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ETS/83.1
CDD/OPR/83.1
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION
ORGANISATION MONDIALE DE LA SANTE
GILL TREMLETT
i
t
i
MINIMUM EVALUATION PROCEDURE
(MEP)
for water supply and sanitation projects
■I
i
The issue of this document does not constitute
formal publication.
It should not be reviewed,
abstracted or quoted without the agreement of
the World Health Organization.
are
responsible
articles.
for
views
Authors alone
expressed
in
signed
Ce document ne constitue pas une publication.
II ne doit faire I'objet d'aucun compte rendu ou
resume ni d'aucune citation sans I'autorisation de
I'Organisation mondiale de la SantG. Les opinions
exprimdes dans
leurs auteurs.
les articles sign^s n'engagent que
<. -
1 I
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION
ORGANISATION MONDIALE DE LA SANTfi
ETS/83.1
CDD/OPR/83. 1
ORIGINAL:
ENGLISH
The International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade
MINIMUM EVALUATION PROCEDURE
(MEP)
FOR WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION PROJECTS
February 1983
R 1283
1084
ETS/83.1
CDD/OPR/83.1
page 2
CONTENTS
Page
PREFACE
4
1
EVALUATING WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION PROJECTS
5
1.1
PURPOSE OF EVALUATION
5
1 .2
SCOPE AND PURPOSE OF THE MEP
5
1.3
PROCEDURE FOR EVALUATION
8
1.3.1
1.3.2
1.3.3
1.3.4
1.3.5
1.3.6
1 .3.7
1.3.8
1.3.9
1.3.10
1 .3.11
8
8
10
10
10
11
13
16
16
17
17
2
Decision to evaluate
Selection of person responsible for the evaluation
Establish terms of reference for the evaluation
Desk study
Field visit to plan the evaluation
Selection of focus of the evaluation
Collection of data
Assessment of data
Preparation of recommendations
Review of the report
Follow-up action
EVALUATION OF FUNCTIONING
18
2.1
18
COMMUNITY WATER SUPPLY
2.1.1
2.1.2
2.1.3
2.1.4
2.2
2.3
Indicator W1:
Indicator W2;
Indicator W3:
Indicator W4;
water quantity
water quality
reliability of the water supply
convenience of water points
SANITATION
2.2.1
Indicator SI;
2.2.2
2.2.3
Indicator S2:
Indicator S4;
24
proportion of households that
have improved latrines
sanitation hygiene
sanitation reliability
HYGIENE EDUCATION
2.3.1
Indicator El:
2.3.2
Indicator E2:
2.3.3
2.3.4
Indicator E3:
Indicator E4;
18
21
23
23
26
26
28
29
understanding the language of
the messages
understanding the content of the
messages
access to the messages
face-to-face contact with project
staff and other educators
e. - nu
I 1-7-5
30
30
31
31
ETS/83.1
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Page
3
EVALUATION OF UTILIZATION
32
3.1
32
3.2
COMMUNITY WATER SUPPLY
3.1.1
Indicator W5:
3.1.2
Indicator W6:
proportion of people using the
facilities
HYGIENE EDUCATION
3.3.1
3.3 2
3.3.3
4
Indicator S4:
Indicator E5:
Indicator E6:
Indicator E7:
32
32
34
SANITATION
3.2.1
3.3
proportion of households using
the facilities
volume of water used and for what
purposes
34
34
water storage habits
handwashing after defecation
knowledge of oral rehydration
35
36
36
EVALUATION OF IMPACT
38
ANNEX 1
DATA GATHERING TECHNIQUES
39
ANNEX 2
GLOSSARY OF SELECTED TECHNICAL TERMS
50
ETS/83.1
CDD/OPR/83.1
page 4
PREFACE
The International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade was launched in 1980.
Decade programmes comprise interventions to provide clean and sufficient drinking water,
adequate facilities for excreta disposal and hygiene education,
These components complement
each other and their combination greatly enhances the probability <of achieving health
improvements.
The three components should be viewed within the broad context of Primary
Health Care which links preventive measures with curative services.
The considerable investments in improved water supply
supply and
and sanitation need to be
protected by the allocation of adequate manpower and financial resources
resources for operation and
maintenance.
Evaluations are essential to improve feedback from implemented projects and
insure that past experience is taken into account when new projects are planned.
This document describes a jrelatively cheap, simple and quick method of evaluating water
supply and sanitation projects.•
The guidelines are directed primarily towards managers of
water supply and sanitation programmes in Member countries.
In Chapter 1 the purpose of
evaluation and the purpose of the NEP are discussed and a step-by-step procedure
for
evaluation is outlined,
Indicators for the
functioning and utilization of facilities are
discussed in Chapters 2 and 3.
Documented experience from impact evaluation studies is
summarized in Chapter 4.
Information on data gathering techniques is presented in Annex 1.
A glosary ot terms used in the document is given in Annex 2.
This document has been prepared by the Diarrhoeal Diseases Control Programme and the
Environmental Health Division in cooperation with the Ross Institute of Tropical Hygiene,
London. WHO Regional Offices have also contributed to the document. Representatives of five
bilateral agencies, UNICEF and the International Reference Centre for Community Water Supply
and Sanitation, The Hague, offered very constructive comments on an earlier draft.
Some of
the methouological aspects were tested in the Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma.
✓
ETS/83.1
CDD/OPR/83.1
page 5
CHAPTER 1
EVALUATING WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION PROJECTS
1.1
PURPOSE OF EVALUATION
Evaluation is a systematic way of learning from experience and of using the lessons
learned both to improve the planning of future projects and also to take corrective action to
improve the functioning, utilization and impact of existing projects,
The evaluation does
not in itself improve anything.
It should not be just a listing of problems, and their
possible causes, but should also include recommendations of the following types:
(i)
actions needed to
- get a non-functioning facility into operation;
improve a functioning facility;
improve the utilization of facilities;
(ii)
complementary activities that need
benefits to materialize or increase;
(iii)
modifications needed to future projects;
(iv)
actions needed to ensure that
programmes and other agencies.
to
be
lessons
initiated
learned
or
are
re-emphasized
conveyed
to
for
other
These recommendations can be arrived at without an evaluation of impacts,
As this
document does not include detailed guidelines on the design of impact studies it has been
labelled "Minimum Evaluation Procedure ii (MEP) .
1.2
SCOPE AND PURPOSE OF THE MEP
The ultimate objectives of allocating resources for water supply and sanitation
investments are to improve the health, welfare and economic status of the users of the
facilities constructed, These objectives cannot be fully achieved unless the facilities are,
firstly, functioning in the correct way and, secondly, utilized by the community.
Thus, the
MEP is designed to evaluate functioning and utilization and concludes with a discussion of
impact study methodology and findings from documented impact studies,
This approach is set
out in Figures 1 and 2. Detailed guidelines for the evaluation of impact will be covered in
a separate document.
The evaluation may focus on one or more of the three stages of functioning,
utilization and impact (Figure 2).
Deficiencies found in the evaluation of a particular
stage call for improvements in the output of the previous stage or in the inputs to the stage
under review.
There is, therefore, little value in evaluating a particular stage unless the
objectives of the previous stage have been largely achieved.
Evaluation of impact is only
appropriate for a project known to be correctly functioning and well utilized.
These
guidelines
are
written
technologies.
They are less a ppropriate
technology.
primarily
for
projects
which
employ
simple
for large urban projects employing sophisticated
YES
ARE THE WATER SUPPLY
FACILITIES FUNCTIONING
AS INTENDED?
15
YES
ARE THE WATER SUPPLY
FACILITIES UTILIZED AS
INTENDED?
ARE THE OPTIMUM HEALTH,
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC
IMPACTS BEING OBTAINED?
O W
O Hi
a w
n> >
o >
co
to
TJ GJ
TO
00
GJ
NO
NO
ARE THE SANITATION
FACILITIES FUNCITONING
AS INTENDED?
YES
NO
YES
ARE THE SANITATION
FACILITIES BEING UTILIZED
AS INTENDED?
YES
NO
BENEFITS
YES
IS THE PROMOTION AND
HYGIENE EDUCATION SYSTEM
FUNCTIONING?
NO
YES
IS THE HYGIENE
EDUCATION SYSTEM
UTILIZED?
NO
HOW CAN THE FUNCTIONING
BE IMPROVED?
HOW CAN THE UTILIZATION
BE IMPROVED?
WHAT COMPLEMENTARY INPUTS
ARE NEEDED FOR IMPACT
TO INCREASE?
WHAT ARE THE IMPLICATIONS OF FINDINGS ON FUTURE INTERVENTIONS REGARDING
- project selection criteria
- choice of technology
- choice of promotion and education techniques
- manpower requirements
- financial requirements
- management and organization
- community participation
- complementary inputs (e.g. other components of Primary Health Care)
- expectations regarding functioning
- expectations regarding utilization
- expectations regarding impact
Note:
YES = Yes, to a great extent.
NO = No, to a great extent.
Figure 1 :
Questions to be answered in the evaluation of water supply and sanitation programmes
NO
Capital
Manpower
Land
Institution
Planning
Organizing
Control
Facilities for
Water Production
*
CONSTRUCTION
>
Education
Recurrent Funds
Manpower
Institution
Planning
Organizing
Control
Promotion
Education
COMMISSIONING
JL
Water of specified quantity and
quality at specified points
WATER
PRODUCTION
EVALUATION I
V
Demand
EVALUATION I
Functioning; technical, administrative
and resource evaluation
!
Resources (time
and money)
Education
WATER
UTILIZATION
Increased availability of
water of improved quality
and time available
>
EVALUATION II
EVALUATION II
Utilization; sociological, administrative
and technical evaluation
EVALUATION III
Impact; health, sociological and
economic evaluation
Complementary
inputs
Education
ACTIVITIES
THAT IMPROVE
HEALTH AND
ECONOMY
Health benefits
Social benefits
Economic benefits
-- ► EVALUATION III
n
cu o
u C/2
o oo
id
GO
-d- UJ
•
Figure 2 : Evaluation of benefits from water supply investments and intermediate steps
co
ETS/83.1
CDD/OPR/83.1
page 8
The guidelines are written for global application and can therefore not cover data
collection, analyses and recommendations for correctiv«e action to any great depth, They must
be adapted to local conditions bearing in mind the purpose of the evaluation, institutional
arrangements and technologies employed in the projects to be evaluated.
The guidelines are written primarily for managers responsible for the construction
and/or operation and maintenance of water supply and sanitation programmes in developing
countries and for others who may be responsible for conducting or organizing evaluations.
The scope of any particular evaluation will be defined in one of the following ways;
by ongoing or completed programmes;
by geographic area (e.g. by province);
by technology (e.g. handpumps on shallow wells);
by agency (e.g. facilities built by the Ministry of Health);
by donor (e.g. programmes supported by UNICEF);
by age (e.g. facilities developed before 1970);
by socio-economic group (e.g. landless people);
by emergency or disaster (e.g. the area affected by a cholera epidemic).
Evaluations can be continuous, carried out regularly (e.g. annually) or at special
points in time when maximum use of the results can be expected (e.g. prior to a new planning
cycle, prior to negotiations with external support agencies or after disasters such as wars
or natural disasters).
These guidelines do not recommend research-oriented sophisticated methods of
establishing the linkage between clean water, adequate sanitation, hygiene education and
health. Nor do they provide methodologies to conduct benefit/cost analysis. The emphasis is
rather on the collection of basic information on the functioning and utilization of projects
and the employment of this information to improve project and programme performance.
1.3
PROCEDURE FOR EVALUATION
The main steps involved in carrying out an evaluation are shown
brief summary of these steps is presented below.
1.3.1
in Figure 3.
A
Decision to evaluate
The initiative may come from the ministry responsible for water .supply and/or
sanitation, the Ministry of Health or from the Ministry of Planning, possibly encouraged by
an external agency providing resources for the programme.
The level within the organization
at which the evaluation is initiated may determine what follow-up action can be expected from
the evaluation.
The recommendations for action in the evaluation report should preferably
fall within the area of responsibility of the person to whom the report is directed.
Some organizations have already reached the stage where evaluation is built into the
planning process and therefore is a continuous rather than ad hoc activity.
1.3.2
Selection of person responsible for the evaluation
The person given the responsibility to carry out the evaluation should preferably be
familiar with the project, or similar projects, but without having been so closely involved
that the outcome might be biased.
ETS/83.1
CDD/OPR/83.1
nage 9
DECIDE TO EVALUATE
SELECT TEAM LEADER
ESTABLISH TEPL1S OF REFERENCE
DESK STUDY
VISIT FIELD TO PLAN THE EVALUATION
DECIDE ON FOCUS OF EVALUATION
COLLECT DATA ON RESULTS
(Project and Programme Levels)
ASSESS THE DATA COLLECTED
(Project and Programme Levels)
AND DEVELOP ALTERNATIVE
SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS
□
PREPARE RECOMMENDATIONS AND
ESTABLISH PRIORITIES
REVIEW REPORT
INITIATE FOLLOW-UP ACTIONS
)
GET NON-FUNCTIONING FACILITIES
INTO OPERATION
IMPROVE FUNCTIONING OF FACILITIES
IMPROVE UTILIZATION OF FACILITIES
INTRODUCE COMPLEMENTARY
ACTIVITIES FOR BENEFITS TO
MATERIALIZE OR INCREASE
MODIFY PLANNING, DESIGN,
CONSTRUCTION AND/OR OPERATION
AND MAINTENANCE OF FUTURE
PROGRAMMES AND PROJECTS
CONVEY LESSONS LEARNED TO OTHER
AGENCIES AND AREAS
LEGEND :
Action
Critical Review
Figure 3 : Procedure for Evaluation
o
ETS/83.1
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page 1U
1.3.3
Establish terms of reference for the evaluation
The person selected to be responsible for the evaluation should develop detailed
terms of reference in close cooperation with the person(s) to whom he should be reporting.
The terms of reference should define:
- objectives
- project area
- design of the study
- methods
- organization and manpower resources
- reporting
- time schedule
- financial requirements
The resources of personnel, time and money required to carry out the evaluation
depend on the objectives, the depth of the evaluation and the size of the project being
evaluated. The costs of evaluation will typically increase with the time taken, whereas the
interest of those who initiated the evaluation has a tendency to decrease as time passes.
There will be considerable variation in the time from initiation of the evaluation to the
reporting, but this might typically be three to six months, with a four to six weeks
concentrated effort in the field to collect the data.
1.3.4
Desk study
The person responsible for the evaluation needs some time to study the documentation
about the project.
The expected outcome of a community water supply and/or sanitation
project is usually expressed in longer term development objectives as well as shorter term
immediate objectives. The former are, as a rule, given in very general terms indicating that
____________________
health, economic and social benefits are expected to materialize.
Intended coverage
(population and/or geographic area covered) and level of service (communal standposts or
wells with handpumps, yard or house connections, number of people per water point, volume per
capita for each type of service, water quality requirements, maximum distance to water
points) are usually spelled out in the immediate objectives. Goals for promotion of consumer
interest in new supplies and sanitation facilities, community involvement,
community
contribution to construction, operation and maintenance and education on hygienic use of
facilities are usually expressed in the project documents.
The desk study should also include an analysis of actual cost data to establish unit
costs (cost per individual water scheme, cost per person served, cost per latrine etc.) and
the distribution of costs between the government agencies involved and the consumers.
Documentation
on
the
institutional
arrangements
for construction
and
operation and
maintenance and pricing policies for the operational phase should also be reviewed at this
s tage.
1.3.5
Field visit to plan the evaluation
Most rural water supply and sanitation projects are spread over large areas.
A
short visit to a few sites at an early stage is almost essential to facilitate the planning
of the evaluation.
Note difficulties in the physical terrain, talk informally with field
staff about their problems, note residence patterns, especially of disadvantaged groups, talk
informally to a few householders;
establish if there are severe problems with the
functioning and/or utilization of the facilities and if there are large seasonal variations
in supply and/or demand.
*
ETS/83.1
CDD/OPR/83.1
page 11
1.3.6
Decide on focus of the evaluation
The general purpose of the evaluation will have been established at the initiation
of the exercise (Item 1.3.1 above).
Information obtained during the study of project
documents, and the field visit, will make it possible to define more precisely the focus of
the evaluation.
If the initial field visit revealed severe problems with the functioning of
the facilities, there is no point in carrying out an evaluation of utilization or impact.
Some of the aspects to be considered in deciding on the focus of the evaluation are
tabulated in Table 1.
Within a project that consists of a number of individual water schemes one might
wish to emphasize functional aspects
aspec ts on schemes with functional problems;
utilization
aspects on schemes which function well but have utilization problems and
for schemes with
both sa tisfactory functioning and utilization a special impact
study could be carried out
(detailed guidelines for impact evaluation are not included
in these "Minimum Evaluation
Procedures").
ETS/83.1
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page 12
Table 1 : Aspects to be considered in establishing the focus of the evaluation
MAIN PURPOSE OF THE
EVALUATION
TYPE OF EVALUATION
CRITERIA
REMARKS
To establish actions
needed
Functioning of
facilities
(Evaluation I,
At least some of the
schemes within the
project should have
been completed
- to get non-functioning
facilities into operation
Figure 2)
The focus is onQ) the physical systems
and their engineering aspects and(2)
institutions responsible for hygiene
education.
Recommended actions should be checked
against the views, attitudes and desires
of the community as the malfunctioning
could reflect sociological rather than
technical problems.
Utilization*** of
facilities
(Evaluation II,
Figure 2)
The facilities and the
educational services under
review need to be
functioning fairly well.
The focus is more on sociological and
administrative aspects. Recommended
actions should be checked against
engineering feasibility and capabili
ties of education institutions as they
might affect functioning.
Recommended actions should also be
checked against potential impact on
health and economy of the community to
ensure that they will result in
positive results.
Impact of the use
of the facilities
(Evaluation III,
Figure 2)
The facilities and educa
tion services under review
need to be functioning
fairly well, be reliable
and utilized by a high
proportion of the
community
Recommendations made should be checked
against engineering feasibility and
acceptance by the communities concerned.
- to improve the
functioning of facilities
To establish actions
needed to increase
- coverage*
- water and sanitation
usage**
To establish benefits from
water supply and sanitation
investment s.
To establish actions
needed to optimize benefits.
*
COVERAGE
=
Number of people using the facility.
Number of people living in the area the facility.
Number of households who have built a latrine
Number of households with access to the programme
USAGE
refers to volume of water used per person; proportion of household members and households that use
latrines that have been built; proportion of people who understand hygiene education messages.
UTILIZATION
takes coverage as well as usage into account
ETS/83.1
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page 13
1.3.7
Collection of data
data on functioning of the
Three main types; of data need to be collected.’
facilities and educating services,
services, data on utilization of services and institutional and
Somewhat different approaches are needed to collect
financial data related to the project,
these three kinds of data.
Functioning of facilities and education services should be assessed wherever
possible by engineering inspection and scientific observation.
For instance, a faulty pump
should be inspected by a competent technician (not merely recorded as being faulty because of
a report given by a user) and polluted water should be examined for enteric bacteria (not
merely recorded as polluted because someone said it was). The opinions and attitudes of the
users should be recorded, but they should be backed up by direct inspection and appropriate
laboratory tests. A sample of consumers should be asked to comment on their perceptions of
educational messages and approaches.
If the project being evaluated consists of many
individual schemes, time might not permit all schemes to be visited in which case a selection
of representative schemes to be visited should be made by the evaluation team.
Utilization of the services should be recorded by a mixture of questioning users
about utilization and corroborating this by observing utilization or signs of utilization
Factors
(for instance stools around the yard are a sign on non-utilization of latrines),
that constrain people from using facilities, such as lack of money to buy water or soap, or
fear that their children will fall into latrine pits, should be recorded.
Household information will always be required on utilization of services and will
also be required on services provided for single households (e.g. house and plot connections
or private latrines).
Household information can be obtained in various ways, some of which
are summarized in Table 2.
The least cost method of arriving at reasonably accurate definitions of problems
with the functioning and utilization of facilities is to combine observation studies (Item 1,
Table 2) with conversational interviews (Item 2, Table 2). The data gathering can be applied
to whole villages, if they are small. For larger villages, stratified samples (Item 3, Table
2) can be taken.
Complementary information can be obtained at low cost through school children (Item
4, Table 2) and through community questionnaires (Item 5, Table 2).
A questionnaire survey (Item 6, Table 2) gives more precision to the findings and
allows statistical analyses of the data.
It requires, on the other hand, substantial
A poorly
resources for planning, training of interviewers, coding and analysis of data.
planned and executed household sample survey can be very misleading.
The workshop method (Item 7, Table 2) can be used for definition of problems as well
as for finding solutions to problems identified by other methods. Further details about the
techniques for data gathering are given in Annex 1.
ETS/83.1
CDD/OPR/83.1
page 18
CHAPTER 2
EVALUATION OF FUNCTIONING
2.1
COMMUNITY b/ATER SUPPLY
Four indicators of the functioning of water supply facilities are described;
Wl;
W2;
W3;
W4;
water quantity
water quality
reliability of the water supply
convenience of water points
There is a brief discussion of the ttarget or the intention for each indicator,
tollowed
followed by a
checklist of data required in the evaluation
--- with guidance as to how the information can be
obtained.
In the section on assessment tthe discrepancy between the target and the findings
is discussed and, finally, for each indicator suggestions are made about possible actions to
take.
The indicators,
indicators, and possible reasons for discrepancies between the intended
functioning and the actual performance, are presented in diagrammatic form in Figure 4.
2.1.1
Indicator Wl;
water quantity
Target
- The quantity of water to be provided is usually expressed in terms of
litres per capita per day (1/c/d) in the Pr°ject targets.
The design criteria normally
specify a variation in t
’
the
provision of water depending on the type of service provided;
e.g. standpost service 20 to 40,, ;yard connection 40 to 80, house connection 50 to 150 1/c/d.
Ihe design criteria vary with climatic conditions and water availability. Allowance should
also be made for watering of cattle and in certain cases depending on supply and demand, for
watering ot vegetable gardens.
TIncreased' demand
'
with time due to population increase and
shifts from communal water point service to yard or house connections is often considered in
the design.
Seasonal variation in the supply at
source and in the demand are important
factors sometimes overlooked in planning documents.
Data required - The information needed will vary with the type of technology used,
in the case of piped supplies the following questions would need
--- 1 to be answered;
1.
What is the present human and animal population within the supply area?
2.
Based on the design criteria, what would the present consumption of water be?
3. Based on an estimate of the water losses in
the system, what would the present
production requirements be (i
.in some instances the design criteria are based on a
certain percentage of water losses in which case
no extra allowance would be needed
unless the losses are estimated to be very
i
high - it is not unusual that only 40 to
80 percent of the water produced reaches
-3 the consumers)?
4.
What is the present production of water m
i m-'3 per day?
5.
For how many hours per day does the supply operate?
6.
For how many days per week does the supply operate?
7.
What has been the trend in water production since the supply was opened?
ETS/83/1
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BASICALLY
ARE THE WATER SUPPLY
FACILITIES FUNCTIONING
AS INTENDED?
YES
ARE THE WATER SUPPLY
9 FACILITIES UTILIZED
AS INTENDED?
NO (there are one or more fundamental problems)
WHY NOT?
POOR
WATER QUALITY
INSUFFICIENT
WATER QUANTITY
WHY?
WHY?
■)
bacteriologi
cal
pollution
water source
inadequate^/
LOW
RELIABILITY
WHY?
poor design and/
or construction
of components
low lift
pumps
inadequate
chemical
pollution
9 and maintenance
treatment
plans
inadequate
poor taste,
colour or
sme11
funds
“ insufficient
poor operation
main storage
inadequate
WHY?
manpower on
7 site
insufficient
7
rising main
inadequate
water source
unsuitable
maintenance
-) back-up
insufficient
3
distribution
storage
inadequate
water treatment
non-existent or
inadequate
parts
7 difficult to
obtain
chemicals diffi
cult to obtain
water points
inadequate
excessive
leakage
/
poorly
maintained pipe
network
excessive
wastage
4
utilization
exceeds
theoretical
demand 2/
intermittant
supply
2
TOO FAR TO THE
WATER POINTS
WHY?
distribution
network not
built out
migration of
4 people
fuel
difficult to
get
lack of
A training
about 0 & M
inadequate
management
structure
water contamin
ated during
collection or
storage in home
—^Permanently or seasonally.
2/
—Design fault or misuse.
Figure 4 : Malfunctioning of water supply and possible reasons therefore
ETS/83.1
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page 20
8.
What is the capacity of the supply in m^ per day?
9. What is the capacity in m^/hour (peak
hourly demand by a factor of three to five)?
hourly
demand
might
exceed
average
10. Is there a seasonal variation in the capacity?
11. Is there a seasonal variation in demand?
12. Which component of the supply is the limiting factor (the source, the treatment
plant, the production plant or the distribution)?
Plot the data on a capacity/demand curve.
Production
3
M /day
capacity
1—
I
|
----- 1—I
theoretical demand
actual production
time (years)
In the case of wells equipped with handpumps or open wells inadequacy in the
capacity will result in long waiting time and will be reflected in the utilization.
Questions relevant to the water availability are:
1.
2.
3.
What is the maximum hourly capacity?
How many people are expected to draw water from the well?
Does the well dry up during the dry season?
A big discrepancy between the actual and the theoretical demand could
Assessment
be an indication that there is a need to revise the design criteria. A water use study of a
sample of households should be undertaken as a basis for such a decision (see Annex 1 for
further details).
If the actual production is approaching or equal to the capacity of the system, the
augmentation of the supply capacity, an education
alternatives to be considered include:
programme to reduce wastage, a leak detection and repair programme to reduce water losses or
embargo on new house connections.
A low actual demand in relation to the theoretical demand might indicate the need
promotional
campaign, changes in pricing policy, improvements in the distribution of
for a
water points or a revision of design criteria.
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Possible actions - Increased water availability might be accomplished through one
or more of the following actions:
decrease in water losses, that is a leak detection and leak repair programme;
decrease in
programme;
wastage
through
improved
maintenance
augmentation of the limiting component of the
increased pumping capacity, increased storage).
of
system
taps
(e.g.
and
an
educational
additional wells,
Increased water use might be accomplished through one or more of the following actions;
promotional campaign;
change in pricing policy;
construction of additional water points;
promotion of yard and house connections;
extension of the distribution network.
2.1.2
Indicator W2:
water quality
Target
- The last edition of the WHO International Standards for Drinking Water
was issued in 1971 and that of the European Standards for Drinking Water in 1970. These have
now been revised and merged and will be published in three volumes in 1982-1983 under the
title of "WHO Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality ” as follows;
Volume I
Volume II
Volume III
Recommendations
Health Criteria
Sanitary Survey and Bacteriological Analysis of Rural
Water Supplies.
The guidelines cover inorganic and organic constituents of health significance,
radioactive materials, bacteriological and aestetic quality.
In the case of rural water
supplies the latter two properties are usually more significant than problems with inorganic
constituents
(arsenic,
cadmium,
chromium,
cyanide,
fluoride,
lead,
mercury,
nitrate,
selenium).
The target should be to deliver safe water, which implies no
pollution and with acceptable chemical properties, colour, taste and odour.
bacteriological
Data required - There are two important aspects to water quality control, namely
water analysis and sanitary surveillance.
Sanitary surveillance can not replace analysis,
but deviations from the conditions regarded as optimal for drinking water production can be
discovered through a sanitary survey.
Detailed guidelines on what to look for for various
types of water supply systems are given in Volume III of the WHO guidelines referred to
above.
In some countries laboratory facilities are not available to the evaluation team.
A
sanitary survey by a person with the necessary knowledge, to detect problems and to suggest
solutions will
have
to suffice.
The quality of
the water
is
determined by
its
microbiological, chemical and physical properties.
If the source of the supply is surface
water, and there is no treatment, then it is likely that the water is faecally contaminated,
although it may be much less polluted than the traditional water source.
By contrast, it is
likely that water from a protected groundwater source is uncontaminated.
Faecal coliforms (largely E. coli) and/or faecal streptococci are the most suitable
indicators of faecal pollution.
They are relatively easy to enumerate, although laboratory
equipment, such as an incubator that can maintain a steady temperature, is required.
Water
at the source and at the tap should be tested.
If the water supply is chlorinated, and there
is residual chlorine in the water at the taps, there is no need to carry out bacteriological
tests.
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A physical examination of the water may reveal discolouration, odours or tastes that
might discourage people from using the water, even if they are not harmful.
The water may be subject to contamination between the tap and the point of
consumption.
If bacteriological testing is carried out, samples should be taken from storage
vessels in homes as well as from the source and the taps to cearly establish if a possible
quality problem is linked to the water supply or to the handling after collection of the
tapes.
For comparative reasons, samples should also be taken from traditional water
sources.
It is usual that some households continue to use their traditional source because
they are not satisfied with the quality of the water from the new supply.
It might be a
question of taste (the water is considered too salty or the chlorine gives it a bad tas te),
or a question of belief (the new water makes the children sick, it sterilizes the women or it
weakens the men),
The problem can be real or imagined. People's views on water quality can
be obtained through interviews.
Peoples behaviour affecting domestic water quality may often
be observed directly,
e.g. storage containers uncovered, dippers put on the floor, topping
up containers without regular cleaning.
An observational study at
traditional source can
identify people who use the traditional source in preference to the new supply and they can
be asked about the reasons for this choice.
In countries with marked seasonality,
observations should preferably be made both at the height of the wet and the dry seasons.
Assessment — As stated above the target should be no E. coli in drinking water.
It may, however, not be practical to reach that target in the rural areas of many developing
countries for some years to come. A tolerance level below which no immediate action would be
taken might have to be established.
When deciding on a tolerance level one should bear in
mind the quality of the alternative water sources and if it is feasible to maintain treatment
facilities if introduced.
It is not unusual that a protected spring without chlorination
contains 5-10 E. coli per 100 ml and in an unprotected spring the number might exceed 100.
Possible
actions
_______________
Should the concentration of E. coli exceed the agreed limit,
treatment facilities should be improved, or installed if non-existent, unless the source of
pollution can be identified and removed.
In many cases, introduction of chlorination would
suffice.
The implications are,
are, however,
that somebody must be responsible for the
chlorination, there should be recurrent funds available for the purchase of chlorine and a
logistic system for a steady renewal of the stock of chlorine or the treatment system will
soon cease to function.
When highly polluted surface water is used, the installation of slow sand filters
should be considered.
It is a treatment process that is relatively simple and low cost.
It
does, however, require some maintenance and can be misused to the extent of becoming
useless.
Raw water from rivers that become extremely turbid during the rainy season might
require presedimentation prior to the slow sand filter.
Slow sand filters prepare water for
subsequent chlorination.
Where the groundwater is round
found to contain high levels
Levels ot
of fluoride (recommended upper
limit for fluoride concentration in the tropics is 1.7 parts per million;
the value might be
as high as 5 in some national standards) action should be recommended.
Other nearby
boreholes should be sampled because the presence of fluoride may be very localized.
The
treatment process to remove fluoride is rather complex and costly, but cannot be avoided in
some instances.
Removal of nitrate is difficult and costly and often not a practical
An alternative source should be located.
proposition.
Problems with the physical properties of the water might not cause health problems
but might deter use.
In such cases an educational campaign may help people to use safe water.
Where behaviour habits cause contamination within households, modification of that
behaviour should be a special focus of hygiene education. Adult women should be the target
group for these educational activities.
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2.1.3
Indicator W3:
reliability of the water supply
Targets
The reliability of the supply is normally not discussed in project
documents.
It is assumed that the supply will function continuously throughout the year.
Alternative sources in case of breakdowns or severe drought should be considered.
Data required Frequency and duration of stoppages in the supply of water are
indicators of the reliability of the supply. Stoppages can be complete or partial;
that is,
a portion of the water points are not functioning or part of the system (such as th e
treatment plant) is not functioning.
If reliable operational records are kept the stoppages and their durations will have
been recorded.
This is possible only if there is permanent operating staff and, even then,
records are frequently not reliable.
The operating staff should be able to provide
information about the relative frequency of the causes of complete and partial stoppages. A
sample survey among the consumers will give an idea about the frequency and duration of
stoppages, but probably little information about the real reasons for the stoppages.
People
are most likely to recall incidents of the supply being out of order if the alternative water
source is far away or inconveniently located.
A low level of reliability can be the result of poor design and/or construction, but
it is most commonly derived from inadequate operation and maintenance.
If it is found that
the frequency and duration of stoppages have been excessive, a detailed analysis of resource
requirements for adequate operation and maintenance of the supply should be carried out, and
an inventory of available resources compiled, in order to identify possible gaps.
Assessment
Complete reliability is an ideal that will seldom be achieved in
practice.
The degree of reliability that should be regarded as acceptable is a matter of
judgement.
This judgement will be influenced by the opinion of the consumers on the
reliability of the supply and by the adequacy of the alternative water sources that are used
during a stoppage.
Possible actions - Low reliability will be due either to poor maintenance,
design, poor construction or a combination of these.
poor
If poor maintenance is implicated, the whole maintenance system must be reviewed and
improved.
Some maintenance tasks will be the responsibility of government agencies or
ministries, while others may rest with the community or the local government bodies.
The
necessary tasks must be clearly defined and the bodies responsible for them identified.
Adequate financial resources must be available to pay for the various aspects of the
maintenance system. The most common reason for poor maintenance is the assumption by central
government that the community itself will be primarily responsible for maintaining its own
supply, even though it is given inadequate support, training or money.
The remedies for poor design or construction will usually be self-evident.
Poor
design may result from incorrect choice of technology, especially a technology that is too
complex or that uses a fuel that is not always available,
Poor construction is often due to
poor supervision of self-help labour.
2.1.4
Indicator W4:
convenience of water points
Targets - A maximum distance from households to water points is often indicated in
the design.
In order to encourage use of the water points they should preferably be more
conveniently located than the traditional sources.
In areas with marked seasonality
particular attention should be given to the fact that traditional wet weather sources (e.g.
ponds) are likely to be in closer vicinity than that in use during the dry season.
Data required - What is the distribution of distances between households and water
points? The distances can be estimated from drawings, maps or aerial photographs. The data
can be graphically presented on a relative frequency diagram.
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No. of 7O of
household
distance
T
yard or house
conditions
maximum distance
according to design
criteria
The type of terrain is obviously of importance in considering the energy consumed in
the water collection journey, and should be noted at least for those with the furthest
distance to the water points. Availability of bullock or donkey carts or other vehicles for
water transport should also be noted and whether poor families can afford the cost of water
transport.
Information on the location of traditional water sources in the wet and the dry
season are needed to assess the implication of the distribution of water points.
Assessment - A proportion of households will be located further from the nearest
water point than specified by the project design criteria.
The acceptability of this
proportion must be judged. The judgement will be influenced by the proximity of traditional
water sources, since many families will use a traditional source, even though it is polluted,
if it is more convenient than the nearest water point.
The data on proximity will be an essential input to any evaluation of utilization
(see Chapter 3) or an evalution of the time saving impact.
Possible actions - If the proportion of households, located further from a water
point than specified, is excessive, or if households are foresaking the new supply in favour
of traditional sources more conveniently located, more water points should be constructed. A
promotion programme to persuade people of the benefits of using the new supply, might also be
introduced.
2.2
SANITATION
This section deals with excreta disposal faclities for individual households,
indicators of the functioning of sanitation facilities have been selected;
Three
SI: proportion of households that have improved latrines;
S2; sanitation hygiene;
S3: sanitation reliability.
The indicators and possible reasons for discrepancies between the intended functioning and
the actual performance are presented in diagrammatic form in Figure 5.
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ARE SANITATION
FACILITIES FUNCTIONING
AS INTENDED?
BASICALLY
YES
7
ARE SANITATION
FACILITIES UTILIZED
AS INTENDED?
NO (there are one or more fundamental problems)
7
LOW PROPORTION
OF HOUSEHOLD
HAVE LATRINES
FACILITIES ARE
NOT HYGIENIC
RELIABILITY OF
FACILITIES LOW
too expensive
fouling
poor operation
and maintenance
flooding
poor back-up
service
inadequate
cleaning
inappropriate
use
lack of water
wrong or poor
design and/or
construct ion
wrong or poor
design and/or
construction
■7
inadequate
knowledge on how
to build
7
do not envisage
any benefits
material not
available
0
0
high ground
water table
impermable
soil or rock
7
over filled
latrines
super
structure
f ixtures
pit not
properly built
Figure 5 :
Malfunctioning of sanitation facilities and
possible reasons therefore
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2.2.1
Indicator SI;
proportion of households that have improved latrines
Target
Many sanitation projects depend on self-help construction, with the
households providing the material and labour for construction of the superstructure and for
excavation, and the government providing material not locally available such as squatting
slabs, latrine pans and ventilation pipes.
In order to motivate people to participate in the
project, the government usually subsidizes partly or fully the provision of these materials
or, alternatively, credits are arranged to allow repayment over several years.
Governments
normally train staff in the construction of latrines so that technical advice and help is
Governments also train staff to teach and promote aspects of
made available to households,
Demonstration latrines may be built,
hygiene that are related to the sanitation project,
Usually it is assumed that all households in a specified area will participate in the project.
Data required
Information is needed on the proportion of households in the
projec t area that have new or improved latrines. This is obtained by a house-to-house survey.
Information is also needed on the reasons for the non-participation of certain
households. This is obtained by a survey of non-participating households to discover whether
they know about the project.
If they do, then further investigations are necessary to
discover if they have chosen not to participate (and why), or they have been excluded (why
and by whom).
Assessment
It is unlikely that 100 percent coverage of households can be
achieved.
If no target was established at the outset of the project, or if it was assumed
that complete coverage would be reached, a realistic target should be set. The target will
depend on local circumstances but should probably be 80 percent or above for any substantial
community health benefits to materialize.
Possible actions - Possible actions needed to improve coverage will depend on the
main reasons for non-participation and are summarized in Table 3.
2.2.2
Indicator S2;
sanitation hygiene
Target - Unhygienic latrines deter people from using them.
The aim must be to
curtail insect breeding, smell and fouling through appropriate design of latrines and hygiene
education.
The hygienic standard of latrines is best established through
Data required
A
grading
system will be needed in judging the condition with regards
physical inspection.
i
and presence of flies and mosquitoes (e.g. good, acceptable, bad and very
to smell, fouling
J
If several observers are involved in the survey it is important that they inspect a
bad).
There are other indicators
few latrines together to establish criteria for the categories,
to look for which will vary with the type of latrine and with the cleansing customs in the
area (e.g. presence of lid on the latrine, access to water, presence of water in the water
seal).
The data will be expressed as proportions of latrines having a
Assessment
For instance, ti 30 percent of latrines inspected
certain
characteristic.
certain grade of a
had bad fouling", Judgements are then necessary on the adequacy of these proportions. These
influenced
by
the
opinions
of
the
community on
the
various
be
judgements
will
if
bad
odour
from
a
latrine
is
regarded
as
highly
offensive
For instance,
characteristics.
and is a major cause of non-usage of latrines, then rather demanding standards for smell
Similarly, judgements on the breeding of flies and mosquitoes
would be set in that area.
will be influenced by the people’s opinions about these insects, but will also be influenced
In
by whether the insects are known to be vectors of disease in the particular locality.
particular, mosquito breeding will be regarded more seriously in an area where Culex
quinquefasciatus (a mosquito that often breeds in latrines) is the vector of bancroftian
filariasis.
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Table 3 : Reasons for not participating in a sanitation
project and appropriate remedial action
MAIN REASON FOR
NOT PARTICIPATING
FOLLOW-UP ACTION
Have not heard about
the project.
Increase promotional activities.
Are self-excluded.
Hold workshop to
Interview to find reasons.
for
making
project
more
devise
strategies
Redesign aspects of the project if
attractive.
necesary.
Have been excluded by
others
Identify social categories of the excluded by
class, caste, ethnicity, sex, age, or other
locally relevant categories.
Hold workshop to
devise strategies for extending the project to
these groups .
Have not got the
necessary cash
Arrange for possibilities of payment in
instalments.
Develop designs that are less costly.
Increase government subsidy.
the
for
Increase
government
subsidy
section of the population.
poorer
Have not got the know
ledge or skill to
build the latrine
Provide more technical assistance to the
households .
Simplify the design.
Improve the training of extension workers.
Build demonstration latrines.
Find the latrines
unhygienic.
Improve designs and/or training and education.
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Possible actions
Problems with hygiene and insect breeding may be corrected
either by improvements in latrine design, or by increased promotional and educational
activities, or by a combination of these,
A good approach is to hold workshops with
community representatives, local teachers , local health workers and similar persons to
discuss the hygienic problems and recommend both design changes and any educational campaigns
that may be necessary.
2.2.3
Indicator S3;
sanitation reliability
Target
Failures due to inappropriate design, construction or maintenance can
deter people from participation in latrine programmes and should be kept to a minimum.
Data required
Each type of latrine has a set of requirements for correct
functioning.
For instance, a ventilated pit latrine must have an intact vent pipe and
mosquito screen, a pour-flush latrine must have an intact water seal, any latrine requiring
regular emptying must be regularly emptied.
The first step is to define the crucial
requirements for the particular technology used in the project under
evaluation.
These
>
requirements will then be surveyed in a house-to-house survey during which latrines are
inspected.
This survey can conveniently be combined with the survey of Indicators SI and
S2.
For latrines requiring emptying by a centrally organized emptying service, enquiries
will also be necessary at the headquarters and local depots of the agency providing the
emptying service.
Assessment - There will no doubt be some failures in reliability, indeed, if there
were none it could be an indication of overdesign. The frequency of failures should be very
low however, or people could be discouraged from participation in the project.
Possible actions
following causes:
Failures in reliability can be attributed to one or more of the
poor design;
poor construction;
poor operation and maintenance;
poor back-up services such as latrine emptying.
The primary causes need to be identified and the appropriate action taken.
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2.3
HYGIENE EDUCATION
Each country will have to find the right mixture of mass media, folk media, and
face-to-face techniques.
The relative advantages and disadvantages of each are presented
below:
Method
Advantages
Disadvantages
Mass media (example*,
radio campaign)
Informative. Can be
centrally organized and
executed.
May not reach linquistic
minorities, the poor and
those with little liesure.
Messages may be
misunderstood. One-way
communication ineffective
for encouraging and
reinforcing new hygiene
habits. Expensive.
Folk media (example*,
temple drama)
Entertaining and easily
understood. Effective
for giving new health
insights through
analogy and metaphor.
Inexpensive.
Requires skillful
organization and supervi
sion by people wise in the
local culture.
Face-to-face inter
action. (example*,
community health
worker treating
diarrhoea and teaching
prevention)
Two-way communication
gives social support to
those adopting improved
hygiene behaviour.
People learn through
village activities.
Curative and preventive
services are linked.
Requires an effective
primary health care
structure in project
villages. Good training and
supervision of curative/
preventive workers, and
reliable support and
supplies back-up are
essential. Coordination
with project staff is
essential .
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Hygiene education in support of water supply and sanitation projects is best carried
out in the local language, by local people who are trusted and who are similar in ethnicity,
class and life style to the project beneficiaries.
Whenever possible it should be carried
out within a system of primary health care services since adult women collect water, store
.water, handle food, clean latrines, dispose of baby's faeces and so forth, they should be the
primary target audience.
A separate vertical programme in hygiene education is not
recommended. The four indicators of the functioning of the hygiene education component are:
El:
E2:
E3:
E4:
2.3.1
understanding the language of the messages;
understanding the content of the messages;
access to the messages;
face-to-face contact with project staff and other educators.
Indicator El;
understanding the language of the messages
Target - The educational messages must be in a language that the great majority of
women m the project area fully understand.
Data required
A representative sample of local women should be surveyed to
ascertain the languages in which they are fluent and the languages in which they are literate.
Assessment
If the educational messages are: entirely spoken, determine the
proportion of women in the project area who are fluent in the language of the messages,
If
the messages are written, then the proportion who are literate m
in the language of the
messages must be determined.
These proportions should be very high,
If literacy rates are
low among women, only the relatively advantaged minority will be informed, and they probably
already have a more hygienic life style.
If an inadequate proportion of women are receiving the messages
Possible action
due to language or literacy problems, either the language should be changed, or the mode of
delivery, or both.
2.3.2
Indicator E2:
understanding the content of the messages
Target - The content of the educational messages should be readily understood by
the target audience.
A representative sample of the target audience should be asked to
Data required
Their responses can be scored on a
explain the meaning of some hygiene education messages.
three point scale: good understanding, some understanding, no understanding.
Assessment - If more than, say, 10 percent of interviewees have 'no understanding'
of a certain message it indicates a major defect in the message or its mode of delivery.
Local meetings or workshops may help to explain the lack of understanding and to elicit ideas
on how the educational component may be improved.
If the failure is in the message itself, the message should be
Possible action
Messages should be
redesigned.
The cultural suitability of a message is very important.
For example, in
built upon indigenous concepts of purity, pollution, cleanliness, etc.
Islamic areas Koranic teaching is an effective basis for expanding concepts of personal and
environmental cleanliness.
If the failure is in the delivery, consult local people on how to convey messages
Consider the use of folk media such as
about cleanliness and redesign the presentations.
temple drama, traditional story tellers and fiesta clowns, Review recruitment procedures for
community education workers to make sure they are not too distant in cultural and social
terms from the people they are to educate.
Women promoters and educators will probably be
most effective in educating and convincing other women to adopt new health promoting habits,
This is especially true with sanitation programmes where conversations about excreta may be
embarrasing or immoral.
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2.3.3
Indicator E3:
access to the messages
Target
In most hygiene education programmes mass media will be used to some
extent.
Mass media include cinema, radio,
radio, television, newspapers, posters and pamphlets.
There must be a high degree of access of the target audience to the mass media being used.
Data required - Determine the proportion of a representative sample of people in
the target groups who have access to the mass media being used.
People should be asked to
state how many times in the last month they have seen or heard one of the project messages
being disseminated in a mass medium, and to recall the content of that message.
Assessment - A judgement must be made on whether enough people are receiving the
messages via mass media to justify the costs of the campaign,
The proportion of people who
at least should have access to the messages will vary with the local situation and depends
also on the resources allocated to the mass media campaign,
Specific criteria should be
developed by the evaluating team.
Possible action - If insufficient people are receiving messages via specific mass
medium, this medium should no longer be used and alternative media should be sought.
2.3.4
Indicator E4:
face-to-face contact with project staff and other
eciuca tors
Target
Staff in face-to-face contact with project beneficiaries can reinforce
messages from mass media, can explain and amplify them to suit local situations, and can give
encouragement to those who are modifying their hygiene habits. The target is to have as much
face-to-face contact as possible between beneficiaries and (i)
project technicians briefed
in hygiene education, (ii) primary health care workers briefed on the projects aims, and
(iii) adult literacy teachers, political party officials, school teachers, agricultural
extension agents, social welfare workers and others concerned with public health in the
project area.
All should be briefed on the project and their activities integrated with
decade goals through (1)
an inter-ministerial national coordinating committee and (2) local
area workshops.
Data required - Survey a representative sample to determine the proportion of people
m target groups who have conversed with technical staff, primary health care workers, or
other workers about environmental health in the past month,
To assess both the quality and
quantity of interactions, ask people to recall all such meetings in the past month, identify
the person met and give the subject of the conversation.
Assessment
Record responses in a table and analyse which kinds of staff are most
effective, ana what kinds of knowledge and activities are being encouraged.
Possible action - If project technicians are unable to explain the health aims o f
their activities to beneficiaries a short course or workshop might be organized for them.
If
primary health care workers are inefficient, their training, :supervision and duties might be
reviewed.
If other categories of health and welfare workers are not involved the national
coordinating committee should be informed and workshops initiated in project areas.
?
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CHAPTER 3
EVALUATION OF UTILIZATION
3.1
COMMUNITY WATER SUPPLY
Iwo indicators of the utilization of water supply facilities are described;
W5: proportion of households using the facilities;
Wb; volume of water used and for what purposes
3.1.1
Indicator W5;
proportion of households using the facilities
Target - The target must be to cencourage everybody within the supply area to use
the facility, throughout the year, unless they
, haveJ a private safe source of water.
Data required - Information is needed about who uses the facilities and who does
not, the distance travelled by the users from their homes to the water points and the reasons
why the non-users prefer, or are forced, to use the traditional source of water.
The
information can be obtained through observation studies at water points and traditional
sources in the area and household surveys.
Assessment
The survey should result in an estimate of the proportion of
households within the project area that are utilizing the facilities.
A comparison between
wet ana dry season utilization should be made in countries with marked seasonality.
The
users should be subdivided according to which type of service they are receiving (e.g.
individual house connection, individual or shared plot connection, communal water point, well
equipped with handpump, etc.).
The distance which people are travelling to water points
should be noted.
The non-users should be subdivided according to reason given for non-use,
and seasonality noted.
Possible actions
The possible actions that can be (taken to increase the
proportion of households utilizing the services depend on the reasons; for non-use.
Some of
the more common reasons and possible actions are listed in Table 4.
3.1.2
Indicator W6:
volume of water used and for what purposes
Target
Water supply facilities are normally designed to cater for all domestic
needs such as drinking, cooking, washing of food and utensils, personal washing and washing
of clothes.
Water for domestic animals and possibly for watering of vegetable gardens may also
have to be allowed for. Expected average per capita consumption is usually specified in the
project documents, with specific quantities for the various levels of service provided (house
connection, plot connection, standpost service, etc.).
The facilities are usually designed
to provide a year round service, although sometimes seasonal variations due to migration and
seasonal use of alternative source are taken into account.
Apart from providing better
quality water at more convenient locations, water supply projects often seek to increase the
volume of water used for domestic purposes, which in turn requires a change in water use
patterns.
Data required - The information needed is the total daily use of water per capita
for different levels of service and the allocation of the water used to various purposes.
The data can be compiled through observations and interviews at water points and in
households.
Information about daily and seasonal use of alternative water sources should be
obtained at the same time.
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Table 4 : Reasons for not utilizing a new water supply
facility and appropriate remedial action
MAIN REASON FOR
NON-UTILIZATION_________
The traditional source
is more conveniently
located (in wet season
or throughout the year).
FOLLOW-UP ACTION
It is likely that the distribution system will have to
be improved if there is to be any substantial shift in
the proportion of households using the facilities.
The cost of the water
from the supply is too
high.
There is a limit as to how much people are able and
willing to pay for water, It is often stated that the
upper limit of what a household can afford to s pend
their cash
on water is about eight percent of
income.
If it is found that this reason is given
of
the
predominantly
among
the
sections
poorer
population, a change in pricing policy that would
favour the poorer people might the best solution,
If
those who give the cost as a reason for non-use
generally live far from water points it could be that
willingness rather than ability to pay governs their
decision
in
which
case
improvements
in
the
distribution system would be needed to make them
utilize the facilities.
The taste of the water
from the traditional
source is preferred.
An advertising campaign might influence people to
accept the water from the supply.
Fear that the piped
water could make people
sick, sterile or cause
any other harm.
Look for the source of these ideas, For example, a
political faction or religious group, Promote
discussions to reconcile differences.
Water points not
properly maintained and
therefore unsanitary
and avoided.
Improve maintenance of water points, possibly through
more involvement of the users in the upkeep and
allocation of clear responsibilities.
The water points are
inconvenient to the
children who usually
collect the water.
Change the design of water points.
The supply is unreli
able so the journey to
the water point might
be wasted and therefore
the traditional source
is preferred.
Improve operation and maintenance.
Involuntary exclusion
for social, political
or religious reasons.
This can be a very important factor and it might be
necessary to provide special water points for the
excluded group, unless the problem can be solved
through negotiations.
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Asses sment
The findings should
be compared with the assumptions made in
establishing design criteria for the project, Account should be
taken of factors that might
constrain the demand, such as queing at water points,
and expected future changes in the
distribution system that might decrease distances to
water points and thus result in
increased demands.
Possible actions
ac t ions
The actual use of water could be lower or higher than the
design criteria.
It water use is too low, it might be because water use patterns have not
changed after the introduction of the supply.
Promotional and educational activities, or a
change in the distribution system, will be needed
—3 to increase water use. Alternatively, the
design criteria might be revised to avoid over
design of future projects.
If water use is too high, the criteria should be revised to avoid water shortage in
future projects.
Alternatively, if water use is extravagant it should be reduced by
educational <campaigns against wastage, by installing water-saving plumbing fixtures in houses
with in-house
.2 connections, and by a progressive tariff policy to penalise heavy water
users
where water consumption is metered.
3.2
SANITATION
One indicator of the utilization of sanitation facilities is described:
S4: proportion of people using the facilities
3.2.1
Indicator Sq:
proportion of people using the facilities
Z.arget:
The target is obviously to get as many household members: as possible of
all households to use the latrines, particular attention should be given l
to toddlers and
young children, who may require special arrangements.
Data required
It is very difficult to obtain correct information about who uses
sanitation facilities, People are likely to state that the latrines are used by all, even if
that is not the case,
Observation of latrines to determine usage will be regarded as an
invasion of privacy in many societies. A combination of subtle interviewing, combined with
observations for signs of usage and non-usage, is likely to give the most accurate picture of
the situation. Information on reasons for not using the latrines is of particular importance
to identify corrective actions to be taken.
Intormation is neeaed on the use of the latrines by younger children.
do they start using the latrines? Where do they defecate before that age?
At what age
Assessment - Expected health benefits will not materialize if a large proportion
of nouseholds, or household members, do not utilize the sanitation facilities.
Possible actions
- Actions needed to encourage a larger proportion of people to
uti1ize the latrines depend on which categories of people are
not using them, and for what
reasons. Some of the possibilities are summarized in Table 5.
3.3
HYGIENE EDUCATION
Three indicators are suggested for measuring the utilization of hygiene education,
Behaviour in the project area may be compared with either a baseline study or with the
behaviour in a comparison area.
E5: water storage habits
E6; hanawashing after defecation
E7: knowledge of oral rehydration
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Table 5 : Reasons for non-utilization of latrines by categories
of people and appropriate remedial action
CATEGORY OF PERSON
REASON FOR NON-UTILIZATION
FOLLOW-UP ACTION
Women
Not allowed to use the same
latrine as men.
Separate latrines for women
needed.
Children under 2
Too young.
Education for mothers and
on
the
children
older
from
excreta
of
hazards
babies and the importance
of clearing away babies 1
stools .
Children under 4
Facilities inconvenient for
small children.
Modify the design so the
facilities can be used also
by small children.
Alternatively, build
separate shallow pits for
the children.
Adults
Lack of water to wash after
defecation therefore prefer
to defecate close to water.
Provision of water points
near to latrines and
education of the importance
of using latrines.
All categories
Latrines unhygienic due to
smell, fouling, insects or
not well functioning for
other reasons.
Improve the design.
Hygiene education for more
appropriate use of the
latrines.
All categories
Latrines inconveniently
located.
Relocate the latrine or
build an additional
latrine.
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3.3.1
Indicator E5: water storage habits
Target - One of the aims of hygiene education is to improve water storage habits.
This includes a range of behaviour which guards the quality of stored water,, such as keeping
the dipper off the ground, regularly cleaning the container and keeping water containers
covered.
The target is that a greater proportion of the households in Ithe project area
should store their water in a hygienic manner after the hygiene education programme has been
introduced.
Data required
a cover
(
____ - The presence
on the of
water
container
in households may be
taken as a proxy for improved hygienic behaviour.
Observe a sample of households in the
project area and compare them with either observations in a baseline survey or in a sample of
households in a matched comparison area which has not received hygiene education.
These
observations should be correlated with water quality surveys in theJ same households if such
surveys are done as part of the evaluation (see indicator W2).
Assessment - If there is no significant change in water hygiene related behaviour it
is an indication that the education techniques need to be altered.
Possible actions - Provide more community based demonstrations and activities. Work
with local women's groups, community health workers and others who can reinforce hygiene
education messages by giving social support and encouragement to women who adopt new habits.
Also look for physical constraints that can be removed, such as lack of safe containers,
inconvenient water points where women will not be prepared to "waste" water by tipping out
the container and wash it.
3.3.2
Indicator E6:
handwashing after defecation
Target - One of the aims of hygiene education is routine hand washing following
defecation. The target is that a greater proportion of the people in the project area should
wash their hands routinely after the hygiene education programme has been introduced.
Data required - The availability of water and hand washing materials near the
latrine is taken as a proxy for actual hand washing.
Observe a sample of households in the
project area and compare them with either observations in a baseline survey or in a sample of
households in a matched comparison area which has not received hygiene education.
Assessment - If there is no significant change in sanitation hygiene
behaviour it is an indication that the education techniques need to be altered.
related
Possible actions - Shift to more community-based education activities and use folk
ideas to dramatize the danger of faeces, Also look for physical constraints.
For example,
is this a latrine project without concommitant provision of water and therefore water for
washing is scarse?
Are schools and public latrines sited without reference to available
water tor washing? If so, link water, sanitation and education in future projects.
3.3.3
Indicator E7:
Knowledge of oral rehydration
Target - A component normally included in hygiene education programmes is to reduce
infant mortality from diarrhoeal disease through teaching mothers how to prepare ora 1
rehydration fluid, when to give it and how much to give. The target is thus to increase the
proportion of mothers with knowledge about oral rehydration in the project area after hygiene
education has been introduced.
Should oral rehydration be part of the hygiene education
programme under evaluation, the knowledge of oral rehydration can be used as an indicator.
Data required - The skills in oral rehydration among mothers is taken as a proxy for
general health related behaviour.
Interview a sample of mothers in the project area and
compare their responses with mothers' responses either in a baseline survey or in a matched
comparison area which has not received hygiene education.
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Assessment - Correctness might be graded on a three-point scale:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
does not know what oral rehydration fluid is
proportions of ingredients or application is grossly wrong
approximately correct
Possible actions - Link curative and preventive services in the context of primary
Look for
health care so that workers who treat diarrhoea also teach skills to mothers.
physical constraints.
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CHAPTER 4
EVALUATION OF IMPACT
The purpose of impact evaluation studies could be;
(i)
to establish if an investment in water supply, sanitation and/or hygiene
education has resulted in improved health and/or improved economic status
among those served by the facilities
(ii)
to establish the relative impact of
sanitation versus hygiene education
(iii)
to establish the relative impact of alternative levels of service
(iv)
to establish economic rates of return for investments in water supply,
sanitation and hygiene education to be compared with rates of return for
alternative investments.
investments
in
water
supply
versus
It has been shown in a number of evaluation studies that if water supply and
sanitation facilities function well and are properly used, there is a reduction in disease
morbidity, in particular in diarrhoeal diseases among children.
Twenty-eight health impact studies were reviewed in the World Bank publication by
Robert J. Saunders and Jeremy J. Warford (Village Water Supply:
Economics and Policy in the
Developing World, 1976.
John Hopkins Press, Baltimore).
They found evidence that the
incidence of certain diseases are related to the quality and quantity of water and sanitation
facilities available to users.
They found, however, that it was not possible to determine
from the results of the twenty-eight studies how much health improvement can be expected from
a specific water supply and sanitation investment in a specific area.
James
James Hughes
Hughes made
made an assessment based on a review of forty-three published studies
for the WHO Diarrhoeal Disease Control Programme in 1981 (Potential Impacts of Improved Water
He concluded that morbidity
Supply and Excreta Disposal of Diarrhoeal Diseases Morbidity),,
reductions of 20 per cent or more are ujsually statistically significant and frequently
observed.
F. Eugene McJunkin has made a review of 200 publications (Water and Human Health, US
Agency for International Development, Washington, July 1982). Among his conclusions are:
There is health
quantities .
impac t
where
safe
water
is
readily
available
in
adequate
The present state-of-the-art of epidemiological forcasting makes it difficult, if
not
impossible,
to
predict
with
accuracy
the
incremental
health
status
improvements that might be expected from incremental improvements in water supply
and sanitation.
The evaluation of health impacts usually requires m.ajor investments of time and
skilled manpower and should be limited to research projects with adequate
resources .
Impact evaluations are generally more complex and costly to plan and carry out than
The translation of disease
facilities.
evaluations of functioning and utilization of facilities.
more
complex
and
requires
the involvement of
is
even
reduction into economic benefits
research institutions rather than government agencies responsible for water and sanitation
programmes.
in the "Minimum
For these reasons evaluation of impact has not been included
is
under
preparation.
A separate guideline for impact evaluations
Evaluation Procedures".
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ANNEX 1
DATA GATHERING TECHNIQUES
Throughout the guideline "the household" has been referred to as
water and sanitation programmes are directed.
the unit to which
There is no universal definition of a household.
Many situations fit into the
following definition: A household comprises a person, or group of persons, generally bound
by ties of kinship, who live together under a single roof or within a single compound, and
who share a community life.
(Casley and Luvy, 1982).
In many rural areas the household is a
unit which consumes what it produces.
There are several methods of obtaining information on the availability, utilization
and impact of water supplies, sanitation facilities and complementary hygiene education, The
investigators may;
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(b)
(7)
Make direct observations.
Hold conversational interviews with selected samples of households.
Survey stratified samples; the poorest and the wealthiest household clusters.
Use school children to collect household data.
Use community questionnaires.
Hold workshops to identify and solve problems.
Carry out a household sample survey.
A brief description of each of these techniques follows:
1.
OBSERVATION STUDIES
Some of the factual information needed is best obtained through inspection or
observation by enumerators.
enumerators.
Three examples of observation studies are given below.
Observations are most efficiently made in area cluster samples.
Every latrine, water point
or household in a few geographically defined project areas should be observed.
These should
be compared with observations made by the same investigator in comparison areas outside the
project
area.
The
comparison
areas
should be matched
for
socio-economic
s tatus ,
authenticity, climate, terrain and other relevant variables.
1.1
Inspection of latrines
Through inspection rather than interviewing more uniform criteria will be applied in
the evaluation of the state of latrines.
A simple protocol should be developed to ensure
that indicators of problems with functioning and utilization of the latrine are recorded in a
A sample protocol is attached which could be modified and adapted to the local
uniform way.
s ituation. The protocol must be tested before use on any large scale.
1.2
Observation at water points
Observations at water points over a period of several days can provide valuable
information on waiting time at water points, peak periods of use, who collects water, type of
containers used, volume of water collected per journey, use of water at the water point,
etc.
Interviews with the drawers of water can provide information on how far afield they
have come from, number of journeys per day, frequencies of water point failures, etc.
For ease of recording and analysis a standardized protocol
obtain the specific information needed.
should be developed to
Similar observations can be made at traditional water points where interviews with
those collecting water may reveal reasons for non-use of the water supply.
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PROGRAMME:
Province:
District:
Village:
Inspected by:
Date:
PROTOCOL FOR INSPECTION OF LATRINES
1.
Household identification
2.
Superstructure, type
Yes
No
Yes
No
Functioning
Gives privacy
Gives protection from rain
3.
Fixtures, type
Water in water seal
OR
Lid
Suitable
4.
, if no specify what problem
Pit
Yes
No
Yes
No
Lined
Free Depth
5.
meters
Cleansing material
Available
6.
Water for handwashing
Available at what distance?
7.
meters
General condition as regards.
good
Smell
Flies
Mosquitoes
Faoling
8.
Any other comments?
acceptable
bad
very bad
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1.3
Observation of behaviour effected by hygiene education
At a minimum, hygiene education programme would encourage handwashing following
defecation and protection of stored water in the home.
Observe all households in area
clusters to see if water for handwashing is available near the latrine.
Ask to see the
handwashing material (soap, sand, etc.).
Ask to see household water storage containers and
If
note if they are covered. In some areas people may traditionally cover their containers,
so, investigators should ask how frequently the container
is emptied and cleaned.
Since
<
these verbal responses may be idealized statements of what should be done rather than what
people actually do, a few observations of women bring water home will help to evaluate the
accuracy of verbal responses.
2.
CONVERSATIONAL INTERVIEWS
When a particular utilization problem, such as fouled latrines, is identified,
Have a very brief interview
select a sample of households that exhibit this problem.
schedule of 3 or 4 open questions, Discuss these questions with all members of the household
who are present, especially adult women.
The questions should stimulate the householders to
The investigator
talk about the problem as they perceive it, and to suggest solutions.
responses.
Later, responses are classified and
stimulates the conversation and lists all responses.
tabulated.
These conversations should reveal the householders' economic, physical and social
For example, they may lack water for washing the squatting plate, and the
cons traints.
solution is to integrate the provision of water supply and latrine building in the same
area.
Or, the latrines may be fouled from high water table flooding in the wet season and
If the area around the latrine is fouled it may be because
the solution is mounted latrines,
people are afraid children will fall down the pit, and demonstrating the strength of the
In a
squatting plate may make a difference or shallow children's pits might be encouraged.
further example, if men and women (or certain categories of kin) should not use the same
latrine the solution might be a superstructure with two cubicles over the pit.
3.
COMPARISON OF TWO CONTRASTING STRATIFIED SAMPLES
In some project areas poor people live in easily identified residential clusters,
They are the group most likely to lack money to obtain new latrine materials, or water from a
water project with water charges. They are also the group that more educated health workers
and teachers tend to overlook in favour of
o f their equals with whom conversation is more
comfortable. Therefore, if resources for an evaluation (time, money, trained personnel) are
scarce, those poor households, with the worst health
heal th status, should constitute a minimum
sample.
This sample should be compared with a stratified sample selected from the most
wealthy households in the project area.
Households not sampled are presumed to fall
somewhere between these two extremes.
4.
USE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN IN DATA COLLECTION
In some instances, particularly when the proportion of children attending school is
very high, a good data base on the functioning and utilization of water supply and sanitation
facilities can be obtained at a low cost with the help of school children.
A procedure along the following lines could be followed:
(i)
Select schools
School within
selected.
possibly
both
the
projec t
area
and
a
comparison
area
to
be
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(11)
Discussion about the issues at the schools
The persons responsible for the evaluation to arrange for say one half day's
discussion with the 15 best pupils in one or several classes at each school. The
older the children are, the more reliable will be the information they obtain.
The bias will on the other hand also increase with the age of the children as it
is likely that children from families with higher socio-economic status, and
therefore better water supply and sanitation facilities, are over represented in
the higher classes.
The optimal age is likely to be between the age of ten and
fourteen years.
Alternative water supply and sanitation facilities available to the households
could be discussed with the children and a simple questionnaire developed
together with them,
The number of questions should not exceed ten and preferably
be limited to five.
(iii)
Questionnaire filled in by the school children
After the questionnaire has been duplicated the children could be asked to
interview their parents and fill in the questionnaire at home.
To increase the
sample they could be asked to interview one or more neighbouring households who
do not have children in the classes concerned. In that way the bias referred to
above could also be reduced.
(iv)
Discussion of the findings
When children return their data sheets, the sheets should be sampled and
discussed with the students to ensure accuracy.
When the results are presented
to the students, they might be asked for further clarification on some of the
issues.
5.
COMMUNITY QUESTIONNAIRES
An alternative low cost method of obtaining information on the functioning and
utilization of water supply and sanitation facilities is to prepare a questionnaire for a
whole village or other administrative unit. A committee with the village leaders including
the village health worker, if there is one available, could be requested to provide the
information. One possible problem with this method is that the situation for poorer sections
of the population might not be reflected as they are likely to have less influence on the
committee than the more well to do households.
Another problem is that there will be a considerable variation in the quality of the data
obtained from one village to another.
6.
WORKSHOPS TO IDENTIFY AND SOLVE PROBLEMS
A relatively low-cost method of problem identification is to hold workshops with those
Those who have been involved in the planning,
concerned with the project under evaluation,
design and construction and those responsible for operation and maintenance and, most
The consumers should be represented by a
important, the consumers should be represented.
group of people to avoid being totally outnumbered by the technocrats and reluctant to
participate fully and frankly in the discussions.
The programme should be structured and cover functioning, utilization, organizational and
financial aspects.
The workshop should preferably be held in the project area with field
visits included in the programme.
The workshop method can also be very productive in arriving at possible solutions to
through any of the other methods
problems that have been identified through the workshop or
<
outlined in this Annex.
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7.
HOUSEHOLD SAMPLE SURVEY
The most common method of data gathering if the results are to be statistically analyzed
is a household sample survey where information is obtained through an interview with an adult
The procedures for a household sample
member of the household based on a questionnaire.
survey are elaborated upon below;
(i)
Establish how many households are needed in the sample
Consultation with a statistician is needed.
(ii)
Establish sampling procedures
Consultation with a statistician is needed.
(iii)
Develop a draft questionnaire or interview
inter view schedule
schedu1e (compare with item 2 above)
Attached is a questionnaire that could1 serve as a checklist.
The questionnaire
must always be adapted to the local situation.
Many of the questions in the
situation,
example will have to be modifiedmodified - (e.g. question No. 5).
In the draft
questionnaire it is best if some questions are left open without alternative
answers listed (questions 15, 19, 25 and 29 in the example are closed questions;
they have alternative responses listed).
(iv)
Test the draft questionnaire and develop it further
The draft questionnaire should be thoroughly scrutinized through a pilot survey
of
some
interested
household
members
who
would
be
subjected
to
the
questionnaire. At this stage free responses to some of the open questions should
be categorized and the suitability of changing them into closed questions decided
upon.
If all questions are closed from the beginning there is a risk that
responses of importance are overlooked altogether. At the testing one would also
establish if additional questions are needed and of equal importance if the
answers to some of the questions are already known which would make the questions
surperfluous.
It is important that the questionnaire or interview schedule is
kept as brief as possible.
(v)
Translate the questionnaire and test the translation
If the draft questionnaire has been developed in a different language from its
final form it is very important that the translation is thoroughly checked, This
is best done through an independant translation of the final questionnaire to
the language in which it was drafted and then a comparison with the original
draft.
(vi)
Duplicate the questionnaire
The layout is very important and should be designed with ease of reading,
recording and interpretation in mind.
Printing should only be done on one side
of the paper and the size and quality of paper selected to facilitate the work of
the interviewer.
(vii)
Establish how many interviewers are needed
It is common to underestimate the average time required per interview.
Proper
consideration should be given to the time it takes for transport at the beginning
and end of the working day and transport between households.
(vili)
Train the interviewers
Even
the
conducting
of
interviews
on
the
basis
of relatively
simple
questionnaires will require training of the interviewers to ensure that they can
introduce themselves and explain the purpose of their interview to householders
in a satisfactory way, that they are familiar with the subject of the interview
so that they can answer questions that householders might raise, that they
thoroughly understand all the questions and can carry out the interview and
record the answers in a confident manner.
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(ix)
Establish logistic back-up needed
Items to bear in mind include; transport for interviewers, printing, distribution
and collection of interview forms, salaries and per diem for interviewers.
(x)
Inform the people concerned
Before the survey can start in a project area, people concerned should be briefed
on the purpose of the survey, Village leaders and government employees concerned
with the project on the site should be thoroughly informed and given an
opportunity to ask questions and make suggestions for the organization of the
survey.
(xi)
Carry out the survey
If the households to be interviewed are selected randomly, instructions should be
given on how to handle non-response. If no adult household member is present, an
effort should be made to make a second visit to minimize the chances of getting a
bias sample.
(xii)
Data analysis
See the text under each indicator in the main body of the guideline.
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PROGRAMME:
Province:
District:
Village:
Interviewer:
Date:
HOUSEHOLD SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE
Indi
cator
1.
Household identification
(Use number from sampling frame)
W1
2.
Number of household members
Adults
M
F
Children
5 years
M
F
Total
3.
Socio-economic status
(Use plot size, house size, number of cattle, educational level
or other locally relevant indicators of wealth and/or income.)
WATER SUPPLY
W5
4.
Are you using water from the community water supply?
Yes
W5
5.
No
, of no continue to Question 17
What type of service do you have?
House connection
□ , continue to Question 9
Plot connection
, continue to Question 9
Communal water point
Well with handpump
Well without handpump
Other
□
W4
6.
How far away is the water point?
meters (estimated)
W4
7.
How long does it take to go there,
fetch water and come back?
minutes (estimated)
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Indi
cator
<3.
Who collects the water?
Usually
Sometimes
Children
Women
Men
W6
9.
How much water is collected each time?
W6
10.
How many times a day is water collected?
W3
11.
When was the supply last not functioning?
W3
12.
How frequently do breakdowns occur?
Dry Season |
Never
i
j
Other
|
| , specify
'
Monthly j
litres (estimate)
|
Weekly |
W3
13.
For how long do breakdowns last?
W5
14.
How much do you pay for the water service?
W6
15.
For what purpose is the water collected being used?
Activity
Approximate estimate of
percent or proportion
Drinking and cooking
Washing of food and utensils
Personal washing
Washing of clothes
Watering of animals
Watering of garden
Other, specify
100%
W6
16.
Do you use any other water source
for any of the above activities
or any other activities?
|
ETS/83.1
CDD/ORP/83.1
page 47
Indi
cator
W5
17.
A. DRY SEASON
B. WET SEASON
What water source do you use for the following activities?
(This question only applies to those who are not using the water supply.)
Distance
Water Source
Activity
(estimate)
Drinking and cooking
Washing food and utensils
Personal washing
Washing of clothes
Other
Drinking and cooking
Washing food and utensils
Personal washing
Washing of clothes
Other
W4
18.
What is the distance from your house to
the closest project water point?
W5
19.
For what reason(s) are you not using the water supply?
meters
Traditional source more convenient
Water supply too expensive
Water from the supply does not taste good
Considers water from the supply unhealthy
Conditions at water point unsanitary
Children cannot reach or turn the tap
Children cannot operate the handpump
The supply is unreliable
Some probable
categories, actual
categories to be
i J y established through
I—I Z pilot interviews
Would like to participate but cannot because:
- not a member of the water group
- have not paid the fees
- other reason(s), specify
Excluded by others because:
- social, cultural or religious reasons
W5
20.
What changes would be needed for you to use the supply?
(This question applies to those not using the supply)
ETS/83.1
CDD/OPR/83.1
page 48
Indi
cator
W5
21.
In what way would you suggest the water supply services could
be improved?
(More information to and involvement of consumers, improvements
in the system for revenue collection, improvements in maintenance,
training to operators, removal of social barriers)
SANITATION
S2
22.
Have you built a latrine?
Yes
|
|
, which type (if options)
No
j
|
, continue to Question 27
S2
23.
When was it completed?
S5
24.
How many of the household use the latrine regularly?
Adults
M
S3,S4
25.
F
(month/year)
Children
5 years
M
F
Are there any problems with the latrine?
e.g.
Flies and/or mosquitoes
Smell
Flooding in rainy season
Difficulties for the younger
children to use it
□'
Some probable categories,
actual categories to be
established through
pilot interviews
Emptying (if applicable)
□/
Other
S3,S4
26.
How do you think the latrine could be improved?
SI
27.
Have you been informed about the support the Government is providing
for latrine construction? (Applies to those without a latrine)
Yes
No
□
ETS/83.1
CDD/OPR/83.1
page 49
Indi
cator
S2
28.
If yes, have you considered participating in the programme?
Yes
S2
29.
□
No
What is the reason(s) why you have not yet joined or why you
do not wish to join?
The latrine is not needed
The latrine is too expensive
No time to build
Do not know how to build
Have tried but have been told
it is not yet my turn
There are no squatting slabs left
Other reason
□
□
Some possible categories,
actual categories to be
established through
pilot interviews.
ETS/83.1
CDD/OPR/83.1
page 50
ANNEX 2
GLOSSARY OF SELECTED TECHNICAL TERMS
Arithmatic Mean or Average:
The sum of
divided by the number of observations.
the values
recorded
in a
series
of observations
All households in
Cluster Sampling:
A cluster is a randomly selected group of households,
Cluster
the area to be surveyed have an equal chance of being included in a cluster.
low cost, and low personnel requirements.
sampling has the advantages of relative speed,
Chlorination: the application of chlorine to drinking water for disinfection or oxidation of
undesirable compounds.
Colitorm Organism:
Any of a number of organisms common to the intestinal tract of man and
animals whose presence in water is an indication of pollution and of potentially dangerous
bacterial contamination.
Confounding Variables:
Variables other than the intervention that are associated with the
indicator being measured (e.g. age, sex, socio-economic status, ethnic group).
Contamination:
A general term signifying the introduction into water of micro organisms,
chemicals, wastes or sewage which renders the water unfit for its intended use.
Population that have not been subject to the intervention under
Control or Comparison Group:
evaluation. The control group should be matched for confounding variables.
Excreta:
Liquid and solid waste products, human or animal.
Faeces:
Solid human or animal excreta.
Faecal Coliform Bacteria: A group of organisms common to the intestinal tracts of man and of
animals. The presence of faecal coliform bacteria in water is an indicator of pollution and
of potentially dangerous bacterial contamination.
Groundwater:
The supply of freshwater under the earth’s surface in an aquifer or soil that
forms the natural reservoir for man's use.
Heavy Metals:
Metallic elements with high molecular weights, generally toxic in low
Such metals are often residual in the environmental
concentrations to plant and animal life,
Examples include mercury, chromium, cadmium, arsenic
and exhibit biological accumulation,
ana lead.
Incidence Rate: The number of illnesses beginning within a specified period of time related
to the average number of persons exposed to risk during that period.
Night Soil:
Pathogen;
Human faeces and urine collected without dilution in large volumes of water.
Disease-causing organism.
Pit Latrine:
A hole dug in the ground used
superstructure and floor.
Pollution:
The presence
environmental effects.
for defecation,
of matter whose nature,
location
normally having a rudimentary
or
quantity
produces
undesired
Prevalence Rate:
The number of illnesses existing at a specified point of time related to
the number of persons exposed to risk at that point of time.
The amount of chlorine,
Residual chlorine:
has been allowed for the reaction.
free or combined, which remains after due
t ime
ETS/83.1
CDD/OPR/83.1
page 51
Sampling; Observations are made on a sample with the purpose of generalizing from them to
the entire study population^
_____________
Sampling Frame; A list of population (could also be settlements or household depending on
the unit of study) from which the sample is to be drawn.
Sanitation;
The usual definition is very broad;
The control of all the factors in man’s physical environment that exercise or can
exercise a deleterous effect on his physical development, health and survival.
In this document the word sanitation is used in the narrow sense of "the control of
human faeces and urine".
Silt: Finely divided particles of soil or rock,
and eventually deposited as sediment.
Often carried in cloudy suspension in water
Simple Random Sampling; Drawing a sample from a population by a random method, e.g. by the
use of random sampling numbers, which gives every individual in the population an equal and
independent change of appearing in the sample.
Slow Sand Filter; A filter for the treatment of water, in which sand is used as the filter
______________
medium, and in which mechanical removal of solids is assisted by biological action.
Stratified Random Sample; Drawing a sample from a population which has first been divided
into sub-groups or strata, From each sub-group a sample is drawn by a random method which
gives every individual in the sub-group an equal and independent chance of appearing in the
sample.
Turbidity;
matter.
Cloudy condition in water due to the suspension of silt or finely divided organic
Two-Stage Sampling; A process of sampling a population in a series of consecutive steps,
e.g. after specific projects have been selected for evaluation, households to be surveyed
within a project can be selected randomly using a list of households as sampling frame.
Vector; Disease vector - a carrier, usually an arthropod, that is capable of transmitting a
pathogen from one organism to another.
Water Pollution; The addition of sewage, industrial wastes or other harmful or objectionable
material to water in concentrations or in sufficient quantities to result in measurable
degradation of water quality.
Water Seal; The seal provided by water, as in a U-trap normally located immediately below
the toilet bowl.
Water Supply System; The system for the collection, treatment, storage and distribution of
potable water from the sources of supply to the consumer.
Water Table;
The upper level of ground water.
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