on our concerns for world-wide social justice. It is not to be viewed as a final
statement, but as a contribution to the discussion of this matter. It submits ideas
and suggestions concerning methods of controlling the process of globalization
through a suitable political structure in the service of humanity.
Franz Kamphaus - Bishop of Limburg
Chairman of Commission X
for the Universal Tasks of the Church
of the German Bishops' Conference
9
1.
Introduction
1.I
Ambivalent perception ofglobalization
Globalization is currently the talk of the town, and gives rise to a wide variety of
reactions. On the one hand, this fashionable word invokes quite euphoric
expectations as far as world-wide co-operation and solidarity, global prosperity,
and world peace are concerned. The process of globalization is said to be the
greatest opportunity of recent years, carrying the progress of humanity to the
remotest comers of the Earth and to the benefit of all On the other hand, it also
gives rise to many fears, in particular concerns about world-wide social
Darwinism and a uniform world culture. For many people in the industrialized
nations, this term stands for unemployment, a lowering of social standards and
environmental destruction. The increasing integration of the Third World
countries and countries with economies in transition in Eastern Europe into the
global economy, and the increased competition which it causes, are considered
by many to be a threat. In the developing nations especially, the term
globalization has replaced that of "dependency", so familiar in the seventies:
It is frequently used as a scapegoat for all worries and problems. Additionally,
many regions of the world fear that Western cultural imperialism is spreading
with no concern for other cultures and values.
All these opinions on globalization, bom of differing experiences, which cover
the entire spectrum between glorification and demonisation, are characterised
estimations which, in general, are only to a very limited extent covered by the
real facts. Not least, this is a consequence of the fact that the term
"globalization" is seldom clearly defined, so it can be used to explain a wide
variety of developments. It is not possible to trace back to globalization all those
economic developments which can rightly be judged to be negative from the
point of view of those affected The main cause is frequently internal factors
such as unfavourable production structures, shortcomings in the political and
administrative system, poor governance or unsuitable economic and social
policy measures, the negative effects of which may often be considerably
amplified by globalization.
Even greater importance must be attached to a sober analysis, demonstrating
cause and effect, and defining both the opportunities and the risks of
globalization precisely. Only then is there a hope of structuring this
11
multilayered, dynamic process as humanely as possible. Since it is not only the
effects, but also the significance and the range of the process we call
globalization which are the subject of contention, it is necessary first to define
this phenomenon.
1.2
Definition of the term and its content
So far, we have mainly referred to cross-border economic, political and social
activities using terms such as internationalisation and transnationalisation This
is distinct from the phenomenon of globalization, although these terms are
frequently used in the public debate as if they had the same meaning The
differences concern both concepts and central players, as well as the
consequences for the societies concerned. Whilst internationalisation in general
describes those relationships which increase free interchange over national
borders without placing the nation-state itself in question, transnationalisation
refers to processes through which institutions arise which span the borders of
nation-states, such as the United Nations or the European Union and
transnational enterprises.
In sharp contradistinction, globalization describes an intensification and
acceleration of cross-border interaction which actually or potentially links all
individuals, institutions and states into a complex structure of mutual but
frequently imbalanced dependencies. The primary point of reference for this
development is no longer the nation-state, whose scope of action is becoming
limited, but the world as a whole, or at least larger regions with, in some cases,
all-embracing institutions. Globalization is a complex process with a wide range
of aspects which seem to unstoppably penetrate all areas of life and to have
become an everyday reality. It has economic, ecological, socio-cultural and
political characteristics which can be observed in their interactions. It will
therefore only be possible to understand the dynamics of the globalization
processes if we are constantly aware that we are really dealing with something
multifaceted. For one thing, developments in the individual countries take place
at different speeds, and the range and depth of their effects varies, and for
another they are accompanied by a variety of frequently contradictory processes.
Globalization is considered to be primarily an economic phenomenon. The
economy, the financial markets and technology increasingly operate beyond
regulations imposed by nation-states. The world economy is therefore
12
increasingly determined by transnational enterprises which are global entities.
Added to this is the liberalization of almost all areas of world trade All this
gives rise to the expectation that greater prosperity might be created for all by
using finite resources efficiently, not least through cheaper commodities, which
could also benefit the poor
A process of disseminating Western values and models is closely associated
with globalization, which has reduced the cultural gap between the regions of
the world in many ways Modem media and communications, as well as exports
consisting of reified ideas, as well as the expansion of tourism, spread the
Western way of life across the world daily and awaken expectations everywhere
that it might be possible to catch up with this development. This includes ideas
such as human rights, democracy and the market economy, as well as production
methods, consumption patterns and leisure habits This comes about, firstly,
because of the considerable attraction exercised by the Western form of
civilization, and also because this trend is consciously promoted by the
industrialized nations, and, for commercial reasons, by the transnational
enterprises in particular.
The process of globalization is by no means as comprehensive as it is claimed
by some of its supporters. For instance, the increasing liberalization of trade runs
counter to a migration policy which is highly restrictive in most cases, and only
pennits the poor to look for work where it would be beneficial to them under
certain conditions. We should not allow the hopes and promises linked to
globalization to cloud our view of the other side of tire coin, where these
developments have a vast social and ecological cost or have amplified existing
trends. Globalization has winners and losers This phenomenon deserves
particular attention from the standpoint of social ethics. The main beneficiaries
appear to be highly-qualified workers, and the owners of assets and funds In
contrast, many indications show this development leading to the exclusion of
those people, population groups and entire regions whose performance is lower,
and who will thus become increasingly impoverished. It is especially the
partners of the churches from the South and East who repeatedly point this out
to us. Furthermore, we still have the worry that the expansion of world trade and
our growing mobility will exact a price from the environment, and therefore
from posterity.
13
1.3
Aims and approach of the study
This study is intended to assess the process of globalization critically, as a step
on the path towards a world society, from the point of view of Christian
responsibility and from a standpoint of social ethics. Since there are winners and
losers in this development, the church is obliged by its priority option for the
poor to consider globalization, especially from the point of view of those who
are thereby excluded from the prosperity gains which it brings. It must take the
worries and needs of these people seriously, give them a voice and stand up for
their interests. All this aims to make the process of globalization as humane as
possible, in adherence to the message of the Gospel and the tradition of
Christian social ethics.
One and a half billion people are currently affected by absolute poverty in the
countries of the South and East. They are unable to meet their basic physical
needs, or unable to meet them fully: They suffer from hunger, undernourishment
and illness, live tn poverty-stricken neighbourhoods with completely inadequate
hygiene, have hardly any access to educational facilities and can find no work or
only work which is badly paid. The Church, as a world Church, and in particular
its agencies, relate the option for the poor especially to people in the developing
countries and countries with economies in transition, who are living in these
poverty-stricken circumstances. Experience, which is based in some cases on
decades of work with the partners in these countries, can be an inestimable aid
in taking this perspective without overlooking the ethical responsibility growing
out of poverty amidst the riches of the Western industrialized nations.
As an initial step, the study describes structures and mechanisms of
globalization from an economic and socio-cultural point of view (Section 2),
after which it analyses the effects of this development as factually as possible
(Section 3). There is an attempt to stress in particular those phenomena which
are indeed caused by globalization and to separate them from developments
which are caused primarily by other factors, especially internal ones.
Globalization entails a two-fold challenge for all religions, especially for the
Church and its agencies The first is a responsibility to help shape this process to
the service of humanity, and the other is the question, significant also in
theological terms, as to how they understand and portray themselves as both
universal players and, at the same time, locally rooted communities (Section 4)
The results will then be subjected to a social ethical reflection (Section 5). Since
this study addresses a society which is increasingly secularised and pluralised,
14
an attempt will be made to name social ethical criteria and to provide reasons
which are accessible to common sense, at the same time as being open and
linked to specifically theological considerations. Finally, on the basis of the
analysis of globalization and its social ethical evaluation, it will present "options
for action" to structure the processes connected therewith, and these will be
subdivided according to political fields of action and players, the Church and its
agencies receiving particular attention (Section 6).
Although this study will attempt to encompass the perspective of the countries in
the South and East, and especially to include the church partners in its analysis,
this is a statement by institutions of the Church in Germany concerned with
world church tasks. It is therefore primarily directed at its own public, be it
within or outside the Church. At the same time, however, it must be seen as the
first stage of a long-term dialogue with local churches and partner organizations
in the countries of the South and East The aim is to begin a joint learning
process and to support one another in structuring the process of globalization in
such a way that, wherever possible, it is to the benefit of all.
2.
Manifestations and causes of globalization
2.1
Globalization of the economy
The networking of the world economy is not really anything new, since the
exchange of goods and services has always been a major element of the relations
between states and peoples. In the past two decades, however, international
exchange has grown in a particularly dynamic manner. This is thanks to the
teclmological progress which has been made in the transport and
telecommunication sectors, which has facilitated the redistribution of complex
production processes, and consequently a new form of international division of
labour (including within individual enterprises) For another, this is caused by
the politically favoured liberalization of world trade, and especially the financial
markets, which has created new incentive structures for all economic players.
These changes have expressed themselves especially in rapid growth in direct
investment and joint ventures, as well as in a higher than average increase in the
rates of international capital movements, so that world economic integration has
reached a new dimension This development is by no means uniform, however,
and should not hide from view the regional and structural imbalances which are
in some cases considerable. Only a part of humanity has so far been able to
15
benefit from economic globalization.
2.1.1
Increase in world-wide production capacities
A major manifestation of economic globalization lies in the continuing
industrialisation of large parts of the Earth Several developing countries have
ceased being providers of raw materials and producers of simple finished goods
since the end of the Second World War, and have achieved the status of
industrialized nations (newly industrialized countries). Thus, the economically
comparatively successful economies of East and South East Asia, in particular,
have significantly increased their share of industrial production in the past 20
years, and hence of the global gross national product. This process has
considerably increased the number of countries offering products on world
markets. On many markets, the rise in global production capacities has led to a
more intensive, and now world-wide competition. The process will accelerate
further if China, India and Eastern Europe, where roughly half of the world's
population lives, become more integrated into global competition.
2.1.2
Growth in world trade
International trade has been transformed time and again over the centuries, and
in particular has undergone repeated growth periods, since the beginning of
colonial expansion. Cross-border trade in commodities experienced the highest
growth rates in the first globalization boom, which took place during the
Industrial Revolution, lasting from the mid-19th Century until the outbreak of
the First World War. After the Second World War, the renewed increase in
world trade was promoted by the political sphere, in particular through the
reduction of trade barriers. Whilst the tariffs rates applied to industrial products
had risen considerably in the protectionist climax following the world economic
crisis and the Second World War, the burden placed on the goods trade through
tariffs between the major industrialized nations has continually fallen since the
adoption of the GATT Agreement in 1947. Additionally, several regional
integration areas have come into being since the mid-eighties, and this process is
continuing, for example, with the European Union, the North American Free
Trade Agreement (NAFTA) or the ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA). This has
contributed to a further expansion of cross-border trade in goods.
The advance of deregulation and liberalization which was agreed in the 1994
new world trade order, has created the prerequisites for further expansion of
16
world trade In this document, various agreements on the international trade in
services (GATS) and the protection of intellectual property (TRIPS) were
concluded, in addition to the reintegration of agricultural and textile trade. This
is significant because trade in services accounts for an ever growing share in
world trade and continues to show above average growth rates.
However, the dynamic growth of cross-border trade should not persuade one to
take an undifferentiated view. In the mid-nineties, the share of exports as against
the world national product was only about 20 per cent. There are only a few
commodity markets which are global in the sense that the same providers are
competing for customers everywhere in the world, or at least in Europe, North
America and the Pacific area. These include, for instance, the markets for raw
materials, software, or aircraft. With other goods and services, in contrast, it can
be observed that trade relations are concentrated within the domestic territory of
the relevant world economic region. In addition, protectionism still exists, for
instance in the form of subsidies. In this way, the industrialized nations reduce
not only the export opportunities of the developing nations and countries with
economies in transition, but they also enable their own enterprises to export
products which are in fact no longer competitive to less well developed
countries, causing considerable damage to economic development there The
European Union's agricultural policy is a particularly obvious example of this.
2.1.3
Growth in direct investment and joint ventures
Foreign direct investment (FDI) has been seen as a crucial motor of economic
globalization since the mid-eighties. Its average yearly growth rate between
1985 and 1995, at 17 per cent, was almost twice as high as that of world trade,
and almost three times as much as that of world production. Until then,
commodities trade and FDI had developed almost together. This parallel
development makes it clear that FDI at that time largely concerned exportrelated international activities, such as services and repairs.
Now, however, FDI has become a separate element in the international division
of labour. The high growth rates show that more and more enterprises are
making the most of cost advantages, high skill levels and good infrastructure in
other countries. In contrast to the traditional world-wide division of labour,
therefore, it is not only sales, but production too which is being
internationalised. The increasing significance of FDI was taken into account in
17
restructuring GATT in 1994 by means of rules to reduce trade-distorting
conditions for such investments (TRIMs).
Together with the increase in FDI , the number of internationally active
companies increased dramatically, and economic concentration processes were
accelerated. It is estimated that there were roughly 44,000 transnational
enterprises with almost 280,000 foreign branches at the start of 1998 World
wide, 275 billion US Dollars (USD) were spent on mergers and take-overs in
1996 - twice as much as ten years before. These transnational enterprises moved
globalization forward by means which include little or no foreign ownership of
shares. Examples of this are the grant of licences, and strategic alliances
between enterprises. As a result of this, a growing proportion of world trade is
accounted for by intra-enterprise trade which gives the firms greater scope for
action and is much less influenced in economic policy terms than marketcontrolled trade between countries.
2.1.4
Integration of the international capital movements
The world economic intertwining in the financial area is shown even more
clearly than in the growth of foreign trade and FDI. The rapid development of
the financial markets is due primarily to the liberalization of capital transactions,
the increased use of modem communication technologies and the increasing
significance of institutional investors. The latter phenomenon was favoured by
growing private assets, as well as by a state debt which was growing the world
over and the need to service it. Cross-border loan and share transactions measured as a percentage of gross domestic product - were not more than 10 per
cent in any major industrialized nation in 1980. By 1995, they had increased to
65 per cent of domestic economic production in, for instance, Japan, this figure
reaching as much as 250 per cent m Italy. This trend can be observed in all
OECD countries. Trade in financial derivatives has really taken off, as have
swaps, options and futures, which derive their value from the securities on
which they are based. Whilst, in 1986, world-wide trade in quoted derivatives
had a volume of about USD 600 billion, this value had risen to more than
USD 9,000 billion in 1996
Standard prices on the monetary and currency markets of the industrialized
nations signal their integration towards global markets. Because of die
increasing degree to which values increase and rates fall simultaneously at
international level, it can also be presumed that the share and bond markets in
these countries will grow together in the long term. Globalization of the
18
financial markets has so far largely covered the industrialized nations, however
(which continue to finance the lion's share of their investments from their own
savings) as well as such developing countries and countries with economies in
transition which are economically relatively high performers.
2.1.5
Regional imbalances of globalization
The discussion to date has been concerned with the manifestations and causes of
economic globalization. The results which have been put forward point, rather,
to general trends without providing a detailed quantitative, and in particular
regional, analysis. In its totality, the group of developing nations and countries
with economies in transition undoubtedly benefits from the increasing
interconnection of the world economic markets. Together, they have been able
to increase their share of the world-wide export of industrial products between
1985 and 1993 by almost lOOper cent. Their share of world-wide direct
investment in 1995 was about 40 per cent, which means that the values have
almost doubled compared with the average values between 1980 and 1990 The
central characteristics of globalization which have been described are also
supported by the data available. Thus, exports from the developing nations and
countries with economies in transition have increased more quickly in the past
decade (1985 to 1995) than their gross national product, and the expansion in
FDI into these countries exceeds export growth by far. These results are not
surprising because of the increased inclusion of these regions in the large groups'
globalization strategies.
The advantages which the developing nations and countries with economies in
transition have from economic globalization are distributed most unequally,
however. This is shown in almost all world economic contexts, starting with the
share in world trade, through to participation m the international financial
markets. The regional distribution of FDI between 1980 and 1994 is a particular
source of information. It increased for all these countries from a value lower
than USD 10 billion in 1980 to almost USD 110 billion in 1995. A large portion
of FDI in the developing countries, however, is concentrated on a relatively
small number of recipients.
The share of East and South East Asia has almost quadrupled since 1980,
largely influenced by China's demand for international capital. The countries
with economies in transition are the second, highly heterogeneous, group with a
19
growing share in FDI. It is therefore largely only the relatively high growth
countries in Central and Eastern Europe, with price stability, which benefit from
the inflow of foreign capital, whilst the majority of the former Soviet Republics
remain relatively unattractive because of political instability and poor
macroeconomic framework data. Since the share of FDI in developing countries
taken up by Latin America fell in the years from 1980 to 1995, the economic
balance of this continent as against the rest of the world seems to have fallen as
a result of globalization. These data however hide two important developments:
first, the influx has once more grown considerably in absolute figures since the
end of the eighties, and further, specific countries, such as Argentina, Chile and
Mexico are among those developing countries which had the highest increase in
FDI between 1984 and 1993. Africa, on the other hand, the continent with the
largest population after Asia, only attracted about 3 per cent of world-wide FDI
in 1995, as against 6 per cent in 1988. This is an example of the fact that this
region is almost entirely excluded from the trend towards greater integration of
the world's economy. However, this regional view should not hide the fact that,
even if a country as a whole benefits from globalization, individual regions or
sectors in that country may still find this development disadvantageous.
2.2
The socio-cultural dimension ofglobalization
2.2.1
The model of Western civilization
Globalization is certainly not solely an economic phenomenon; it is also a socio
cultural one because it is rooted in specific ideas, values, and models, and
transmits these, virtually imperceptibly in many cases, into other societies.
Globalization in its present shape is largely, if not quite exclusively, determined
by the model of Western civilization. Scientific research, and taking
responsibility for the development of world events, as well as the associated
demythologisation of nature and society, (neither of which are regarded any
more as sacred and immutable), were major preconditions permitting
technological progress and its application in the economy and in industry. The
prime importance of the values of self-realisation and material prosperity related
to this has, on the one hand, led to a loss of meaning for traditional social forms
and religious symbols and has, on the other, promoted people's autonomy
(human rights, democracy, pluralism). This model was and is highly successful
and radiates a great attraction all over the world, especially because it seems to
increase prosperity - even more so after the failure of the communist model.
20
Western civilization is frequently accused of being subject to the dictates of
economic values and purely individual interests. This is said to be demonstrated,
for instance, in consumerism and in the commercialisation of an increasing
number of areas of life. Here, the drawbacks of this development are indicated;
for example, lack of consideration, consumption at the expense of the
environment or a frequently very narrowly understood expedient rationality. The
consequences are said to be psycho-social damage (lack of orientation, etc.) and
social problems (prosperity-related crime, extremism, etc.). Some developing
countries see mistakes here which they would like to avoid, and therefore regard
the dissemination of this model through the modem media with many
reservations, especially since they feel that its negative aspects are usually
suppressed
This assessment is not entirely groundless. However, it is frequently also used as
an excuse to reject human rights, democracy and pluralism by reference to one's
own cultural and religious traditions, such as "Asian values". Furthermore, it
overlooks the fact that individualisation cannot simply be placed in the same
category as destabilisation of society by fragmentation, but can also lead to other
forms of solidarity. The thesis of individualism in solidarity, according to which
new ways of acting in solidarity are frequently integrated into the concept of
self-realisation, is at least partly supported by a series of empirical surveys
2.2.2
Communication as a major element of globalization
Technical progress in communications facilitates an exchange of information
with an intensity and quality previously unknown, which must affect contact
between the cultures. The fields of telecommunications and the electronic online
networks have gained tremendous significance in recent years and also promise
massive expansion in the near future. In light of these advantages, it is certainly
too easy to overlook the hazards of global networking. Thus, for instance, the
world-wide flow of information via the Internet is extremely unbalanced in its
distribution (the USA alone accounts for 85 per cent). A similar picture is
revealed in the density of telephone ownership. The vast majority of the
population in the Third World is excluded from the new communication
technologies by a lack of media infrastructure and by still-high costs The fact
that almost one billion people are illiterate and, thus, from the outset are at best
third class citizens of the Global Village has even greater consequences. If a
large share of humanity continues to be denied access to these new media, the
21
development in this sector will lead to greater disintegration. In that case, the
gap between those who have access to information and those who are excluded
from it will tend to grow in future.
Added to this is the fact that the content transmitted through these new
technologies is highly equivocal. Thus, for instance, the Internet offers new
opportunities, such as the easy transfer of knowledge, the opportunity to learn by
using the World Wide Web or fast world-wide communication by e-mail.
Furthermore, the fact that authoritarian regimes are virtually unable to regulate
the content which is distributed over the Internet itself certainly has advantages,
as is shown in the frequently successful cooperation in cases of human rights
violations. On the other hand, it is also possible for criminal contents to be
disseminated via the Internet, such as child pornography, racism, or glorification
of violence, to a degree previously unheard-of.
The world-wide mass media, whose economic significance is becoming ever
greater, have now been largely privatised, and hence subject to the laws of a
market which is almost unregulated by formal statutes. All information areas,
such as politics, culture and sport, are becoming increasingly commercialised, so
that reporting largely depends on viewing figures, which in turn determine the
amount of advertising revenue. Additionally, the formation of monopolies is
well advanced, together with the associated concentration of power through
increased predatory price cutting. The whole media market is controlled by a
few large groups, almost all of which are have their headquarters in the USA,
Europe, Australia and Japan. The developing countries are increasing in
significance primarily as advertising markets for Western consumer goods.
Because of this external control, access to the media is of limited benefit for
most people in the less well developed countries. The modem market offering is,
in any case, scarcely orientated towards the urgent needs of the poor in this area
2.2.3
Individual Mobility
Modem transport technologies have considerably reduced travel costs, and have
therefore made possible fast, flexible exchange of goods and services, as well as
making massive improvements in individual mobility. The liberalization of
international air transport has provided considerable impetus to mass tourism,
and to long-haul tourism in particular. Thus, for instance, the number of annual
arrivals by German tourists abroad increased between 1985 and 1994 from 44.9
22
to 73.3 million, and the number of long-distance trips has increased
disproportionately
However, tire expansion of transport and communication systems promotes not
only mass tourism and world-wide goods and capital transactions, but also
crime. This is demonstrated for instance by the increase in the drugs trade, in
trafficking in children and women, in sex tourism and in other illegal
transactions
Finally, mobility in the form of migration within the framework of globalization
has increased. According to assessments by the International Labour
Organization, the search for work and for suitable sources of income is the
major motivation for migrants. Their total number was estimated in the mid
nineties to be at least 125 million world-wide. Whilst, however, the exchange of
goods, services and capital, as well as mass tourism, are usually desired by the
political decision-makers, the mobility of human labour is frequently made
difficult. Growing world-wide migration, frequently illegal, which is usually a
consequence of overwhelming poverty, creates considerable problems in the
prosperous societies.
Women are especially affected by this development, which has a significant
impact on their families, and on their children in particular. More and more
women from Asia, Africa, Latin America and Eastern Europe are not only the
victims of sex tourism and trafficking in women, but are also forced to leave
their homes and look for work elsewhere, possibly even abroad, to achieve a
sufficient income. The feminisation of poverty has therefore led in turn to a
feminisation of migration, which many see as a consequence of the globalization
of the economy. Women do badly paid or unpaid work almost everywhere,
largely as a result of discrimination in their education. Frequently, in addition,
they suffer from particularly poor working conditions. The possibility of rapid
changes in production locations and international pressure on wage costs, which
is further strengthened through globalization, thus lays a weighty burden on
women world-wide.
23
3.
The effects of globalization
3.1
The economic effects ofglobalization
3.1.1
The effects of globalization on the commodity markets
It is necessary to distinguish between short-term allocation effects (if the
countries concerned have the resources required) and long-term growth effects
set in motion by structural change in the effects of globalization on the growth
of commodity markets. The prevailing opinion among economists is that the
trend towards free trade observable in the course of globalization leads to an
increase in the prosperity of the participating economies, provided that the
mobility of the factors of production is secure and no negative disturbances of
another type occur The use of resources becomes more efficient, and the
opportunities for economic growth increase. However, there are also patterns
which can cause reductions in prosperity, at least for parts of the population
Thus, free trade can also lead to losses for individual countries if certain
production areas are moved, leading to a reduction in the number of jobs
available. If individual countries and their economic players restrict themselves
in international trade to exporting fewer commodities (primarily raw materials
or the simplest of preliminary products), broad, diversified economic
development is prevented Some economies, however, have few alternatives
because of very disadvantageous starting conditions.
It is a historical experience that export-orientated economies among the
developing countries have been able to achieve much higher growth rates in
their gross national product than countries which concentrate on their domestic
economies. If one regards globalization largely as a process of increasing
openness towards foreign trade, one can conclude from this that globalization
tends to promote growth. There are various approaches towards explaining the
positive effect that a country's degree of openness may have on its growth rate.
For one thing, the reduction of trade barriers enlarges the market, especially if
these are small countries, and facilitates bulk production. Domestic enterprises
can expand by selling abroad. These reasons refute the strategy of long-term
import substitution. Furthermore, economies which are orientated towards
foreign trade have more intensive contact with foreign enterprises, and therefore
learn more and faster about technological improvements and innovative
products from abroad than do relatively closed economies. This is an important
source of increases in productivity, which themselves accelerate economic
24
growth.
If, therefore, considerable real capital flows into the developing nations and
countries with economies in transition in the course of globalization, and if
technology transfers take place, this can have positive growth effects and lead to
growth in the national income. The creation of real and human capital, as well as
the use of new knowledge, are central growth factors. Foreign direct investment
offers a considerable opportunity for many countries, therefore This may also
lead to a reduction in the income gap between rich and poorer countries, as
shown by developments within the European Union. For the majority of the
mostly poorer developing nations and countries with economies in transition,
however, this is not yet the case because the corresponding framework
conditions and sufficient market size, which would support the inflow of foreign
capital and expertise and its productive use, are missing. Added to this is the fact
that their lack of human capital sets clear limits on their ability to achieve
economic growth solely by their own efforts in the short term However, there
are also barriers created by the industrialized nations and their enterprises, if for
instance they make access to technologies, patents and licences more difficult.
3.1.2
Effects of globalization on the financial markets
One should presume on the financial markets that a continuing liberalization of
capital movements improves the efficiency of the market. If the regulation from
the financial institutions which aims at ensuring suitable provisions against risks
over the past few years is developed on consistently, a proportionate reduction
in capital movement controls can contribute towards savings being used at their
most productive world-wide. This could accelerate a growth process making it
possible to reduce the differences in per capita income between relatively rich
and poor nations. At the same time, the opening of the capital markets and the
increased competition on them leads both to improved investment opportunities
for savers and to lower costs for borrowers. This creates positive saving
incentives for households and falling capital costs for enterprises, which may
contribute towards further growth. From this point of view, it is no doubt
positive that large net capital flows have for several years been flooding into
several capital-poor developing countries.
Nevertheless, integrating the developing countries into the international
financial markets also entails considerable risks. Because of the financial crises
25
of the past few years, especially in East Asia, many economists are therefore
now calling for a more cautious opening of the developing nations (and
countries with economies in transition) towards international flows of funding
under which the development level of the economy as a whole, and of the
domestic financial system in particular, should be taken into account. There is a
particular need for efficient bank supervision which observes the assumption of
risks and can enforce their restriction. Furthermore, private banks must
conscientiously meet their obligation to check their borrowers.
Amongst the risks concerning integration into the international financial system
is, firstly, the fact that high net capital imports in developing nations or countries
with economies in transition may amplify the trend towards increasing the value
of their currencies in real terms. This reduces their ability to export and
adversely affects the opportunities open to domestic enterprises to win when
they are in competition on domestic markets against imported products.
Secondly, the increasing foreign debt can reduce the stability of the bank
systems, and thus reduce the room for manoeuvre open to the central banks. If
the payment demands of foreign lenders are quoted in foreign currencies, any
devaluation of the currency of a recipient country leads to an increase in the debt
service (expressed in domestic currency) and to an increase in the value of the
debts. If they are quoted in domestic currency, the central bank of the debtor
country can (in theory) attempt to keep the imported capital in the country
through a policy of high interest rates, where devaluation is expected to take
place on the currency markets. However, because maturity transformation, i.e.
short-term debt with long-term owm payment demands, is essential for the
business of the private banks, a serious policy of high interest rates also
threatens the stability of the domestic bank system, and consequently has little
plausibility. This makes likely a monetary crisis which may destroy the success
of years of development effort very' rapidly. Added to this is the risk of fiscal
policy difficulties: In the event of a monetary crisis, the government of the
country concerned has to service its own debt in foreign currency, and to pay the
obligations of those domestic private debtors (mostly enterprises) which it
guarantees in the event of their inability to pay. This certainly means a decrease
in the social policy flexibility of the governments concerned.
Thirdly, if die inflowing capital largely consists of portfolio investments which
can be cancelled at short notice, the currencies of economically weaker countries
26
are particularly sensitive to speculative attacks, and therefore to exaggerated
devaluation. This may lead to a dangerously rapid increase in capital outflows,
which may also apply if foreign investors take up large loans in such countries
and exchange the money acquired in these countries for hard currency. These
investors are hoping that, when their loans become due, they will have to pay
less money in hard currency than previously acquired by exchanging the loans
which they took out if the expected devaluation actually takes place. Many
central banks are ultimately powerless against this kind of speculation because
they can only make available some of the money desired by the investors in hard
currency, namely to the extent of their hard currency reserves, plus balance of
payments credits which they receive.
Fourthly, the risks posed by high net capital imports may, in the end, clearly
exceed the opportunities created, if purchases of existing real estate or
previously issued financial securities are financed with the inflowing capital
instead of real investment. The foreign capital can then accelerate the growth of
a speculative price bubble on the property markets, which goes hand in hand
with increasing debt on the part of domestic investors. In this case, as soon as
the speculative bubble bursts, overindebted players remain in the domestic
territory. Because this also leads to the disappearance of confidence in the
domestic bank system, as happened in South East Asia, a sudden fall on
overheated property markets leads to or amplifies a massive removal of capital,
and finally results in a currency crisis.
3.1.3
Effects of globalization on the labour markets
With an exclusively production-orientated view, the distribution effects within
the economy observed are neglected. However, these are vital to an assessment
of the current processes of globalization because not everyone benefits from
diem to the same degree. Instead, there are population groups both in the
industrialized and in the developing nations and countries with economies in
transition who are among the losers in globalization. In analysing this fact,
however, one should always distinguish between the true causes, and those
factors which simply amplify the trend.
According to the information available on the long-term development processes
at present, the formation of capital and tire progress of knowledge are the vital
preconditions for growth. It is especially the formation of human capital, and as
27
a result the standard of training for the workers, which is essential to favourable
economic development. The ever more important role played by human capital
does, however, reduce the significance of unskilled labour to the same extent.
This shift from unskilled to skilled work certainly affects people differently in
the different regions of the world.
In the industrialized nations, the dynamics of economic growth lead to an ever
diminishing need for unskilled labour, whilst the demand for skilled, welltrained workers (i.e. human capital) continually grows, and with it the income of
such people. This process is amplified through globalization. In the long term, it
will also transfer to the developing nations and countries with economies in
transition because it provides easier access for all countries to the new
technologies which have this distribution effect. At the same time, the demand
structure shifts more towards commodities produced capital-intensively. The
result of this is a trend towards splitting the labour markets which is likely to
further widen the existing income gap between skilled and unskilled workers.
Understandably, in the industrialized nations it is primarily unskilled workers
who see as a threat the entry of what were once less well developed countries
into the global labour market There is a real danger that these population groups
will not receive any advantage from the prosperity increases caused by
globalization, or that they may even be forced to accept a worsening of their
position.
One result of the loss of significance of less highly skilled work is a wider wage
gap. If this development is not accompanied by transfer income to workers in
the low-wage area, the income gap will widen considerably. If, however, one
attempts to retain the income from employment of the less highly skilled in
comparison to that of well-trained workers, the trend that moves labourintensive production to countries with lower wage costs will be increased. If the
supplementary transfer income for those employed in the low-wage sector is
financed through taxes and duties on income, the danger of an increase in illicit
work will become greater. This, together with the opportunities open to
transnational enterprises to avoid paying taxes, would undermine the previous
fiscal base of the state. If it is not possible to exploit other sources of tax, the
financing available for social compensatory measures would be considerably
reduced.
28
In the developing nations and countries with economies in transition, the
structural change towards a modem, internationally competitive economy is
being accelerated by globalization In the period of adaptation which is needed
for this, many traditionally operated businesses will not be able to stand the
competition pressure. This will lead to closures, and consequently to an increase
in unemployment It is only when the economy has adjusted to the global
conditions in the longer term that there is a good chance of achieving more
employment and higher incomes than would have been possible without
globalization The chance to benefit from this positive development increases
with growing education and vocational skills. Individuals who are less well
trained will therefore tend to lose out from globalization in these countries, or at
least will only benefit from it to a limited extent.
Hence, a sort of vicious circle is created for those affected which they can only
escape by considerably improving their level of training. There are however
limits to these efforts The phenomenon of extensive unemployment may
therefore become a long-term problem of globalized economies. To put it
bluntly, the unskilled who are already worst affected by poverty may be even
more so in the future.
3.2
The ecological impact ofglobalization
3.2.1
Ecological gains and losses
In addition to the social effects, it is the ecological impact of global economic
integration and of the increasing networking of societies which are of especially
broad significance. Ongoing globalization means a considerable increase in the
flows of goods and traffic, which tangibly increases the burden on the natural
environment. The main reason for the ongoing growth in the transportation of
goods and people is the fact that transport costs are determined mainly by
energy prices. These, however, do not fully reflect the cost to the environment of
burning fossil fuels. The economic transport charge to companies which
influence trade and location decisions are therefore too low in comparison to the
costs actually caused. The result of this is "too much" globalization The
presumed prosperity effects are thus exaggerated as long as the environmental
costs of producing energy are not included in the cost of transportation. These
distorted prices therefore constitute a major proportion of the statistically
calculated efficiency gains.
29
There is also a danger of pollutant-intensive production sites being transferred
from industrialized nations where strict environmental requirements apply to
developing nations or countries with economies in transition which are less
rigorous in this respect. This may apply in some cases, but there is no empirical
proof of a general trend towards this kind of industrial migration. It is possible
that the costs involved in protecting the environment in the industrialized
nations are frequently not so high as to compensate for foregoing highly skilled
workers and a good infrastructure, and hence not so high as to justify moving
locations. Furthermore, for some enterprises a high environmental quality is a
positive criterion in choosing a location because it makes it easier to recmit
skilled workers and has a direct impact on the product quality. The international
trade in waste, and the disposal of toxic waste in developing nations and
countries with economies in transition in particular, burdens the environment.
However, such transfers are now illegal as a rule because of international
agreements, which is why it is difficult to assess the extent to which they occur.
Conversely, globalization also has a positive impact on the environment. This
includes the fact that the increased internationalisation of trade promotes the
spread of products and technologies which conserve the environment. Quite
apart from the direct positive impact on the environment, this is primarily
advantageous to countries whose industries are among the world's market
leaders for environmental protection technology, not least because of strict
stamtory regulations. An economic policy which is sensitive to ecological goals,
therefore, does not necessarily entail disadvantages and production losses.
Rather, environmental policy can improve the competitive position of the
country in question if it creates incentives for innovation which accelerate the
development of new products and production processes. Furthermore, it must
also be mentioned that the process of globalization is directed at the world as a
unit. It is therefore possible for it to contribute towards heightening awareness of
global ecological challenges and threats. If this increases the political pressure in
favour of environmental policy measures, globalization can have a positive
environmental impact.
Finally, the indirect influence of globalization on the environment through the
growth in global national product should also be taken into account. According
to a widely-held opinion, economic growth has inevitable negative ecological
effects because the contribution made by globalization towards growth also
30
increases lire burden on the environment in any case. It is claimed that the
reasons for this lie primarily in negative external effects in the environmental
area which lead to a waste of finite natural resources. In the ecological
assessment of growth, it should be remembered, however, that as a rule the
demand for higher environmental quality increases with a growing per capita
income Additionally, there is not only growth- but also poverty-related
environmental damage Thus, for instance, deforestation in the Third World is to
a considerable extent a consequence of the desperate situation in which poor and
landless fanners find themselves, wishing to gain a piece of land to support
themselves through slash-and-bum, but it is also a consequence of the debt
pressure, which the countries concerned hope to reduce by exporting wood,
which brings in currency.
In summary, it can be assumed that economic growth contributes towards the
destruction of the environment as long as it is linked with higher emissions of
pollutants and greater use of resources On the other hand, however, it can at the
same time increase the ability and willingness of an economy to ensure higher
environmental quality. Furthermore, even consistent, socially justifiable
ecological change in direction of the economy is possible only in connection
with economic growth because it calls for a change in the production apparatus.
In this sense, the burdens or advantages the environment ultimately incurs as a
consequence of globalization will, in this interpretation, be dependent on the
type of growth experienced and on the environmental policy of the individual
countries across the world.
3.2.2
Dissemination of Western production and consumption models
The media, imports, tourism and commercial advertising awaken a world-wide
desire for a prosperous life like that taken for granted now by the vast majority
of people in the Western industrialized nations. The current production and
consumption models in these countries are connected, however, with a
manifestly considerable per capita consumption of energy, mineral raw materials
and other natural resources in comparison with most developing nations and
countries with economies in transition. In the same way, they make a
disproportionate contribution to global warming through the emission of
greenhouse gases. In the poorer countries, it has only been possible, so far, for a
small minority to assume this lifestyle with its high consumption of resources.
31
However, the vast majority of the populations of these countries desire a higher
level of prosperity and material living conditions, comparable with those in the
industrialized nations It is virtually impossible to find good reasons to reject
this claim as long as the rich countries consider such a lifestyle to be legitimate
A fast "catching-up" development in a larger number of developing nations and
countries with economies in transition would set in motion world-wide a
noticeable increase in the use of natural resources. As w ell as posing a burden
on the environment, this would lead to ecological problems which it might prove
impossible to overcome, at least if the production and consumption models
presently prevalent in the Western industrialized nations were simply taken as a
whole.
The consequence of this kind of development would be a great increase in the
demand for raw materials. The associated price increases would have varying
economic effects. In industrialized and newly industrialized countries,
competition would presumably give rise to innovation, as did the increases in oil
prices in the seventies, which led to changes in individual conduct (energy
saving), to higher energy efficiency, to the use of alternative energy sources, to
the exploitation of new storage and extensive conversion of production
structures. In particular, very poor developing countries, which rely on natural
oil as a cheap, versatile energy source, could end up in an almost insoluble
situation. For one thing, they would presumably have too little currency income
to pay the higher prices demanded for the indispensable oil imports, and for
another they would also be unable to exploit alternative sources of energy. In
this case, they might be forced for instance to step up deforestation, even if this
led them to ecological ruin in the long term, while at the same time worsening
the global greenhouse effect.
A broad growth process in the (at present) less well developed countries will
thus lead to fiercer global distribution conflicts for finite resources and limited
capacities for the absorption of pollutants and waste under the current
production and consumption conditions. Without fundamental world-wide
structural reforms aimed at using the dynamics of the market to create a model
of civilization which suits the environment, the dissemination of Western
production and consumption models therefore has disastrous consequences. The
industrialized nations bear particular responsibility for such reforms.
32
3.3
The socio-cultural effects ofglobalization
3.3.1
Pluralisation as a consequence of globalization
The model of the individualistic, consumption-orientated model of civilization
in the West conflicts in some areas with the world-views and values of other
cultures, which in most cases have deep religious roots. Because of its
dominance, many people consider it to be a threat: a form of cultural
imperialism. From disappointment because the blessings of global culture
promised through advertising prove to be false, or because of resistance to a
commercially-defined, uniform world culture nounshed from various sources, a
variety of more or less contradictory movements emerge in the shape of
religious, cultural, national or ethnic particularities. With indigenous peoples,
for instance, these can lead to historical self-reflection which can help to prevent
a blind acceptance of the process of globalization. They can, however, also turn
to fundamentalism, and in some cases even indiscriminate violence
In spite of all trends towards standardisation and universalisation, there will
therefore not be a uniform world culture in the near future. Rather, there will be
a pluralisation of values and standards which no society now is able to escape.
Since, however, plurality always questions traditional identities which have so
far been taken for granted, it unavoidably contains significant potential for
conflict. The variety of convictions and values and their concrete development is
now not only a characteristic of modem societies, but because of growing
world-wide interdependencies it also concerns relations between societies and
peoples.
The problem of world-wide migration, already touched upon, is symptomatic of
these developments. Particularly in the prosperous industrialized nations, it
allows fear of outside cultural domination and of a menace to the internal and
external security to grow, by importing political extremism and the most serious
crime. The political reaction to this more and more frequently ends with
defensive measures, such as restricting the right of asylum and making residence
conditions more difficult through tightened visa conditions and border controls.
The trend towards exclusion is frequently justified by reference to protection of
cultural identity.
33
3.3.2
Particularisation as a counter movement to globalization
In many regions of the world, but at least in certain areas of life, globalization
has permitted the weight of regional units, ethnic groups, cultures and religions
to grow, a phenomenon generally described with the term particularisation This
retreat into the understandable, into one's own world, has led to a division into a
variety of identities. This has led to a considerable conflict potential. It is,
however, often the case that socio-cultural traditions and tensions are also used
as a tool for entirely different goals, for example, the acquisition of political and
economic power.
This is an explanation for the domestic conflicts, linked to serious human rights
violations, which have considerably increased in number since 1993, whilst the
number of armed international conflicts has fallen Indeed, they have taken on
dangerous dimensions in some regions, in particular in Africa, South Asia, the
Balkans and parts of the former Soviet Union. The main causes of these
conflicts, which in some cases have led to the collapse of nation-states, are
ethnic-religious or nationalist tensions and fundamentalist movements, in other
words particularism currents frequently based on conflicts which are actually
social in nature.
Using culture as a tool to satisfy political interests is also an accusation which
may be levelled against those scenarios drafted after the end of the East-West
conflict which centre on the rivalry between the cultures. The theory of the
Clash of Civilizations attracted particular public interest, according to which
future (violent) conflicts, and hence global politics as a whole, would no longer
be determined by nation-states, but by the clash of clearly cultural blocs
Such scenarios are the subject of much contention because of their contentrelated compression. Furthermore, the one-sided emphasis placed on the cultural
differences disregards the fact that there are many examples of peaceful co
existence of differing cultures based on a mutual acceptance of the differences.
Ethnic, cultural and religious differentiation is an undeniable characteristic of
human communities which one should neither make taboo nor idealise.
However, the meeting and exchange of different cultures not only entails risks, it
also offers the opportunity to enrich one another and to act together to combat
global problems. Peacefully overcoming such socio-cultural and hence also
normative conflicts therefore primarily demands a sober analysis of the
34
respective separating lines and interests in order to find constructive solutions
characterised by mutual tolerance
3.3.3
Religious communities as global players
Globalization is by no means a phenomenon which affects the religions only
from outside. It is, rather, a constituting characteristic of all world religions
which view themselves as world-wide communities with a universal mandate,
even if with differing accents. This applies in particular to the Catholic church,
which from its inception and in terms of its mission has always regarded itself as
a world church and which as such is a much older global player than all
transnational enterprises. This is particularly clearly expressed in the history of
the mission, with its positive and negative sides.
Today's process of globalization creates a new context for the religious
communities because it makes world-wide presence and activities easier This
has certainly led also to a global market of religions springing up and expanding
in a manner which is hard to follow, enabling a wide variety of groups,
movements and organizations to offer their faiths, philosophies and products as
new religions or with similar names. The traditional religious communities are
now, therefore, in a new competitive situation which is unfamiliar in many
ways. Conversely, tins almost unavoidably implies for all philosophies and
religions that many basic problems of globalization, especially pluralisation and
particularisation, are also problems concerned with internal structures. Relations
between the religions will also become more and more important for this reason.
In contrast to the main players in globalization, whose mam reference point is
the industrialized nations, the non-Christian religions largely have their
members and followers in the Third World. The focus of the Catholic church has
also (at least statistically) moved towards the South, more so than other
Christian churches The fact that all these religions have their origins not in
Western culture, but in Asia, may perhaps contribute towards the religions being
in less danger of adjusting to the fashion trends of globalization with their
primarily Western models, but playing a critical, creative role using other forms
of global thinking
35
3.4
The impact ofglobalization on the political sphere
Ultimately, globalization is also a highly ambivalent phenomenon from a
political point of view. The dissolution and collapse of the communist power
bloc and the end of the Cold War in 1989 nourished the hope in many places
that the Western model of society would spread world-wide through the process
of globalization and that its central achievements, such as human rights and
democracy, would become universal. One also hoped that, with the increase and
intensification of interrelations, the awareness of and responsibility for global
challenges, such as environmental problems or the growth of the world's
population, would increase. Some of these hopes have been confirmed, whilst
reality has rapidly caught up with others.
3.4.1
Reduction and change in the influence of nation-state policy
The process of globalization which is orientated towards the world as a unit
reduces the importance and political scope of the nation-states, which in the past
formed the basis of social and political development. Individual areas of society,
in particular the economy, are becoming increasingly independent of the policies
of nation-states and are forming new, international links. This also has positive
consequences where it imposes limitations on blind nationalism and intensifies
political competition. On the other hand, this also promotes a process of
deterritorialisation. If nothing is done to counter this, it may lead to increasing
neglect by governments of the important tasks (such as competition and social
policy) which they once undertook. The consequence of the growing power of
transnational enterprises is that the nation-states are played off against one
another and become vulnerable to blackmail. Political activity thus plays second
fiddle to the global integration process of the economy.
Since the influence of the nation-states on solving global and globally caused
problems is waning, the concept of the sovereignty of nation-states, on which
global politics were previously based, is also called into question. However,
there is, as yet, a lack of internationally binding institutions and measures which
can replace nation-state politics. Additionally, we should avoid prematurely
tolling the knell of the nation-states since they will have a major role to play in
the structure of international relations for quite some time to come. Although the
scope available to the individual states has been reduced by globalization, and in
consequence national politics have also changed, they will nevertheless continue
to be a central point of reference, at least for local and regional problems.
36
3.4.2
Reduction in national democracy and the weakness of international
politics
One of the major achievements of the modem period in the Western world is the
democratic state. Democracies have however until now been linked to nation
states whose scope to act is tending to decrease because they are handing over
major competences to supranational institutions in the course of globalization.
The latter have however so far frequently not been democratically legitimised,
or only to a limited degree.
The danger of undermining democracy is amplified by the fact that the readiness
to take on public responsibility, on which every democracy is built, appears to
be waning in Western societies. This is also caused by the fact that the political
sphere is increasingly defined by the economic system, so that political values
and aims play a subordinate role.
Because of the competitive pressure which is increasing by virtue of global
interdependencies, the danger also arises that nation-state politics could escape
its responsibility by referring to the need for international co-ordination, even if
it actually does have sufficient room to manoeuver, such as in the discussion on
taxing energy. These trends are increased through the enormous influence of the
media which also report on politics primarily taking account of viewing figures.
This reduces political plausibility and contributes towards the population having
"had enough" of politics and the state.
Whilst the trend towards liberalization, deregulation and privatisation continues
unabated world-wide, at the same time considerable shortcomings in
supranational politics can be found which are especially tangible and of
consequence in those areas where the political sphere of the nation-states is
losing importance and ability to act. Even if supranational institutions, such as
the United Nations, are gaining significance, they are however unable in their
present form to steer global competition through framework conditions and rules
in a direction which is socially and ecologically acceptable.
37
3.4.3
The creation of an international civil society
Encouraged by mistakes which have been made in the state and in the political
sphere, civil society movements have formed in almost all parts of the world. On
the basis of a democratic self-image, many of them make an increasingly
important contribution towards political culture and control, especially through
new, constructive forms of political commitment. They are a major element in
strengthening political participation. Civil society players can relieve the burden
on the state or act in areas, in addition to state activities, of which the state has
so far not taken account, or not to an effective degree. As a critical check on
state institutions, however, they also offer an important correction mechanism
for society'. Cross-border networking and co-operation between NGOs plays a
major role in light of the fading influence of nation-state politics at international
level. The international civil society, which arose not least out of the awareness
that world-wide challenges can only be countered by international co-operation,
therefore has increasing importance for the shaping of international politics.
In this context, we should mention the religious communities with their
multifarious organizations and institutions, which are probably the civil society
players with the greatest influence, at least in many societies. In many political
systems, especially if there is a state religion and they themselves only constitute
a minority, they can in fact only act at the level of a civil society. This has led to
an increasing awareness that, as a rule, civil society players can only achieve
their goals in co-operation with other religions, and with non-religious civil
society players. This necessity is also a major motivation for dialogue between
the religions.
Conversely, the growing role of the international civil society for hierarchically
structured institutions such as the Catholic Church also shoulder a major
responsibility. Parish councils, church associations or "grassroots" parishes are
basically structured along civil society lines and frequently work well in
practice. Without them, tire church would find it difficult to play such a large
role in the NGO area. However, these structures mostly - not always - have a
weak institutional and in particular legal foundation.
In spite of this positive assessment, one should beware of an idealistic
overestimation of the civil society players. The civil society offers new
opportunities, but it also has unmistakable limits. A precise, sober analysis and
38
stock-take, which does not ignore the specific shortcomings and weakness of
these players can, rather, help to make it more effective. Thus, the variety of the
NGOs, and in some cases the conflicts between them, frequently makes it more
difficult to pursue a co-ordinated approach. With their growing influence, the
danger of misuse has increased, as has their dependence on state interests.
Furthermore, many of them are not democratically organised, or only to a
limited degree. In some cases, they also belong to the social forces which
intensify particular conflicts The greatest consequence is, presumably, that not
all social groups are equally able to organise themselves and have their interests
heard The poor, in particular, frequently have to overcome particularly high
barriers in order to create representations of their interests which are able to
defend them
4.
Globalization - Challenges for the religions and the church
These manifestations, consequences and effects of globalization now belong to
that basic area within which the major religions and the church define their
social role, but which must also reflect their self-understanding This presents a
two-fold challenge: It is a matter, firstly, of the responsibility in helping to form
globalization in the service of humanity, and secondly, of the question of how
the religions see themselves as world-wide communities and global players.
They are linked to very different cultures, and which model of globalization they
themselves constitute is a question which also has a theological relevance.
One may expect to learn from the long experience of the religions in this
difficult area. This applies both to their striving to find useable solutions, as well
as to their almost unavoidable errors. The religious communities even have to
ask in a spirit of self-criticism to what extent they can be a model of humane
globalization in their present form. This is important not least for their
plausibility in striving towards humane globalization because they will only be
able to participate convincingly in the public discussion of these questions if
they also try to live by the principles which they favour in their own
communities.
39
4.I
Joint responsibility in shaping globalization
An original, central task of the religions still is, as it has always been, to reflect
in ethical terms on social developments, something which is irreplaceable in
light of the political control of globalization. The necessary international
framework can scarcely be created without a minimum global ethical standard
It is in particular the religions, with their rich spiritual and moral traditions,
which can contribute to a critical assessment of the prevailing ideas in the global
economy and can suggest creative alternatives. All religions have starting points
(some speak of religious resources) which promote a global responsibility for
all, and hence world-wide, "family" solidarity. Conversely, there are social
ethical criteria which can be linked to the theological reflections of the religions,
and can largely be shared and carried by them. The changes needed in the light
of comprehensive solidarity, especially also in people's personal conduct, would
hardly be possible without the motivational force provided by the religions.
Because they are present in virtually' every culture in the world, the religions
should be in a particularly positive position to strive towards cultural unity in
diversity. However, this advantage is countered by the fact that almost all major
religions have inner divisions, which already makes it very difficult in many
cases to deal with one another. This applies not least to Christianity. For this
reason, the ecumenical movement is also a movement hoping for a world church
which truly includes all regions and confessions It is a learning process geared
to living together in a plural world. An important test in this respect is the
treatment of minorities or diverging opinions within one's own community of
faith. If we are unable to be tolerant and keep to fair rules when internal
conflicts do arise, we will find it hard to appear genuine when we fight for
minority rights and tolerance on the global scale. In spite of some progress
which has been made in ecumenism, these efforts suffer repeated setbacks, as is
shown by the difficult relations between the Catholic Church and the
Ecumenical Council of Churches with the Orthodox Churches in the countries
with economies in transition.
All major religions regard themselves (at least today) not only as particular, but
also as universal offerings. Therefore they claim to possess answers and truths
applying to all humankind, but which are at least not less valid than those of
other religions. If this is to lead, not to serious conflicts, but to beneficial
plurality, this requires a true ecumenical effort which includes as a major
element dialogue between the religions and cooperation between people of
40
different faiths From a Catholic point of view, the Second Vatican Council has
undoubtedly opened up new paths in this respect, contributed towards a changed
view of Mission, and has also, therefore, at least indirectly, had an effect on the
self-understanding of other religions. However, the Council did not find a
satisfactory solution to the tension between "dialogue" and "Mission", so that
continued conflict areas arose from it which make worse the identity of the
young churches, their relations with Rome and the dialogue between the
religions itself
Another somewhat controversial topic is the universal validity of human rights,
at least as soon as they are also called upon for the interreligious areas and
structures. Reflecting on one's own traditions and their values, which one can
observe world-wide today, does not necessarily lead to fundamentalism, but it
may nourish this kind of trend Thus, all religions may, in some way, claim areas
in which certain human rights only apply to a restricted degree, as when they
deny rights to women, at least in their internal structures, which are regarded in
civil society as being universally valid.
4.2
The world church as a community of learning
The reflections above have shown that all world religions have to deal with the
multilayered problem of finding a balance between universalism and
particularism. The Catholic Church, in particular, is in a state of tension
between, on the one hand, a universal claim which exercises a major attraction
for many people world-wide, and on the other, the trend towards Western,
Roman-orientated centralism which is incompatible with this claim. It wishes at
once to be a world church and not to "talk down" to the local churches. This is
certainly at the same time a theological and ecclesiological, but in practice
primarily a cultural problem, especially because the message of the Gospel itself
comes from a sub-culture and has largely been communicated via Western
culture.
At least in theory, and in principle, this problem appears to have been solved by
recognising the principle of enculturation, that is, the need to integrate into the
relevant culture. The Second Vatican Council, and some local churches, have
given important incentives for this, which have also been seized on by other
religions. It is ultimately always a matter of finding the right link from the
universal message of the Gospel to particular forms and figures However, this
41
of necessity gives rise to a question of the extent to which, in what sense and in
which way Christian belief regards itself as a universal culture and to what
cultural form of the world church the local churches should refer. As to specific
answers to these questions, the Council certainly left more questions
unanswered than answered, and thereby created a broad field for conflict within
the Church from which many local churches now suffer. There is primarily a
lack here of clear, testable rules governing unavoidable disputes which are
needed in factual terms in the fight for contextual theologies and forms of
evangelisation.
Institutionally, the Church is fighting with the tension between centralism and
local church independence, where the situation is frequently quite varied from
the point of view of the various continents and countries. Thus, for instance,
people in Asia appreciate, on the one hand, hierarchical structures with clear
authority, as embodied by the Pope and the Roman Curia - even if only for its
symbolism Other religions envy the Church for its global voice from Rome In
politically controversial situations, this has some advantages for the local
churches in that the Holy See can also act in diplomatic channels thanks to its
international status. On the other hand, these and similar advantages are also
disadvantages because they exaggerate the impression of a religion which is not
rooted in Asia, is controlled from elsewhere, and frequently slows efforts at
enculturation.
4.3
Mandate and mission of church agencies
The form of globalization which shares out the world-wide increase in
prosperity in such a way as to place the poorer population groups in the
industrialized and developing nations and countries with economies in transition
at a disadvantage, and which increasingly excludes or alienates people and
regions, is by no means acceptable for the Church. This kind of process is
diametrically opposed to the Christian option for the poor because the actions of
the Church must always be "aimed at overcoming exclusion and involving
everyone in the life of society"1. For this reason, it is particularly important for
the churches to repeatedly call this mistake to mind and to take up positions
1 Cf. on this: For a future founded on solidarity and justice. A statement of the Evangelical Church in
Germany and the German Bishops' Conference on the Economic and Social Situation in Germany,
Hanover/Bonn 1997.
42
against it.
This task is particularly taken up by the "agencies for the universal tasks of the
Church", which play a major role in Germany. They have arisen over the past
decades from a long Missionary history, and in particular from the experience of
poverty in many parts of the world Meetings and exchanges with the partner
churches in the South and East have sharpened our understanding of their
interests and needs. Here, these church agencies themselves have undergone a
learning process Initially, the focus was on charitable emergency assistance;
over the years, however, the structural dimension of poverty took up the
foreground, first in the countries concerned themselves, but then also at a global
scale.
Specific criteria emerge from all this for the work of these agencies. They are
always concerned with extensive, holistic development, in other words, both the
material and social, as well as people's cultural and spiritual well-being. They
see their efforts as an indispensable element of the Church's mission, as a
mission which is ultimately founded in the Gospel At the same time, they are
convinced that they have a rich spiritual, humane tradition which they wish to
share with others. In this sense, their work is always also missionary in nature,
which is not related to a naive wish to convert people or to regard the sole
criteria for success as lying in the number of baptisms For this very reason,
assistance benefits not only Catholics or Christians, but on principle all persons
living in poverty and needing help
Another major characteristic is as close co-operation as possible with the local
churches in a spirit of partnership These agencies regard these contacts not as a
one way street, but as a joint process of learning - a mutual "give and take"
Within Germany, the Church and its agencies want to be in a sense the voice of
the partners whose interests they wish to further, as an advocate, which does not
mean that they share or uncritically accept all their partners' points of view'.
Rather, they attempt to find optimal solutions in a joint dialogue with them
5.
Basis for social ethical reflection
The facts and experiences which are repeatedly submitted to the Churches in
Germany by the partner churches in the developing nations and countries with
economies in transition make it clear that globalization, with its varying, closely
43
interwoven sub-aspects, is a highly ambivalent process. It is neither a quasi
natural law, as some try' to suggest, nor everything global is inevitably useful
and superior to the local per se Hence, a fatalistic attitude which considers itself
to be entirely at the mercy of the global market and its rules is by no means
justified. Equally dubious is fundamental opposition which views globalization
as the root of all evil and claims that leaving this development or returning to
local economic circuits is the solution to all social and ecological problems.
In light of these circumstances, the agencies of the Catholic Church, which have
together assumed world-wide responsibility in various areas, face many
challenges It is not only their practical reaction which is called for here; this
must, rather, be led by fundamental social ethical grounds and a world church
perspective. All solutions and political decisions for which they opt have to
correspond to it. It is a matter of countering mistakes which could have major
consequences. This can only be correctly achieved if suitable normative criteria
are developed, which are orientated towards the actual developments This study
follows the time-proven tradition of church argumentation in the area of social
ethics, namely seeking a debate on the basis of philosophical arguments in order
to remain understandable to non-Christians as well. They remain open to more
profound Biblical and theological considerations, especially from the partner
churches, which are particularly in the hearts of the authors of this study in view
of the religious and cultural developments taking place in these regions.
5.1
Social ethical standards
People must be central to every development, and hence also to the economy
and its political structure. This premise must not be sacrificed to other aims or
ideological interests. It is founded in the human dignity due to all humans
without prejudice and in the same manner, and it forms the basis of human
rights, which must include not only civil and political rights (civil pact), but also
economic, social and cultural rights (social pact). The logic of this approach lies
in an option for those who are excluded from these rights. Priority attention must
therefore be given to those who are unable even to meet their elementary needs
and are suffering from special need. All politics at national and international
level must therefore be poverty-orientated or, more precisely, orientated towards
the poor.
This has economic, socio-cultural and environmental consequences. The
44
responsible structuring of a humane order must prove itself in all these areas in
order to enable all people to have a dignified, secure existence. The economy,
the market, technological progress and globalization are, consequently, not an
end in themselves, but are instrumental to this aim. It is incompatible with an
economic theory which uses as its sole benchmark the rules of economic
rationality and of the market This also applies to an attitude towards work and
consumption which is orientated solely towards steadily growing personal
prosperity, forgetting that personal property also entails social responsibility.
Economic activity is, rather, always an activity with a cultural character. As
such, it requires personal and social investments in people, their abilities and
their environment. The human and social capital thereby created is not only of
ever increasing economic significance, but is at the same time a precondition of
old and new social virtues such as creativity, participation, initiative and
solidarity, without which the global problems cannot be solved
Humane global development must be orientated towards the common good of
all humanity and life chances of future generations. This requires a graduated
responsibility if the individual is not to be hopelessly overburdened A clear
distinction is to be made here between an individual ethical and social ethical
orientation, even though they are interrelated. The activities of the church
agencies are related to both.
The church agencies call for people's individual responsibility in Germany, and
encourage them to share with those who have many fewer opportunities in life.
This also requires changes in one's own lifestyle, for example in the use of non
renewable resources, which must also be measured against the needs of future
generations. The work of the church agencies is aimed in this respect at
developing a fundamental value orientation of solidarity with the poor in the
world who are unable to defend their fundamental rights because of their
poverty. A grasp of the fundamental needs allows the development of criteria,
and the possibility of contributing towards the satisfaction of those needs
through specific assistance. Many initiatives by individuals show that
opportunities in life can be opened up through them. Nevertheless, personal
commitment and individual assistance are not sufficient alone to achieve the aim
of greater justice, especially since they can be quickly ruined by global
developments, or even through political changes in one country. They retain
their indispensable significance because they are also an important incentive to
take on social responsibility within society.
45
Aid in individual cases must therefore be supplemented by a political
responsibility which, firstly, covers the effectiveness of aid organizations and,
secondly, is orientated towards structuring political and statutory framework
conditions In the age of globalization, these tasks cannot longer be dealt with by
individual nations. Solving international social and ecological problems, rather,
requires a willingness on the part of the countries in question to accept
responsibility for others at international level in cooperation and solidarity. An
international regulatory policy with institutional rules is needed to implement
these goals in concrete terms, but forms of democratic supervision still need to
be found to supervise the bodies entrusted with enforcing that policy. Otherwise,
the poor in the developing nations and countries with economies in transition, as
well as the prosperous countries, will be left behind. When it comes to
distributing the burdens linked to this kind of reform, it is primarily those who
are able to restrict their material needs without making major cuts in their
quality of life w'ho are called upon This includes most people in the rich
countries, as well as the rich in the poor countries
In light of a highly unequal global distribution situation, which is threatening to
worsen further, decisive measures are needed to give the principle of (intergenerational) social justice greater impetus once more in the political sphere. At
least, the difference principle of the justice theory, which states that economic
and social injustices are only justifiable insofar as they entail as great an
advantage to the poorest and the excluded as possible, should be taken into
account. In this sense, the standards of global opportunities, and, in particular,
justice based on needs, gain ever increasing significance against justice based
purely on ownership and benefits.
Special attention should be attached to the principle of inter-generational
justice, which fundamentally states that the economic and social problems of the
present may not be solved in isolation from the question of retaining and
safeguarding the natural basis of life for future generations. The recognition that
economic, social and ecological development is only a series of social sub-aims
which may not be played off against one another without facing the
consequences forms the basis of the concept of sustainable development,
recognised as a binding guideline by the international community of states since
the Conference of the United Nations for Environment and Development
(UNCED) held in 1992 in Rio de Janeiro. The environmental, ethical principle
46
on which this approach is based is the 'network' of humankind within its natural
environment. It expresses the fact that humankind can only face up to its
responsibility if it adapts the dynamics of its civilisatory activity to the limits of
tire natural resources and the ability of the surrounding enviromnent to cope.
If humankind is the starting point and the aim of all development, this requires a
development from below. This is the point of the principle of subsidiarity, which
protects individuals and lower social levels (families, local authorities, civil
society players, etc ) from the all-pervasive power of the state and bureaucratic
centralism. Conversely, this principle also requires action at the lower levels
where it needs their assistance This also applies in forming the global society.
Hence, initially, solidarity among those concerned is always called for, that is to
say their own initiative and co-operation to overcome their disadvantages.
Equally important are political measures which facilitate, support and
supplement this kind of individual and community initiative from below. As
much as it is a matter of the individual him/herself, their own efforts are doomed
to failure in most cases, or will not stand the test of time without a supportive
framework (e g. legal security). If there is insufficient solidarity among those
concerned, the solidarity of those better off and the privileged with and for these
disadvantaged persons must be added, where necessary, i.e. from individuals
and small groups through to the (global) society
In a plural world, each ethical reflection moves within the interplay between
universality and particularity. The dilemma consists in the fact that a particular
reason is integrated into the respective cultural contexts, on the one hand, and
therefore is easy to understand for people living there, but on the other hand it
cannot be understood by people from other cultures, and in this sense can only
to a limited degree form the basis of anything akin to a global ethic. This
tension, which worsens as a result of globalization, can only be reduced, and in
an ideal scenario perhaps even overcome, through as broad an inter-cultural
dialogue as possible. This kind of dialogue is only feasible if all participants
regard it as a fair exchange aimed at reaching an understanding, without
patronisation or manipulation Ethical arguments are always aimed at the wellfounded agreement of all concerned by the activity which is to be assessed.
The participants in this inter-cultural dialogue can attempt in various ways to
find universal norms. The easiest way to build a bridge between the various
ethical traditions is probably by starting with joint human suffering, such as
47
hunger, poverty, injustice or discrimination. All particular moral ideas are based
on such cases. In light of these experiences, the partners to the dialogue explain
their cultural interpretations to one another, as well as their values and the norms
rooted therein. They will discover both common ground and differences during
this process. On the basis of the joint understanding of human dignity which
arises from this, they attempt to gain at least some fundamental ethical
foundations which, on the one hand, have a universal significance, but on the
other are expressed in specific ways in a variety of cultures. The aim of such
efforts is to achieve ethics in which unity and difference are interlinked This
entails, firstly, shared standards, the interpretations and grounds for which do
not have to be entirely identical in the different cultures. Secondly, it leaves
scope to each culture for ethical and moral convictions which are rooted in
specific contexts if these do not conflict with the universal standards.
5.2
Ethically responsible shaping ofglobalization
Whilst the effect of the process of globalization is a world-wide increase in the
level of prosperity, the trend is also towards shifting distribution in a way that
puts at a disadvantage unskilled workers in the industrialized nations, and poorer
population groups in the developing nations and the countries with economies in
transition. Furthermore, the growth effects are based to some extent on
insufficient inclusion of the ecological costs, which creates an inter-generational
distribution problem. From the perspective of the social and ethical criteria
named, such effects of globalization are highly dubious, and are unacceptable in
the long term. If it were to be confirmed that whole regions and population
groups will remain increasingly excluded from the prosperity gains of
globalization and that the basis for existence of future generations is placed at
risk, the benefits of globalization could not compensate for its mistakes.
If overcoming exclusion is the primary ethical standard of universal
responsibility, the primary’ aim of political control must be to use regulatory
policy frameworks as far as possible to prevent the process of globalization
dividing people and generations into winners and losers. As in tire age of
national economies it was (and remains) the task of the state to create
framework conditions which control the market with its indisputable strengths
so that it can effectively benefit all, it is now necessary for world-wide
agreements and institutions to incorporate this aim of the social market economy
into the global economy. It is therefore a matter of creating, from the outset,
48
starting conditions which are as fair and as just as possible. In areas where
injustice nevertheless occurs, since we must not expect to succeed in preventing
it m every case, this is to be corrected by subsequent, appropriate intervention.
This will presumably remain mostly a matter for the individual nation-states.
Globalization in its present form requires fundamental structural reforms if it is
to become the model of sustainable development Economic growth must be
linked increasingly to social and ecological development. Economic
performance is and remains a necessary, but not sufficient, condition for social
justice, environmental protection and cultural variety. Strategies to strengthen
economic initiative and competitiveness on the one hand, and to combat poverty
and destruction of the environment on the other, are not in contradiction, but can
complement one another The existing scope to form economic policy in a
socially and environmentally acceptable manner must be used, for instance by
deliberately promoting human and social capital as an important factor in
strengthening economic locations
Economic policy on the one hand and social and environmental policy on the
other, also act in a state of tension which sometimes and in specific areas can
only be reduced by deliberate political intervention This applies also to the
relationship between social and ecological development For this reason, the
efforts to protect the environment, ultimately concerned with generations to
come, must be an integrated element of global regulatory' policy, just like
economic and social development In the long term, globalization only benefits
all people and social groups if economic, social and environmental policies
support one another.
6.
Options for action
6. 1
Policy areas
The economy, and the values and rules determining economic activity, have
proved to be the driving force of globalization and have provoked major
changes, the consequences of which are hard to foresee. In doing so, it becomes
increasingly evident that the various processes of globalization, with their
ambivalent knock-on effects, overload the confines of classical nation-state
policy. The control principle of the free market, which prevails today, proves
itself unable alone to link economic efficiency, social justice and ecological
49
security in a compatible manner It is even less able to create or safeguard
lasting peace, democratic participation and cultural variety if it is not bome by a
consensus in fundamental value-related issues. For this, we need, on the one
hand, regulatory policy measures which are able to steer market economy
competition in the desired direction, and on the other, a guarantee of
compensatory' investment in order to ensure the equality of needs and
opportunities of all people.
Globalization today requires a world-wide structural policy aimed at long-term
social and sustainable development It is therefore not primarily a matter of
"handing over some prosperity" to the poorer countries and people, but of
creating a global order which gives all concerned fair and to some extent equal
opportunities. This necessitates a Global Governance Policy creating framework
conditions which favour development, and takes account of the increasing
differentiation of political levels at a global scale. In this context, a regulatory
model based on a joint political process of split sovereignties between state and
non-state players at various levels of activity (local, national, regional and
international) is currently under discussion Regulatory policy, as well as
deliberate intervention at national and international levels, must refer primarily
to the following areas.
6.1.1
International legal order and security policy
Global control in accordance with the principle of subsidiarity will only be
successful if the community of states is able to agree on a fundamental
international legal order with corresponding legal principles. The basis of this is
for all countries to create the preconditions for legal security and respect for
human rights in their own areas, and providing opportunities for political
participation to the population. For this, it is also necessary to strengthen the
global rule of law with clear statutory rules, mechanisms for resolving conflicts
and sanctions. In this context, it is imperative to increase the status of
institutions such as the International Court of Justice in The Hague and to
guarantee binding recognition of their rulings. In addition to institutionalised,
long-term forms of international co-operation in the form of preventive security
policy, there is also a need for improved mechanisms for short-term mediation
in and resolution of conflicts in order to prevent, at any cost, military escalations
and open armed conflicts.
50
The acceptance of binding world-wide frameworks and the global rule of law,
however, also requires a minimum of shared values, and in particular mediation
procedures for normative conflicts. The inter-cultural dialogue on universal
values as a basis for common actions will only be possible if we are able to
recognise the 'otherness' of the others, and if the individual cultures are prepared
to continue the dialogue This is the only way to change from an unbalanced
community of teaching to a community of teaming based on equal opportunities.
This kind of dialogue certainly constitutes a particularly challenging form of
mediation in cases of conflict because it is a matter not only of reaching
pragmatic compromise, but of being open to the values of other cultures.
6.1.2
Self-Responsibility for economic and social policy
The mam responsibility for contributing towards overcoming poverty and
underdevelopment through sound economic and social policy lies with the
individual countries themselves. Only they are able, ultimately, to create the
preconditions for successful participation in the global economy This includes,
in addition to democratic reforms and legal security, an economic framework
which promotes initiative, as well as good governance. In addition to investment
in assets and human capital, considerable significance is attached to fair
ownership with effective protection and balanced distribution of ownership and
property, as well as fair and growth-promoting tax legislation. Furthermore, a
key role is played by the creation of internal economic stability through the
independence of monetary instances, strict bank supervision, fighting against
inflation and state budget discipline
Constantly low inflation rates are a decisive indicator of a healthy
macroeconomic environment.2 Grave fluctuations in the general price level
make it more difficult for producers and consumers to distinguish relative price
changes from absolute ones. If the information content of the relative prices
falls, there is a risk that resources could be misused, with detrimental
consequences for growth and employment. Countries with high inflation rates
and budget deficits are therefore hardly attractive as locations for international
capital. A stability-orientated policy is also easily justified from a social and
ethical point of view: Inflation is antisocial because its effects are felt primarily
by the weaker and the poor. Those in a better economic position, on the other
2 Cf. the study "Gutes Geld fur alle [Good money for everyone]", presented by Franz Furger and
Joachim Wiemeyer, commissioned by the Group of Experts "World Economy and Social Ethics", on
the significance of monetary stability and its institutional preconditions. Bonn 1991.
5 51
Sr
..X,
hand, can more easily escape the negative effects of high inflation by fleeing
into tangible assets or going abroad. As a consequence, inflation is never a
suitable tool for solving economic and social problems.
In addition to macro-economic stability, high investment in real capital is a
further precondition for successful participation in globalization If, in an
economy, investments grow faster than the work deployed, the capital stock per
w'orker (capital intensity) increases and consequently the productivity' of work
tends to do so as well. Ultimately, this means that the national income increases
Countries which, for instance, promote the willingness to invest with fiscal
policy measures are therefore more likely to benefit from the globalization
process than those which discourage investors through lack of infrastructure,
trade monopolies, an unclear legal situation, overblown administrations or
excessive corruption. Not least, empirical studies have shown that a high degree
of openness in an economy in the form of free movement of goods and cleverly
liberalised capital markets makes a major contribution to the achievement of
high growth rates. This facilitates the necessary' importation of technology by
bringing in capital, encouraging the inflow of foreign direct investment and
through other forms of international joint ventures.
Investment in people (food, health, education), i.e. the formation of human
capital, plays a central role. Empirical studies show a clearly positive correlation
with economic growth. Thus, for instance, the world-wide gap in per capita
income points towards a clear link with the differences in the duration of
schooling. In a world in which simple skills are being increasingly overtaken by
machines, and in which state-of-the-art communication and information
technologies penetrate the work process, investing in human capital is at least as
important as investing in real assets. Countries which neglect this task are to a
certain extent destined to lose out in globalization.
Economic and social policy are linked to one another. Thus, the economic policy
measures mentioned above, and a future-orientated, broad-impact technology
policy which is tuned to the actual situation are suitable instruments to reduce
poverty. Conversely, a social policy which increases occupational flexibility
through social security and promotes human capital is the basis for economic
performance and competitiveness, and therefore, for successful participation in
globalization processes. The scope for a social form of economic policy, on the
one hand, and to promote competitiveness through social capital, on the other,
52
should therefore be systematically analysed and used where possible for
successful participation in the global economy. All these measures would
largely make a structural adjustment policy imposed from outside (International
Monetary Fund) with its problematic social consequences, superfluous.
Where these measures do not take hold, or where they reach their limits, it
certainly remains a primary task of social policy to combat absolute poverty
with all available means.3 Otherwise, the option for the poor and the excluded
remains mere lip service. Compensatory measures should be developed to
ensure that at least the basic needs of those population groups who lose out in
the economic globalization process can be met This also applies in cases of
unavoidable structural adjustments in the framework of debt restructuring.
At international level, development aid from the rich countries can never replace
the individual efforts of the developing nations and countries with economies in
transition, but may usefully supplement them. As a type of global social
compensation, it can provide an important impetus, and therefore remains
indispensable. Development aid is all the more successful, however, the more it
does not limit itself to transfers pure and sunpie, but makes a structural
contribution towards die process of development.
6.1.3
Reform of the global economic order and of the international finance
system
Even if the opportunities to benefit from globalization open to a country initially
depend on the country' itself, we should not overlook the fact that, today, the
effectiveness of national policy measures is limited For this reason, there is an
additional need to structure global economic competition in order to give all
involved fair and more or less equal opportunities. Such an order must
contribute especially towards individual countries not using their power position
in the international structure for one-sided economic advantages
The present global trade order within the framework of the World Trade
Organization has contributed towards considerable reductions in trade barriers,
which also benefits a large number of developing nations and countries with
economies in transition. Opening markets for products from these countries,
5 Cf the study "Social Security Systems as Elements of Poverty Alleviation in Developing Countries"
by the Group of Experts on "World Economy and Social Ethics", Bonn 1997
53
their preferential treatment through preferential customs rates and similar
arrangements, foregoing one's own trade-related subsidies and the willingness to
invest in poorer regions, however, remain important demands which have not by
any means been exhausted How important appropriate reforms are is shown, for
instance, by the negative consequences of the European Union's agricultural
policy for poor developing countries in particular.
However, even the global trade order itself needs to be developed if it is to
facilitate fair competition in the global economy. This includes, on the one hand,
international competition law which prevents the development of a
concentration of economic power by applying clear rules, reliable controls and
effective sanctions. On the other hand, social and environmental standards need
to be developed and enforced, for example, the labour standards of the
International Labour Organization, to prevent expansion of global trade harming
the poorest of the present, as well as of future generations It should certainly be
remembered here that new protectionism of the industrialized nations should not
be promoted under a new name, as the countries of the South and East fear, not
without justification.
No less need for action lies in light of a reform in the global financial order, as
has been shown once again by the turbulence in the financial markets of Asia,
Russia and Latin America. Governments need to increase the duties to report
incumbent on national governments and to create functional bank supervision in
all countries to ensure better reserves against risks with the banks (e g. capital
cover rules). Since the volatility of the international financial markets poses a
particular risk to financial stability, and thus to the opportunities for growth
open to the developing countries and the countries with economies in transition
with barely-developed financial systems, the question arises as to whether a
time-limited restriction of the inflow of short-term capital is not a suitable
countermeasure. Also, the discussion on introducing a tax on foreign currency
transactions, intended to reduce the attractiveness of short-term currency
speculations, is by no means closed.
A special matter of concern for the churches and many other civil society groups
on tlie threshold to the next century is a generous debt release, especially for the
poorest countries which otherwise have virtually no future perspective. This
kind of release is however only helpful and justifiable if it primarily benefits the
poor and the main population (e.g through counterpart funds). Making this a
54
condition of this aim is indispensable, not least in order to prevent loans being
taken up recklessly in the future. The greater the willingness of the debtor
countries to do so, and the more determined they are to introduce necessary
economic and social reforms, the more generous the release should be
Debt problems can certainly not be entirely ruled out in the future, since it is
never possible to calculate all risk factors, even with good governance and
considerable prudence (price falls with exports, exchange rate fluctuations,
ruinous competition). We need international insolvency proceedings for such
cases aimed at including the basic premise of bankruptcy law and the law on
composition proceedings, as well as of exemption from attachment, in
international legal relations. In this way, one could counter imprudent granting
of loans, react more quickly and more effectively than previously in the event of
payment problems occurring, and consequently reduce the likelihood of new,
long-term debt crises.
6.1.4
Global environmental policy
Environmental damage occurring in the past at regional level has now taken on
global dimensions (the greenhouse effect, the hole in the ozone layer) and
nationally operating environmental policy has mostly reached its limits,
particularly in climate protection. As a result, the need for an internationally co
ordinated approach towards internalising cross-border external effects has grown
continually. Because of contradictory state interests, it has, however, proved
difficult to implement effective international agreements, as shown by the
sobering discussions on ecology at the Earth Summit held in Rio and at the
conferences of the Parties to implement the Conventions concluded there
A global environmental policy aimed at resolving these shortcomings is a
political cross-sectional task which must be coherent, and involve all policy
areas. It must focus on creating an economy and lifestyle which are both socially
and ecologically acceptable'1. Here, priority must be given to preventive
measures which avoid wasting resources and ecological overcropping, over
subsequent compensatory measures, something also makes economic sense.
Because of their high use of resources and their politically, economically, and
socio-culturally dominant role, the rich industrialized nations and the rich in the
4 Cf. the study "Global and Ecological Aspects of Economic Activity", presented by Franz Furger and
Joachim Wicmeyer, commissioned by the Group of Experts on "World Economy and Social Ethics",
Bonn 1994.
55
South have a particular responsibility here. This kind of policy is in line with the
long-term self-interest of the industrialized nations themselves, but is also an
aspect of long-term development policy because it has a major impact on future
development opportunities, in the South and East in particular. All this requires
forward looking, courageous structural adjustment in the North in its strategy of
sustainable development.5
6.2
Players
6.2. Nation-states and communities of states
The above considerations have shown that both forming qualified human and
social capital, and the promotion of those institutions which are important for a
corresponding legal, economic and social order, are vital to the creation of
opportunities for a country to benefit from globalization. The main
responsibility for structuring these location-related social sub-systems, and
hence for the common good, remains with the nation-states in spite of losses of
sovereignty.
Nevertheless, one should not overlook the fact that the effectiveness of national
policy measures on social and economic development is now limited. For this
reason, there is an additional need, as was stressed above, to control global
economic competition at the various regulatory levels.
The intensification of mutual transnational relations requires a federal system of
split sovereignties in which without losing the analogous degree of unity,
competences are divided among the corresponding levels in accordance with the
principle of subsidiarity'. The nation-state as a territorial structure remains, in
this case, the load-bearing pillar since it carries out an indispensable function as
a hinge or link between the various levels of activity. However, its role
undergoes fundamental changes, both internally and externally. In many
problem areas, the state is no longer able to draft solutions independently, but
relies on co-operation with social groups, such as transnational enterprises and
the world-wide networked NGOs. It is responsible for balancing the interests
between the various players and for implementing tlie agreements reached at
5 Cf. the study "Structural Adjustments in the North in order to Promote Development in the South",
presented by Franz Furger. commissioned by the Group of Experts on "World Economy and Social
Ethics", Bonn 1995.
56
international level
In light of the increasing regionalisation and particularisation, which runs
counter to globalization, local and regional policy takes on a major role in a
federal order system The gradual transfer of nation-state authority to
international institutions can be prepared through regional integration projects.
Stronger regional co-operation between the developing nations and the countries
with economies in transition can increase their ability to use the opportunities
for globalization, and by that means strengthen their position in the global
economy, or so the experience of the European Union leads us to believe. In
addition to the supranational institutions, at the centre of which stands the
United Nations, international regimes such as the World Trade Organization,
with its agreements and rules, or the Framework Convention on Climate Change
with its contractual implementation, will become ever more important control
instruments in the architecture of a global order
6.2.2
Transnational enterprises
The cross-border activities of transnational enterprises, which are becoming
increasingly independent of national arrangements, contribute to the increasing
power and influence of these global players at global level, and therefore in the
nation-states as well, especially if these countries are small or economically and
geostrategically unimportant. With this increase in power, however, their
responsibility for a humane structure of world trade also increases At least in
parts of the private economy, there is a growing awareness that market
expansion can only be successful if it is accompanied by political and economic
stability, and by social compensation
Transnational enterprises must therefore accept this responsibility in the wellunderstood self-interest in order to secure the conditions for successful global
trade in the long term. Their commitment should particularly cover those areas
in which the private economy can make tangible changes. This includes clearly
striving for a global economic regulatory policy which is able to guarantee
forward-looking regulation of international financial markets in order to avoid
financial crises such as those in East and South East Asia or Latin America in
future. However, it also applies to acceptance of human rights, to creating
humane working conditions and to implementing environmental protection
rules, especially since there are generally valid standards and targets in these
areas set out in international agreements, for example in the Universal
57
Declaration of Human Rights, in the Conventions and Recommendations of the
International Labour Organization or in the Declarations and Programmes of
Action of the Conferences of the United Nations (e.g. Agenda 21 of the Earth
Summit held in Rio).
Transnational enterprises can support the implementation of such standards by,
on the one hand, publicly fighting for them in the political arena, including at
international level, and on the other, by ensuring that they are implemented in
their own facilities and uncovering unfairness and irregularities instead of hiding
them. They will only gain confidence and plausibility if they pursue suitable
labour, social and environmental standards within their own jurisdiction. Since
they are now major investors, important employers and leading producers in all
parts of the world, they have sufficient influence to implement such standards
directly, or at least indirectly. This includes such fundamental norms as the right
to free trade unions, the prohibition of exploitative child labour and forced
labour, and a recruitment policy which does not place anyone at a disadvantage
because of their race, religion, gender or ethnic origin. They can also take the
initiative to implement standards themselves without waiting until suitable laws
are adopted in the country' in question. This includes, for instance, undertaking
to adhere to higher environmental standards, as well as a willingness to support
voluntarily preventive environmental protection measures and to promote the
development and spread of environmentally-friendly technologies.
6.2.3
International civil society
The international civil society has gained importance in recent years, as is
demonstrated by the fact that it has taken an active part in the major world
conferences and the subsequent negotiations to implement conventions. Because
of its world-wide networks, it can make a major contribution to the process of
globalization by pursuing it critically and by offering innovative suggestions.
Many governments and international organizations work with NGOs in many
areas now, taking advantage of their specific strengths. They are frequently well
organised, work professionally and have extensive specialist knowledge. By
virtue of close international co-operation, they have considerable knowledge of
the local situation, as well as direct contact with the population, which is highly
significant especially for development co-operation based on the option for the
poor. This facilitates effective assistance for self-help orientated to the
respective needs.
58
Civil society players are also becoming increasingly important for public
relations and lobbying in order to involve as wide a spread of the population in
their work as possible. Since they are largely independent of state politics and,
in contradistinction to political parties, do not depend on majorities of voters
among the population, they are able to follow new paths, take path-breaking
initiatives and seize on important problems which might otherwise remain
subject to political taboos. In the Western democracies in particular, where
virtually every interest group has its political lobby, development policy NGOs
are important because they are able to represent the interests of the poor and the
victims of globalization who otherwise would be virtually unrepresented.
6.3
Potential for activity of the Church and its agencies
All those people, groups and organizations striving for human rights, and thus
for those to whom these rights are denied, must work for the losers of
globalization by publicising their worries and concerns, trying to find
responsible solutions and necessary institutional reforms and calling for personal
changes in conduct in the prosperous countries. This is largely a task for those
civil society players which are not aiming to make a profit (Non-profitorganizations).
The Catholic Church and its agencies are influential players in the international
civil society, and as such play a key role in the process of understanding and
mediation between North and South, West and East. They are distinct from other
NGOs in their basic criteria and in their motivation, but only to a certain degree
in their concrete activities and campaigns, which is why the following potential
actions are likely to apply also to the other civil societies.
The work of the church agencies also includes direct financial assistance for
local pastoral and social projects, and therefore collection of donations. These
are a visible sign of the willingness to share globally with other local churches
and with the poor. Thanks to their size, and to a large number of partners in the
South and East, the church agencies are also in a better position to distribute
their funds to the most needy in a subsidiary manner Their size also means that
they are highly effective in comparison with individual partnerships or small
church agencies, so that they also promote projects which would not otherwise
receive foreign aid.
59
Even greater significance is attached to the construction of real partnerships in
mutual give and take and in patiently learning from one another. This is a type
of inter-cultural and intra-church dialogue intended to create a conscious
counterweight to cultural superiority and paternalistic patronisation. Particularly
in the case of pastoral care, long-term personal contacts with other parishes are
vital to a world church which is striving towards unity in diversity. This type of
meeting facilitates getting to know other local churches, which can enrich one's
own pastoral activities As dense a network as possible between the local
churches all over the world, now feasible thanks to modem global
communication, also opens up new activities because it facilitates an exchange
of information and co-operation within the framework of very concrete aims In
this way, it is also possible to support co-operation within the local churches in
the South and East, for instance at the level of Bishops' Conferences, Orders,
Organizations of the lay apostolate or associations of theologians There is
particular significance here in the encouragement of an independent contribution
by the laity.
Information and publicity work takes on an expanding role here, as a
precondition for a change in awareness in the prosperous societies, without
which long-term structural reforms would be virtually impossible to implement
The church agencies seize on the solidarity of many Christians with the people
in developing nations and countries with economies in transition, and motivate
them to strive for a more just world. In order to do so, a wide range of
information, studies and public education work is needed. This includes starting
and providing fresh pastoral approaches and theological thinking in the partner
churches, not least because this can provide valuable incentives to the Churches
in the rich countries.
Almost automatically, this kind of effort offers the insight that the poorer
countries need political advocates for their interests, and above all for their poor.
In the Western democracies, almost every major interest group has its political
lobby to implement its interests and draw attention to them in a manner which
attracts as much media attention as possible. The opportunities available to the
less well developed countries, and to the poor world-wide in particular, therefore
improve if social groups in the North defend their interests. In this sense, the
Churches have a considerable potential because they still have a large number of
members, and consequently exercise an influence on political decisions which
60
should not be underestimated
For this reason, the church agencies participate in campaigns pursuing concrete
sub-aims in view of greater world-wide justice, such as the global march against
exploitative child labour or the campaign for debt relief. Since the effectiveness
of such campaigns very much depends on the number of their members and as
broad a civil society support as possible, it is important to form alliances of
solidarity beyond traditional philosophical and political borders, even if there
are some fears to be overcome in forming contacts. This is normally the only
way in which joint aims can be aggressively and effectively defended using
concerted media campaigns. A highly successful example is the campaign
against land mines, which has shown the non-church groups that the Churches
can be an important, influential alliance partner
There is also a possible lever for the creation of economic structural reforms in
deliberate consumption behaviour, eg. specifically buying products from
developing nations and countries with economies in transition since the market
already reacts to slight changes. Since large enterprises in particular set great
stock by a good image, consumption behaviour may also pursue political aims,
for example with trademarks indicating those products for which the enterprises
can prove that fundamental social and environmental standards have been
adhered to, from carpets manufactured without child labour, through to
sustainable wood use.
A similar approach is so-called "ethical investment" Since Christians and their
Churches also have financial assets which they invest, they should set strict
standards in order to do the most ethical thing with their money In this way,
they could specifically invest their money in enterprises and investment
administrators which are at least not counter to the aims of the conciliatory
process for justice, peace and maintenance of the Creation, even if this might
mean foregoing higher returns.
In desiring to create a sustainable lifestyle and economy which is acceptable
world-wide, we know that there is a great deal of information and motivational
work which remains to be done. Reorientation which runs almost diametrically
counter to the trend towards individualism and ever greater prosperity requires
not only political structural reforms, but also changes in personal conduct,
giving an incentive to the political sphere and indicating that there is a
61
willingness to change. There are many proposals worth consideration in this
context, in the study commissioned jointly by Misereor and BUND entitled
"Zukunftsfahiges Deutschland" (Sustainable Germany) especially in the eight
models which it contains. The Churches and their agencies will only be able to
credibly strive towards such aims, however, if they themselves also practice a
lifestyle and economy which combines quality of life and modesty. Such a
model is fundamentally transferable world-wide and facilitates global social
compensation. Here, the Churches, as many other religions, can fall back on
their own traditions of good living, such as on the teaching of the virtue of the
"right balance”, or on various forms of asceticism.
A world church which regards itself as a community of learning proclaims a
programme which is intended to build bridges. It is only in learning together
from one another, linked back to the message of the Gospel which has been
given to them, that the local churches, in their diversity, can become a real world
church. This programme, which the Church is still far from bringing to fruition,
could be a model of humane globalization aimed at countering the "globalization
of profit and misery with a globalization of solidarity" (John Paul II).
62
Research Group on the Universal Tasks of the Church of
the German Bishops' Conference
Brochures
-Poverty and Demographic Trends in the Third World (1991);
Authors: Franz Bockle/Hans-Rimbert Hemmer/Herbert Kotter
-Gutes Geld fur alle Sozialethische Uberlegungen zur
Geldwertstabilitat (1991; also in Spanish), study by the Group
of Experts on "World Economy and Social Ethics", presented
by Franz Furger and Joachim Wiemeyer
- Christians and Muslims Facing the Challenge of Human
Rights (1992; also in French); Authors: Johannes
Schwartlander/Heiner Bielefeldt
- From Dependency to Interdependency. Impulses and Limits of
the Dependency Theory (1994; also in French); study by the
Group of Experts on "World Economy and Social Ethics",
presented by Franz Finger and Joachim Wiemeyer
- Global and ecological aspects of economic activity.
Deliberations on the conversation of natural resources and
environmental protection (1994, also in Spanish); study by the
Group of Experts on "World Economy and Social Ethics",
presented by Franz Furger and Joachim Wiemeyer
- Structural Adjustments in the North in order to promote
Development in the South (1996), study by the Group of
Experts on "World Economy and Social Ethics", presented by
Franz Furger
- Handeln in der Weltgesellschaft: Christliche Dritte-WeltGruppen (1995); Authors: Karl Gabriel/Sabine Keller/Franz
Nuscheler/Monika Treber
- Social Security’ Systems as Elements of Poverty Alleviation in
Developing Countries (1997): study by the Group of Experts
on "World Economy and Social Ethics"
- StabiIitat und soziale Gerechtigkeit Zur Einfuhrung des
EURO (1999, also in Spanish): study by the Group of Experts
on “World Economy and Social Ethics”
63
-The many faces of globalization. Perspectives for a humane
and world order (2000): study by the Group of Experts on
“World Economy and Social Ethics"’
The brochures are available from Zentralstelle Weltkirche
der Deutschen Bischofskonferenz, KaiserstraBe 163, 53113 Bonn,
Tel. 0228/103-288, Fax 0228/103-335
E-mail' zsweltkirche@dbk de
64
Research Group on the Universal Tasks of the Church of
the German Bishops' Conference
Series of books on the Universal Tasks of the Church:
„Entwicklung und Frieden", Matthias-Griinewald-Verlag
Mainz
-Vol. 1: Peter Hunermann/Juan Carlos Scannone (ed.):
Lateinamerika und die katholische Soziallehre. Ein
lateinamerikanisch-deutsches Dialogpro-gramm (1993)
Part 1: Wissenschaft, kulturelle Praxis, Evangelisierung.
Methodische Reflexionen zur Katholischen Soziallehre
Part 2 Armut. Herausforderung fur Wirtschafts- und
Sozialordnung
Part 3: Deniokratie. Menschenrechte und pohtische Ordnung
- Vol. 2: Johannes Schwartlander: Freiheit der Religion.
Christentum und Islam unter dem Anspruch der
Menschenrechte (1993)
- Vol. 3: Thomas Hoppe (ed.)' Auf dem Weg zu einer
Europaischen Friedensordnung Perspektiven und
Probleme nach dem Ende des Kalten Krieges (1994)
- Vol. 4: Joachim E. Tschiersch/Herbert Kotter/Frithjof Kuhnen
Kirchen und landliche Entwicklung Einwirkungen auf
die
Rahmenbedingungen
der
Entwicklungszusammenarbcit - Moglichkeiten und
Grenzen (1995)
- Vol 5: Franz Nuscheler, Karl Gabriel, Monika Treber, Sabine
Keller: Christliche Dritte-Welt-Gruppen. Praxis und
Selbstverstandnis (1996)
- Vol. 6: Jurgen Schwarz (ed.): Die katholische Kirche und das
neue Europa. Dokumente 1980 - 1995 (2 Vols.) (1996)
- Vol. 7: Ludwig
Bertsch,
Hermann
Janssen,
Marco
Moerschbacher (ed)' Altemativen zur traditionellen
Pfarrstruktur Die Coinmunio-Ekklesiologie und ilire
Rezeption in Afirika, Ozeanien und Europa (1997)
- Vol. 8: Thania Paffenholz: Konflikttransformation durch
Vermittlung. Theoretische und praktische Erkenntnisse
aus dem FriedensprozeB in Mosambik 1976-1995
(1998)
Available in all bookstores
65
Research Group on the Universal Tasks of the Church of
the German Bishops' Conference
"Projects" Series
1
Yves Bizeul: Christliche Sekten und religiose
Bewegungen in der siidlichen Hemisphare. Eine
Literaturstudie (1995)
2
Thomas Bremer (ed.)’ Religion und Nation im Krieg auf
dem Balkan. Beitrage des Treffens deutscher, kroatischer
und serbischer Wissenschaftler vom 05. bis 09. April
1995 in Freising (1996)
3
Gero Erdmann: Demokratie und Demokratieforderung in
der Dritten Welt. Ein Literaturbericht und eine Erhebung
der Konzepte und Instrumente (1996)
4
Martin Diehl: Riickkehrbereitschaft von Stipendiaten aus
Entwicklungslandem.
Eine
Evaluierung
von
Fbrderprogrammen des Katholischen Akademischen
Auslander-Dienstes (KAAD) (1997)
5
Gunther
Freundl/Petra
Frank-Herrmann
(ed.):
Reproductive Behaviour in Circumstances of Extreme
Poverty (1997)
Karl Gabriel/Monika Treber (ed,): Christliche DritteWelt-Gruppen' Herausforderung fur die kirchliche
Pastoral und Sozialethik (1998)
Gero Erdmann: Demokratie- und Menschenrechtsforderung in der Dritten Welt, Grundlinien eines
Rahmenkonzeptes fiir die kirchliche Entwicklungszusammenarbeit (1999)
6
7
8
Thomas Floppe (ed.): Menschenrechte - Menschenpflichten. Beitrage eines gemeinsamen Symposiums der
Deutschen Kommission Justitia et Pax und der
Wissenschaftlichen Arbeitsgruppe fiir weltkirchliche
Aufgaben vom 7. bis 8. Dezember 1998 in Koln (1999)
Available from Zentralstelle Weltkirche der Deutschen
Bischofskonferenz, KaiserstraBe 163, 53113 Bonn,
Tel. 0228/103-288, Fax 0228/103-335
66
Position: 2613 (2 views)