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JRNSfiHHYOG TRUST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Jansahayog is pleased to published the English version of
this booklet which was first printed in Marathi and then Hindi.
The Marathi version was published by the Rashtra Seva Dal
and Keshav Gore Trust, Mumbai.In 1998 Bagaram Tulpule
undertook a Hindi translation which was published by
Jansahayog Trust The Hindi bookletwasthen translated into
English by Prof. N.K.P. Sinha of Muzaffarpur, Bihar.
We are grateful to all of the above for their painstaking
endeavour. We would also like to thank Madhukar Despande
and Dionne Bunsha for substantially editing the English
manuscript. We also thank Nita Mukherjee for her help with
proof-reading of the final pages.
We hope that this booklet will help the process of reflection
and debate on the nature and challenge of alternative
developrtient and thus strengthen the struggle for a more
humane and just society.
Nagesh Hatkar
Managing Trustee
Jansahayog Trust
November 1999
CONTENTS
Introduction......................................................................................................... 1
Grim Reality to Destructive ‘Development1......................................................... 2
Poverty .......................................................................................................................... 2
Pollution.......................................................................................................................... 2
Consumption, Waste and Disparities............................................................................ 3
Ecological Degradation..................................................................................................4
‘Development’ : The Dominant Model.......................... ...................................... 4
Environmental Consequences......................................................................................6
Basic Values and Objectives of Appropriate Development............................... 8
Eradication of poverty................................................................................................... 9
Peace, Compassion, Non-violence.............................................................................. 9
Equality and Justice................................................................................................... 10
Women's Rights........................................................................................... :............. 10
Liberty........................................................................................................................... 11
Harmony with Nature...................................................................................................11
Self-Reliance.............................................................................................................. 12
Dignity of Labour........................................................................................................ 12
The Question of Technology........................................................................... 13
Aims of Appropriate Technology.............................................................. .................. 15
Agriculture........................................................................................................ 16
Industry............................................................................................................ 21
Textiles......................................... .............................................................................. 31
Housing....................................................................................................................... 32
Water........................................................................................................................... 33
Social Services................................................................................................. 33
Capital................................................................................................................ 34
Markets.............................................................................................................. 37
Capital Market............................................................................................................. 38
Labour Market.............................................................................................................39
Conclusions...................................................................................................... 40
♦ Alternative Development
Alternative Development: Some Reflections
INTRODUCTION
Much of what is currently done in the name of development has failed to bring
happiness, prosperity and social justice to all people on earth. This has been
self-evident for several decades. The unabated plunder of natural resources
has severely disturbed the equilibrium of nature. In many countries, people
are being deprived of the natural resources which constitute the bedrock of
their livelihood. Thus scholars, intellectuals and activists all over the world are
protesting against so-called development processes which threaten the
ecological balance and foster gross inequalities.
The prevailing model of ‘development must be abandoned. People all over
the world must work together to evolve a sustainable, genuine form of
development based on humane, egalitarian and just principles. While many
scholars have convincingly explained the flaws of the existing concept of
development, not many have provided a detailed sketch of a model for
sustainable and genuine development. Clearly it is not enough to limit
ourselves to detecting the defects of the present model and remove them in a
piecemeal manner.
We need a vigorous discussion on alternative concepts of genuine
development with its related economic, social and political structures. Many
groups in India have been engaged in this exercise for the last decade. This
paper is partly based on the discussions during a seminar on ‘Alternative
Development Concept organised by Surana Gaurav Kosh, Rashtra Seva Dal,
and Keshav Gore Memorial Trust in Mumbai in October 1995. The seminar
was led by various resource persons and attended by about 80 activists from
different regions of Maharashtra.
In view of the spontaneous acclaim received by this seminar, we decided to
publish a treatise embodying the concept of alternative development in greater
depth for use by activists and researchers. This booklet is a modest
endeavour in that direction. BagaramTulpule, Pannalal Surana, Gajanan Khatu,
Sanjaya Mangala Gopal and Umesh Kadam participated in the process of
drafting this booklet. It is not our claim that this is a comprehensive or final
assertion on the subject. Rather, the austere aim is to provide an impetus to
further reflections and to facilitate deeper, systematic and concrete
deliberations on the question.
1
♦ Alternative Development
Grim Reality of Destructive ‘Development’
The course of ‘development' over the last half century, particularly during the
last two or three decades, has given rise of many serious questions:
* What indeed is the true nature and impact of contemporary development?
* Just what are the 'benefits' of this development and who are its
beneficiaries?
* What exactly is its cost and who pays the price?
* What effect is it having on the environment of the earth and the animal life
supported by it? And how long can global natural resources sustain such
development1?
The answers to many of these questions present a grim scenario. The
following facts and figures have been reported in the United Nations
Development Program's annual Human Development Reports. [The
contentious terms 'developed' and 'developing' countries are used here
as they appear in the Human Development Report]
Poverty
*
From 1970 to 1985 the global GNP increased by 40%. Meanwhile,
the number of people living in poverty increased by 17%.
* The OECD countries have an average per capita income of US $20,000.
Yet in 1996, in these countries, more than 100 million people lived below the
poverty line, 30 million were unemployed and 5 million were homeless.
*
More than 100 million school-age children in the developing world are not
enrolled in primary school.
*
In Africa, an estimated 20% of children work. In Latin America, between
10% and 25%.
Pollution
* 2.7 million people die every year due to air pollution.
*
More than 70% of the deaths from outdoor air pollution are in developing
countries.
* The total health costs of urban air pollution in developing countries were
estimated to be nearly US $100 billion in 1995, with chronic bronchitis
accounting for $40 billion.
Alternative Development
*
Every year, water pollution causes nearly 2 billion cases of diarrhoea in
the developing world, and diarrhoea diseases kill some 5 million people
annually.
*
As many as 50 million Americans may be drinking water polluted by
pesticides.
Consumption, Waste and Disparities
*
Almost a billion people living in developing countries are malnourished.
* The wealthiest 20% of the world’s people —
- Use 58% of the world’s energy
- Consume 45% of all meat and fish
- Own 87% of the world’s vehicles
~ Have access to 74% of all telephone lines
*
The assets of the world’s 348 billionaires are greater than the combined
annual incomes of 45% of the world’s people.
*
One child born in New York city, Paris or London will consume, waste
and pollute more in a lifetime than as many as 50 children born in
the average developing country.
*
The average person in North America uses more than twice as much
electricity as someone in the European Union and 14 times more energy
than someone in the developing world.
*
China has about 20% of the world's population and consumes about
13% of the world’s paper and paperboard. India, with about 16% of the
world’s population, uses about 2% of the world's paper. But the USA, with
about 4% of the world’s population, uses about 34% of the paper. (Source:
State of the World 1998 by The World watch Institute.)
*
An additional $6 billion a year would be needed to achieve universal basic
education, about $2 billion less than what is currently spent in the
*
An additional $13 billion a year would be needed to ensure basic health and
USA alone on cosmetics.
nutrition for all. This is a fraction of what is spent in Europe on cigarettes
($50 billion) or on alcoholic drinks ($ 105 billion).
*
An additional $9 billion a year would be required to provide clean water and
sanitation worldwide. That is about half the money currently spent on
petfood in Europe and the USA.
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♦ Alternative Development
*
In 1997, the world spent $435 billion on advertising, mostly in Europe,
North America and Japan. That is nearly 8 times the amount that was
channelled to the developing world in the form of official development
assistance.
Ecological Degradation
*
More than 15 million hectares of forest disappear every year. Almost
one-quarter of this loss occurs in Brazil, followed by India (1.5 million
hectares), Indonesia and Colombia.
*
A quarter of the earth’s land area, 3.6 billion hectares, is affected by
desertification.
*
A city dweller in the USA generates twice the amount of trash as an
urban resident of Germany, Italy, Spain or Sweden.
*
Between 1860 and 1990, the average temperature of the earth's surface
has increased by about 10 degrees Celsius, resulting in the 'greenhouse
effect' which is playing havoc with the weather and slowly melting the
polar ice-caps.
*
The USA, with about 5% of the world's population, emits nearly 24% of
the world's greenhouse gases, 10 times the amount of hazardous waste
as the next largest producer.
And, yet, the USA is supposed to represent the very pinnacle of'development'
in the 20th century and is setting the pace for the dawning 21st century. The
anomaly of the most wasteful and polluting nation being considered the most
'developed' has evoked a sharp response from scholars, philosophers, social
activists and technologists, all over the world. Many of them are reflecting on
these questions and seeking solutions to the problems created by such
development
‘Development’: The Dominant Model
For over half a century now, the wealthy, industrialised nations, which are
considered 'developed', have been regarded as the role model for the poor
and 'developing' nations. This concept of development rests on certain basic
assumptions and postulates:
*
Maximization of production and consumption of goods and services.
*
Global open markets are essential for assuring rapid increase in
production.
♦ Alternative Development
*
No country through its government should impose any restrictions on the
market.
*
Questions such as what goods and services should be produced, where,
to what extent, for whom, at what price, and through what currency
transactions, should be left completely to the open market place.
*
This is expected to ensure competition'among producers which, in turn,
would assure optimum utilization of resources and benefit the buyers
by giving them better goods and services.
*
Basic needs like education, health, etc., are considered important but it is
taken as given that these social sectors are also best served through
the open market.
*
When it is assumed that competition in the open market alone is the main
driving force of development, it follows that to ensure success production
costs must be reduced. This places an emphasis on reducing human
labour and relying more and more on the latest technology and machines
for production. Naturally, this method is capital intensive.
* Technical advances are used for not only substituting physical labour, but
even mental labour.
It follows that under this system only those nations, which have a virtually
inexhaustible supply of capital with which they can control the available
technology, are able to prosper.
Small crafts people, whose mainstay for production is their own labour and
skill, do not have a chance against this competition. Heavy capital investment,
centralization of production and ousting of small crafts persons are all
inherent in this system.
Increasing centralization of economic and industrial power, in turn, abets
seizure of political power and also widens the gulf between the rich and the
poor. The price of labour or wages, is very low in developing countries as
compared to those in the industrialised world. If production costs are
measured in a more social and ecologically responsible manner then the
capital-intensive system of production does not appear profitable when
compared with the traditional system. However, this reality is concealed by the
technical approach of industrialised countries.
Since production is concentrated in the hands of a few, rich capitalists
and there is no increase in the availability of jobs, the result is rising
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♦ Alternative Development
unemployment. This phenomenon has been evident even in developed
countries during the past two decades. In these countries there has been
continuous growth in the gross national output, but simultaneously
unemployment has increased. Growing unemployment has created intense
social tensions. Labour organizations, which once were very strong, have of
late become weak and ineffective. The real income of industrial labour has
steadily declined.
Corruption, crime, violence, smuggling, drug abuse and a steady spread of
racism are some of the fruits of development in the so-called developed world.
In countries like Japan and South Korea, which were held up as miracles in
the field of industrialization, numerous politicians at the highest level have
been implicated in corruption and crime. On the other hand, banks and
multinationals of the industrialized countries, with their immense economic
and technological strength, are establishing their hegemony over the global
economy. By exploiting weaker economies, they are plundering the world
resources. In this cruel competition to establish hegemony, nations and blocks
of nations have gained enormous power.
The political consequences of economic inequalities among various countries
are coming to the fore. True, nobody in this age entertains the idea of
establishing an empire with the help of armed might. But the so-called
developed countries are using their financial and industrial might to exploit
developing countries and establish control over their politics. International
agencies like the World Bank, International Monetary Fund, World Trade
Organization and even the United Nations are used by the rich countries to put
pressure on the poorer nations to submit to policies which serve the interests
of the rich nations.Neocolonialism is a reality today.
Environmental Consequences
There has been indiscriminate plunder and destruction of the world's natural
resources — water, forests, land, minerals, animal and plant life — for
short-term gain. This has caused irreversible damage to the environment. We
suffer these extremely destructive consequences in our everyday lives even
while international conferences are held to keep debating how this destruction
and plunder can be stopped. But as long as maximizing profits in the open
world market remains the mantra, the richer societies and nations cannot be
prevented from running away with the loot.
♦ Alternative Development
What is happening around the world is reflected within our own country as well
as other developing countries. The current development process has clearly
divided our society into two distinct segments. There is a small elite which has
been co-opted and has already established a relationship with the affluent
classes of other countries. And then there is the large majority of the masses
which is exploited by the system.
This reality is not confined to trade and industries alone. It now encompasses
all aspects of life such as language, dress, life-style, education, health, food
and drinking, entertainment, etc. The young men and women of the elite class
dream of leaving their own country and migrating to the richer ones. In fact,
this small segment is indeed globalized. If there ever was any bond between
this segment and the poor, illiterate, toiling masses of the country, it has
been completely severed. The standards of facilities for health, education and
entertainment between these two classes are poles apart.
This difference itself further reinforces the ability of the rich to exploit the poor.
It perpetuates the vicious circle. Growing economic inequality, increasing
consumerism of a small segment, costly yet indecent advertising on the mass
media and dire unem ployment among the youth are th e profane consequences
of the official recognition being accorded to private profit-making. Widespread
corruption in the bureaucracy and political circles, the emergence of organised
crime, atrocities on women have increased insecurity of the common citizen.
Owing to competition in the market and greed for profit, the industrialists and
traders, both indigenous and foreign, loot and pollute natural resources. These
are the same natural resources on which the common people of the country
subsist, i.e. forests in which adivasi communities have lived for centuries and
raw materials such as bamboo, hides, skins, wood, required for the work of
craftsmen. All these are fast being depleted.
The depletion of India’s rich bio-diversity — the myriad species flora, fauna,
marine life, insects — is going on unchecked. This has meant that plantations
of eucalyptus trees have come to stand in place of natural forests and fertile
agricultural lands have been turned into ponds for prawn cultivation. At the
time of Independence, innumerable varieties of rice, wheat, diverse grains
and fruits were widely cultivated in our country. This variety has been severely
♦ Alternative Development
restricted and it is feared that in future all of these will be replaced by a few
species developed and controlled by a handful of multinational companies.
Quite apart from this material havoc, these processes have also had an
adverse effect on the life and psyche of the people. In most cases they are not
even given general information regarding the development projects in their
own backyards. It is unthinkable that their consent will be taken before
snatching away their resources and/or displacing them from their natural habitat
In the present system of production based on modern technology, extreme
misuse of the natural resources is taking place on account of competition for
production. This unhindered misuse of the environment for short-term gain
without regard for the future has led to the plunder of resources, so vital for
future generations. The over-exploitation of water, forests,, seas, energy and
minerals is causing pollution of the atmosphere, destruction of wild life,
salinisation, waterlogging of agricultural land, destruction of fish and other
gigantic losses.
Basic Values and Objectives of Appropriate Development
The most basic tenet of any alternative model of development must be the
well-being of man in all its facets and dimensions. This includes the fulfillment
of every person’s physical, social, economic and spiritual needs and the
dignity of his or her person. The development and fulfillment of every human
being’s personality should have a central place in the scheme of a genuine
development model. For this kind of development, truth, peace, compassion,
non-violence, equality, liberty, justice, dignity of labour, harmony with nature,
and self-reliance of the entire plant and animal life will have to be accepted as
basic values.
It may not be possible to actually implement all the values in all their fullness.
Owing to circumstances beyond our control, we are at times constrained to
stray from the path indicated by these values. But such situations have to be
treated as exceptions and we should not regard, on this account, the basic
values themselves as irrelevant or inapplicable. It should be our resolve and
effort to internalize these values and to follow them as faithfully and fully as
possible, in both our personal conduct and our social dealings.
♦ Alternative Development
Everyone accepts that regulation of the mundane chores of society is the duty
of the government These functions of governance should be conducted through
democratic methods. These democratic procedures must aim to ensure that
I egislators and government functionaries are ulti mately responsibl etothepeople.
While deciding on matters affecting the interests of the people, the maximum
number of affected people should get an opportunity to express their views
and ideas. In order to ensure this the decision-making process must be open
and transparent.
The responsibility for ensuring this transparency lies not only with government
but with different sections of people. Relations among nations too should be
conducted on these principles. Nobody has a right to hide information or take
one-sided decisions citing 'national interest or, for that matter, the welfare of
the entire human race.
Eradication of Poverty
The development of individuals as a human beings is not possible as long as
they are so poor that their basic material needs are not met, i.e., food,
clothing, shelter, health care and education. The complete eradication of such
poverty must be a major goal of genuine development. This will be possible
only if goods and services are produced in sufficient quantity, and at
affordable prices, to meet the primary requirements of all people in society.
The equitable distribution of the basic goods must be in-built to the pattern of
resource use and modes of production.
However, the purpose of development is not limited to these basic needs.
Its aim should be a progressive rise in the standard of living of the entire
population so that they are physically, mentally and culturally enriched.
Peace, Compassion, Non-violence
The basic principle of appropriate development should be peace and
compassion towards all and promotion of the spirit of non-violence. It is only in
such a society that there can be any hope for all human-beings to have a fair
chance of developing their personality and attaining happiness and
satisfaction.
In contrast to this goal, contemporary society is vitiated by inherent conflicts
which lead to sporadic and organized violence. To some, extent violence is
inherent to the prevailing development model. Thus, people are chased away
9
♦ Alternative Development
from their homes, depriving them of not only physical resources and livelihood
but also destroying the cultural riches of centuries-old bonds with habitats.
There is a complex overlap of class, caste and gender violence. And then
there is the over-arching threat of violence triggered by communal tensions.
It would be ideal for the oppressed to resist such violence through organized
mass non-violence. But it is not always possible for victims to do so. In some
instances, counter-violence becomes unavoidable. If victims of violence take
up counter-violence in self-defence, this may not be treated as abandonment
of the ideal of non-violence. If there is no option, counter-violence may be
justifiable though only to the extent it is essential.
Equality and Justice
Reducing and eliminating the present social and economic inequities should
also be an objective of appropriate development. Absolute .equal distribution of
wealth may not be feasible in the society. Though, at present, there is so much
inequality in the society that physical wealth accumulated by certain persons
would have to be taken away from them, if beyond a certain optimum limit. The
primary objective, however, is to ensure that everyone has an equal right to
dignity and a share in power.
Women’s Rights
This cannot be possible as long as half the citizens continue to be
subordinate. Education of middle class women has received considerable
attention in this century and working class women are engaged in occupations
outside their houses. But women have never been accorded as much
importance as men in the production system and this has added a new
dimension to the oppression of women.
Due to growing commercialization, women are neglected in the family in many
matters like education, food and status. Incidents of women’s harassment,
including dowry-deaths, are also on the increase. The female body has been
made an object of excessive exhibition for commercial purposes in the
capitalist market system.
Wherever there is an increase in use of technology, be it in the sphere
of industries or agriculture, there are fewer and fewer opportunities of
employment for women. No doubt, young women of a particular class are
♦ Alternative Development
getting increasing opportunities in some fields of employment such as
electronics and computers. But the fact remains that women of the working
class are being displaced from employment on a large scale.
According to the 1991 census, 27.8 crore people were engaged in different
types of productive activity, of which only 6.3 crore were women. Out of this
number, 2.15 crore were engaged in cultivation and 2.8 crore were landless
labourers. This meant only 1.3 crore were engaged in other vocations
(Source: Statistical Outline of India, 1994-95, Tata Services Ltd., No. 42).
As long as unjust provisions of the personal laws of all religions are not
removed, and women are not given equal opportunities in the political and
economic spheres, no social transformation is possible. Thus, reservation of
33% of the seats for women in the whole political process is a good idea.
Simultaneously, there is need for restructuring and expanding the production
system to give women their due place in the production system and to
increase their share in economic transactions. In this field too, some sectors
need to be reserved for women.
The gender dimension of appropriate development should not be confined to
the production system alone. It encompasses the various issues raised by the
women's movements which have been progressively expanding. Some
examples are, the movement against liquor industry initiated by women in
Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Rajasthan.
Liberty
Maximum liberty should be an important objective of true development. This
means that every person has the freedom of religion, opinion, expression,
organization and promotion of one’s own interest through peaceful means.
And, most importantly, a person’s liberty does not allow him or her to encroach
upon the freedom of others or to cause direct and grave injury to the society
as a whole.
Harmony with Nature
Developing intimacy with nature and promoting the idea that all life in the world
has as much a right to survive as human beings do, should also be included in
our goals. Goaded by the greed for appropriating all sorts of objects for
♦ Alternative Development
consumption, man has abused water, forests, land, creatures, minerals and
other valuable natural resources. This indiscriminate plunder has threatened
the very survival of life on our planet.
Self-reliance
Dependence on foreign funding institutions upsets self-reliance and slackens
people's initiative and personal enterprise. There is a danger of becoming
dependent on external forces, be they governments, financial institutions,
multinationals or trading companies. We should increase production of goods
and services by proper utilization of resources available within the country
through self-reliant methods. We should learn to do without goods and
services for which we have to depend on others. We must, of course, make
an exception in the case of some selected items of overriding necessity.
Even if dependence on other countries is unavoidable temporarily for a few
things, our goal should be to rid us of such dependence as early as possible.
However, international trade on equal terms with other countries for mutual
benefit should not be considered taboo.
We should become fully self-reliant in respect of day-to-day needs of food,
clothing, education, health, and essential services like communication, energy
etc. We are fortunate that almost all resources required for fulfilling these
needs are at hand within our own country.
Dignity of Labour
Both types of labour, physical and mental, are essential for the proper growth
of an individual. Similarly, every person's labour is essential for production of
goods and to fulfill all society's needs. All physically fit persons, who are not
engaged in socially useful work, should be treated as a burden on the society.
Today, not only do such parasites exist in the society, they possess immense
wealth, power and recognition.
It is society's responsibility to create employment opportunities for every
person and to ensure that remuneration is paid according to the true utility of
labour to society. It would not be just and proper to determine wages on the
traditional ideas about classification of certain work as superior or inferior.
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♦ Alternative Development
The Question of Technology
Technology is not only the inventions made during the last 200 years since the
industrial revolution or those being made mainly in the West in the last three or
four decades. It is not right to discuss technology in this limited context.
Since time immemorial, not only humans but also animals, birds, even insects
have developed their own survival systems in respect of food, sustenance,
defense mechanisms etc. Even in the Stone Age, man was using some type of
technology. This truth is clearly brought out by the history of the evolution of
human society.
During the early phase of evolution, technology was used to make human life
secure, for ameliorating human drudgery and saving labour. As life progressed
in this direction, techniques were developed for gaining comforts and for
securing control over nature. Technology was also utilized for arming oneself
against the enemy.
As technology marched on, man used technology to dominate and exploit
other groups of people and conquer their territory. The intellect, wealth and
other resources of nations began to be spent on military research. Even
today, the bulk of scientific and technological research feeds into the creation
of military devices. This research is carried on with a tacit objective of
aggression, suppression and destruction. We have witnessed how domination
of weaker human populations has been achieved on the strength of military
technology.
In the civil sector, the goal of technological development was directed at
fulfillment of people's needs. Technology increased production of goods and
services, reducing costs and making possible huge profits through the sale of
surplus production in domestic and foreign markets. When machines replace
human labour, the cost and time needed for production is reduced. Having
realized this, the systems were mainly directed towards getting the work done
through machines wherever possible. Thus, it became essential to compete
with other producers for selling inexpensive products whose output had
increased rapidly. Thus, mechanization and reduction of human labour
became essential to survive against competition. There has also been a
growing trend towards production of unnecessary goods. Flashy and even
detrimental luxury items, whose sales are bolstered through attractive and
misleading advertisement, are flooding the market.
13
♦ Alternative Development
The aim of technological research sponsored by big multinational companies
today is to establish domination over international markets and to increase
profits by creating greater demand for their products, whether good or bad.
Naturally, only such countries and companies which are economically
powerful can afford such research. Nations and classes, which have control
over technology, utilize it for their gains. Modem technology inevitably
makes the strong stronger and the weak weaker.
It is responsible for
promotion of blind consumerism. Thus, technology is neither value-neutral nor
situation-neutral.
Prime importance has been given to computerand information technology in
the present age. But it has its own limits. It cannot, for example, produce any
goods on its own. Actual production still needs raw materials, instruments,
machines, tools, power and labour.
Undoubtedly, the operation and control of the means of production may be
better managed through information technology. But computer-controlled
machines and tools are more expensive than traditional ones. Thus, the per
unit costs of production using modern techniques are comparatively higher.
Particularly in a society where capital is scarce, prices of machines are
relatively expensive and labour is cheap and abundant. Thus, it is certainly not
true that capital-intensive machines and instruments are always equally cost
effective.
Who are the beneficiaries of the global information network that has been
made possible by the Internet? Information obtained through it is mainly of use
to big industrialists, traders, speculators in capital markets, ruling classes, and
the armed forces of the industrialized and developed countries. The poor and
working people of both the worlds, particularly of the developing countries,
derive no real benefit out of this network. Rather, the system is used to exploit
and dominate the poor even more.
The nature and consequences of modern technology are such that they
cannot be the basis of the alternative developmental concept. This is not to say
that alternative development eschews technology altogether. Technology which
is in consonance with and supportive of the values and goals of appropriate
development, may very well form its basis. Some of the main features of such
benign technology are indicated below.
F’4!
♦ Alternative Development
Aims of Appropriate Technology
The aim of technology must not make human labour redundant Rather, it
should aim at ensuring that labour is not harmful to the health of man, does not
alienate him and is more productive. For this purpose, research, education
and training should be arranged to bring about improvements in the
instruments, tools and systems of production. In fact, optimal physical labour
should be compulsory for everyone.
The plunder and destruction of the world's natural resources should stop.
They should, on the contrary, be actually nurtured. Common people should
not be deprived of the resources on which their livelihood depends.
Systems that pollute the environment should be discarded. Nuclear energy
should be regarded as an absolute calamity. Only technology that meets or
helps to meet the real needs of people should be adopted, developed and even
imported, if no indigenous alternative exists. A technology that makes us
self-reliant as a nation is welcome. If it makes us dependent on others, it is
unacceptable.
Technology that promotes the luxury of the rich by producing and marketing
unnecessary goods should be abandoned. Technology that reduces economic,
social and cultural inequality is satisfactory. Society should have control over
technology in order that it is used in the real interest of people at large, not just
for personal gainof a small segment At all levelsand in all fields, local people
should have control over the choice and use of technology. Life-saving
medicinesand other systems th at help patients suffering from serious illnesses
are appropriate. However, these should be available notjustto the rich, but to
all. They should be under social control.
The systems and methods of production should ensure that capital is
conserved, production on small scale is profitable and people get
opportunities to earn through productive work. Modern technology has
constricted opportunities for productive work, earning, self-reliance and
self-development of people, particularly women. Technology that allows
increased productivity for women and promotes their independence and
growth should be accepted.
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♦ Alternative Development
Agriculture
Agriculture continues to be the largest and most important sector of India's
economy. Two-thirds of Indians depend on agriculture fortheir livelihood. The
land and climate of India are conducive to an increase in agricultural
production. The vast majority of our population is poor and it is imperative to
increase agricultural production to meet their needs. Growth of agriculture is
of primary importance in the alternative concept of development.
There are a number of serious problems hampering the growth of agriculture.
At the same time, the standard of living of most people depending on
agriculture is very low. Some of the problemscan be listed as follows:
1.
There is an extremely unequal distribution of land. About 1.2% of all
agriculturists own as much as 44.6% of the total farmland. At the other
end of the spectrum, 59% of the farmers own only 14.9% of the farmland.
Of all the people depending on agriculture, 7.5 crore people are landless
labourers. Their number and proportion keep growing. The land holdings
of most peasants are so small that they are unable to invest the necessary
amounts for increasing their production.
2.
A very large part of agricultural land is dependent on rains. Hence,
agricultural production suffers heavy damage every year from either too
little or too much rain. Some parts of the country never get enough rain
and are perennially famine-stricken.
3.
The prices of agricultural produce are low in the market as compared to
industrial products. As most people in our country are poor, there is a
perpetual depression in the market for agricultural products. Production
in the agricultural sector depends on the vagaries of nature to a very large
extent. Also, production is seasonal and does not occur evenly through
the year. Most farmers are constrained to bring their produce to the
market immediately after harvesting. Since they are too poor, it is beyond
their ability to withhold their product from the market if the price is not
right. They do not have any bargaining capacity to get favourable prices
for their products. The low wage paid to the agricultural labourer
is one of the reasons for this situation.
♦ AUcrnative Development
4.
Since the prevailing development policy mainly underscores organized
modern industry, the government pays scant attention to capital
investment in agriculture.
5.
The "green revolution” type of farming system makes heavy use of chemical
fertilisers, pesticides and water. This results in higher production
expenditure per unit. Concurrently, the natural fertility of the land keeps
diminishing. Soil texture gets damaged, salinity increases and large land
areas get waterlogged. Due to increased costs, agriculture becomes
unprofitable for small farmers. Consequently, they lease out their lands to
big farmers. Thus, the green revolution has aggravated inequality within
the agricultural sector.
6.
Today, ground water is being used excessively without adequate
replenishment. As a result, the level of underground water is constantly
falling and the quantity of water available from the ground sources is
diminishing.
7.
Too much emphasis has been laid on medium and large dams. The
capital costs of such projects always exceed estimates by wide margins.
Yet, they do not yield proportionate benefits. There is no proper
maintenance of these dams. Efforts are not being made for permanent
provision of water to meet the needs of the rain-fed areas.
8.
In the present system of marketing of agricultural products, the small and
medium farmers get cheated and exploited by the middlemen.
9.
Even in the green revolution areas, farmers have to depend on the
government for loans, fertilizers, pesticides and water. As a result, the
bureaucracy dominates over the farmers, who have become dependent
10.
Government provides subsidy and encouragement for cash crops like
sugarcane. But such crops use too much water, with the result that
farmers who grow other crops do not get enough water. This problem has
been aggravated since the government is promoting the production of
fruits, vegetables, milk, etc., for export.
11.
The number of persons depending exclusively on land for their livelihood
is quite large. All of them do not get sufficient productive work in
agriculture. The average productivity of labour and also the agricultural
wage is very low. The increase in the number of modem organized
17
♦ Alternative Development
industries has not led to any appreciable increase in employment
opportunities. Thus, it is obvious from experience till now that
industrialization will not assuage the heavy burden of population on
agriculture. By making more investment in agriculture and providing
encouragement to intensive farming, it is possible to increase
the productivity of land and of the labour dependent thereon to a
considerable degree. But this is very difficult in the present extremely
unequal system of land tenure.
12.
Forests constitute a part of the agricultural sector. Government control
over forests and of their management by the forest departments of the
various state governments has led to many harmful consequences.
Reckless cutting of forests through legal or illegal means, harassment of
adivasis who depend entirely on forests, rampant corruption and
oppression in the bureaucracy, and the plunder and destruction of forest
wealth occur almost everywhere. Greater governmental control and more
powers to the forest departments cannot be a solution to these ills. Yet, the
government does not seem to look for an alternate policy.
13.
There are a large number of fishermen in our country, most of whom fish
on a small scale and subsist on earnings from their catch. Their
equipment like boats, nets etc. is useful for only fishing along seacoast or
in the river. In recent years, many indigenous and foreign companies
have entered the ocean with big modern boats for deep sea fishing. As a
result, the catch of traditional fishermen has diminished. Moreover, fish
are being killed due to pollution of water owing to the release of industrial
waste and effluents into the sea.
14.
Since exports have been granted major importance, prawns have
become a premium commodity. Projects for prawn cultivation in ponds
and lakes are coming up in big numbers. Fishermen who have worked in
these reservoirs of water are being chased away. Simultaneously, at
some places, fertile lands are being dug up for creating prawn-ponds.
Since these ponds are being filled up with saline water, the adjacent
farmlands are destroyed.
The production of food grains and textiles in the country is, by and large,
sufficient to meet the needs of the people. Yet, crores of our countrymen have
to go without food or clothing. The primary goal of agricultural policy in the
SEE-------------------- _
♦ Alternative Development
alternative development concept will beta provide wholesome food grains to
the hungry and proper clothing to the ill-clad in optimum quantity. Increasing
agricultural and textile production alone will not achieve this. Who produces,
what is being produced and how is it produced are important points.
In order to achieve the primary goal as stated above, our agricultural policy
will have some basic tenets as follows.
1.
Extreme inequality in land holdings should be removed. For this, the laws
of land ceiling should be made more equitable and they must be
implemented strictly.
2.
Women shoulder a major burden of agricultural operations, but are
usually denied land ownership. This situation should change. Women
should have right to land ownership on equal terms with men.
3.
The principle that water is a common community resource should be
accepted. Accordingly, planning and distribution of water resources and
rights over it should be tackled keeping every group’s need in mind,
particularly those who live on agriculture.
4.
Big dams and mega irrigation projects are comparatively less beneficial
to agriculture. On the contrary, they harm the lives of local people and
destroy the environment. More attention should be paid to medium and
small irrigation projects, regional development systems based on surface
water and on increasing production on unirrigated lands.
5.
Excessive exploitation of water resulting in scarcity of water should be
stopped. On the one hand, practices leading to waterlogging and salinisation
of agricultural land should also be halted. Only big landholders benefit
through pump irrigation facilitated by subsidized or free electricity. At the
same time, it leads to excessive and often harmful use of water. Electricity
rates should be fixed so as to prevent excessive use and suitable
restrictions ought to be put on use of pumps.
6.
Agriculture should be planned at the village level in a way so that every
family in every village ultimately becomes self-sufficient. Encouragement
should be given to experiments currently being carried on in several parts
of the country to obtain abundant yield from small pieces of land through
judicious use of water, sunlight and biomass grown in the farm itself,
replacing the use of chemical fertilisers.
♦ Alternative Development
7.
Such farming methods as do not harm the natural texture and fertility of
the land should be encouraged and emphasized.
8.
Diverting land for the production of fruits, vegetables, prawns, etc. in
place of food grains should be stopped.
9.
Government should guarantee lucrative prices for agricultural products.
10.
Only the surplus agricultural output after meeting the needs for food and
clothing for all people in the country should be exported. To ensure this,
some restrictions on free trade may be imposed.
11.
There should be effective implementation of the public distribution
system throughout the country so that food grains are available to all who
need them.
12.
Traditional farming techniques and implements should be gradually
improved, but large-scale mechanization of agricultural operations or
techniques, which deprive farm labourers of their occupation, should not
be encouraged.
13.
Animal husbandry and dairies should be encouraged. They provide
employment to villagers and their products are useful to people.
14.
To relieve the burden of people dependent on agriculture, special
importance should be given to village industries and generation of
productive employment opportunities. For such work, raw materials should
be made available to the rural populace on a priority basis. Factories
engaged in machine production should be prevented from preempting
these raw materials. Special emphasis should be placed on the creation
of jobs unrelated to agriculture and which afford employment to women.
15.
The assault by industrialists and rich individuals on forests, hills, village
common lands, seashores, rivers, ponds etc., and the consequent
displacement of agriculturists by them should be halted.
Production in the agricultural sector is usually small scale. Farmers should get
easy loans, water and other farm inputs. Their products should be sold at
reasonable prices. For this, cooperative industries should be utilized more so
that services and resources are available to small farmers at a reasonable
cost. But this does not mean that agricultural products should be sold in distant
♦ Alternative Development
markets, either in the country or abroad, and that the inputs for agriculture are
imported from far away places. Agricultural products should be primarily meant
for sale in neighboring markets. Governments now encourage the export of
these products to distant markets. The result is that local people, particularly
the poor, find it difficult to purchase these products.
Industry
Industries basically produce goods and services required by people in
society. They also provide employment to a large section of society. In fact,
these two aspects of industries depend on one another. If there were no
production of goods and services, the needs of the society would not be met.
Conversely, if people do not find jobs in industries and derive an income, the
goods and services produced would have no buyers in the market and as
such they would become unsustainable. It is sometimes said that our indus
tries can subsist by selling their products in foreign markets and thus we could
achieve development. This view has gained some acceptance. But can such
export-oriented development be possible in a heavily populated country
like India?
While discussing the pattern of alternative industrial development, we will have
to address certain questions. Industry for whom and with what objective? What
methods and techniques are to be used? Who should own the industries? How
do we obtain resources, capital, raw materials, energy and transportation
facilities for growth of the industries?
Our society is heterogeneous and highly stratified. In an economy based ori a
free market, industries operate and g'owto meet the demands of persons who
have enough money to purchase the goods and services. This is not
consistent with the basic objectives of genuine development. In the alternative
system, industries should serve the masses of common and poor people.
Meeting the needs of common people should indeed be the main function of
industries, not satisfying the demands for luxury and comfort by a handful of
the rich.
In India, labour force is available in abundance and there is a simultaneous
scarcity of capital. Hence, our production techniques should be such as to
provide employment to more without incurring heavy capital expenditure. As
noted above, without adequate work and wages there would be no demand for
the goods and services produced by these industries. Methods that meet the
F ■ IX
06 06£
♦ Alternative Development
real needs of people, provide employment to a maximum number of people
and conserve the monetary capital should be used. The structure of other
elements of the industrial policy should be planned with this in mind.
Today, the two objectives of meeting the needs of the people and providing
employment to them have been separated For production of goods and
services, heavy reliance is placed on use of modern centralized systems and
advanced technologies. There is not enough employment generated in this
system. To generate employment, reliance is placed on such ill-defined schemes
as Jawahar Rozgar Yojana. No doubt, many thousands of crores are spent
every year on these schemes, but this amount is negligible compared to the
investment made each year in organized industries. At the same time, no
definite information is ever available as to what and how much is actually
produced out of the money spent on the schemes and how much employment
is generated. In production planning, employment is not taken into account.
When employment is considered, there is little regard for what and how much
socially pertinent production results therefrom. Production and employment
should be treated as two sides of the same coin. When they are separated, as
at present, there is neither production for fulfilling the needs of people nor do
people get adequate employment An alternative industrial policy should emerge
from a scrutiny of this experience.
The production of indispensable goods and services for communication,
transport, health, education, arts, sports and entertainment, etc., should also
be scrutinized in the context of the real needs of the common people. For
example, thousands of crores of rupees are spent every year on civil aviation
such as airplanes, runways, airports, fuel, panel instruments, etc. But it is
doubtful if one out of ten thousand Indians would ever travel by air in a lifetime.
On the other hand, railways are directly or indirectly connected with the lives
of almost all Indians. But on the plea of lack of resources, even the expenses
for the safety of rail travel are refused.
Likewise, a letter sent by post, often reaches the addressee after 10 or 12
days if it reaches at all, because the government‘cannot afford an increase in
the number of postal employees'. But projects spending thousands of crores
of rupees on telecommunications based on modern electronics and for
establishing telephone links in each and every village are pushed ahead on
priority, even though drinking water is not available in these same villages.
Hence the question: who are the real beneficiaries of these projects? Clearly,
Fl
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♦ AUcrnative Development
this approach to development has no place in the framework of alternative
development. These are simply not priority projects for the common people.
While implementing the central doctrine mentioned above, some of the
overriding needs of our society and the nation need to be taken cognizance
of. Export is considered an important national need. No doubt, certain items
need to be imported from abroad. These have to be paid for in foreign
currency. Naturally, foreign currency has to be earned by selling our products
in foreign markets. Yet, there is no justification for treating export as the most
important aspect of our economy, relegating other objectives to a secondary
position.
Our traditional industries are capable of earning through exports as
much foreign currency as is truly needed. Such industries as chemicals,
engineering, electronics, etc., which are regarded as modern, do not earn as
much through exports as they spend on imports. The total value of exports of
all organized industries taken together is less than the value of imports
necessary for them. As a matter of fact, there is no need for so much import in
order to meet the needs of common people. Most of the production of modern
industries dependent on heavy imports is primarily satisfying the consumer
ism of the affluent classes. The importance that these industries have
assumed today is disproportionate with actual needs. The growth of such
industries is one of the factors responsible for excessive imports. By reducing
their importance, it will be possible to limit imports. As a result, the excessive
importance placed on exports will be lessened.
Military equipment and supplies need imports on a big scale for defense of the
country. Information regarding these imports is generally kept secret on the
plea of national interest. It is true that in the present situation, we cannot afford
to neglect national security. But what exactly does 'adequate' preparation for
security mean? With each country striving to be ‘adequately protected', an
arms race becomes inevitable. The level of 'adequacy' constantly goes up
without any change in the balance of power and the scale of import of military
equipment keeps increasing. Therefore, healthy efforts will have to be made
on the two fronts of restricting arms race through political initiatives and achieving
self-sufficiency by increasing indigenous production of military equipment.
Technology has special importance in the context of industrial policy. The
inputs for production, machines, accessories and so on that are based on the
latest technology are very expensive compared to traditional inputs. Use of
------------------------------ El-----------------------------
♦ Alternative Development
high-tech inputs, therefore, leads to increase in the capital cost of production.
It is true that there is big saving in labour and other costs involving labour. But
that does not fully compensate for increased capital costs. As a result, per unit
cost of production often goes up instead of decreasing with the use of modern
technology.
New technology is generally developed for saving labour. Even the advocates of
new technology accept thatits use would lead to decrease in employment. But
their argument is that the use of new technology would accelerate the pace of
development, bring about an increase in total production, and hence more jobs
will become available in some time. According to this 'trickle down' theory,
shrinkage in job opportunities is a temporary phenomenon.
However, present day experience does not support this argument. Changes are
taking place very fast in the field of technology. But it has not been met with a
corresponding increase in total production in any country. In the last twenty
years, 'growth' is mainly taking place in the number of jobless people. Growing
unemployment caused by the use of new technology is a matter
of concern even for the highly industrialized countries for whom all the
world markets are open and whose populations are nearly steady. For poor
developing countries like ours, indiscriminate use of modern technology may
prove even more harmful.
This is not to say that technology should be totally rejected. Its complete
abandonment is not even possible. But taking into account our social
structure, the underlying economic inequality, real needs of the common and
poor people, and our objectives in respect of the economy and production, we
should decide which technology is appropriate and profitable for a particular
sector. We have the right and capability to choose appropriate technology among
the various choices available.
Energy is required for running various means of production. The production of
energy is in itself an industry. There is a common belief that the need for energy
would constantly have to increase for economic development. Often, with
a rather warped logic, per capita use of energy is considered an index of
development of a society. In the existing model of development, this may
be true. The current method of energy production and its use breeds
extremely wasteful and extravagant misuse of a national resource and
creates environmental pollution.
E>
♦ AUernalive Development
Energy will no longer remain as serious a problem as it is today because the
alternative model is not energy-intensive. Experts readily recognize that if
available energy is used frugally and judiciously, there can be large-scale
savings in energy consumption.
A great amount of energy is consumed in the form of coal and mineral oil for
transport. These fuels are also used for generation of electricity. Today,
industrialized countries have adopted the culture of vehicles for personal use
and various electric gadgets for day-to-day mundane chores. Production and
use of motor cars, two-wheelers, three-wheelers, etc., has been increasing
with exceptional rapidity. The vehicles make excessive use of fuel per
passenger-kilometer. Besides, they are responsible for environmental
pollution. Therefore, importance should be given to efficient public transport
systems in place of personal vehicles. In a decentralized system of
production, transport would have less importance than today.
In rural areas, animals form a traditional source of energy. In today's economy,
this resource is fast disappearing. Besides, animals are useful for other
purposes too. In the alternative production system, efforts should be made to
promote use of animals in agricultural operations, transport and for increasing
the amount of energy realized from them.
Sun, wind and water are inexhaustible sources of energy and they cause no
pollution. Man has been using them since ancient times. Techniques for their
better use are available today even as more are being developed every day.
Efforts need to be made in an appropriate manner for generating electricity on
a large scale from these renewable and non-polluting sources.
It is cl ear that the proposed framework of the alternate concept of industries is
totally opposed to the prevailing system. Naturally, big obstacles would come
in the way of its implementation. The entire direction in which the world has
progressed in the last two centuries and more would have to be reversed. We
have become so habituated to it, and it has so much become a part of our lives
that even those who are convinced of a need of reversal find it hard to
internalize the objective and change their life-styles accordingly. The main
beneficiaries of the established system of development and production would
naturally oppose this radical change tooth and nail. These classes have adopted
globalization as the central tenet of their policy. As such, there will be heavy
global pressure against any change in the pattern of development. Many elitist
scholars would treat our thesis as outright insane.
♦ Alternative Development
How then will this change come about under the present circumstances? This
would be possible only if the government accepts the point of view espoused
here and undertakes the direct responsibility of ushering the change in The
government will have to play a central and decisive role By taking up the
challenge in a major way as far as the production in public sector is
concerned and by imposing effective controls over the private sector.
This means an immediate end to the present day policy of privatisation and socalled liberalization. Depending entirely on the open market will not serve the
interests of the masses of this country. The government will also need to firmly
neutralize the opposition of those sections with a vested interest in the estab
lished system. Firm support to the alternate conceptswill have to comethrough
efforts to create public opinion in its favour.
Critics of this view argue that whenever the government plays a decisive role in
industrial development, harmful tendencies such as bureaucratic delays, red
tape, corruption, etc., become rampant Previous experience supports this criti
cism. But these unhealthy trends have not diminished after the
so-called liberalization and loosening of controls. If there is a clear
understanding of the danger involved and the state takes effective measures to
curb them, such ills can be restrained.
Placing all big and medium size industries in the public sector and controlling
them through a central and decisive state role does not mean that the
industries be owned or managed by the state. Today, the accepted norm is that
whosoever invests capital in an industry, whether a government or a private
individual, should control and manage it. This is basically a capitalistic idea.
But even the Soviet Union and other socialist countries had accepted this
principle for management of nationalized industries. In a capitalist state, no
other view can even be imagined. The truth is, all capital belongs to society,
particularly capital invested in public enterprises. Workers, experts, managers,
etc. working in the industry notonly invest their labour, skill, and expertise, but
their own future and that of their families. There is no reason to regard this
investment as any less important than the monetary one. Therefore, equal
right of all in the management should be recognized.
Likewise, the customer base, or society as a whole, has a close relationship
with the industry itself. Society should have' a role in the management of
industry. This objective remains inert if the government manages on behalf of
♦ Alternative Development
the society. Therefore, making institutional arrangements for management of
public sector industries will be a major challenge before the alternative
developmental concept The alternative system of development will have to be
evolved in a way that public sector enterprises in fact become people’s sector
enterprises.
One way of achieving this is to create a cooperative organization of all
employees who in turn manage the industrial establishment. The cooperatives,
engaged in production of raw materials for a particular industry, such as oil
seeds, cotton, sugarcane etc. will also be in charge of managing the industry.
Some industries already have this type of management in our country as well
as some others. By making determined efforts and providing encouragement
to them, the number of cooperatively-managed industries can increase
considerably. Some persons who can represent the society should be
sought out for involving them in managing big industries in the interest of
the society as a whole.
A ‘public enterprise authority' consisting of representatives of society, the
working class, technologists, financial and marketing experts etc. may be
useful for planning and regulating all public enterprises and for providing
national coordination. This authority should be in direct contact with the
planning commission and the ministries concerned with the industry. Through
consultations among them, broad policy matters and plans should be chalked
out and objectives and targets should be shaped. But no ministry or any other
state body should be able to interfere with the day-to-day management of any
of the industries.
The work of the authority should be essentially limited to broad determination
of goals and operations of the industries within its jurisdiction and as a
watchdog organization. It must appoint top supervisors for each of the
undertakings. These supervisors as well as the entire management will have
maximum autonomy. At the same time, local management will be held
responsible for the success or failure of the undertaking. To ensure that the
authority remains completely free from governmental pressure, its expense
should be borne out of a small surcharge say, a tiny fraction of the turnover,
on the industries within its jurisdiction.
An important question arises in connection with the implementation of such a
system: how will the members of this authority be appointed or elected?
Obviously, leaving it in the hands of the government is fraught with danger. It
» .Alternative Development
should be ensured that the appointment does not get involved in politics and
come under the influence of vested interests. The official members of the
authority will have to be appointed by the government but their number must be
limited. The other representatives of experts, customers, industries, commerce,
and labour should be appointed on the advice of the representative institutions
in the concerned domains. A high-power committee may function under the
chairmanship of the Chief Justice of India for making these selections. There
may be other alternatives for the selection of the members of the authority. A
practical way will emerge through open discussions on the issue.
In the 1950s, there was a big growth of public enterprises in the country.
During that period, the question of how these industries may be managed was
discussed in depth in Parliament and elsewhere. On some of the points, there
was genera) consensus. It was agreed by all involved that public sector
industries ought to have maximum autonomy. It also emerged in the
discussions that since public sector industries have to serve objectives of
various kinds, evaluation of their functioning should be done in the context of
these diverse objectives and not just on profit and loss.
Unfortunately, the public enterprises were never given the required autonomy,
with the result that their functioning and the responsibility of the managers
remained a problem. The trend of assessing their success and failure on the
basis of financial profit and loss alone has increased. Since 1991, under the
new economic policy, the balance sheet has been the lone decisive yardstick.
The overriding importance of the public enterprises will be accepted in the
alternative concept of industrial development. At the same time, competition
among them will be allowed. Maximum autonomy will be given to the
management of the industries. But the management will, at the same time, be
held fully responsible in respect of its functioning. Having to fulfill too many
diverse objectives will not be an admissible plea for the industry running at a
loss. Clear criteria, based on their diverse objectives, will have to be laid down
for evaluating the quality and the functioning of the industries.
Production to meet the needs of the common people and large-scale
employment generation during the course of the production process is the
central tenet of the alternative production concept. The open market system
does not take adequate care of the needs of 80% of the population, i.e., the
common people. In the alternate system, income of the people will need to be
augmented and an effective market of 80% of the common people will have to
♦ Alternative Development
be created. This market will naturally be spread far and wide. Adequate profit
or surplus should flowfrom this system so that production and market become
self-sufficient and self-actuated. But production will not be geared only for
profit.
The main objective of the social system should be to meet primary needs like
food, clothing, housing, health and education. Besides these, the essential
needs should also include items such as furniture, utensils, fuel, water,
electricity, educational resources, transport facilities, culture and art in some
optimal measure. All such needs within the production system are fulfilled
through a chain which consists of infrastructure and heavy industries like
consumer durables and daily use consumer goods. For the operation of these
industries, service industries such as finance trade and transport are needed.
Each link in the chain must receive proper consideration in the alternative
system.
Food being a primary need, food-processing industry is important. Many of
the agricultural products cannot be used in their natural form. Rice has to be
processed from paddy and oil from oil-seeds. Such essential processes must
be provided for. Further, food products and ready-made foods are prepared
for consumption through processing. Similarly, the tradition of drying, salting,
preparing pickles and similar preservable food articles, is very old in all parts
of the country. Thus, items produced seasonally in large quantities may be
preserved and consumed throughout the year. Such food processing
industries may also be treated as essential. With a view to engaging women in
productive jobs outside their homes, and to make meaningful participation in
social life possible forthem, processing industries like bakeries, which ease
the burden of household chores, should be encouraged.
However, in recent years, there has been a trend of creating new kinds of
fastfoods, generating 'demand' for them through mass media advertising,
expanding market for them, and making a swift profit. Giant multinational
companies are at the forefront of this activity. While millions of people in the
country do not get adequate food, proliferation of such fast foods amounts to a
wastage. Worse, natural nutrients are lost in the process of their production.
The habit of eating ‘junk food’, which is relished by the taste buds, but is
otherwise useless and harmful, is being spread. Processed foods, like corn
and rice flakes, which were once popular everywhere are being sold in
♦ Alternative Development
attractive packages with new names by the multinational companies at
exorbitant profits. While fresh milk is not available for all children, markets are
being flooded with items such as milk powder and cheese, affordable only by
the affluent. Due to these wasteful processes, the overall price of foodstuff
increases and the poor have to bear its brunt. Such food processing
industries should be discouraged.
The extent of food processing industry and the market for it is quite large and
constant. The technology involved is fairly simple. No heavy investment is
required and opportunities for substantial employment exist. Moreover, such
industries provide great opportunities for women. They can be easily run in a
local, decentralized manner. They can bring about considerable value
addition. Production should be done using locally available raw materials and
it should be primarily meant for the limited nearby market only. To ensure that
production is not sold in some distant markets, appropriate taxes should be
levied. Through advertisements and popular education, people should be
encouraged to use the products made in the neighbourhood.
The food processing industries may be run on individual basis through
self-employment or small co-operative institutions of producers and
consumers. The village should be self-reliant for the production of milk, eggs,
meat, fish, vegetables and fruits. Dairy and poultry should be reserved for
women. Individuals and cooperatives engaged in such production and
processing should receive loans from co-operative banks or credit
associations. The sale of local food products may be organized through public
distribution system at the village level.
Raw materials for the production of bath and washing soaps, other hygiene
and body-care articles such as hair oils, toothpaste, etc., are generally
available at the local level. The required technology is also quite simple. Today,
these articles are being manufactured through a centralized system by big
corporations, prominent among them being the multinational companies
making exorbitant profits. The burden of heavy expenditure incurred by them
in advertising ultimately falls on the consumer. Consequently, their prices are
quite high. This amounts to a big flow of wealth from the village to the town and
from the poor to the rich, which must be stopped. Therefore, these articles
should be produced through decentralized system on a small scale for the
local market
30
Alternative Development
T ext tiles
Textfile production has had extraordinary importance in India. Even today, the
textfile industry is next only to agriculture. Its importance will be retained in the
alternative development pattern. It will receive special attention, since all
facctors required for its development and progress are indigenous to India.
Diiverse objectives such as fulfillment of the needs of the people, providing
employment to them and exports can be achieved through it. While planning
for development of the textile industry, special note will have to be taken of the
aibundant availability of cotton as raw material required for its growth. Our
farmers have been growing it for centuries and there is scope for further
itnereasing cotton production.
tin India’s hot and humid climate, cotton clothes are most suitable. On the other
'hand, artificial yarns like nylon, polyester, etc., are manufactured from the
by-products of petroleum, which are not produced in sufficient quantity in our
country. There is no evidence to assume that these raw materials would last
for an indefinite period even in other parts of the world. True, there are some
special qualities in man-made fibres like durability and resistance to shrink
age. There is potential fortheir production as well. But spinning and weaving
even from these fibres should entail decentralized labour-intensive methods as
in the case of cotton.
Today, the textile industry of India has been divided in many parts. Spinning is
mainly based on modern technology. Hand-spun yarns are used in the
manufacture of khadi. But on the whole, the proportion of hand spinning is
very low. Even so, the standard practice is to use niechanized methods for
several initial processes, and the final yarn is spun on ambar charkha.
Weaving from the yarns is done in different sectors such as handlooms,
powerlooms and comparatively big composite weaving mills. The technology
of weaving is the same both in powerlooms and in mills.
The handloom sector is important from the point of view of employment.
However, the powerloom sector production is the largest at present. The
process of weaving in the mills is fast coming to an end. The processes of
dyeing, printing, etc., of fabrics can be performed both in the organized and
decentralized sectors. The number of workers employed in these different
sectors of the textile industry is quite large. Unemployment is fast increasing in
31
0606S
♦ Alternative Development
the organized sector. The workers in the powerloom sector are brutally
exploited. Taking into consideration the importance of the textile industry, the
large work-force dependent on it and the great export potential it holds, it is a
significant challenge to ascertain the position of this industry in the alternative
production framework. The general approach of production through
decentralized and labour-intensive techniques for meeting the needs of the
common people should also be applicable to the textile industry. No
encouragement should be given to centralized production of costly cloth through
highly sophisticated technology. In fact, the technology used in the organized
textile industry is appropriate to the extent that it is fairly labour-intensive.
Keeping this reality in view, the sector should be rescued from its present
tottering position. Organized textiles sector may meet the needs of the armed
forces, the government and other public or specialized needs such as export.
Most machines and accessories required by the textile industry are
manufactured in our own country. There is no need to encourage production
of automated capital intensive machines. The regeneration of the organized
sector based on prevalent technology is possible. There is no need for further
growth of the organized sector. Indeed, there is not enough work even for all
the looms installed in the powerloom sector. Linder these circumstances, the
number of powerlooms should not be allowed to increase.
It is worthwhile to consider separately the export needs of the textile industry
considering that currently it accounts for nearly 30% of the total exports of the
country. Manufacturing of products in sufficient quantity which have demand
in the export market and the machines and techniques required for such
production will have to be adopted. But such products would be meant for
export only and not for internal markets. Only surplus raw materials, left over
after fulfilling the needs of the domestic market, should be used for production
for export. Artificial fibres should mainly be used for export production. At the
same time, if profitable, there is no harm in importing other raw materials.
Housing
As dictated by the laws of an open market, housing too, like other facilities, is
constructed for the elite. Slums and footpath dwellings have grown unchecked
in urban areas. In rural areas, there is no planned construction of houses. The
present state of affairs will have to be completely changed in the alternative
development system.
♦ Alternative Development
The present housing technology uses highly energy-intensive materials.
Construction costs have gone beyond the means of not only the common
people but also those with relatively high earnings. However, techniques are
available and are being developed for the construction of good low-cost
traditional houses with easily available materials. Adivasis and other people in
rural areas do not find it difficult to construct habitable homes quickly and at a
low cost with locally available materials. Such houses lack in sophistication
and some conveniences. Yet, the technology of constructing low-cost houses
with local resources in a short period needs to be studied for possible
improvements and modifications.
While discussing the problem of housing in rural areas, some thought must
also be given to proper planning of roads, sanitation, sewerage, public
buildings, etc. This will include planning and use of biogas from organic
material and solar energy.
Water
The problem of water in rural areas has already assumed grim proportions. The
number of Indian villages which have no ready source of drinking water for sev
eral months is increasing every year. Water for drinking and domestic use
should be available in every village all year round. The village should own and
control all water resources. Experts have drawn attention to the lowering of
ground water levels due to an increase in the number of tube-wells and the
tendency to pump excessive amounts of water from them. The village should
have a right to restrict such wasteful use of water. Atthe same time, the village
should itself, without being encumbered with red tape, develop small projects
for ensuring that the rainwater is harvested and it percolates in the ground when
not tapped at the surface. For this, expert advice should be made available to
village authorities.
Social Services
The extreme inequality existing in the society today can be seen in this sphere
of social life as well with most people lacking even basic services. The best
services in these fields are available to a handful of rich upper class persons.
It may appear at first sight that they 'pay as they use' for these services. But
as a matter of fact, they are given benefits in the form of subsidies, tax relief,
etc. The burden ultimately falls on the shoulders of society. Due to the extreme
inequality, the rich are able to augment their wealth and power by various means,
♦ Alternative Development
further heightening the overall inequality. This is most obvious in
matters of education and health.
Primary and technical education should receive high priority. The heavy
expenditure incurred on higher education benefits only a few students from
the upper class. The economic burden of higher education should fall on them
without any subsidies or tax relief.
It doesn’t seem possible at present that allopathic medical services can reach
all the people of the country, especially the rural poor. It is also improbable that
the doctors who receive expensive medical education would go to the villages
and treat people there. The tendency among doctors — to live in towns and
secure a decent living by fair or foul means — is spreading fast. At the same
time, the allopathic system of medicine suffers from certain inherent defects.
As such, in spite of proven effectiveness of the system for certain ailments, it
is not a wise policy to establish health and medical services exclusively on the
allopathic system. The Ayurvedic, Unani, and Siddha-yoga systems of
medicine too have notable merits as against the allopathic system.
Capital
Capital investment is essential for any productive enterprise. Capital
commonly means money. But economic theories treat manpower too as a
form of capital. Human resource capital does not depend merely on numbers.
Educational qualifications, efficiency, expertise achieved through training,
physical strength, health, and commitment of the available manpower to the
work, are all factors of human capital on which the value of this capital
depends.
Manpower is abundant in India. People often possess many different
traditional skills and practical knowledge. Society has not provided adequate
facilities for the development of this traditional knowledge and skills. Proper
planning and efforts can rectify these deficiencies. Thus, it is within our own
means to raise a large and effective human capital as defined in economic
terms. It is unfortunate that instead of raising human capital of this kind, we are
adopting foreign technology and discarding valuable human capital
resource.
Our country continues to be poor in terms of money. So raising very large
financial capital, at least in the near future is beyond our means. Under the
♦ AUernalive Development
circumstances, policy makers in the country have adopted the strategy of
attracting foreign capital. The pitfalls of depending on foreign resources for
capital are only too obvious. Since many people have drawn attention to this
situation, it need not be discussed here in detail. Since self-reliance is the
central tenet of the alternative approach to development, foreign capital and
ideas associated with it should be treated as undesirable.
Financial and human capital are interchangeable to a substantial extent. Both
are independently necessary in some measure or other. But how much of
each is required for a particular productive activity is something that needs to
be decided by those who plan production. If we observe the development of
organized industries throughout the world during the past 150-200 years, we
see a trend of replacing human capital by finance. This process is not
inevitable.
Since production for private profit is the basis of industries at present, new
technologies are adopted only to the extent that they increase profit. Such
technologies are inherently capital-intensive and labour-saving. But by
minimizing private profit and by prioritizing genuine needs of the society as a
whole, the ratio of human capital to financial capital can be decided as per the
availability of the two types of capital and not on blind acceptance of the
current capital-intensive development system.
Several evil consequences ensue on account of undue importance accorded
to financial capital especially in countries like India. Centralization of
production, income and, ultimately, of social and political power is inherent in
a capital-intensive system. In addition, the consequent shrinkage of
opportunities for human labour leads to unemployment. Undesirable trends
like poverty, organized crime, smuggling, corruption and violence spread in
society. These trends, emerging along with unemployment in industrialized
affluent countries as well, are disturbing intellectuals and activists. The impact
is even more destructive on poorer countries.
Production for meeting the genuine needs of common people and generation
of employment in the natural course of that production system have been
stressed above as central doctrines of the alternative industrial model. Further,
the use of indigenous raw material should form the basis for production with
only a minimal amount of financial capital. Fortunately, atthe present stage of
development, any heavy investment of financial capital for the fulfillment of genuine
needs of people is not indispensable. What we need is to improve the quality
t lll.Mlilllir I »••• , b'l'fff III
.in<* quantity of pKxliK lion and to ovoid wastage of resources. This can be
. hiovrd by Improving the quality of human capital through education, training,
bettor health soivk or. and nutritive food, particularly for women.
It is tine that certain industries like oil refineries, steel, electricity generation,
railways cannot come up without heavy capital investment. A serious
examination of the importance of each industry with regard to the genuine
needs of the common people is essential. Unfortunately, present day
indicators of development are misleading. Societies consuming more steel,
electricity, telephones or paper per capita are regarded as developed. Judged
by these criteria, we are considered backward. The quality of people’s lives
does not depend on the abundance of goods and services or lack thereof. Nor
does it depend on society’s total consumption. It is unreasonable to give
undue importance to industries such as oil refineries, steel and energy and
then determine the need for financial capital on that basis.
Yet, some financial capital would be needed in any case. It is, therefore,
important to consider questions such as how will the capital be raised? Who
would raise it? How would it be allocated? What would be the policy in regard
to the capital market?
If we accept that all capital, in the ultimate analysis, belongs to the society, it
follows that the society will have a central role. Similarly, the role of the
government would be important. In the first place, it would be the function of
the government to accumulate capital in the form of taxes. The finances for
meeting the expenditure for running the government itself, the defense of the
country, necessary social services, the amount to be spent on improvement of
agriculture as also the capital to be raised for expenditure of industries, have
all to be met mainly through taxes. The tax policy will have other objectives as
well, such as reducing inequality by diverting part of the privately-owned wealth
towards poverty alleviation.
A/hatevcr the means adopted for mobilization of capital, whether by levying
t; >/■-■;, tt IIr,i igh |>tiv;ite iiivestment by small entrepreneurs, or loans raised, people
should have the savings to make this possible. Maximum savings should come
from those who ar e comparatively well off. Hence, steps will have to be taken
to ensure that thh> < lass does not spend money wastefully. If necessary, they
could be fori ed to save. Some years ago, the government had formulated a
Gompulsoiy havings Scheme requiring participation of the high-rncome group.
In spile of some initial opposition, the Scheme did not generate much protest.
38
♦ Alternative Development
The Scheme expired and no similar scheme is in force now. It may be
feasible to re-introduce such schemes.
Though it is primarily the function of the government to raise money for capital
investment through taxes, it would be dangerous to concentrate all rights
relating to investment in the government's hands. To distinguish the
government from the people in the context of capital investment is necessary
for the same reason as in the context of ownership of the industries.
A separate representative body free from day-to-day control of the
government may be instituted for proper investment in various sectors
within the overall framework of national planning. This body will include the
representatives of industrialists, consumers, workers, economists, planners,
government, etc.
The Public Enterprise Authority suggested earlier in the context of industries
could also be the authority for capital investment. Alternatively, the two
functions could be separated under two different agencies. It seems logical
that the two functions could be entrusted to one single authority. In any case,
special attention must be paid to ensure that the work is free from the maladies
of over-centralization and bureaucratization.
Markets
The market does, indeed, have a role to play in the alternative paradigm. If all
capital vestment, production, distribution and trade, etc., are circumscribed
within the framework of capital planning and under the control of some central
authority, then it amounts to a command economy and should be eschewed.
However, total dependence on the market leads to distortions in the economy
I because the market takes note of the demandsof only those who have money
;and production takes place mainly to fulfill their demands. The free market
edoes not take responsibility of ensuring that production caters to the needs of
tthose who have little or no money. In our society, those who lack purchasing
(power form the majority. Therefore, extreme inequality in society is the main
ccause of the distortions brought about by the free market.
/At the same time, the economic inequality is intensified by the distortions of
tthe free market because there is no adequate protection for meeting the needs
of the poor. Economic and industrial policy in the alternative model will keep
tthe objective of economic equality in the forefront. The market will also heed to
♦ Alternative Development
the fulfillment of the needsand demands of the common people.
Industries which produce goods and services needed by the masses should
be given priority. The question, however, remains as to what are the genuine
needs of the people? How will priorities be decided among different needs?
Who will decide priorities and on what basis? These questions should not be
answered by some authoritative or informed individual or group or by a
planning commission or some similar authority. The danger of the emergence
of a command economy is inherent in this. The needs and priorities as felt by
the people should be conveyed through some effective mechanism to
planners, the authority or the government. The market is regarded as an
effective medium of such communication.
Capital Market
It is necessary to discuss two more markets. One is the capital market and the
other, the labour market. There are wealthy individuals who wish to invest
money in different economic activities without getting involved in managing
those activities. One function of the capital market is to provide opportunities
to such people to invest in productive economic activities in which they seek
no direct participation. On the other hand, there are persons engaged in
economic activities and need capital for investment in their businesses.
Making such capital available to them is the other function of the capital
market The theory is that such a market would enable the investors to choose
the most profitable enterprise for investment and for the entrepreneurs to
obtain capital at the best rate.
But, in practice, both functions become subordinate. It is not that in
today’s capital markets direct give-and-take of capital between investor and
industrialist does not occur. But there are also institutions and persons who
treat capital as a commodity for sale and purchase. Their main object is to
make profit out of such deals. The dealings dominate the transactions in the
capital market. This is the state of affairs not only in our national capital
markets, but also in the international capital markets.
The purchase and sale of capital that takes place for the direct use of the
producer is very modest in comparison to the deals made in capital as a
commodity, i.e., speculation. It is estimated that in all the capital markets of the
world, international trading in capital occurs to the tune of $1200 billion per
day. In comparison to that, annual gross domestic product of the entire world
♦ Alternative Development
amounts to about $2500 trillion, which comes roughly to only $75 billion a day.
It is quite clear that the social utility of the money market, in spite of the
grounds stated by the planners, does not correspond to the reality. Since
speculation is the main activity there, tendencies like manipulation and fraud
become the order of the day, robbing both the genuine investors and
entrepreneurs in the process.
Such a capital market has no place in the alternative economic model.
Nevertheless, it is important that there should be some system to enable the
investors to invest and entrepreneurs to procure capital. Butin the alternative
pattern outlined here, there would be no transfer of capital on any large scale.
Such transfer as is necessary can be arranged through financial institutions,
banks and co-operative institutions to the extent required. Such institutions are
working even today but some undesirable tendencies are creeping up in them
also. Some banks and financial institutions themselves have been found
involved in various frauds. At the same time, they are themselves becoming
victims of the game. If the capital marketof today is abolished, the distortions
will be ameliorated to a considerable extent if not fully corrected.
Labour Market
In the present open economic system, labour is also treated as a commodity
for purchase and sale. Wages paid to workers are the price of that
commodity. The expenditure incurred on labour, that is wages and benefits
paid to the worker, constitutes an item of expenditure for an enterprise. It is an
objective of any enterprise in the market-based free economy, to reduce labour
expenditure.
Of late, industries believe that they have to be ‘lean and mean' if they have to
survive competition in the market. Any concerted action on the part of the
workers to protect their interests, for obtaining social security are all regarded
as harmful to the industries. The principle of 'hire and fire' of workers is
expounded. Industrialists feel that the labour market should be flexible. Job
security is regarded as harmful.
Flexible labour markets allow enterprises full freedom to resort to such
measures as closing down when found unprofitable, transferring to backward
regions to reduce labour expenses, production on a contract basis, etc. Many
entrepreneurs and government functionaries are putting forward pleas for
withdrawing laws restricting such freedom. A policy for exempting small
♦ Alternative Development
enterprises from all protective labour laws has been espoused by the
government.
Ina labour market like this, the workers have no recognition as human beings,
while in the alternative labour market, the human being is at the centre of the
scheme. The supremacy of the free market, which treats labour as a
commodity for sale and purchase, cannot be accepted in the alternative
economic model. In fact, it is a contradiction that in international trade there is
emphasis on human rights and ‘social clauses’ while domestically, there is
emphasis on free and flexible labour market.
CONCLUSION
It is obvious that changing the entire present day concept and paradigms of
development, accepting a new concept and paradigm and initiating a new
development process is a very difficult and challenging task. But this is not an
impossible task. When awareness is created among a majority of the common
people of the country and the new concept is sketched and implemented with
their active co-operation, only then the goal of human-centered, sustainable,
genuine development will be achieved through the enlightenment and
participation of the masses. Such a change cannot be brought about merely
by a handful of intellectuals, activists, politicians or the government.
This process of change must, therefore, be carried on with the initiative and
participation of common people. However, that does not mean the role of the
government is insignificant. The change in the development process will be a
serious blow to the established vested interests of the society. Naturally, all
classes of people whose interests lie in the present mode of ‘development’ will
oppose this change with all their might. Only by overcoming this opposition,
the new process would be able to forge ahead. In this, the government will
have a central role.
However, it is a task for peoples' movements to neutralize the prevailing
structure of vested interests and the system that has emerged in the name of
development. The instruments of boycott and swadeshi that had been used
against the British during the freedom struggle need to be refashioned as
appropriate to the present context
During the past 50 years, the economic system has been more centralized
and big capitalists have established their hold over it. One reason for this is
♦ Alternative Development
that after Independence, the society has increasingly tended to think that the
government should solve all its problems. Through meetings, conferencesand
movements, we have most emphatically submitted our charter of demands to
the government. What the people themselves should do has rarely been
discussed at such meetings. Naturally, all decision-making powers have
converged in the hands of the government. The government has used them to
preserve and promote the interests vital to itself.
People will have to come forward for construction of a decentralized economy
based on indigenous resources. No matter how strong the producer, the
capitalist or the multinational is, it is our right to decide how to live, what to eat,
drink and buy. Each one of us should decide what we should reject in our own
right. This right to reject is the ultimate power and instrument in the hands of
the people which needs to be used. Then the movement will reach all cities,
towns, mohallas and villages. In this upheaval, the present hegemonic form of
government will also not survive. Lastly, though the government will be
expected to assist in the process of change, there will be no need for the use
of force.
For achieving above-mentioned objectives, a blueprint of practical strategies
and campaigns of rekindling the power of the common people will have to be
drawn up. For that, a number of feasible suggestions have to be advanced.
But on account of inherent limitations of a monograph such as this, they
cannot been incorporated here. Besides, we have faith in the creative
capability of society. We, therefore, prefer to look forward to suggestions,
ideas, guidance and a move towards an alternative which we have ventured to
outline above.
o
About Jnnsahayog Trust
Jansahayog Trust was created after the Right Livelihood Award, often called the alternative Nobel
Prize, was given to Baba Amte and Medha Patkar fortheir work in the Narmada Bachao Andolan.
The activists of the Andolan decided not to use the award money in the immediate struggle but to
create a trust which would use the money to aid those striving for humane and sustainable modes
of production and living.
By now even the 'developed' countries have accepted that the prevailing model is rapidly destroying
the earth's environment. Thus the catch-phrase of the 1990s is 'sustainable
development'. So far, much of the work in this direction is seeking managerial solutions to the more
glaring problems of pollution and resource depletion. However, a growing fraternity
of people all over the world believe that human civilization is now poised for a creative
transformation in our relation to nature. This means less wasteful life-styles and different
modes of production that ensure livelihood for all with dignity. This is the critical challenge of the
next century.
Struggles like the Narmada Bachao Andolan are not merely questioning why some should pay
the 'price' for development. They are also asking the apparent beneficiaries of development to
reflect on how they may themselves be losers in the long run. The dramatic decline in the quality of
life in most cities is an everyday reality for the 'developed' all over the world. The nature of this crisis
extends from air, water, sound pollution and over crowding to the alienation and tension generated
by the pace and competitive acquisitiveness of modern life.
At present most people cannot see the links between what they consider progress, i.e. more
consumption, faster communication etc , and problems that seem to defy solution. There is an
urgent need to make these linkages more visible in everyday life and to struggle for changes that
would ensure sufficiency for all.
There is no one solution or fixed path. We are all groping for solutions which will vary from situation
to situation, but can be rooted in the shared value of respect for all life forms.
Jansahayog Trust's work is a small input in this larger global process. The trust’s corpus,
from the Rightlivelihood Award, is invested in approved securities. The annual interest from
this is used as grants and honorarium to activists engaged in struggles for an alternative,
creative, model of development. The Trust has also taken the initiative to conduct workshops and
seminars to foster dialogue and debate on the challenges of exploring sustainable
modes of production and resource use. So far, such grants have gone to some of the
following efforts :-
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•
*
•
*
•
*
•
•
The struggle of communities being displaced by the Bisalpur Dam in Rajasthan.
Ganga Mukti Andolan, in Bihar.
Bandhua Mukti Morcha, Latur.
People's Institute for Rural Action, West Bengal.
A gene bank at Machla, Madhya Pradesh.
Bhopal Gas Peedit Mahila Sangathan.
Kisan Adivasi Sangathan, Kesla, Madhya Pradesh.
Aproop Nirman, Nagpur.
Rashtriya Yuva Sangathan, Mumbai.
Girijan Praja Sangam, Andhra Pradesh.
The Jansahayog Trust is not a funding agency in the conventional sense of the term. We
essentially aim to foster both specific ground-level endeavours and a wide social debate, for
redefining development in ways that ensure a non-centralised social, political, economic and
cultural order which empowers people. It is only through such collective processes that we will
find answers.
Contributions to Jansahayog Trust are tax deductible under section 80 (G) of the IT Act.
Much of what is currently done in the name of development
has failed to bring happiness, prosperity and social justice
to all people on earth. This has been self-evident for several
decades. The unabated plunder of natural resources has
severely disturbed the equilibrium of nature. In many
countries, people are being deprived of the natural resources
which constitute the bedrock of their livelihood. Thus
scholars, intellectuals and activists all over the world are
protesting against so-called development processes which
threaten the ecological balance and foster gross inequalities.
We need a vigorous discussion on alternative concepts of
genuine development with its related economic, social and
political structures. Many groups in India have been engaged
in this exercise for the last decade.
This booklet aims to carry this endeavour further.
]HNSHHRYOG TROST
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