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Government of india/UNICEF/UNDP RURAL Sanitation Project
Sanitation Project
Low Cost Waterses!) Latrine
Technology Advisory Group.(India) New Delhi 1985.
Government of India/UNICEF/UNDP RURAL Sanitation Project
Sanitation Project
On Low Cost Waterseal Latrine
Technology Advisory Group (India) New Delhi 1985
INDEX
Page No.
1.
Introduction
2.
Government's Concern for Women's Needs
1
3.
Prime Minister's Concern
1
1
4.
international Support
1
5.
India's Decade Programme
2
6.
7.
Historical Background
2
Present Position
3
8.
The Present Project
3
9.
Operation of the Project
4
10.
Technology
7
11.
Pour-flush Latrine
7
12.
Water Pollution
8
13.
Maintenance
8
1 4.
Pan and Trap
8
15
Cost
8
16.
Project Execution
8
17.
Communication Support
8
18.
Training and Sanitation Education
8
19.
Inter-departmental Coordination
9
20.
Evaluation of Rural Latrine Programmes
9
21.
Finalisation of Design Requirements
9
22.
Women's Participation
9
23.
Committee on Training Methodology
10
Annex I
:
Studies Carried out During the Course of
Feasibility Study for Urban Areas
11
Distribution of Project Villages
12
Water Pollution Aspects
13
Annex IV :
Members of Expert Committee on Design Requirements
14
Annex V :
Members of Committee on Training Methodologies
15
Annex II
:
Annex III :
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
GRP
Fibre Glass reinforced polyester plastic
NGO
Non-Governmental Organisation
PRAI
Planning Research-cum-Action Institute, Lucknow
PVC
:
Polyvinyl chloride
RCA
:
Research-cum-Action
TAG
:
Technology Advisory Group of World Bank, Washington on Low Cost
Water Supply and Sanitation
TAG (India)
Regional Group of TAG for South Asia based in Delhi
TCM
Technical Cooperation Mission
UN
United Nations
UNDP
United Nations Development Programme
UNICEF
United Nations Children's Fund
UP
Uttar Pradesh (a State of India)
VIP
Ventilated Improved Pit
WHO
:
World Health Organisation
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA/UNICEF/UNDP RURAL
SANITATION PROJECT
Introduction
1.
According to the 1981 census, India's rural population is about 525 million
residing in about 6 lakh
*
villages. Less than 1 % of the rural population in India, it
is estimated, has access to sanitary latrine facilities at present. The practice of
defecating in the open is widely prevalent while its dangers are not widely known
or appreciated. Yet, the practice is responsible for high mortality and morbidity
rates, particularly among children. The most common excreta-related diseases are :
diarrhoea, cholera, typhoid, hepatitis, worm infestation and dysentery. These deaths
and diseases can be prevented, if sanitary latrines are used for defecation.
Government's Concern for Women's Needs
2.
The need of women in the rural areas for latrines is being increasingly felt by
women themselves. It has also attracted the attention of Government at the
highest level. The fact that the village women can play an important role in every
sphere of such a latrine programme from the stage of planning, construction, imple
mentation, operation and maintenance, as well as in the field of health education,
communication support and promotional work—is also being increasingly realised
by many international and bilateral agencies and particularly by the Government of
India and various state governments.
Prime Minister's Concern
3.
The late Mrs. Indira Gandhi, former Prime Minister of India, stressed the necessity
of latrines for the rural communities in India, particularly for women. In June 1982
she addressed a letter to the Chief Ministers of states mentioning "another problem
is that of latrines in rural areas. With the consolidation of land holdings and
expansion of towns as well as cultivated areas, people in villages have great
difficulty in this regard. Women specially feel miserable. They can go out only at
night time, which is not always safe. I have spoken on this matter to some Chief
Ministers. The State Government should take up a programme of building latrines
where these are not available or get local organisations to take an interest".
International Support
4.
The United Nations Conference on Human Settlements (June 1976, Vancouver)
emphasized the importance of providing safe drinking water supply and hygienic
systems of waste disposal. This theme was reiterated in the United Nations water
■ One lakh = 100.000
1
Conference (March 1977, Mar del Plata, Argentina) in which almost all the develop
ing countries participated. The Conference resolved that every person in the
developing countries should be provided with potable water supply and safe and
adequate sanitation facilities by 1990. The Conference urged that 1981-90 be
declared as the International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade. The
Decade was voted in the 34th meeting of the UN General Assembly in November,
1980.
5.
The World Bank took the lead in preparing a field manual on "Appropriate Sanita
tion Alternatives". It reviewed the various practices all over the world and
identified low cost alternatives for disposal of human wastes in different hydrogeological and socio-economic conditions which would reduce the massive
investment necessary for a sewerage system.
6.
Preliminary investigation indicates that there are many alternatives between the
pit privy and the water carriage system. Their costs vary widely. However, it is
necessary to determine the technical and economic feasibility of various options
available for their efficient operation and replicability and acceptance in the develop
ing countries. Considerable work has also been done in this direction.
India's Decade Programme
7.
The International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade (1981-1990) dec
lared by the United Nations seeks to focus the attention of member-nations and the
world community on this problem. Plans and programmes of the members of the
United Nations are to be accelerated during the Decade to deliver this essential
facility to the community. India is also a signatory to the U.N. Resolution. The
Government of India and the state governments have resolved at various confe
rences that attempts should be made to cover at least 25% of the rural population
with hygienic sanitation facilities by the end of the Decade.
Historical Background
8.
After enactment of the Government of India Act 1935, Government's efforts in rural
latrine construction started in some of the states (then called provinces). This,
however, could not be considered as a systematic latrine programme and in actual
practice depended more on the initiative of the District Health Officers.
9.
The Governments of the undivided provinces of Bengal, Bombay, Madras, Mysore,
Punjab as also the provinces of Bihar and U.P. showed interest in rural latrine
construction. Different types of latrines were developed for different regions, based
on the socio-cultural and economic conditions. During 1940-45, construction
activities were intensified in undivided Bengal with the assistance of the rural
centre of the All India Institute of Hygiene and Public Health, Calcutta.
10.
After independence, in the First and Second Five Year Plans, emphasis was laid
more on research activities on rural latrines than on physical achievements. A
research-cum-action project (RCA) was established in 1956 by the Union Ministry
2
of Health with the assistance of the Ford Foundation. Useful research work was
done through the project in three centres at Poonamallee (Madras), Singur (West
Bengal) and Najafgarh (Delhi). The Indian Council of Medical Research also
sponsored research units in Kerala, West Bengal, Bombay and Punjab to study the
types of latrines suitable for different regions. During 1958-62, the Planning
Research-cum-Action Institute (PRAI), Lucknow (U.P.), took up a research project
on rural latrines with the assistance of WHO, TCM and Ford Foundation.
11.
Since 1958 research work carried out by several other organisations such as
the American Friends Service at Ludhiana (Punjab), WHO (project at Ramanagaram,
Mysore), Gandhigram Institute, Tamil Nadu. Central Public Health Engineering
Research Institute (Nagpur), American Mission in Barpalli (Orissa) and the Kerala
Government under the Norwegian and WHO project have made valuable contribution
in this field. All these studies were primarily aimed at finding the most suitable
technical solution which would be afforded and accepted by the rural population.
The designs adopted were the pourflush system either with a single pit having a
squatting pan on the pit or with double pits with one pit to be used at a time. The
second pit was to be used when the first one was full.
12.
In Najafgarh all the latrines under the RCA project were of the single pit system
with the latrine cubicle over the pit. Very few were with two pits. Some of the
pits collapsed due to flooding of the areas or use of too much water for flushing,
and others got filled up with sludge. In most of the villages, no attempt was made
to construct the second pit and the villagers—both men and women—reverted to the
practice of open air defecation.
13.
While research work on pour-flush latrines was being conducted by various institu
tions and organisations on several aspects of the problem. State Development
Departments and the Government of India constructed a large number of these
latrines in the villages in the late fifties and early sixties with the assistance of the
Block Development administration and by subsidising the cost and availing of the
participation of the community voluntarily in this development programme.
Present Position
14.
Despite the several earlier projects and efforts at promoting latrines in the rural areas,
the programme has not progressed to any significant extent. Less than1% of the
rural population is expected to have access to sanitary latrines by the end of the
Sixth Five Year Plan (March 1985). On the other hand, the Government of India
and the state governments have a goal of extending sanitary latrine facilities to 25%
of the rural population by the end of the Water and Sanitation Decade (March
1991). Of late, UNICEF which has done commendable work in the rural water
supply sector has been active in sanitation activities in several states and is keen
to support a substantially larger programme of rural sanitation in the next five years.
The Present Project
15.
A project on Rural Sanitation (Project No. IND/84/01 6; full title : Feasibility Study
based on demonstration schemes for sanitary latrines in rural India) sponsored by
3
the Government of India and assisted by UNICEF and UNDP has commenced on
June 1, 1984. The executing agency for the Project is the World Bank through its
Technology Advisory Group (India). The immediate objective of the Project is to
prepare a Master Plan Report including Preliminary Engineering and Feasibility Study
for Low Cost Appropriate Sanitary Latrines with on-site disposal of human excreta
in the rural areas of 13 states by undertaking a sanitary latrine construction
programme on a demonstration basis as a prelude to a larger programme envisaged
in the Decade Plan.
Operation of the Project
16.
The Technology Advisory Group (TAG) established by the World Bank under the
UNDP Global Project (GLO/78/006, now renumbered as INT/81/047) set up a
special group called TAG (India) to prepare feasibility studies on low cost sanitation
for 211 urban areas of 21 states. TAG (India), apart from its own experience
in the field, has benefited from the research in low cost sanitation carried out
by the World Bank, from the guidance given by the TAG Headquarters Staff in
Washington, from exchanges with individual TAG staff working in various countries
and from the contributions of UNICEF and numerous individuals and institutions both
within India and overseas. To develop most economical and appropriate design of
pour-flush latrines, various studies (listed in Annex I) were also carried out by TAG
(India). TAG (India) has thus been able to accumulate knowledge and experience
of many institutions and individuals and has developed unique expertise in
this field.
17.
Though feasibility studies have been conducted for mass implementation of the low
cost pour-flush waterseal latrine programme in more than 200 representative urban
areas by UNDP-TAG, separate feasibility studies on latrines for rural areas was
considered inescapable for several reasons. The reasons, by and large, reflect the
rural-urban differences in this sub-continent.
18.
The income and affordability levels in the rural areas are generally considered to be
lower than in the urban areas, warranting a search for even lower cost options
necessitating change in engineering design and technology. The search will, no
doubt, lead to investigating the possible use of locally available materials which,
apart from being cheaper and more appropriate, are likely to blend with the rural
environment and lower the dependence on production lines of far-flung urban
centres except where absolutely necessary. In-situ or local manufacture of materials
could also be attempted with advantage, to create employment opportunities in the
rural areas and foster rural skills.
19.
The rural communities, still characterised by primary inter-personal relationships,
offer a congenial ground for attempting community participation, a key component
of which is likely to be voluntary and free labour by the beneficiary, his family and
associates, particularly during the periods when agricultural operations are slack. This
component is generally absent, or at best limited, in the urban areas where the bene
ficiary tends to use hired labour.
4
20.
The urban areas are more crowded than the rural areas. The slums and poorer
quarters of towns and cities often present problems in the construction of individual
latrines due to space constraints. A substantial section of the urban population
consequently resorts to open air defecation almost involuntarily, much as they
would like to avoid it, had individual latrines, or even well maintained community
toilets, been available. In the rural areas, on the other hand, the space constraint
is generally absent. All the same, open air defecation is practised, leading to the
hypothesis that the practice is perhaps voluntary and even considered conducive to
health. A related hypothesis is that a latrine within or close to the residence is
branded as unclean and offensive, at least by some sections of the rural population.
Inculcating the latrine habit and promoting the latrine programme in the rural
community are, therefore, considered more difficult and challenging than in the urban
areas. The feasibility study will attempt to confirm or disprove these hypotheses.
21.
These and several other rural urban differences under-score the need for a different
strategy to promote rural sanitation and, therefore, for a separate feasibility study to
appreciate and focus on the factors peculiar to the rural situation.
22.
The present Project of the Government of India assisted by UNICEF and UNDP
proposes to utilise the expertise developed by TAG (India) and UNICEF to prepare
feasibility studies based on demonstration schemes for selected rural communities
and to develop expertise within the states themselves to enable them to replicate
the projects in future.
23.
The Project will undertake :
a)
Analysis of the existing institutional framework of the departments in the selec
ted states responsible for rural latrine activities and of NGOs with potential for
the implementation of such activities with a view to defining the optimal infra
structure necessary to fulfil the Decade objectives
b)
Study and evaluation of earlier and existing sanitation schemes in order to
identify low cost appropriate technologies, approaches to enlist community
participation, constraints/success and modalities of implementation, which
would be suitable for a scaled up programme.
c)
Determination of the appropriate types of sanitary latrines in relation to cultural
practices, hydrogeological conditions, socio-economic considerations and local
resources.
d)
Evolving of alternative financial patterns for the promotion of sanitary
programme, giving due emphasis to community participation.
latrine
24.
The study will include 3,600 villages in 13 states (list at Annex II).
25.
About 37,000 demonstration latrines will be set up as a part of the Project in
selected locations in the 13 states to (i) test their acceptability and technical
viability; and (ii) investigate the feasibility of providing all the no-latrine households
in a village with appropriate sanitary latrines. On an average 7 demonstration units
are proposed to be constructed in each of the selected 3,600 villages, in addition to
5
the construction of at least 50 units in each of the 240 villages selected out of the
Project villages for intensive coverage as discussed subsequently. Individual house
hold latrines will be provided wherever possible. Where space is a constraint,
community latrines (preferably shared latrines) will be considered. Appropriate
community latrines will be considered where necessary, particularly for commuters
or casual users including those congregating for periodical fairs, markets etc.
26.
For the selection of the blocks/villages in the different states, the factors
sidered are :
con
i)
the villagers should enthusiastically come forward to help in the implementation
of the programme;
ii)
they should broadly represent the varied situations obtaining in the state :
(a) socio-economic, (b) socio-cultural,'(c) the practice of anal cleansing, (d) soil
structure (e.g. clayey, coarse or highly porous, rocky, hill slopes etc.),
(e) hydrogeological condition (e.g. with high ground water level or liable to
flooding or ponding for most of the time), (f) house structure, (g) population
density, (h) local materials (particularly for the superstructure and pits);
iii)
they should preferably form part of (a) 1CDS (Integrated Child Development
Services), SIAD (Social Inputs in Area Development) or DWCRA (Development
of Women and Children In Rural Areas) Blocks, or (b) areas of implementation
of (1) NREP (National Rural Employment Programme), or (2) IRDP (Integrated
Rural Development Programme), or (3) TRYSEM (Training of Rural Youth for
Self Employment), or (4) SSF (Self Sufficiency Scheme), or (5) CADP (Com
mand Area Development Programme) or (6) Rural Housing (particularly Eco
nomically Weaker Section (EWS) Programme), or (7) Areas where effective
participation of non-governmental organisations (particularly women's orga
nisations) is already available or expected; and
iv)
at least one group of villages selected in a state should have predominant
scheduled caste/scheduled tribe population.
27.
Demonstration units will be set up in each of the 3,600 selected villages. One unit
each will be located in the Anganwadi, Rural Health Centre, Primary School and the
Panchayat Office, wherever they exist. These units will be fully funded by UNICEF.
Another three units, which will be constructed in the houses of the sanitation
volunteers to be selected for the promotion of the programme, will also be assisted
by UNICEF up to 40% of the total cost of the complete unit.
*
The sanitation volun
teers will be selected from women, social workers, 'anganwadi' workers, health
centre staff, school teachers, masons or other suitable and willing persons. The
units will be constructed in their individual houses for demonstrating the actual cons
truction and use. The balance cost of the above mentioned three units in the
individual households will be borne by the state governments/beneficiaries.
28.
Additionally, 240 villages, out of the stipulated 3,600 villages, will be selected for
intensive coverage with at least 50 units per village or units for 25% of the total
• Unit with a cheap superstructure.
6
households to demonstrate and test the organisational, financial and legal infrastruc
ture as well as the new non-formal education approaches for community involvement
(e.g. participatory/educational approach, direct participatory approach, situational
analysis and the resource identification dialogue with the community) which will be
recommended by the Project for obtaining the minimum 25% Decade coverage.
UNICEF will bear 40% of the total cost of these household latrines in 240 villages
and the balance 60% will be shared by the beneficiaries and state governments.
These 240 villages shall form the first phase of the Decade programme.
Technology
29.
Technology adopted should be hygienically and environmentally safe, technically and
scientifically appropriate, socially and culturally acceptable, economically affordable
and should be simple in construction, operation and maintenance Sewerage is an
ideal solution for the disposal of human and other wastes but its cost is prohibitive
Septic tank is another alternative but this is also beyond the reach of the people;
moreover it has problems like periodic cleaning and disposal of liquid sludge creating
health hazards. Pourflush waterseal latrine is the most appropriate technology
(where water is used for ablution) for safe disposal of human waste. Construction
of this type of latrine involves a technology which is well within the grasp of a
mason having undertaken a short training; Leach pit configuration and materials can
readily be varied to suit site conditions and availability. It conserves water as only
1.5 to 2 litres of water is required for flush.ng the excreta of one person.
30.
Where water is not used for ablution, other suitable technologies like VIP latrines are
proposed to be considered.
Pour-Flush Latrine
31.
A pour-flush waterseal latrine with two leach pits should be appropriate for areas
where adequate water is available. The latrine consists of a squatting pan
of a special design (having a steep gradient at the bottom) and a trap having
20 mm waterseal. It is so designed that the excreta of one person can be flushed
by pouring only 1.5 to 2 litres of water. The excreta are discharged into the
leaching pits constructed in the house compound or where it is not possible
to do so for lack of space, into the pits constructed under the foot-path or the street.
The squatting pan is connected to the leaching pits through a pipe or covered drain.
These pits are lined with honeycomb brick work or open-jointed stones, or with other
suitable material, so as to allow the liquid in the pits to percolate and the gases to be
dispersed into the soil and at the same time to prevent the pits from collapsing. The
sludge gets digested and settles down gradually.
32.
The pits are used alternately. When one pit is filled, its use is stopped and the
excreta are diverted to the second pit. The filled up pit is left unused; and in about
1| years its contents become rich organic humus, innocuous, free of smell and safe
for handling. When convenient, it is emptied and the contents could be used as
fertiliser. It is then ready to be put back into use when the second pit becomes full
in its turn.
7
33.
With simple care and cleaning by the household, the pourflush latrine is a very
satisfactory and hygienic sanitation system. It can be located inside the house,
since the waterseal prevents odour or insect nuisance.
Water Pollution
34.
Extensive studies made in India and abroad substantiate that there is no risk of
bacterial pollution if leaching pits are properly designed and due precautions are
taken in their construction. For more details, see Annex III.
Maintenance
35.
Maintenance of pour-flush latrines is very easy and simple. Day-to-day maintenance
consists only of washing the latrine floor and cleaning the pan. No other mainte
nance is needed. The cost of cleaning the pits can be covered by sale of the humus
obtained from the pits
Pan and Trap
36.
The squatting pan and trap can be of ceramic, fibre glass reinforced polyester plastic
(GRP), PVC or mosaic.
Cost
37.
The cost of a pour-flush latrine with a superstructure like mud walls with thatch roof
or bamboo or date palm matting walls with bamboo frame and thatch roof would
vary from area to area ranging from Rs. 150 to 170 per capita. This is much cheaper
than conventional water-borne sewerage and septic tanks.
Project Execution
38.
The project will be implemented by the respective state governments. In all the
states. Public Health Engineering Departments or Boards which are incharge of
water supply and sanitation are the implementing agencies except in Tamil Nadu,
where the Director of Rural Development has taken over this responsibility.
Communication Support
39.
Construction of latrines is not the main objective of the Project. The people have to
be educated to adopt the latrines and use and maintain them properly. Socio
cultural and traditional habits are to be changed to see that the people do not resort
to open air defecation once the latrines are provided. Therefore information, motiva
tion, health and sanitation education are essential inputs for the successful imple
mentation of the programme. For this purpose, sanitation volunteers will be
chosen in each village and training and education materials will be developed as a
part of the Project.
Training and Sanitation Education
40.
8
Training on the technology of pour-flush latrines as well as the activities to be under
taken for sanitation and health education will be given particular attention under the
Project. Appropriate orientation and training courses will be arranged for various
categories of personnel connected with the Project, including masons and the
promoters of sanitary latrines. The promoters or motivators will be trained to
educate the people on the benefits of sanitary latrines, their proper use and
maintenance and to obtain people's participation in general.
Inter-departmental Coordination
41.
The subject of rural sanitation is of interest and concern to several departments of
the state governments—Public Health Engineering, Health, Social Welfare, Educa
tion and Rural Development—besides non-governmental organisations, particularly
voluntary agencies interested in the welfare of women and children. Close coope
ration among them and active participation of their personnel in Project activities
will be needed to make it a success.
Evaluation of Rural Latrine Programmes
42.
Quick evaluation of past programmes of rural sanitation and that of on-going
programmes, if any, of the following 7 states has been carried out :
1.
Delhi (rural)
2.
Gujarat
3.
Kerala
4.
Maharashtra
5.
Tamil Nadu
6.
Uttar Pradesh
7.
West Bengal
Individuals as well as institutions connected with the rural sanitation or rural
development programmes were entrusted to carry out the study in these states.
The evaluation study of Tamil Nadu also includes the community latrines in the
rural areas.
Finalisation of Design Requirements
43.
An Expert Committee was constituted (Annex IV) to recommend the design require
ments and specifications for pour-flush latrines in rural areas. The Committee has
finalised the design requirements which are now generally being followed in the
field.
Women's Participation
44.
Realising the important role which women can play in a sanitation programme parti
cularly in the rural areas, a study has been carried out on the role of women played
in the 3 RCA projects at Najafgarh, Poonamallee and Singur and what role they
can play in the future programme. These have been carried out by women
involved in latrine projects in the rural areas.
9
Committee on Training Methodology
45.
For developing sanitation education and training methodology, a Committee consist
ing of non-governmental organisations and institutions having experience in this
field was constituted (Annex V). The Committee made suitable recommendations
on the subject.
Further questions on the Project may be addressed to :
The Regional Manager,
Technology Advisory Group (India),
GOI/UNICEF/UNDP Project on Rural Sanitation,
Sth floor, Archana Office Complex,
Greater Kailash-1,
New Delhi-110048.
10
ANNEX I
Studies carried out during the course of feasibility study for urban areas to develop
the most economical and appropriate design of pour-flush waterseal latrines :
1.
Evaluation of various latrine programmes in India;
2.
Potential ground-water pollution by on-site disposal of human waste through leaching
pits;
3.
Evaluation of community latrines;
4.
Scavenger rehabilitation;
5,
Institutional, legal and financial study of local authorities;
6.
Optimisation of design and construction aspects of pour-flush latrines;
7.
Determination of effective thickness of sand envelope around leach pits to check
water and soil pollution in different hydrogeological conditions;
8.
Sludge accumulation rate in leaching pits in different hydrogeological condi
tions; and
9.
Developing a low volume (1.5 litres) flushing cistern system.
SOPHEA-SOCHaRa'
A
Koramangara
Bangalore - 34
11
I 1>W
ANNEX II
FEASIBILITY STUDY FOR RURAL SANITATION PROGRAMME
Distribution of Number of Villages
Name of the state
No of districts
selected for the study
by the state
No. of villages
No. of villages
selected for the selected for intensive
feasibility study
coverage
1.
Andhra Pradesh
11
320
21
2.
Assam
3
265
20
3.
Haryana
12
100
13
4.
Kerala
14
110
7
5.
Madhya Pradesh
24
510
34
6.
Maharashtra
24
360
24
7.
Manipur
8
15
2
8.
Orissa
3
325
22
9.
Punjab
6
115
8
10.
Rajasthan
3
250
10
11.
Tamil Nadu
8
230
15
12.
Uttar Pradesh
17
650
40
13.
West Bengal
4
350
24
137
3600
240
Total
12
ANNEX III
Water Pollution Aspects
Proper information and investigation of hydrogeological conditions of the sites where
the leach pits are to be located, are pre-requisites for the implementation of a latrine
progromme in order that the pollution risk to ground-water and water distribution pipes
is minimal. Extensive pollution studies done in India, U.S.A, and elsewhere have
confirmed that :
(a)
There is little risk of bacterial pollution in locating pour-flush latrines with
leaching pits (where the hydraulic loading on the pits is restricted to 50mm per
day) in the alluvial soils with predominance of silt mixed with fine sand and the
pit bottom is at least 2 metres above the maximum ground-water level provided
safe distance of separation between the pit and drinking water source is
maintained.
(b)
Even under unfavourable hydrological conditions such as coarse sand with high
ground-water velocity or where the pit bottom is submerged or less than 2
metres above the maximum ground-water level, this system can be used pro
vided suitable modifications to the pit and latrine are made.
(c)
Under unfavourable topographical conditions and conditions such as fissured
rocks, chalk formations, old root channels etc., suitable modifications to pit and
latrine or adoption of alternative systems of disposal may be necessary and need
careful investigations.
To keep the water pollution risk minimal, following precautions should be taken
keeping in view the hydrogeological conditions at site :
Distance between the
bottom of the pit and
the maximum ground
water level
Effective size of
the formation soil
Minimum horizontal
distance of
separation
Modification
needed
1.
>
2m
< 0.2mm (fine
sand, clay and silt)
3 m
None
2.
>
2m
> 0.2 mm (coarse
sand)
3m
Provide 500mm
envelope of
*
sand
and
impermeable
pit bottom
3.
<
2m
< 0.2mm (fine
sand, clay and silt)
10m
None
4.
<
2m
> 0.2mm (coarse
sand)
10m
Provide 500mm
thick sand
envelope and
impermeable
pit bottom
•
Sand of 0.2mm effective size.
13
ANNEX IV
Expert Committee on Design Requirements :
1.
Mr. B.B. Rau,
Adviser (PHEE),
Ministry of Works and Housing,
Govt, of India,
New Delhi
2.
Mr. R.C. Mangal,
Deputy Director,
Central Building Research Institute,
Roorkee
3.
Prof. K.J. Nath,
Professor of Environmental Sanitation & Head of the Deptt. of Sanitary Engg.,
All India Institute of Hygiene & Public Health,
Calcutta
4.
Mr. S.R. Kshirsagar,
Scientist & Head, Technology Utilisation and Extension.
National Environmental Engineering Research Institute,
Nagpur
6.
Prof. T.R. Bhaskaran.
Consultant.
Bangalore
6.
Prof. N. Majumder,
Consulting Engineer,
Calcutta
7.
UNICEF
8.
TAG (India)
14
ANNEX V
Committee on Training Methodologies
*1.
Mr. B. Pathak,
Chairman,
Sulabh International,
Patna
2.
Mr. Ishwarbhai Patel,
Director and Principal, Safai Vidyalaya,
Ahmedabad
3.
Mrs. Aloka Mitra,
Honorary Secretary,
Women's Coordinating Council,
Calcutta
4.
Prof. K.J. Nath,
Professor of Environmental Sanitation & Head of the Department of Sanitary
Engineering,
All India Institute of Hygiene and Public Health,
Calcutta
5.
Mr. S.R. Kshirsagar,
Scientist and Head,
Technology Utilisation and Extension,
National Environmental Engineering Research Institute,
Nagpur
*6.
Dr. S. Gopalkrishnan,
Assistant Director of Public Health Er Preventive Medicine,
Institute of Public Health,
Poonamallee,
Madras
7.
Technology Advisory Group (India)
* Could not attend.
15
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