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Reprinted from the Singapore Medical Journal
Vol. 16. No. 3—SEPTEMBER, 1975
ENVIRONMENTAL AND HEALTH CONDITIONS IN
SMALL FACTORIES IN SINGAPORE
W. O. Phoon and S. B. Tan
177
od
B*
'URNAL
n'0 001
Vol. 16, No. 3.
September, 1975.
ENVIRONMENTAL AND HEALTH CONDITIONS IN SMALL
FACTORIES IN SINGAPORE
By W. O. Phoon and S. B. Tan
SYNOPSIS
A total of 14 types of industries were surveyed. The total number of factories surveyed was 83,
total number of workers in all the factories surveyed was 2,795. Average number of workers per
factory was 33-7. 12 of the factories were found to be satisfactory. Of these 12 factories,
three were undergoing maintenance servicing and hence were not in production at the time of
the survey. The remaining 71 factories surveyed were unsatisfactory.
INTRODUCTION
Singapore has been undergoing the process
of industrialization for over a decade. About
ten years ago, Singapore depended largely upon
her entrepot trade and her existence as a Bri
tish naval base to sustain her economy. By 1973,
however, there were more than 4,200 registered
factories in Singapore, of which, 2,600 were in
the manufacturing sector and accounted for
more than 150,000 workers. In addition, there
were about 25,000 workers in the construction
industry and about 1,800 in stone quarrying.
Several industrial estates have been esta
blished. The largest is the Jurong Industrial
Estate with more than four hundred factories.
Other industrial estates are in the Kalians Basin,
Redhill, Toa Payoh, Loyang, Sembawang,
Kranji and elsewhere. Outside these industrial
estates are other factories located all over Singa
pore.
Objective of the Survey
The factories in the Republic are of several
types and sizes. Small factories, however, make
up the vast majority. “The 1970 census of indus
trial production showed that out of a total of
1,747 manufacturing establishments (excluding
rubber processing), 1534 belonged to the cate
gory of “small industries”. This constitutes
about 88% of the manufacturing firms.” (Ong,
Department of Social Medicine and Public Health,
University of Singapore, Outram Hill, Singapore 3.
W.
O.
PHOON,
M.B., B.S., F.R.C.P. (Gias. and Edin.),
M.R.C.P.. F.R.F.P.S. (Gias.), D.C.H.,
D.I.H., D.I.H.S.A., F.F.C.M., A.M.,
Professor and Head.
S. B. TAN, M.B., B.S.. M.Sc. (P.H.) (S'pore). Lecturer.
P.B., 1972). It is, moreover, in small factories
that conditions of hygiene and safety arc the
most unsatisfactory, as small factories do not
usually have the financial resources to provide
good hygiene and safety facilities.
For these reasons, it was felt that a survey
of the health and safety conditions in small
factories in Singapore could be extremely use
ful and interesting. For practical reasons and
for convenience, a factory with a labour force
of less than 100 workers was considered to fall
into the category of “small factories”. Apart
from the factor of size, it is obvious that such
“small factories” form a very heterogenous
group. They would vary in type of activity as
well as level of sophistication.
METHODS AND MATERIAL
The number of factories in each category
of manufacturing industries, as registered^ with
the Government, was ascertained.
From the Ministry of Labour, lists of fac
tories with a labour force of more than ten but
less than one hundred workers were obtained.
Random samples were drawn for each group
of small factories engaged in a particular manu
facturing process. A sample size of 80 or so
was decided upon as this was the number of
factories that we could complete within the two
month period given to us, with the proviso that
each category of industry should be represented
by, preferably, at least three or four factories.
The ratio of the sample to the total number
in each group was not based on any specific
reason other than that each category should be
represented by preferably at least three or four
factories. Where the total number in a category
was small, there was a tendency to take a pro
SEPTEMBER, 1975
portionately larger sample. As this survey is
intended merely to acquire preliminary know
ledge, it was decided that the exact size of the
sample was not crucial.
The factories sampled were then contacted,
and appointments for the visits were made. It
is conceded that this could mean that the con
ditions found during the visits could have been
rather different from those usually prevailing,
as it was natural that factory owners and pro
prietors might have given their factory a special
cleaning-up in anticipation of our visit. How
ever, it was found impractical to make surprise
visits as most of the factories were located in
remote areas and were difficult to find without
assistance from the factory occupiers them
selves. In addition, access into the factories was
often impossible without the prior authority of
the owner or the manager, who is often not
around in the factory but in the downtown
administrative office or going about contacting
prospective clients or suppliers of raw materials.
At each factory, a preliminary discussion
was held with the factory manager or senior
chargehand. Information about the history and
general details about the factory and its emplo
yees were obtained and recorded on the spot by
the field investigators.
Tests for environmental conditions, as des
cribed below, were made. A thorough inspec
tion of the shop floor, stores, toilets and rest
rooms, canteens and compound was performed,
usually in the company of a responsible staff
member of the factory. At the end of each visit,
a final discussion was usually held between
members of the team and senior staff of the
factory concerned.
Most of the tests and observations were
made during a single visit, but in a few cases,
repeat visits were made for various reasons.
Sometimes the factories were found not to be
functional during the first visit. At other times
the only person from whom reliable data could
be obtained was absent from the premises.
Doubtful test results had to be checked by re
peating the tests.
Tests for Environmental Conditions
The factors investigated were the levels of
lighting and sound, stresses due to heat, and
concentrations of dust. Vapour concentrations
were measured when potentially hazardous sub
stances were used.
Lighting
6
5
COMMUNITY HEALTH CELL
326, V Main, I Block
Koramangala
Bfln9alor-560034
India
178
Levels of light were measured by means of
light meters. The worst and best situations in
each factory were recorded. The results, ob
tained in lux, were then compared against the
standards recommended by the Illumination
Engineers Society (1ES) of the United States of
America. (IES, 1968).
Sound Levels
Sound levels were recorded by the Bruel
and Kjaer precision sound level meter. Mea
surements were taken with the A network at
operatives’ stations. Results were then compared
against the currently accepted standard of 90
dB(A) as the upper limit of safety for an eight
hour working day. (ACGIH, 1973).
The threshold limit value (TLV) of 90 dB(A)
refers to the sound pressure level that represents
conditions under which it is believed that all
workers may be repeatedly exposed without
adverse effects on their hearing acuity. It is
recognized that some authorities take 85 dB(A)
instead of 90 dB(A) as the threshold limit
value of noise, but we chose 90 dB(A) as the
more generally accepted value.
Heat Stress
The Wet-Bulb Globe Thermometer Index
was used to measure the environmental factors
which might cause heat stress. The Wet-Bulb
Globe Thermometer Index fWBGT) has been
recommended by the American Conference of
Governmental Hygienists (ACGIH) as the simp
lest and most suitable technique to measure
the environmental factors relating to this pro
blem. (ACGIH, 1972).
The determination of the WBGT requires
the use of a black globe thermometer, a natural
(static) thermometer and a dry-bulb thermo
meter. The range of dry and natural wet-bulb
thermometers should be 5°C to 50°C with an
accuracy of ± 0-5°C. The wick of the wet-bulb
thermometer should be kept wet with distilled
water at least half an hour before the reading is
taken. The wick should be kept wet by a syringe.
The globe thermometer (six inches in diameter)
should have its thermometer bulb or sensor
firmly fixed in the centre of the sphere. The globe
thermometer should be exposed for at least
25 minutes before a reading is taken. A stand
should be used to suspend the thermometers to
avoid restriction of air flow around the bulbs.
179
SINGAPORE MEDICAL JOURNAL
The thermometers should be so placed to obtain
as representative readings as possible of the
conditions in which the workers operate.
above forty-five years of age. Hence the vast
majority of the workers were between eighteen
and forty-five years old.
Dust
Sex
There were 433 (or 15-5%) female workers.
The midget-impinger was employed to ob
tain samples of dust-laden air. 0-5 cubic feet
of air was taken in each case. Distilled water
was used as the medium. The suction pressure
was maintained at 12 inches water guage during
sampling. The dust samples were counted, using
the standard light field technique. (ACGIH,
1969).
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS AND FIND
INGS
Eighty-three factories altogether were visited.
These factories employed a total of 2,795 work
ers. The categories of factories visited included
Spinning, weaving, printing and finishing of
yarn and fabric (3)
*,
Manufacture of bricks (4),
Stone quarrying (6), Manufacture of asbestos
products (1), Electro-plating, enamelling and po
lishing of meta! products (8), Manufacture of
basic industrial acids (3), Manufacture of basicindustrial chemicals (2), Sawmilling (13), General
engineering works (15), Commercial job printing
(9), Manufacture of tiles, pipes (including
earthen and glazed pipes) (3), Manufacture of
cement (4), Iron foundry (10), Extraction of
clay, sand and gravel (2).
Characteristics of the Workers
^ge
114 (or 4-1%) of the workers were below
eighteen years of age, while 446 (or 16-0%) were
Length of Service
It is interesting to note that 606 (or 21-7%)
of the workers had less than one year’s service.
This observation probably reflected the relatively
high labour turnover in small factories, though
in some instances it was due to a rapid expan
sion over the past twelve months which neces
sitated the recruitment of additional members of
staff.
Structure of Factory Premises
Less than half of the total number of fac
tories were constructed mostly of bricks.
More than half were made from a combination
of materials which included wood, brick and
zinc.
More than half of the factories were housed
in detached buildings. Less than one-fifth
were housed in shophouses. Twelve factories
were housed in impermanent buildings with
atap roofs and walls of wooden planks.
Welfare and Toilet Facilities
The findings are summarized in Table I. By
no means were all the factories provided with
adequate washing facilities. Wash-basins were
found in only 55 factories. Manv of these basins
were located in the office, and therefore were
*Nos. in brackets indicate total no. of factories visited.
TABLE I
WELFARE AND TOILET FACILITIES
Present
Absent
Total
55
28
83
77
6
83
Shower
13
70
83
Changing room
17
66
83
Lockers
10
73
83
Lunch room or canteen
20
63
83
Facilities Provided
Wash-basin
Toilets
(Water-borne system
(Bucket System
50)
27)
SEPTEMBER, I97S
ISO
generally unavailable to the workers on the
shopfloor who needed these facilities most.
Most of the factories had toilets. Most of
the others which did not had access to toilets
in adjoining premises or premises nearby.
Only 13 factories had shower facilities. The
workers of most of the factories studied, there
fore, were in a habit of returning home in soiled
working clothes.
Changing rooms were present in only 17
factories. This posed less of a problem than
basins and showers, as the workers could change
their clothes in other parts of the factory or in
the toilets if they wanted to.
Lockers were uncommon. Most of the work
ers kept few possessions on the premises of the
factories.
Lunches were sometimes taken in the fac
tories themselves, but only a minority of fac
tories provided separate lunch rooms or can
teens. In 26 factories a common area served a
miscellany of uses as a lunch space, changing
room and general store.
The condition of the facilities, when avail
able, was subjectively assessed, and recorded
as very dirty, fairly dirty or clean. The assess
ments can give a very rough guide only to the
conditions seen. It is also very likely that
the conditions varied a great deal throughout
the day. Toilets assessed as clean could have
been so merely because they were observed
immediately after having been cleaned or before
the peak period of usage.
In spite of the abovementioned limitations,
it can be seen that the water-closet system was
more frequently associated with cleanliness than
the bucket system (15 in contrast to 1). In the
small factories studied, most of the water-borne
system toilets were of the squatting variety.
This observation was gratifying, as it is not
sensible to provide the Western or sitting type
of toilet in the small factory, especially in Singa
pore or other parts of the East. There is greater
danger of cross-infection in the usage of such
toilets. Most Eastern users, moreover, would
squat on the toilet seats, and dirty them with
their shoes. It is also more difficult to clean
such toilets if soiled. The squatting type of
toilet, on the other hand, could be scrubbed
or washed more easily.
The comparatively high frequency of clean
wash-basins encountered is probably merely a
reflection of the fact that they were mostly re
served for the use of managerial or clerical
staff.
It is somewhat surprising, however, that
the majority of the lunch rooms or canteens
were assessed as clean. This was probably be
cause only the more welfare-conscious or
affluent factories provided such facilities.
First Aid Facilities
It was observed that almost all the factories
had first-aid boxes, as this is indeed a provision
which the law requires. However, it can also be
seen that in all the factories, except one, the
boxes were unsatisfactory. Boxes were recorded
as unsatisfactory either because they did not
contain a quantity of all the following, or be
cause they were kept in an untidy or dirty con
dition: Triangular bandages, Large, medium
and small wound dressings, Safety pins, Absor
bent cotton wool, Adhesive plaster.
This criterion is not stringent by generally
accepted standards, yet only one of the boxes
fulfilled it. It was also salutory to learn that the
solitary satisfactory box was purchased just
TABLE II
CONDITION OF FACILITIES PROVIDED
Very Dirty
Fairly Dirty
Clean
Total
Wash-basin
8
21
26
55
Toilet (Water-borne system)
7
28
15
50
Toilet (Bucket system)
15
11
1
27
Changing room
2
7
8
17
Lunch room/canteen
3
7
16
26
Condition of Facilities
181
prior to and because of notice of our impending
visit!
In the majority of boxes, not only were the
materials they contained inadequate, but the
state of cleanliness and maintenance was de
plorable. Antiseptic bottles were found un
corked. Fungus was growing in some of them.
Cotton wool was lying exposed. There was no
pair of scissors or any other convenient means
of cutting the dressings. Some boxes contained
drinks, cigarettes, matches, etc.
The situation regarding first aiders was no
better. Most factories had no trained first-aider
on their work-force. By trained first-aider we
mean someone who had undergone any formal
course in first-aid, without necessarily having
passed any examination therein.
SINGAPORE MEDICAL JOURNAL
tion in Singapore on health and safety. He was
trained and spent several years in a developed
country abroad. His superior knowledge, how
ever, seemed only to make him more chary of
us, and he declined to show us certain parts of
his factory on the argument that he might be
liable to litigation should any of us get hurt!
The majority of the managers received our visits
with courtesy and polite interest. Very few took
advantage of the opportunity to ask for our
advice, despite our repeated assurances that we
were not coming to collect evidence to pro
secute them.
Most of the workers took our visits placidly.
Some others reacted with great curiosity. Most
of them answered our questions very co-opcratively. Very few of them, however, asked us
questions about health and safety.
Medical and Nursing Services
Spinning, Weaving, Printing and Finishing of
As could be expected, there was no doctor Yarn and Fabric
employed full-time by any of the factories. The
employees of 45 factories (54-2%) had access to (International Code No. 32111)
There were only three such registered fac
an individual general practitioner or a firm of
general practitioners at these companies’expense. tories with less than 100 workers in our country.
The general practitionershad clinics usually situ All three were studied. One was engaged in
ated near the factories, but in some instances, making a cotton wiping cloth, used in cleaning
these clinics were located some miles away. Em operations in engineering industries. Another
ployees seeking treatment travelled either by was concerned with the weaving of “batik”
public transport or sometimes by transport of cloth and screen printing. A third printed cloth
their companies to the clinics. The doctors never material. The processes in all three factories
visited the factories on a routine basis, and were quite straightforward, and did not involve
very rarely did so even in medical emergencies. major hazards.
Most of the emergency cases, whether directly
Two out of these factories were regarded as
related to occupation or not, were sent directly having fairly satisfactory environmental con
to the government hospitals. Payments to the ditions and housekeeping. One was noisy and
doctors were usually made on a per service dusty. (See Table III).
basis. Very few doctors received a retainer fee.
None of them was found to have been ever Manufacture of Tiles and Pipes
consulted on occupational health or safety (International Code No. 36302)
problems by the management or workers of
Three out of four such factories were stu
the factories.
died. The three factories visited only manufac
There were no nurses, either on a part-time ture tiles. The white cement is mixed into a
paste with the terrazo chips in water and then
or full-time basis, in any of the factories.
poured into moulds and dried. The slabs are
Attinide Towards Health and Safety
then cut into the required size and brought to
It is not possible to give anything more a grinder where the surface of the terrazo tiles
than general impressions about the attitudes is grounded. The polished tiles are then stacked
concerning health and safety on the part of the in the storeroom.
The main problems in the factories were
managements and the workers.
Most of the managements seemed to have the rather excessive noise and dust. The workers
very vague ideas about health and safety. A handled the wet ingredients, which included lime
few managers assumed very defensive attitudes powder, with their bare hands. No gloves or
and claimed that their factories had no hazards. other protective equipment were used. The
Only one manager had clear ideas about legisla moving parts of many machines were not guardCOMMUNITY Hfait., n
SEPTEMBER, 1975
182
TABLE III
SPINNING, WEAVING, PRINTING AND FINISHING OF YARN AND FABRIC
ENVIRONMENTAL MEASUREMENTS
Factory Number
Measurements
Recom
No. of fac
mended
tories below
standard for recom. std. TLV
lighting
(for lighting)
No. of
factories
above
TLV
1
2
3
Lighting level in lux
300
85
110
150
2
NA
NA
Sound level in dB
86
72
89
NA
NA
90
0
8
Globe T° in °C
36
32-5
31-5
NA
NA
NA
NA
5
W/B T° in °C
30
26
26
NA
NA
NA
NA
WBGT in °C
31-8
28
27-7
NA
NA
30
1
Dust cone, (mppcf)
NM
NM
115
NA
NA
30
.1
X
NM = not measured
NA = not applicable.
TABLE IV
MANUFACTURE OF TILES AND PIPES
ENVIRONMENTAL MEASUREMENTS
Factory Number
Measurements
Recom
mended
standard for
lighting
No. of fac
tories below TLV
recom. std.
(for lighting)
No. of
factories
above
TLV
1
2
3
Lighting level in lux
100
150
160
150
1
NA
Sound level in dB
90
NM
84
NA
NA
90
0
31
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
3
Globe T° in °C
31
31
I
W/B T° in °C
26-2
26-5
27
NA
NA
NA
NA
WBGT in °C
27-7
27-9
28-2
NA
NA
28-0
1
Dust cone, (mppcf)
NM
760
NM
NA
NA
30-0
1
X
NM = not measured
NA = not applicable.
cd. Ventilation and toilet facilities were poor.
(See Table IV).
Stone Quarrying
(International Code No. 21010)
All six quarries falling into this category
were surveyed. All of these were located in
remote areas of Singapore, and were involved
in the quarrying and crushing of granite, used
in the booming construction industry.
The processes start with the drilling of holes
in granite rocks. Deep holes are first drilled into
the granite rocks and explosives are implanted
in them. The rocks are then blasted, forming
large boulders. There is a secondary blasting
process whereby the huge boulders are converted
into smaller boulders. The boulders are loaded
onto lorries which transport them to the pri
mary crusher where the boulders are crushed.
The granite is then subjected to a secondary
crushing process where they are crushed into
smaller pieces. They are then sieved and trans
ported to their destination.
By the intrinsic nature of these processes,
there are numerous dangers of physical trauma
due to the dynamiting process, transportation
and handling of the granite and the usage of
heavy machinery, as well as a very serious risk
of silicosis due to the inhalation of granite dust,
which contains a high content of free silica.
Most of the workers were not wearing proper
respirators nor appropriate safety equipment
such as safety shoes or helmets. Some were
183
SINGAPORE MEDICAL JOURNAL
wearing handkerchiefs round their faces. In
one of these quarries, there was an exhaust ven
tilation system, but the points at which exhaust
ventilation were applied were very few and the
exhaust pressure did not seem strong enough to
reduce the dust significantly. In another quarry,
water-jet nozzles had been fixed to the primary
crushers, but the water was not turned on,
although the crushing process was proceeding.
After we arrived, the manager tried to turn on
the water at our request, but failed as the
nozzles were all clogged up, presumably be
cause of infrequent usage. The managers of all
the quarries visited expressed reservations
about the use of wetting processes to reduce
suspended dirt. They claimed that the water
would combine with the gravel in the crushers,
and this in turn would lead to clogging of the
sieves used to sort out the granite chips by piece
size.
Falling hazards were very common. For
example, some of the primary crushers were
placed in high towers to take advantage of
greater force of gravity to move the granite
pieces. There were many defective steps and
some missing floor boards in those towers.
Table V shows the results of Environmental
Tests in these factories. It should be noted that
the dust concentrations in all the five factories
which were measured were far in excess of
permissible levels. The dust content in the sixth
factory was not done as it was not in production
during the visit. There was also infrequent
usage of personal protective equipment.
Manufacture of Asbestos Products
(International Code No. 36920)
The single small factory falling within this
category was visited. Unfortunately, the factory
does not deal with asbestos at all. It uses
gypsum and vermiculite instead.
This factory manufactures ceiling material.
The gypsum is wetted and sprinkled on to fibre
glass. The mixture is then placed in moulds and
allowed to set and dry, after which it is removed
from the moulds. The finished product is then
brought to the construction site and fixed on
to the ceiling, after which it is sprayed with
vermiculite to protect from fire.
The environment was clean and tidy. There
were adequate and well-maintained toilet faci
lities. However, it must be pointed out that
the place was undergoing some repairs, and was
therefore perhaps cleaner than usual.
As can be seen from Table VI, the dust level
was still in excess of the permissible level.
The workers were not using respirators or
gloves.
TABLE V
STONE QUARRYING
ENVIRONMENTAL MEASUREMENTS
No. of
fac. below
rec. std.
(lighting)
TLV
No. of
factories
above
TLV
1
2
3
4
5
6
Rec. std.
for
lighting
Lighting
level in lux
2500
2500
1000
2500
1000
2500
150
0
NA
NA
Sound level
in dB
101
94
96
98
98
NM
NA
NA
90
5
3
Globe T°
in °C
85
29-5
28-5
36
28-5
35
NA
NA
NA
NA
i
-c3
W/B T°
in CC
25-5
25-5
25-5
26-5
25
25-5
NA
NA
NA
NA
WBGT
in °C
28-3
26-6
26-4
29-3
26-1
28-3
NA
NA
28
3
Dust cone.
(mppcf)
380
330
510
400
335
NM
NA
NA
5-5
5
Factory Number
Measurements
NM=not measured
NA = not applicable.
COMMUNITY HEALTH CELL
326, V Main, I Block
Koramangala
Bangalore-560034
India
SEPTEMBER, 197S
TABLE VI
MANUFACTURE OF ASBESTOS PRODUCTS
ENVIRONMENTAL MEASUREMENTS
Measurements
Factory
Number
1
Recommended
standard for
lighting
No. of fac
tories below
recom. std.
(for lighting)
TLV
No. of
factories
above TLV
Lighting level in lux
120
150
1
NA
NA
Sound level in dB
70
NA
NA
90
0
3
Globe T° in °C
32
NA
NA
NA
NA
5
W/B T" in °C
27-2
NA
NA
NA
NA
£
WBGT in °C
28-6
NA
NA
30-6
0
Dust cone, (mppcf)
760
NA
NA
0-12
1
NA = not applicable.
Electroplating, Enamelling and Polishing of
Metal Products
(International Code No. 38160)
The eight small factories in this category
were studied. They were engaged in various
processes such as chrome-plating, electroplating
and galvanising. The articles to be electroplated
are dipped into the tanks of chemicals in suc
cession, e.g. water, sodium hydroxide, degrea
sers (solvents), solutions of copper sulphate or
cyanide or chromates or nickel, etc., and the
finished product is then taken out of the tanks
and dried.
Two of these factories were generally clean
and tidy. Of these, one factory was not in pro
duction at the time of the visit as it was under
going maintenance servicing. Six were regarded
as dirty and untidy. In these six factories, house
keeping was poor. Cits of metal of various sizes
were found to be strewn around the floor. There
was no proper place for storage. The floor was
greasy or wet in many places. There were no
proper alley-ways.
In most of the factories, no protective cloth
ing or eqiupment was being used.
Table VII summarizes the results of the
environment tests done. It can be observed that,
in general, the factories are poorly illuminated
and dusty. There was a general lack of usage of
personal protective equipment.
Manufacture of Basic Industrial Acids
(International Code No. 35113)
The three small factories engaged in this
activity were visited. They were mostly engaged
in the manufacture of sulphuric acids.
The process starts with the sulphur being
converted to sulphur dioxide by heating. A
catalytic reaction then transforms the sulphur
dioxide to sulphur trioxide which is then ab
sorbed by dilute sulphuric acid to form concen
trated sulphuric acid.
All were found to be unsatisfactory. In one,
the floor was slippery, including the area next
to the boilers. In another there were bits of
articles everywhere on the floor.
From Table VIII, it can be observed that
the lighting was generally very poor. Two
factories had noise levels around the border-line
of safe limits.
We also noted that all the workers observed
used gloves, but most did not use either respira
tory or eye protection. During the visits, at
least one worker was seen working above a
boiler without any facial protection from the
fumes.
Manufacture of Basic Industrial Chemicals
(International Code No. 35119)
Both the small factories falling into this
category were studied. One was not in produc
tion. The other was functional and generally
quite neat and tidy. It manufactures adhesive
glue for the plywood industry. The raw materials
used include phenol, caustic soda, urea, etc.,
and these are reacted together in enclosed and
automatic processes which are controlled by
switches operated in the control room.
The changing rooms of the workers, how
ever, were rather dirty. Helmets and boots
were also strewn untidily on the floor. The re-
TABLE VII
ELECTROPLATING, ENAMELLING AND POLISHING OF METAL PRODUCTS
ENVIRONMENTAL MEASUREMENTS
Rec. std.
for lighting
No. of
fac. below
rec. std.
(lighting)
TLV
No. of
factories
above TLV
Factory Number
Measurements
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Ligh ting level in lux
150
120
40
80
20
80
40
220
150
6
NA
NA
Sourid level in dB
80
80
80
80
80
80
84
89
NA
NA
90
0
30
31
29
32
33
31
35
32
NA
NA
NA
NA
26-7
26-1
25-6
27-2
28-9
27-2
27-2
27-8
NA
NA
NA
NA
WBGT in °C
27-7
27-6
26-7
28-7
30 -9
28-3
29-6
29-1
NA
NA
30-6
1
Dust cone, (nippcl)
NM
NM
NM
109
NM
188
NM
NM
NA
NA
30
2
Globe T° in °C
V
55 W/B T° in °C
C/J
Q
c/i
Q
SINGAPORE MEDICAL JOURNAL
NM=not measured
NA=not applicable.
SEPTEMBER, 1975
186
suits of the environmental tests are given in
Table IX.
Sawmilling
(International Code No. 33111)
A one-in-three sample of the small factories
in this category was taken.
The logs are transported to the sawmills
where they are cut into smaller pieces. The
pieces of logs are then shaved and cut by a
cutting machine into the planks of required
size and thickness. These planks are then cured,
dried, and stacked in the sawmills ready for
transport.
Intrinsically, sawmills are associated with
many hazards to health. The large logs can
cause severe trauma if they are not handled
or stacked properly. Fire is an ever-present
danger. The circular saws and other machinery
needed for the sawing processes pose serious
hazards to body and limb, if not properly guard
ed or used with adequate precautions. In five
out of the nine factories visited, guarding of
machinery was considered to be inadequate.
Only three factories were found to have satis
factory standards of housekeeping. In some
factories, the circular saws were completely
unguarded. Pieces of wood shavings and planks
littered the premises. Dust abounded.
TABLE VIII
MANUFACTURE OF BASIC INDUSTRIAL ACIDS
ENVIRONMENTAL MEASUREMENTS
Factory Number
Measurements
Recommended
standard for
lighting
No. of
No. of
factories below TLV factories
recom. std.
above
(for lighting)
TLV
1
2
3
Lighting level in lux
40
60
125
150
3
NA
Sound level in dB
93
80
90
NA
NA
90
1
31-5
33
32
NA
NA
NA
NA
8
Globe T° in °C
NA
w
W/B T° in "C
27-8
27-8
26-7
NA
NA
NA
NA
£
WBGT in °C
29-2
29-4
28-3
NA
NA
28
3
Dust cone, (mppcf)
107
NM
186
NA
NA
30
3
NM =not measured
NA = not applicable.
TABLE IX
MANUFACTURE OF BASIC INDUSTRIAL CHEMICALS
ENVIRONMENTAL MEASUREMENTS
No. of
factories below
recom. std.
(for lighting)
TLV
No. of
factories
above
TLV
NA
1
2
Recommended
standard for
lighting
Lighting level in lux
220
100
150
1
NA
Sound level in dB
83
NM
NA
NA
90
0
NA
NA
NA
NA
Factory Number
Measurements
8
Globe T° in °C
32-5
33
NA
NA
1
W/B T° in °C
26-7
28-3
NA
NA
x
WBGT in °C
27-9
29-7
NA
NA
101
NM
NA
NA
Dust cone, (mppcf)
NM = not measured
NA=not applicable
♦Factory 1 docs moderate work
Factory 2 does light work.
*/31-4
26-7
30
1
1
TABLE X
SAWMILLING
ENVIRONMENTAL MEASUREMENTS
Factory Number
No. of fac.
below rec. std.
(lighting)
TLV
No. of
factories
above TLV
3
NA
NA
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Rec. std.
for
lighting
Lighting level in lux
50
110
250
1750
1000
350
200
190
380
100
160
2500
600
150
Sound level in dB
86
92
92
95
104
93
96
98
95
97
104
91
104
NA
NA
90
12
31-8
33
30
34-5
31-5
32-5
31
29-3
31
31-8
31-8
32
32-4
NA
NA
NA
NA
% W/B T° in °C
26
26-5
25-5
26
25-5
26-5
25-5
26
26
25-5
25
26
24-8
NA
NA
NA
NA
| WBGT in °C
27-8
28-5
26-8
28-5
26-8
28-3
27-1
27-1
27-5
28-2
27-1
27-8
27-1
NA
NA
28
4
Dust cone, (mppcf)
310
NM
NM
NM
400
NM
NM
NM
NM
NM
NM
NM
NM
NA
NA
30
2
Measurements
8 Globe T" in 'C
NM=not measured
NA = not applicable.
TABLE XI
GENERAL ENGINEERING WORKS
ENVIRONMENTAL MEASUREMENTS
Factory Number
Measurements
2
4
5
260
60
300
80
80
70
35
32-5
28
W/B T° in °C
26-7
27-2
WBGT in °C
29-2
Dust cone, (mppcf)
NM
80
Globe T° in CC
7
220
30
120
20
80
80
70
80
34-5
27
31-5
35
30-5
26-1
27-8
25-6
28-3
28-6
26-7
29-8
26-6
28-5
112
NM
NM
NM
NM
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
80
60
40
100
140
100
180
150
NA
NA
80
80
80
80
80
80
80
NA
NA
90
0
28-5
34-5
31
28
33
31
35-5
NA
NA
NA
NA
27-2
25-6
28-3
26-7
25-6
26-7
27-2
28-3
NA
NA
NA
NA
30-3
28-2
26-6
30-2
28-0
26-4
28-6
28-4
30-5
NA
NA
30-6
0
NM
NM
NM
NM
NM
NM
NM
NM
NM
NA
NA
30
|
Heat Sti
80
Sound level in dB
6
No. of
No. of
fac. below TLV factories
rec. std.
above
flighting)
TLV
NM =not measured
NA=not applicable
No protective equipment used.
SINGAPORE MEDICAL JOURNAL
3
Lighting level in lux
Rec. std.
for
lighting
188
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
h©
CM
oo
26-6 |
24-8
27-3
CM
c-l
26-1
cn
21-7
£
cm
27-3
Ch
NA =not applicable.
WBGT in °C
£ W/B T° in °C
Lighting level in lux
s
25-5
oo
C-l
oo
!
1
□
t/t
s
cm
O
co
001
n
s
y
s
u
cn
CM
Sound level in dB
co
25-8
'T
h©
CM
24-5
200
co
CM
31-5
in
oo
CM
28-5
200
oo
h©
CM
240
50
o
Factlory Num
COMMERi
ENV1RONME
r-
CO
§1 Globe T° in °C
00
200
o. <
C2 OJ
O S
j -1
co
< < H
to z
NA
NA
28-5
TLV
No. of fac.
below rec. std.
(lighting)
Rec. std.
for
lighting
ai.
X
M
NA
NA
NA
NA
jn
NA
450
100
co
Ch
--------
Manufacture of Cement
(International Code No. 36400)
All the four cement manufacturing works
in this category were inspected. By the very
nature of the processes, which basically consist
of grinding and mixing clinker with other sub
stances, the industry is a very dusty one. Some
of the grinding machines and escalator belts
were also rather noisy. In only one factory were
the workers wearing respirators; but in the
others, some workers were using handkerchiefs
over their faces. Dust counts confirmed the
dustiness of the atmosphere. (See Table XIII).
oo
o
Ch
NSC
Commercial Job Printing
(International Code No. 34204)
Nine such factories were visited. These
factories are actually printing presses. The papers
are cut by a cutting machine into the required
sizes and are then printed, using the various
dyes.
The factories were, in general, grossly over
crowded and ventilation was poor. Most of
them outgrew the space originally assigned to
them when prosperity overtook them. (See Table
C/D
H
O W
£ s
p W
Z *
o
OS I
(International Code No. 38292)
A one-in-four sample of the establishments
in this category was examined. A total of 15
factories were visited. Seven of these were situa
ted in squatter areas. The activities included
steel structure fabrication, manufacture of
rubber mangles and rollers, repairs of different
sorts of engines, manufacture of vehicle body
parts, manufacture of metal products, and piling
equipment.
The working environment in all of them was
unsatisfactory. Housekeeping was poor. Many
machines were unguarded. Many of the workers
seemed to be exposed unduly without necessary
precautions or personal protective devices, to
large amounts of coolant oils. Protective equip
ment was generally not available or not used.
Toilet facilities were inadequate or poorly main
tained. Lighting was poor. First aid facilities
and fire fighting equipment were inadequate.
(See Table XI).
200
General Engineering Works
o
26-8
o
NA
NA
No. of
factories
Table X shows the results of the environ
mental tests done. It can be seen that the en
vironmental conditions in many such factories
are unsatisfactory.
above TLV
SEPTEMBER. 1975
TABLE XIII
MANUFACTURE OF CEMENT
ENVIRONMENTAL MEASUREMENTS
Factory Number
1
2
3
4
Rec. std.
for
lighting
No. of fac.
below rec. std.
(lighting)
TLV
No. of
factories
above TLV
Lighting level in lux
200
150
50
150
150
1
NA
NA
Sound level in dB
Measurements
88
92
76
93
NA
NA
90
2
8 Globe T" in °C
32
31-5
32-5
34
NA
NA
NA
NA
K W/B T° in °C
27
27
27-5
29
NA
NA
NA
NA
£ WBGT in °C
28-5
28-4
28-9
30-4
NA
NA
29-4
1
Dust cone, (mppcf)
800
733
320
800
NA
NA
30
4
NA =not applicable.
TABLE XIV
IRON FOUNDRY
ENVIRONMENTAL MEASUREMENTS
Factory Number
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
No. of fac.
below rec. std.
(lighting)
No. of
factories
above TLV
Lighting level in lux
90
80
120
20
40
160
120
220
60
130
150
8
NA
NA
Sound level in dB
92
94
80
NM
NM
80
NM
80
80
80
NA
NA
90
2
Globe T° in °C
29-5
31
38
34-5
34
37
29
33
33
30
NA
NA
NA
NA
W/B T° in °C
25-5
25-5
30-6
28-3
28-3
29-4
26-1
27-8
26-1
26-1
NA
NA
NA
NA
WBGT in °C
26-7
27-2
32-8
30-1
30
31-7
26-4
29-4
28
27-3
NA
NA
28
5
Dus cone, (mppcf)
600
733
480
280
840
720
360
NM
480
NM
NA
NA
30
8
Heat Stresses
1
1
NM=not measured
NA=not applicable.
SINGAPORE MEDICAL JOURNAL
2
Rec. std.
for
lighting
TLV
1
Measurements
SEPTEMBER, 1975
190
TABLE XV
MANUFACTURE OF BRICKS
ENVIRONMENTAL MEASUREMENTS
Factory Number
No. of
factories below
recom. std.
(for iigh(ing)
TLV
No. of
factories
above TLV
NA
NA
1
2
3
4
Recommended
standard for
lighting
Lighting level in lux
195
140
1000
700
150
1
Sound level in dB
83
98
75
75
Measurements
NA
NA
90
1
3
Globe T° in CC
31-5
29-5
30
31-5
NA
NA
NA
NA
1
W/B T° in °C
26-7
25-8
24
25-5
NA
NA
NA
NA
4
WBGT in "C
28
26-8
25-8
27-2
NA
NA
30-6
0
Dust cone, (mppcf)
72-2
154
NM
NM
NA
NA
33
2
NM = not measured
NA=not applicable.
Iron Foundries
(International Code No. 37102)
Ten out of a total of 16 such foundries were
studied. Many of these were situated in shop
houses or squatter areas. Housekeeping was
generally very poor, with one exception. Many
places were cluttered with raw materials, finish
ed products or tools. Despite handling hot
castings, in only one of the ten foundries were
protective gloves used. No other protective
clothing was in evidence in all the foundries.
Heat stress is a big problem in these found
ries. As can be seen from Table XIV, in five
of these foundries the heat stress was above
tolerable limits. The dust concentrations in eight
foundries were also in excess of limit values. In
two foundries the noise levels exceeded 90 dB.
Manufacture of Bricks
(International Code No. 36301)
A one-in-three sample was taken, consisting
of four factories. Three factories used the wet
process, and as a consequence less dust was
produced. One factory used the dry process.
Clay is first dug from the surrounding hills
and is then grounded up, after which it is sieved.
The dry clay is then wetted and pressed, after
which it is extruded into columns. The columns
of wet clay are then cut into the size of bricks
and dried, after which they undergo firing in
ovens. The bricks are then cooled and stored.
As all the four factories were situated amidst
large compounds, and many of the processes
took place in the open, no great problems occur
red regarding overcrowding or underventila
tion. In one factory, a battery-operated saw
used to cut wood to fire the furnace was found
to be noisy and unguarded. (See Table XV).
DISCUSSION
Following our criteria abovementioned, we
found that 12 or 14-4% of all the factories
visited were satisfactory. Notwithstanding the
subjective nature of some of the observations,
this is still a disappointing result.
The small factories start off with several
inherent disadvantages. Very often they have
extremely limited financial resources, and are
therefore unable to spend much money on pro
visions for health and safety. There is usually
less job security and poorer remuneration in
the small factories than in the large ones, and
as a result the calibre of worker is generally
lower in terms of education, as workers compete
to secure jobs in the large factories and often
the small factories get only those rejected for
similar posts in the large factories. The large
factories including those owned by multi-natio
nal enterprises, arc generally very sensitive about
their public image and often spend money on
health and safety to improve such an image.
The small factories are less exposed to public
scrutiny. Moreover, in small factories workers
have sometimes to undertake a miscellany of
tasks and operate a motley collection of mac
hines. As a result they may be less familiar with
the working and the danger of each particular
machine. In large factories, on the contrary,
there is usually less interchangeability of workers
connected with different processes.
191
SINGAPORE MEDICAL JOURNAL
Even in affluent countries, such as U.S.A.,
The availability of access to a doctor, who
there are similar problems in small factories. was appointed by the factory, was present in
“With relatively few exceptions, workers in only 45 (54-1 %) of the factories surveyed. This
these so-called small plants do not have the is about the same proportion as found in a
benefit of in-plant health services. Far too similar survey in the developing world, in which
many of them receive only emergency care for 152 out of 338 small plants surveyed (45%)
accidents, and this service is often inadequate. had access to a physician in his clinic. (El
The many problems, economic and otherwise, Samra, G.H., 1972).
that small businessmen face daily leave them
It must be pointed out, however, that in
little time for considering the advantages of Singapore, government outpatient clinics are
protective services other than those required located all over the Republic. Charges for
by law. They may recognize the value of occupa consultation and medicines are low.
tional health services but find that individual
The low percentages (19-2%) of the factories
programs are expensive and that other employ
surveyed which had proper sanitary facilities
ers are hesistant to engage in co-operative pro
reflects the general non-observance of many of
jects. However, there are enough small-plant
the provisions about health, safety and welfare
health programs in operation to show that
laid down by the law (The Factories Act, Part
nursing and other health services can be provided
IV, 1973). Even in those factories which were
successfully and at a price small businessmen can
considered to have such facilities, the majority
afford.” (Nursing Part-time in Industry, 1965).
(See Table II) did not keep them in clean con
This opinion is supported by many occupa dition.
tional health authorities. In an International
First aid boxes are required to be available
Labour Organisation publication are these in all factories, yet even then three factories
words,
did not have them (The Factories Act, Part
“Much has been said about the problems VI, 1973). Moreover, only one out of the 80
of safety and health peculiar to small under factories which had such boxes was deemed to
takings which represent between one half and have contents up to the required standard.
four-fifths of all industrial undertakings and
We do not have the data about the occupa
employ between one-fifth and one-half of the tional diseases or injuries which have actually
economically active population, depending on occurred in the factories or industries surveyed.
the country. These undertakings face great However, surveys of morbidity have been car
difficulties in financing and organizing accident ried out in granite quarries in Singapore. A re
prevention and cannot afford to call in safety cent radiological survey of 1230 workers in 23
specialists.” (ILO, 1969).
granite quarries in Singapore showed that 15%
A similar study of small factories carried had a definite and another 17% had suspected
out in Korea showed that, of 3,600 workers in pneumoconiosis. This is not surprising in view
60 factories studied, the number of those who of the very unsatisfactory conditions found
were exposed to harmful elements exceeding during the present survey. A similar study in
1965 of granite quarry workers gave a prevalence
the maximum allowable concentration was as
of eight percent only, suggesting an increase of
follows:—
prevalence after five years. (Supramaniam et al,
870 persons (24-2%) to noise, 427 persons 1962).
(H-9%) to dust, 268 persons (7-4%) to
Occupational dermatitis in engineering works
lead, 563 persons (15-6%) to organic solvents, has been reported in Singapore. Subsequent
and 297 persons (8-3°/) to harmful chemical to the present survey, a study of this problem
substances such as chlorine, carbon dioxide, was conducted in an engineering establishment.
Five out of a total of 59 workers studied had
sulfur dioxide, etc. (Cho et al, 1969).
It is not very useful to compare those find dermatitis due to the coolant oils they were
ings with the findings in our survey, as the types exposed to. (Phoon & Bong 1974).
In the manufacture of rubber footwear, we
of processes carried out in Singapore differ
from those in Korea, hence also the hazards. have mentioned that rubber is milled with che
However, the Korean study does point out the mical powder into sheets. Silicosis had been de
very great health problems posed by small tected in workers making this “rubber pow'der”.
(Poh et al, 1972). However, no study has yet
factories in that country.
SEPTEMBER. 1975
been made into the question of silicosis of
workers handling this “rubber powder” while
making footwear. It is likely that there is such
a risk.
After having presented the findings and
discussed the problems, great difficulties are
also encountered in discussing possible solu
tions.
As we have pointed out, proper legislation
about minimum health and safety standards
do exist in countries such as Singapore. The
problem is effective enforcement of such legis
lation. There is little doubt that more effective
enforcement of such legislation, especially in
small factories, will not be possible without an
increase of manpower in the Factory Inspecto
rate of the Ministry of Labour or similar bodies.
Mere enforcement of laws, however, is not
by any means the sole solution to these problems.
Many new small factories are being set up
with financial support and technical advice by
governments or international agencies. Advice
relating to health and safety should be provided,
as well as that about economic or processing
matters.
“In several developing countries, small
factories are being erected either by the energies
of an Economic Development Board or as a
result of assistance by the United Nations. It is
important that the senior members of such
Boards appreciate the role of occupational
health and that those giving “assistance” should
regard safety and health as an integral part of
technical instruction.” (Bell, A., 1968).
It will not be realistic to expect that the
small factories could afford, bv themselves,
to pay for the occupational health services
which are necessary to control the hazards in
the working environment, nor indeed, that they
will take the initiative to set up such services.
In 1969, one of the authors of this paper urged,
“after a central Industrial Health Unit has been
properly set up by the government to provide
general supervision and co-ordination, firms
and factories should also invest in the well
being of their workers. Perhaps a form of con
tributory health insurance is best. It must be
emphasized that the money should not be solely
used to pay doctors for the treatment of coughs
and colds and other ordinary diseases. Some
funds should be channelled into the establish
ment and support of several Industrial Health
Service Units which can each look after many
small factories or a few large ones—such Indus
192
trial Health Units can be set up either by the
government itself or private enterprise with
the encouragement of the government. (Phoon,
W.O., 1969). We still believe that such Units
should be set up.
Health education of both proprietors, super
visors and workers in small factories is also most
important. Unfortunately, in most safety cam
paigns, the messages reach mostly those who
are already “converted”’ to safety, that is, those
in the large factories. This also applies to semi
nars conducted by National Safety First Coun
cils and similar voluntary bodies. The people
managing or working in small factories seem
to be either not contacted, not interested or
unable to attend. Perhaps one way of over
coming these difficulties is the more frequent
usage of mobile exhibitions or health teams to
go round the small factories.
We will conclude with the words of Dr.
M.A. El Batawi, the present chief of Occupa
tional Health, World Health Organization,
“There are unique problems in small scale
industries in the field of occupational health and
safety that actually require solution and proba
bly also require special approach, because these
problems stand from the economic situation
of small scale industries, the technical disad
vantage of employers and workers working in
small scale industries. Small scale factories are
not a problem only in developing countries
but also a problem in developed nations.” (El
Batawi, M.A., 1969).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We wish to express our sincere thanks to
Dr. M.A. El Batawi, Chief, Occupational
Health, World Health Organisation, for his
constant advice; and the World Health Orga
nization for assistance in the provision of certain
pieces of equipment used in the survey.
We also wish to thank Messrs. C.C. Tay,
K.P. Ong for their technical assistance; Madam
Rosalind See and Miss Lilian Quek for helping
with the questionnaires: and our secretary,
Miss Margaret Samuel, for the typing of this
paper.
We would like to express our gratitude to
the proprietors, managers, supervisors, and
workers in the factories visited for their kind
co-operation, and to all others who have helped
us in various ways in the course of the survey
and the preparation of this paper.
SINGAPORE MEDICAL JOURNAL
193
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ACGIH, 1969. Proceedings of ACGIH, May 1969. 9. ILO: Fifty years of international collaboration in
occupational safety and health, pg. 51, 1969.
ACGIH (American Conference of Govt. Industr.
Hygienists): “Threshold Limit Values of airborne
10. Nursing part-time in industry. U.S. Dept, of Health,
contaminants and physical agents adopted by the
Educ. and Welfare, pg. 1, 1965.
ACGIH for 1972.” Cincinnati, 1972.
11. Ong Pang Boon: Singapore Government Press
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COMMUNITY Health
326, V Main. I Block CELL
AOramc.ngnla
Bangalore-560034
India
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