5694.pdf
Media
- extracted text
-
... .......
- —
’•S.®
■
■-
fc-.
■
.
..........................................
......... ,
WAGENINGEN AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY PAPERS
90-7(1990)
Environmental measures for
malaria control in Indonesia
-an historical review on species sanitation
W. Takken1, W.B. Snellen2, J.P. Verhave3, B.G.J. Knols4
and S. Atmosoedjono5
Department of Entomology
Agricultural University
P.O. Box 8031, 6700 EH Wageningen
the Netherlands
I
To whom ail correspondence should be addressed.
2
International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement, P.O. Box 45,
6700 AA Wageningen, the Netherlands.
3
Department of Medical Parasitology, University of Nijmegen. P.O. Box
9101,6500 HB Nijmegen, the Netherlands.
4
present address: Department of Veterinary Services. P.O. Box 920034,
Senanga, Zambia.
5
National Institute of Health Research and Development, Ministry of Health.
P.O. Box 226, Jakarta 10560, Indonesia.
i
Wageningen
Agricultural University
-v
■->-
■
■
-
■
.......................... -
■
■
■.......................................... ■■
-3-
Contents
Preface
List of Tables
List of Figures
List of Photographs
List of modern and historical geographical names
i.
2.
3.
4.
5.
)rical review
ty papers.
6.
7.
8.
d brief quo>r published
electromagne"ral Universi-
9.
10.
Introduction.
W. Takken
Species Sanitation.
W. Takken
A taxonomic and bionomic review of the anopheline vectors of
Indonesia.
3a Taxonomy
3b Bionomics of aquatic stages
3c Bionomics of adult stages
3d Evaluation of taxonomic and bionomic data with respect to ma
laria epidemiology and control through species sanitation
W. Takken & B.G.J. Knots
Swellengrebel and species sanitation, the design of an idea.
J.P. Verhave
Success and failure of malaria control through species sanitationsome practical examples.
5a Introduction
5b An early sanitation: Sibolga
5c Marine fishponds
5d Cihea, a case of integrated rural development avant la lettre
5e House improvement and malaria
W.B. Snellen
Dr.ir.J. Kuipers - civil engineer and malariologist.
W. B. Snellen
Malaria control in Indonesia since World War II.
S. Atmosoedjono
Discussion: Relevance of the Indonesian experience for modern-day
malaria control.
W. Takken, W. B. Snellen & J.P. Verhave
Acknowledgements.
References.
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
vi
viii
x
xii
xiii
1
5
9
9
21
37
52
63
81
81
93
97
111
120
129
141
155
158
159
V
■-
- .wtOsI
■ •. . - -rT.
i;
Preface
This review is the result of discussions held at the 1987 annual meeting of the
WHO/FAO/UNEP Panel of Experts on Environmental Management for Vec
tor Control (PEEM). PEEM was set up as an advisory and policy-making body
to promote the application of environmental management techniques for the
control of disease vectors. Recent information on the use of such techniques
for the control of malaria is scarce, because since the discovery and large scale
application of DDT. malaria control throughout the world has relied heavily
on chemical insecticides. In view of that scarcity, and in the collaborative frame
work between PEEM and the International Institute for Land Reclamation and
Improvement (ILRI). this institute began collecting and reviewing information
on the environmental measures that were used to control malaria in the former
Netherlands Indies. The main objective was to compile a list of measures for
malaria control, along with their working principles, applicability, and (cost)
effectiveness. It soon appeared that making such a list required a proper under
standing of the technique of ‘species sanitation'. This technique, which is the
subject of this review, aims to control malaria through the elimination or altera
tion of the habitat of the most important vector species.
ILRI, as a land and water development institute, did not have the specialized
knowledge to deal with the entomological, parasitological and medical aspects
of species sanitation so that the review became a collaborative project of several
institutions. The Department of Entomology of the Wageningen Agricultural
University studied the ecological and entomological aspects of malaria control.
A chapter on Dr. Swellengrebel. the man who recognized and developed the
unique aspects of species sanitation, was written by the Department of Micro
biology of the Nijmegen University. ILRI studied the anti-malaria measures
from Indonesia before World War II to evaluate which lessons can be learnt
from that experience. Finally, the Ministry of Health in Indonesia provided the
information that was required to bridge the pre-World War II data with the
present day situation.
Writing an historical review unavoidably presents difficulties concerning geo
graphical names. This is especially so in a country that went from a colonial
era to independence, in the process of which many names of islands, provinces
and towns were changed. We have chosen to use the present-day names when
ever possible. Previous names are indicated in square brackets in order to present
the text more clearly. A list of present day geographical names, together with
their historical names, is presented as a reference in the introductory pages of
this review.
Recent developments in insect taxonomy have made it possible to study the
extent of ‘species complexes' of anophelines. As a result of these studies the
number of species of the genus Anopheles is likely to increase as differences
become known. This is particularly true for anophelines of the South East Asian
VI
IVuf'eniiif'en Agric. L'niv. Papers 90-7 (1990)
-
.r
■
■;
•
■
.
---- '
-
-;3
e
.-<■
.....
9
■-
"v
■
-
■
-■■
•
•
A';'!/’
region. Being well aware of these developments, we have chosen to use the gene
rally accepted nomenclature as described by Knight & Stone (1977). Type locali
ties for the different species were also taken from these authors. Any changes
which may have occurred since this publication have not been considered.
#
>dy
e
s
ale
;.y
1
..<4
'on
r
r
•st)
%
■
■
1
s
ral
-I
ue
o-
he
o-
al
nt
he
m
IVageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
vii
- • ;
List of tables
Table 3.1
Table 3.2
Table 3.3
Table 3.4
Table 3.5
Table 3.6
Table 3.7
Table 3.8
Table 3.9
Systematic index of the anophelines of Indonesia in 1921.
Systematic index of the anophelines of Indonesia in 1932.
Systematic index of the anophelines of the Indo-Australian region in 1953.
History of taxonomical status of important Indonesian
malaria vectors from 1921 to 1977.
Anopheline species considered to be important vectors
of malaria in Indonesia in 1953.
Geographical distribution of 24 important malaria vec
tors of Indonesia.
Breeding site characteristics and natural and man-made
breeding sites of important malaria vectors in Indonesia.
Characteristics of adult ecology of important malaria
vectors in Indonesia and occurrence of resistance against
organochlorine insecticides.
Summary of the control of the aquatic stages of Ano
pheles spp. in Indonesia with respect to species sanitation.
Sanitation measures in the Indonesian archipelago and
their effects.
Table 5.2 Spleen index in Sibolga
Table 5.3 The effects of the sanitation works on the spleen index
for pasar Sibolga and the three other native residential
areas.
Table 5.4 Annual trade figures for Sibolga.
Table 5.5 Numbers of malaria mosquitoes and their larvae found
in houses, ditches and ricefields in the Cihea plain.
Table 5.6a Mosquito survey in houses that had not been improved.
Table 5.6b Mosquito survey in improved houses.
10
12-13
14-16
18-19
17
20
25
39
61
Table 5.1
Table 6.1
5
Table 6.2
I
Table 7.1
l!
Table 7.3
j
Table '12
viii
Kuipers’ criticism of the traditional malaria control strat
egy.
Improved activity schedule for planning, implementation
and monitoring of a malaria sanitation programme,
based on Kuipers’ writings.
Malaria situation and anti-malaria spraying in Central
Java,1953-1959.
Coverage by DDT spraying, 1959-1963. Java, Bali and
Lampung.
Results of malariometric surveys (1960-1962) in 42 zones.
86-92
95
97
97
114
126
126
137
138-139
142
143
144
VKageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
I ■-
: i agistifa, ■
10
Table 7.4
Table 7.5
Table 7.6
Table 7.7
Table 7.8
12-13
ra-
14-16
i
18-19
s
Table 7.9
Table 7.10
Table 7.11
Table 7.12
Table 7.13
17
Table 7.14
20
25
Table 7.15
Table 7.16
Results of epidemiological surveillance, 1960-1962.
Malaria profile Indonesia (Java and Bali).
Distribution of malaria cases, by province. 1983-1985.
Malaria status in Java-Bali, 1985-1988.
Malaria in Java-Bali, when annual blood examination
rate (ABER) approaches 10%.
Malaria situation in Central Java. 1987-1988.
Malaria situation in Java-Bali, 1986-1988.
Number of high case incidence kecamatans. 1983-1987.
Malariometric surveys in the outer islands. 1969-1988.
Clinical malaria cases and slide positivity rates (SPR).
1969-1988(21 provinces).
Status of P. falciparum sensitivity/resistance to drugs.
Test conducted in 1988.
P. falciparum resistance to chloroquine by 1988.
Insecticide spraying coverage in Java-Bali. 1985-1988.
144
145
146
147
148
148
148
149
150
151
152
152
153
ia
39
’o-
n.
61
86-92
95
ai
97
97
1 14
126
126
137
c
138-139
.il
142
143
144
90-7 (1990)
IVageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
ix
List of figures
Fig. 1.1
Map of Indonesia and surrounding countries.
1
Fig. 3.1
Towns and villages of Indonesia which are mentioned in con
nection with species sanitation (Chapter 3D).
53
Fig. 5.1
Cost per inhabitant for general sanitation in three and for
species sanitation in four coastal towns.
Fig. 5.2
Decrease of spleen index in seaports and coastal towns of Java
in the period 1925- 1932.
Fig. 5.3
Locations in the Indonesian archipelago, where sanitation
measures described in Table 5.1 were implemented.
Fig. 5.4
Locations where extensive sanitation works were carried out.
Reproduced from: Netherlands Indies Medical and Sanitary
Services. Control of Endemic Diseases in the Netherlands
Indies. Weltevreden, 1929.
Fig. 5.5
Map of Sibolga.
Fig. 5.6
Annual and cumulative cost of sanitation works in Sibolga
and the effects on mortality.
Fig. 5.7
Chanos-chanos, the cultivated fish in the marine fishponds,
and Haplochiluspanchax, an effective larvivorous fish.
Fig. 5.8
Map of the fishpond area at Jakarta (formerly Batavia),
reproduced from Walch et al. (1930).
Fig. 5.9
Map of Jakarta, with spleen index for the various quarters.
Fig. 5.10
Circulus vitiosus.
Fig. 5.11
Fluctuations in area of uncultivated ricefields, paddy produc
tion, and mortality rate in the Cihea plain in the period
1910-1931.
Fig. 5.12 Location of State Sanitation Farm and spleen indices for ten
villages in the Cihea plain in the years 1919, 1922 and 1931.
Fig. 5.13a Mortality curves for the period 1931-1937 in 8 sub-districts
with house improvement.
Fig. 5.13b Mortality curves for the period 1931-1937 in 9 sub-districts
without house improvement.
Fig. 5.14 Effects of house improvement programme on spleen indices
in sub-districts of the regencies Tasikmalaya and Ciamis.
Fig. 5.15 Main characteristics of houses before and after improvement.
Fig. 6.1
Fig. 6.2
x
Kuipers' diagram on approach of malaria research in Indone
sia.
Potential breeding sites for Anopheles sundaicus near the vil
lage of Brengkok, East Java. Indonesia.
81
83
84
85
94
96
102
108
109
113
114
119
122
123
124
125
131
132
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
5
Fig. 6.3
Fig. 6.4
1
ed in con-
Fig. 6.5
53
Fig. 6.6
Fig. 6.7
e and for
81
of Java
Mortality curve, theoretical vector density, and the ponding
curve in saline rice fields near Brengkok, derived from data
on rainfall, evaporation and soils.
Multiple regression equation which describes (changes in )
larval density as a function of (changes in ) chloride content
and vegetation factors.
Regression equations for fishponds at Jakarta and Tanjung
Periuk.
Comparison of adult and larval sampling.
Interrelationships between environmental factors, vector pro
duction and malaria
133
134
135
136
138
83
sanitation
84
ed out.
Sanitary
,u?rlands
85
94
i Sibolga
96
ponds.
h.
102
tavia).
ters.
108
109
113
roducperiod
114
or ten
)31.
-aistricts
119
122
stricts
123
i indices
s.
ment.
124
125
Indone-
131
ic vil-
132
rs 90-7 (1990)
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 < 1990)
xi
■■
... . ■
> -sa
' ^4^
List of photographs
Photo 1
Photo 2
Myzomyia ludlowi (= Anopheles sundaicus).
9
Original arawings
drawings ot
of Anopheles species from Indonesia,
anginal
(source: Schiiffner W. & H.N. Van der Heyden (1917) De anophelinen in Nederlands Indie, -Medeelingen van den BurgerHjken Geneeskundigen Dienst in Nederlandsch-Indie 4: 25-41)
26
Photo 3
Billiton: searching for breeding sites of malaria mosquitoes.
30
Photo 4
Semarang: Anopheles breeding site in a village.
35
Photo 5
Dr. Schiiffner and the Swellengrebels in Loeboeg Sikaping
(Sumatra), May 1918.
67
Photo 6
Fishculture in rice field (native method). Breeding of Ano
pheles aconitus- remaining stalks in the rice field; growing of
weeds; grasses hanging from the dikes in the water.
75
Photo 7
Fishculture in rice field (hygienic method). Free from Ano
pheles aconitus; dikes kept clean from grasses; stalks removed;
water surface clean.
75
Photo 8a Sibolga: the native quarters (pasar) and the bay of Tapanoeli,
seen from a nearby hili.
98
Photo 8b Sibolga: the European quarters under construction, seen from
a nearby hill.
98
Photo 9
Banjoewangi: Fishpond with floating algae (before sanitation
in 1926) in which An. sundaicus (An. ludlowi) was breeding
in enormous numbers.
Photo 10 Banjoewangi: The same spot (as in photo 9) 3 years after sani 105
tation, showing a mangrove forest where tidal movements
take place in a perfect way.
106
Photo 11
Fishpond after treatment. Each fishpond is provided with a
sluice; by means of supply canals, discharging into a main
canal, in connection with the sea, it is possible to drain and
to refill every fishpond separately. Water surface clean; no
algae.
110
Photo 12 House after improvement.
127
on
i
sc.
da
2
xii
IVageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
i
i
i
" ,r
List of modern and historical geographical names
9
modern name
historical name1
Jawa (Java)
Sumatera (Sumatra)
Kalimantan
Sulawesi
Irian Jaya
Java
Sumatra
Borneo
Celebes
New Guinea
Gunung Arjuno
Mount Ardjoeno (E. Java)
Bandung
Banjar
Banyuwangi
Bandoeng
Bandjar (W. Java)
Banjoewangi
Brengkok*2
Tjiandjoer
Tjihea
Tjilatjap
Batavia
Pasoeroean
Probolinggo
Solo
Soekaboemi
Soerabaja
Tandjong Priok
icsia.
anoer1)
>es.
islands
26
30
35
ng
-
67
mountains
Ano-
of
75
towns and villages
A noid;
75
•4
on Jawa:
ioeli.
98
98
Cianjur
Cihea
Cilacap
Jakarta
Pasuruan
Probolingo
Solo (Surakarta)
Sukabumi
Surabaya
Tanjung Periuk
ition
ng
105
uini-
'mts
106
...i a
nain
id
io
110
127
1
:<•
1
-
on Sumatera:
Lampung
Tapanuli
4
Lampoeng
Mandailing*
Soendatar*
Soengei Baleh*
Tapanoeli
i
1 Source: Atlas van Tropisch Nederland(1938). Koninklijk Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap in samenwerking met de Topographischen Dienst in Nederlandsch-Indie. Batavia/Amsterdam.
2 The current names of these locations were not found.
)-7( 1990)
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
xiii
:b
....
•
Chapter 1
Introduction
W. Takken
Of the many parasitic diseases of man in the tropics, malaria remains at the
top of the list in terms of importance because of the very large number of people
which contract the disease annually and the high death rate it causes among
young children (WHO, 1987). For this reason, malaria control continues to re
ceive high priority in health programmes. However, the way to achieve this goal
is proving increasingly difficult. Apart from chronic shortages of funding for
health programmes in many developing countries, the increasing occurrence of
drug resistance as well as insecticide resistance are serious obstacles for malaria
control.
Indonesia is one of the. countries experiencing malaria at a relatively high
incidence. The country consists of several large islands and thousands of smaller
islands (Figure 1.1) and at least 18 mosquito species have been confirmed as
malaria vectors, distributed over the entire archipelago (Kirnowardoyo, 1988).
Despite great efforts to control the disease, effective control is achieved in limited
areas and malaria is still widespread (Harinasuta et al.. 1982: Bang, 1985). New
methods to improve this situation are highly desirable. During the colonial days
the Dutch authorities experimented successfully with environmental methods
of malaria control which since then seem to have been forgotten. In recent years
these measures have been ‘rediscovered' (Service. 1989). This prompted us to
Z7'
SABAHtv
Brunei/
Y MEDAN I lv,^u
9
KMiSINGAPORE
’A
. KALIMANTAN
}
\
[BORNEO]
r^VZlRIAN
JAVA
JAKARTA
[NEW GUINEA]
SULAWESI
(CELEBES]^
TIMOR
Fig. 1.1 Map of Indonesia and surrounding countries. (Areas indicated with * belong to the Federa
tion of Malaysia).
Wa^eningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
1
1
- •- - ,-y
?k "
review the pre-independence anti-malaria control strategies from Indonesia in
order to assess their value for present-day malaria control.
Until recently, malaria control was based on the principles of killing the para
sites inside the human body with drugs and attacking the vectors with insecti
cides. These methods are becoming increasingly unsuitable because, firstly, in
many countries malaria parasites have become resistant against drugs and,
secondly, mosquitoes have developed a high degree of insecticide resistance so
that their use had to be discontinued (Najera, 1989). Several encouraging devel
opments in the field of vector control occurred in recent years, which have led
to the introduction of the term ‘environmental management’. This means that
it is envisaged to control or reduce vector populations by taking environmental
measures which are disadvantageous for the target species, without damaging
other organisms in that environment. One example of this is the periodic drai
nage of irrigated rice fields in China, which kills the anopheline larvae without
affecting other important elements of the rice field habitat. Environmental man
agement for malaria control was widely practiced in Indonesia (formerly: the
Netherlands Indies) before World War II. The advent of modern synthetic insec
ticides such as DDT and dieldrin led to the abandonment of the aforementioned
ecological methods of vector control. To-day environmental management is
only used on a limited scale throughout the world, although the potential of
this method appears to be large (IRRI. 1988).
The present study was undertaken to review the pre-World War II literature
about vector control measures developed in Indonesia. It was expected that the
experience gained in those days might be useful for the development of alterna
tive control strategies required to-day. Environmental management of aquatic
anopheline habitats was the focus of our study, with special emphasis on the
method called species sanitation. In order to utilize the existing data properly,
it proved necessary to review the taxonomy and bionomics of the most important
malaria vectors of the Indonesian archipelago. We used these data to evaluate
The malaria cycle
Malaria is a parasitic disease caused by protozoa (Plasmodium spp.) which are circulating
in the blood stream. Four species of Plasmodium affect man: P. vivax. P. falciparum. P.
malariae and P. ovale. The infection begins when parasites (sporozoites) enter the human
body through the bite of an infected mosquito. Only mosquitoes of the genus Anopheles
can carry the human malaria parasites. After rapid asexual multiplication in the human
liver and blood cells, the parasites develop sexual stages (gametocytes). These are ingested
by the mosquito during a blood meal. Inside the mosquito the gametes fuse and develop
into oocysts, which are attached to the mosquito's stomach wall. Upon maturation, the
oocysts burst and release large numbers of sporozoites which migrate to the salivary glands,
from where they enter the human body during the next blood meal. Thus, whereas man
is the definite host of the malaria parasites, anopheline mosquitoes are required for the con
tinuation of parasite transmission. In this process certain anopheline mosquitoes function
as vectors of the disease. The malaria cycle is being maintained as long as uninfected mosqui
toes bite gametocyte carriers and. after an incubation time of 9-20 days, transmit the parasites
to hitherto uninfected persons.
2
Wagenin^en Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
/
f
I
a
i'
n
&
'
7 ’:
"
iiii
nesia in
. the parainsectirstly. in
rugs and.
stance so
g devellave led
cans that
imental
maging
□die draiwithout
11 man„rly: the
Hie insecitioned
nent is
lential of
several vector control programmes conducted between the years 1916 and 1938.
A mathematical model developed by Kuipers (1937a) to predict the effect of
environmental factors on mosquito population dynamics in Indonesia is de
scribed. It is shown how this model could have been used in vector control pro
grammes. Recent information on malaria and malaria control operations in
Indonesia are described in a separate chapter. The consequences of the environ
mental management methods used in the past are then discussed with reference
to present day malaria situations. Since the work of one scientist. Swellengrebel,
appeared to have been overwhelmingly important in the development of malaria
control in the Netherlands Indies, a special chapter has been included to describe
his work. Many of the works reviewed in this paper were written in Dutch which
hindered their distribution given the limited size of the Dutch language area.
We hope that this review will be helpful to gain access to the papers mentioned,
particularly since we found that many of these are highly relevant for modern
day entomologists and health personnel and those engaged in land and water
management.
jrature
. .hat the
/alternaiquatic
on the
properly,
■'nortant
'aluate
iiating
um. P.
nan
eles
.-.nan
gested
Hop
the
ids.
s man
•' ^on
ion
|uirasites
(1990)
IVageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
3
Chapter 2
Species sanitation
W. Takken
When in 1897 Ross published his findings on the development of Plasmodium
inside the mosquito, and it was subsequently demonstrated that mosquitoes of
the genus Anopheles were responsible for the transmission of malaria, it was
soon realized that changing the aquatic habitat of the vectors would automati
cally lead to interruption of malaria transmission. The most well known example
of this method is the drainage of the marshes near Rome, Italy (for a detailed
description see: Bruce-Chwatt, 1985). Malaria control through habitat modifi
cation was at that time also attempted in Indonesia by filling small water bodies
with soil, especially close to areas of human habitation (Hulshoff Pol & Betz,
1908; Salm, 1915). In Malaysia, Watson (1911) experimented with the selective
elimination of one species. Anopheles umbrosus, which had been incriminated
as the principal malaria vector in a lowland area. Watson had previously found
that not all the anopheline species in the area were responsible for malaria trans
mission and he had also found that these mosquitoes were often restricted to
a specialised breeding habitat (the same would be discovered by Jennings in
Central America in 1912). Through the selective clearing of wooded habitat,
the shade loving An. umbrosus was being exposed to the sun and subsequently
disappeared. The previously widely present malaria went with it. This proved
to be an economical method of malaria control: by identifying the most impor
tant vector and the subsequent study of its biology and ecology, malaria control
had been achieved without having to eliminate all anopheline species present.
Watson discussed his findings with Swellengrebel on Sumatra (Indonesia) in
1913. The latter became deeply interested in this method and called it species
sanitation. This is the term with which we still identify the method to-day. In
this review we define species sanitation as ‘a naturalistic approach of vector con
trol, directed against the main vectors, through modification of the habitat in such
a way that the vectors avoid these areas’ (Bruce-Chwatt, 1985, after Watson,
1911). The method requires a study of the characteristic breeding habits of the
main vectors and of the type of water in which they lay their eggs. Control is
mostly directed against larval stages, but sometimes adults can be included as
well. Species sanitation has the advantage above general sanitation, that often
only one of a complex of several Anopheles species need to be attacked.
Swellengrebel realized that in order to use species sanitation in Indonesia,
a thorough knowledge of the taxonomy and bionomics of the local vectors would
be required (Swellengrebel. 1916). He therefore encouraged health personnel,
responsible for malaria control, to undertake a study of the vectors and describe
as accurately as possible the number of species present, their habitat and habits.
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
5
li
^'4^ r. ■" "
-
At that time knowledge on Indonesian anophelines was scarce. By 1919 several
studies had been published, which gave detailed descriptions of anopheline spe
cies and their habitats from different regions on Java and Sumatra (Van Breemen, 1919; van Driel, 1919; Mangkoewinoto. 1919; Swellengrebel & Swellengrebel-de Graaf, 1919). Swellengrebel & Swellengrebel-de Graaf (1919) divided the
anophelines into three groups, according to the breeding sites: (1) ubiquitoes
(unspecialised ) species. (2) hill species and (3) specialised species. According
to these authors species sanitation could only be applied for the last group. They
especially mentioned Ah. sundaicus [An. ludlowi\. which was present in specific
habitats along the northern coast of Java.
In 1920 Swellengrebel published an overview of malaria control in Indonesia
and its future prospects (Swellengrebel. 1920). Of the 20 malaria vectors known
at that time. An. sundaicus, An. aconitus and An. maculatus were incriminated
as important malaria vectors. Of these. An. sundaicus could be controlled
through species sanitation. The author concluded that ‘provided detailed vector
studies were included in malaria control programmes, species sanitation was
a potentially effective method of malaria control in Indonesia’ (Swellengrebel
& Swellengrebel-de Graaf, 1920).
Between 1920 and 1935 species sanitation, along with general sanitation, was
widely applied throughout the Indonesian archipelago. Of these, the sanitations
of Mandailing (Sumatra), Tandjong Priok (Java). Alor. Batavia and Tegor, all
against An. sundaicus, and of Tandjong Pinang (Sumatra) against An. maculatus
and of the Tjihea plains (E. Java) against An. aconitus should be mentioned.
These control programmes have been described by Rodenwaldt (1924; 1928).
Essed (1928; 1932a; 1932b) and Hulshoff (1933). Walch & Soesilo (1935) sum
marized the achievements of malaria control in the Netherlands Indies, in which
they emphasize the control of aquatic stages. In particular the sanitation of the
coastal fish ponds in Java is described in detail. Soesilo (1936) reviewed the sani
tation programmes that were known up to that time and mentions that of the
40 known anopheline species. 11 species should be considered dangerous. In
1937 Swellengrebel writes ‘the principle of species control remains unshaken,
but some of the so-called anopheline species which had revealed themselves as
dangerous malaria-carriers in one country and as harmless mosquitoes in
another, were proved to be groups of two or more species, very much resembling
each other in shape and design, but differing in their habits to such an extent
as to render one an efficient malaria-carrier and another quite harmless'. With
this statement he laid down the basis for the ‘species-complex’ principle which
is widely accepted to-day (Service. 1988). This theory emphasizes the potential
usefulness of species sanitation because by detailed studies of the local malaria
vectors, which morphologically may be indifferent, malaria control can be di
rected against the vector species only. An example of this is the control of an
indoor-biting species without affecting an outdoor-biting sibling species, or the
control of a shade-loving species while leaving a sun-loving sibling.
Swellengrebel had based his statement on species sanitation on the discovery
in the Netherlands that the local An. maculipennis consisted of two distinct
1
S
Wagenin^en Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
I
?....
several
i
ic spe-
'an Bree~"engreled the
uiquitoes
according
■ i. They
’ pecific
‘onesia
cnown
iminated
ontrolled
i vector
i >n was
lengrebel
i
sibling species. An. atroparvus and An. messeae, each with different bionomics.
Only An. atroparvus was a malaria vector and An. messeae was quite harmless
(Van Thiel, 1936). These findings convinced Swellengrebel that future prospects
for species sanitation were positive.
Although by 1938 several malaria control programmes had failed to achieve
the desired results, Overbeek & Stoker (1938) nevertheless published an overview
‘Malaria control in the Netherlands Indies’ in which they strongly supported
the principle of species sanitation.
In conclusion, species sanitation has been widely applied for malaria control
in the Netherlands Indies. The method requires detailed biological and ecologi
cal studies on the local malaria vectors, before anti-mosquito measures can be
taken. On the basis of these pre-control studies it should be decided whether
species sanitation is feasible. Chapter 5 discusses several examples of species
sanitation, and why they were successful or failed.
n, was
nitations
Tegor, all
‘ulatus
ioned.
4; 1928).
) sumwhich
jn of the
rhe saniof the
us. In
nshaken.
ves as
>es in
sembling
i" extent
> With
which
potential
alaria
be di
ol of an
r or the
lovovery
distinct
(1990)
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
7
'
■
-■..-f
. iiiif
■.
j
■
i
..
..........
Chapter 3
A taxonomic and bionomic review of
the malaria vectors of Indonesia.
W. Takken and B.G.J. Knols
3A-Taxonomy
In this section an outline of the taxonomic development of the genus Anopheles
in Indonesia is presented. An important consideration in undertaking this review
was that a detailed study of the anophelines would be the only reliable basis
for the interpretation of results of the malaria control operations from the past,
in particular those with emphasis on species sanitation.
For a long time it was thought that the taxonomic study of anophelines was
purely of biological interest to entomologists. It was even sometimes referred
to as being an 'affectation' (Swellengrebel, 1934). Many authors however noticed
the importance of taxonomic studies and the names of Swellengrebel, Schiiffner,
Walch and Rodenwaldt, amongst others, must be mentioned in this respect
(Schuffner & Swellengrebel, 1914; Fischer, 1917; Swellengrebel 1921, Swellen
grebel & Rodenwaldt 1932).
For this review we consulted Swellengrebel (1921). Swellengrebel & Roden
waldt (1932), Bonne-Webster & Swellengrebel (1953) and Knight & Stone
(1977). These taxonomic works were studied in order to extract lists of anopheline species known throughout the history of Indonesia. This resulted in Tables
3.1. 3.2 and 3.3, in which the anophelines from the Indo-Australian region as
they were known in 1921, 1932 and 1953, respectively, are presented.
An accurate description of all Indonesian anopheline species and their names
Photo 1 Myzomyia !udlowi(= Anophelessundaicus). (Source: Swellengrebel, 1916).
IVageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
9
■
Table 3.1 Systematic index of the anophelines of Indonesia (after Swellengrcbel. 1921).
I.
ROSSI-group.
1.
2.
4.
5.
Myzomyia vaga
Myzomyia ludlowi
Myzomyia ludlowi var. flavescens
Myzomyia rossii
Myzomyia immaculata
n.
ACONITA-group.
6.
7.
Myzomyia aconita
Myzomyia minima
HI.
PUNCTULATA-group.
8.
9.
Neomyzomyia punctulata
Nyssorhynchus annulipes var. moluccensis
10.
11.
Neomyzomyia leucosphyra
Cellia kochii
IV.
NYSSORHYNCHUS-group.
12.
17.
Nyssorhynchus fuliginosus
Nyssorhynchus fuliginosus var. nivipes
Nyssorhynchus schuffneri
Nyssorhynchus maculatus
Nyssorhynchus karwari
Nyssorhynchus jamesi
V.
MYZORHYNCHUS-group.
18.
22.
23.
Myzorhynchus sinensis
Myzorhynchus sinensis var. vanus
Myzorhynchus sinensis var. separatus
Myzorhynchus sinensis var. argyropus
Myzorhynchus barbirostris
Myzorhynchus barbirostris var. pallidus
24.
25.
26.
Myzorhynchus albotaeniatus
Myzorhynchus umbrosus
Myzorhynchus gigas
VI.
STETHOMYIA-group.
27.
28.
Stethomyia aitkenii
Stethomyia aitkenii var. insulae florum
29.
Stethornyia aitkenii var. papuae
3.
13.
14.
15.
16.
19.
20.
21.
10
in th
- Hcxo
its fi
- W
ge
- Wht
de
- H
- Wn<
Dbnitz, 1902.
Theobald, 1903.
nov.var., 1921.
Giles, 1899.
James, 1902.
DCnitz, 1902.
Theobald, 1901.
Onci
exec
numbe
mic:
(Tat
sia ano
selecte.
[Bor
avail
- geog
DOnitz, 1901.
Swellengrebel-Swellengrebel de
Graaf, 1920.
Ddnitz, 1901.
Dbnitz, 1901.
Giles, 1900.
Theobald, 1903.
Stanton, 1915.
Theobald, 1901.
James, 1903.
Theobald, 1901.
- CO
- bi
This ste
impc
of th
are in
remg
renct
species
data
W
the i._.
firmed
in T.
(Jav<
this reg
In
desci
the
Indone
date
are k
known
comp1-
Wiedemann, 1828.
Theobald, ?.
Leicester, 1908.
Swellengrcbel, 1914.
v.d. Wulp, 1884.
Swellengrcbel-Swellengrebel de
Graaf. 1919.
Theobald, 1903.
Theobald, 1903.
Giles, 1901.
James. 1903.
Swellengrcbel-Swellengrebel de
Graaf. 1919.
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
Wagei
i
•M---■■■■
in the past is needed to answer several important questions:
- Has the name of a certain species (type or variety) remained constant since
its first description?
- Why were certain species divided into lower taxa (morphology, epidemiology,
geographic distribution etc.)?
- What is known about the breeding places of the anophelines, and how do
descriptions of them vary over time?
- How did the description of the bionomics of a certain species vary over time?
- What is known about the epidemiological importance of each species?
Once these factors for all the species are known, sanitation works as they were
executed before W.W.II can be evaluated. From the data it is obvious that the
number of described anopheline species increased rapidly after the first taxono
mic studies were published, resulting in more than 116 different species by 1953
(Table 3.3). Of these, not all species were described as malaria vectors in Indone
sia and in fact only a few had been the subject of species sanitation. We therefore
selected those species that were definitely present in Sumatra, Java, Kalimantan
[Borneo] and Sulawesi [Celebes] and for which the following information was
available:
- geographical’distribution
- confirmed role as a malaria vector
- bionomics of aquatic and terrestrial stages
This selection resulted in a list of 24 anopheline species which were considered
important malaria vectors in Indonesia. The history of the taxonomic status
of these 24 species is shown in Table 3.4. to which the scientific names as they
are in use to-day (Knight & Stone, 1977) have been added. Throughout the
remainder of this review these latter names will be used, which for easier refe
rence are shown separately in Table 3.5. The geographic distribution of these
species across the major islands of Indonesia is presented in Table 3.6. These
data were derived from Bonne-Wepster & Swellengrebel (1953).
When studying the anophelines of South West Asia, it is interesting to notice
the number of species that were originally described from Indonesia, as con
firmed by the type locality for each species. Out of the 24 species mentioned
in Table 3.5, seven were originally collected in and described from Indonesia
(Java, Sumatra, Celebes), demonstrating the important geographical position
this region played in the study of anophelines.
In recent years several species complexes of the genus Anopheles have been
described (Service, 1988; White, 1989), of which the An. balabacencis complex,
the An. punctulatus complex and the An. maculatus complex are present in the
Indonesian region. Much research in this field is still required in order to eluci
date the nature of ecological and behavioural variation within species, which
are known to breed in different habitats. For instance An. sundaicus, which is
known to breed in fresh as well as in brackish water, may exist of a sibling
complex of which the individual species have distinct ecological requirements.
'
1990)
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 C1990)
11
3
Table 3.2 Systematic index of the anophelines of Indonesia (after: Swellengrebel and Rodenwaldt,
1932).
I. Subgenus: Brugella (Edwards).
1.
Anopheles travestitus
EL Subgenus: Bironella (Theobald).
2.
Anopheles bironelli
IV.
Brug, 1928.
V.
Christophers, 1924.
species: Anopheles papuae (Sw. and Sw.-d Gr.):
3.
4.
5.
6.
A. papuae typicus
A. papuae typicus var. brugi
A. papuae derooki
A. papuae soesiloi
Sw. & Sw.-d Gr., 1920 (*).
Soesilo & v. Slooten, 1931.
Soesilo & v. Slooten, 1931.
Soesilo & v. Slooten, 1931.
33
35
EQ. Subgenus: Anopheles sensu strictiori (Meigen).
A. Myzorhynchus - group.
VI
species: Anopheles hyrcanus (Pallas):
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
A. hyrcanus typicus var. sinensis
A. hyrcanus typicus var. nigerrima
A. hyrcanus typicus var. pseudopicta
A. hyrcanus separatus
A. hyrcanus hunteri
A. hyrcanus peditaeniatus
Wiedemann, 1828.
Giles, 1900.
Grassi, 1899.
Leicester, 1908.
Strickland, 1916.
Leicester, 1908.
13.
A. gigas var. sumatrana
nov. var., 1932.
species: Anopheles barbirostris (v.d. Wulp):
14.
15.
16.
17.
A. barbirostris typicus
A. barbirostris typicus, var. barbumbrosa
A. barbirostris bancrofti
A. barbirostris bancrofti var. pseudobarbirostris
v.d. Wulp, 1884.
Strickland & Chowdhury, 1927.
Giles, 1902.
Ludlow, 1902.
18.
19.
A. albotaeniatus
A. albotaeniatus var. montana
Theobald, 1903.
Stanton & Hacker, 1917.
20.
21.
22.
A. umbrosus
A. umbrosus var. novumbrosa
A. umbrosus var. similissima
Theobald, 1903.
Strickland, 1916.
Strickland & Chowdhury, 1927.
3S
4(
4:
4-
4
4‘
B. Mennemyia - group.
23.
Anopheles brevipalpis
r
Roper, 1914.
5
C. Lophoscelomyia - group.
24.
Anopheles annandalei var. djajasanensis
Brug, 1926.
D. Siethomyia - group.
species: Anopheles aitkenii (James):
25.
26.
27.
28.
12
A. aitkenii typicus
A. aitkenii typicus var. bengalensis
A. aitkenii typicus var. insulae florum
A. aitkenii palmatus
James, 1903.
Puri, 1930.
Sw. & Sw.-d Gr., 1920.
Rodenwaldt, 1927.
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 11990)
■■
Rodenwaldt.
Table 3.2 Continued
IV. Subgenus: Paleomyzomyia (Nov. Subg.).
' (*).
I.
1.
29.
Anopheles parangensis
V.
Subgenus: Pseudomyzomyia (Theobald).
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
A. ludlowi var. sundaica
A. ludlowi (type)
A. vagus
A. subp ictus
A. subpictus var. malayensis
Ludlow, 1914.
Rodenwaldt, 1926.
Theobald, 1903.
Ddnitz, 1902.
Grassi, 1899.
Hacker, 1921.
VI. Subgenus: Myzomyia (Blanchard).
35.
36.
37.
A. aconitus
A. minimus
A. minimus var. varuna
Ddnitz, 1902.
Theobald, 1901.
Iyengar, 1924.
VII. Subgenus: Neocellia (Theobald).
species: Anopheles fuliginosus (Giles):
38.
39.
40.
A. fuliginosus typicus
A. fuliginosus philippinensis
A. fuliginosus pallidus
Giles, 1900.
Ludlow, 1902.
Theobald, 1901.
41.
42.
43.
44.
A. ramsayi
A. schuffneri
A. maculatus
A. karwari
Covell, 1927.
Stanton, 1915.
Theobald, 1901.
James, 1903.
VIII. Subgenus: Cellia (Theobald).
. 1927.
45.
46.
A. errabundus
A. incognitus
Swellengrebel, 1925.
Brug, 1931.
IX. Subgenus: Neomyzomyia (Theobald).
A. Punctulatus - group.
’.7.
47.
48.
49.
A. leucosphyrus
A. leucosphyrus var. hackeri
A. amictus
Ddnitz, 1901.
Edwards, 1921.
Edwards, 1921.
species: Anopheles punctulatus (Ddnitz):
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
A. punctulatus typicus
A. punctulatus typicus var. moluccensis
A. punctulatus longirostris
A. punctulatus longirostris var. annulata
A. punctulatus tesselatus
A. punctulatus tesselatus var. orientalis
Ddnitz, 1901.
Sw. & Sw.-d Gr., 1920.
Drug, 1928.
Brug, 1930.
Theobald, 1901.
Sw. & Sw.-d Gr., 1920.
B. Kochi - group.
56.
Anopheles kochi
Ddnitz, 1901.
(*) Sw. & Sw.-d Gr.: Swellengrebel and Swellcngrcbel-de Graaf.
>0-7 (1990)
Wageningen Ag/ic. Univ. Papers 90-7 11990)
13
Table 3.3 Systematic index of the anophelines of the Indo-Australian region (after: Bonne-Wepster
and Swellengrebel. 1953.)
H
I. Genus: Bironella (Theobald).
Subgenus: Bironella (Theobald).
1. B. gracilis
2. B. confusa
3. B. occulta
B. papuae
5. B. papuae var. brugi
6. B. soesiloi
Theobald, 1905.
lb;2.
Bonne-Wepster, 1951.
la,b,c;2.
Bonne-Wepster, 1951.
la,b,c;2.
Sw. & Sw.-d Gr., 1920.
lb, c;2.
Soe. & Van Sloo.. 1931.
la, b,c;2;4.
Strickl. & Chowdhury, 1931. lb, c;2.
Subgenus: Brugella (Edwards).
7. B. hollandi
8. B. travestita
9. B. walchid)
Taylor, 1934.
Brug, 1928.
Soesilo, 1932.
lb;2.
lb;2;4.
lb,c;2;4.
n. Genus: Anopheles (Meigen).
Subgenus: Anopheles (Meigen).
Group : Anopheles (Root).
series : Anopheles (Edwards).
10. A. aitkeni
James. 1903.
11. A. aitkeni
James, aberrant form.
12. A. aitkeni var. bengalensis
Puri. 1930.
13. A. aitkeni var. borneensis
McArthur, 1949.
14. A. insulaeflorum
Sw. & Sw.-d Gr.. 1919.
15. A. palmatus
Rodenwaldt, 1926.
16. A. alongensis
Venhuis, 1940.
17. A. atratipes
Skusse, 1889.
18. A. powelli
Lee, 1944.
19. A. stigmaticus
Skusse, 1889.
20. A. brevipalpis
Roper. 1914.
21. A. lindesayi
Giles, 1900.
22. A. lindesayi var. benguetensis
King. 1931.
23. A. lindesayi var. cameronensis Edwards, 1929.
24. A. bulkleyi
Causey, 1937.
25- -4- gigas
Giles, 1901.
26. A. gigas var. formosus
Ludlow. 1909.
27■
gigas var. baileyi
Edwards, 1929.
28. A. gigas var. danaubento
Moch. & Waland., 1934.
29. A. gigas var. oedjalikalahensis Naiggolan, 1939.
30. A. gigas var. sumatranus
Swell. & Rodenw., 1932
31. A. wellingtonianus
Alcock, 1912.
(*)
lb,c;4.
lb.
lb;4.
lb.
lb.
lb;3.
2.
lb;2.
2.
lb.
3.
lb;3.
lb;3.
lb;3.
lb.
lb:3.
lb;3.
lb:4.
lb;4.
lb;4.
lb;4.
series: Lophoscelomyia (Edwards).
32. A. annandalei
33. A. annandalei var. interruptus
34. A. asiadcus
14
Baini Prashad, 1918
Puri. 1929.
Leicester, 1904.
lb.
lb,c;3.
lb;3.
H affe/i/'/if'c/i Af'i ic. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
I
i
...
r: Bonne-Wepstcr
Table 3.3 Continued
series: Myzorhynchus (Edwards).
35. A. albotaeniatus
36. 4. montanus
37. A. umbrosus
38. A. baezai
39. A. letifer
40. A. roperi
41. A. brevirostris
42. A. samarensis
43. A. separatus
44. A. humeri
45. 4. similissimus
46. A. barbirostris
47. A. vanus
48. 4. barbumbrosus
49. 4. bancrofti
50. A. pseudobarbirostris
51. 4. bancrofti var. barbiventris
52. A. hyrcanus
53. A. sinensis
54. species near sinensis
55. A. lesteri
56. 4. pseudosinensis
57. 4. nigerrimus
58. 4. venhuisi
59. 4. indiensis
60. 4. peditaeniatus
61. 4. argyropus
Theobald, 1903.
Stanton & Hacker, 1917.
Theobald, 1903.
Gater, 1933.
Gater, 1944.
Reid, 1950.
Reid, 1950.
Rozeboom, 1951.
Leicester, 1908.
Strickland. 1916.
Strickl. & Chowdh., 1927.
Van der Wulp, 1884.
Walker, 1859.
Strickl. & Chowdh., 1927.
Giles, 1902.
Ludlow, 1902.
Brug, 1938.
Pahas, 1771.
Wiedemann, 1828.
Colless, 1948.
Baisas and Hu, 1936.
Baisas, 1935.
Giles, 1900.
Bonne-Wepster, 1951.
Theobald, 1901.
Leicester, 1908.
Swellengrebel, 1914.
lb.
lb;4.
(*)
(*)
(*)
(*)
lb,c;3.
lb;3.
lb(?).
lb(?).
lb,c.
(*)
(*)
lb,c.
(*)
lb,3.
lb;4 .
3.
(*)
4.
lb;3.
lb,3.
(*)
5.
lb,c.
lb.
lb,c.
Subgenus: Myzomyia (Blanchard),
group : Neomyzomyia (Christophers).
lb;3.
62. 4. aurirostris
Watson, 1910.
lb;3.
63. 4. watsoni
Leicester, 1908.
64. 4. kochi
Ddnitz, 1901.
(*)
lb;3.
65. 4. kolambuganensis
Baisas, 1931.
66. 4. tesselatus
Theobald, 1901.
(*)
lb;4.
67. 4 tesselatus var. orientalis
Swell. & S.-De Gr.
68. 4. leucosphyrus
Ddnitz, 1901.
(*)
lb.
69. 4. leucosphyrus var. pujutensis Collcss, 1948.
lb;4.
King& Baisas, 1936.
70. 4. leucosphyrus var. riparis
71. 4. balabacensis
Baisas, 1936.
(*)
lb.
72. 4. hackeri
Edwards, 1921.
la,b,c;4.
73. A. leucosphyrus near hackeri
(Celebes form)
lb;3;4.
74. 4. cristatus
King & Baisas, 1936.
lb;2;4.
75. 4. longirostris
Brug, 1928.
lb;2;4.
16. A. annulatus
De Rook, 1930.
77. 4. lungae
Belkin and Schlosser, 1944. lb;2.
lb;2.
78. 4. meraukensis
Venhuis, 1932.
2.
79. 4. amictus
Edwards, 1921.
2.
80. 4. amictus var. hilli
Woodhill and Lee, 1944.
la,b,c;2;4.
81. 4. incognitas
Brug, 1931.
lb;2.
82. 4. novaguinensis
Venhuis, 1933.
83. 4. punctulatus
Ddnitz, 1901.
(*)
84. 4. farauti
Laveran, 1902.
(*)
85. 4. koliensis
Owen, 1945.
(*)
86. 4. clowi
Rozeboom and Knight, 1946. la,b;2;4.
87. 4. annulipes
Walker, 1856.
2.
90-7(1990)
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
15
1
Table 3.3 Continued
group: Myzomyia (Christophers).
88.
89.
90.
91.
92.
93.
94.
95.
96.
A. aconitus
A. minimus
A. minimus var. flavirostris
A. filipinae
A. mangyanus
A. fluviatilis
A. culicifacies
4. jeyporiensis
A. jeyporiensis var. candidiensis
Ddnitz, 1902.
Theobald, 1901.
Ludlow, 1914.
Manalang, 1930.
Banks, 1906.
James, 1902.
Giles, 1901.
(*)
(*)
(*)
Koidzumi, 1924.
3.
3.
3.
3.
3.
3.
Rodenwaldt, 1925.
(*)
James, 1902.
group: Pseudomyzomyia (Christophers).
97.
98.
99.
100.
101.
102.
103.
104.
105.
A. sundaicus
A. litoralis
A. ludlowi
A. parangensis
A. subpictus
A. subpictus var. indefinitus
A. subpictus var. malayensis
A. vagus
A. vagus var. limosus
King, 1932.
Theobald (?), 1903.
Ludlow, 1914.
3.
lb.
lb.
Grassi, 1899.
Ludlow, 1904.
Hacker, 1921.
lb;3.
lb;3?.
(*)
Ddnitz. 1902.
King, 1932.
lb?.
lb;3.
Van der Wulp, 1884.
Swcllengrebel, 1925.
Ludlow, 1902.
Theobald, 1901.
Stanton, 1915.
Theobald, 1901.
Christophers, 1924.
James, 1903.
Theobald, 1901.
Covell, 1927.
Koidzumi, 1920.
(*)
group: Neocellia (Christophers).
106.
107.
108.
109.
110.
111.
112.
113.
114.
115.
116.
A. annularis
A. errabundus
A. philippinensis
A. pallidas
A. schuffneri
A. maculatus
A. maculatus var. dravidicus
A. karwari
A. jamesi
A. ramsayi
A. splendidus
la, b,c;4.
3,4.
lb;4.
lb.
(*)
1 b,c;3.
2.
lb:3.
lb,c.
3.
(*) : species is included in this report.
la . geographical distribution unknown.
Jb . no epidemiological data, or species considered not to be dangerous.
1c . no data on the bionomics of the species.
2 . species of the Australian region.
3 •
°ccuring north of Sumatra, Borneo, and Celebes.
4 . species known from very few places
5 or small islands only.
5 : taxonomic status has changed.
Table 3.4 See page 18, 19
16
IVageni/ifien Agric. Univ. Paper.'! 90-7 (1990)
I
Table 3.5 Anopheline species considered to be important vectors of malaria in Indonesia in 1953
(after Tables 3.3 and 3.4). Scientific names according to Knight and Stone (1977).
species
author
type locality
Karwar, Bombay (near Goa
Frontier), India.
[Pekan], Penhang, [Pahang],
Malaya
Pulau Langkawi,[Perlis], Malaya
Malaya
1.
Anopheles aitkenii
James, 1903.
2.
Anopheles umbrosus
Theobald, 1903.
3.
4.
Anopheles baezai
Anopheles letifer
Cater, 1933.
Sandosham, 1944.
5.
Anopheles roperi
Reid, 1950.
6.
7.
8.
Anopheles barbirostris
Anopheles vanus
Anopheles bancrofti
Van der Wulp, 1884.
Walker, 1859.
Giles, 1902.
Kuala Kubu Bahru, Selangor,
Malaya
Mount Ardjoeno, Java
Makassar, Celebes
Burpengaly, Queensland, Australia
9.
10.
Anopheles sinensis
Anopheles nigerrimus
Wiedemann, 1828.
Giles, 1900.
[Canton], China
Calcutta, [West Bengal], India
11.
Anopheles kochi
EXjnitz, 1901.
Padang, [Tapanuli], Sumatra
12.
Anopheles tesselatus
Theobald, 1901.
Taipang (=Taiping), Perak, Malaya
13.
Anopheles leucosphyrus* DOnitz, 1901.
14.
Anopheles balabacensis* Baisas, 1936.
15.
Anopheles punctulatus'
DGnitz, 1901.
16.
Anopheles farauti**
Laveran, 1902.
17.
Anopheles koliensis**
Owen, 1945.
18.
Anopheles aconitus
Ddnitz, 1902.
19.
20.
Anopheles minimus
Anopheles flavirostris
Theobald, 1901.
Ludlow, 1914.
21.
22.
Anopheles sundaicus
Anopheles subp ictus
Rodenwaldt, 1925.
Grassi, 1899.
Indonesia
India
23.
Anopheles annularis
Van der Wulp, 1884.
Mount Ardjoeno, Java
24.
Anopheles maculatus*** Theobald, 1901.
Kajoe Tanam, north of Padan,
[Tapanuli], Sumatra
Balabac, Balabac Island,(Palawan|,
Philippines
Stephansort, New Guinea &
Herbertshoehe, Bismarck
Archipelago
Faureville, Vate(Efate), New
Hebrides
Koli Area, Guadalcanal, Solomon
Islands
Kajoe Tanam, north of Padang,
[Tanapuli], Sumatra & Willem
Island, Soekaboemi, Java
Pokfulam, Hong Kong
Camp Wilhelm, Tayabas
( = Quezon),[Luzon], Philippines
Hong Kong, [China]
* species belonging to the A. balabacensis complex.
** species belonging to the A. punctulatus complex.
*** species belonging to the A. maculatus complex.
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
17
■
oo
T.a.bl.e.3.’.4.H1StOry of taxonom,cal status of important Indonesian malaria vectors from 1921 to 1977 (Authors see text)
I Year
|I 1921
1921 (SwellcnumbeD
(Swcllcngrvbcl)
I Group/Gcnus I Rossi-group
I Species
I (Author)
I
I
I
I Myzomyia ludlowi
I (Theobald, 1903)
I Anopheles ludlowi var. xundaica
I (Rodcnwaldl, 1925)
I M. rossi
I (Giles, 1899)
I A. subpietus
I (Grassi, 1899)
I GroupAjenus I Aconita-group
I Species
I (Author)
I
I
I
I
I
I
s
<2
f
5
I Myzomyia (Blanchard. 1902)
I Myzomyia aconita (type) I Anopheles aconitus
I (Ddnitz, 1902)
I (Ddnitz, 1902)
I M. aconita (variation)
I (DOnitz, 1902)
I A. minimus var. varuna
I (Iyengar, 1924)
I Anopheles sundaicus
I (Rodcnwaldl, 1925)
I........-........................
I A. subpietus
I (Grassi, 1899)
I Anopheles sundaicus
I (Rodcnwaldl, 1925)
I A. subpictus
I (Grassi, 1899)
I
I
21
I
I
22
I Myzomyia (Blanchard, 1902) ICellia (Theobald, 1902) I
I Anopheles aconitus
I (Ddniiz, 1902)
4...............................
I A. m. var. flavirostris
I (Ludlow, 1914)
I Anopheles aconitus
I (Ddnitz, 1902)
I
I
I A. flavirostris
I (Ludlow, 1914)
18
20
■I.................................................
19
I Group/Genus I Punctulata-group
I
no.
II 1932
1932 (Swcllcngrcbel/Rodcnwaldi) 7
*............................................................
review
I Pscudomyzomyia ('riicob., I9()7) I Myzomyia (Blanchard, 1902) I Cellia (Theobald, 1902) I
|---- .....
I Neomyzomyia (Theob., 1910)
I Species
I (Author)
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I Neomyzomyia punctulata I Anopheles punctulatus typicus
I (Ddnitz, 1901)
I (Ddnitz. 1901)
INeomyzomyia leucosphyrai A. leucosphyrus
I (Ddnitz, 1901)
I (Ddnitz, 1901)
I Anopheles puncriilatus
I (Ddnitz, 1901)
-I-...................................
I A. farauti
I (Lavcran, 1902)
I
I-------------------I A. tesselatus
I (Theobald, 1901)
I--------------------I A. leucosphyrus
I (DOnitz, 1901)
I Cellia kochi
I (DOnitz, 1901)
I-----------------I
I
I........................
I
I
I A. kochi
I (DOnitz, 1901)
I..... -................
I A. balabacensis
I (Baisas, 1936)
I.........................
I A. koliensis
I (Owen, 1945)
I Nyssorhynchus annulipes\ A. punctulatus typicus var
I var. moluccensis
I moluccensis
l(Sw./Sw.-dc Graaf, 1920)1 (Sw./Sw.- de Graaf, 1920)
I
I
I-
I A. punctulatus tesselatus
I (Theobald, 1901)
|--------------
I A. kochi
I (Ddnitz, 1901)
$
I Myzomyia (Blanchard, 1902) I Cellia (Theobald, F^ l
I A. punctulatus
I (Ddnitz, 1901)
15
I A. farauti
I (Lavcran, 1902)
I
16
I A. tesselatus
I (Theobald, 1901)
12
I A. leucosphyrus
I (Ddnitz, 1901)
13
I A. kochi
I (DOnitz, 1901)
11
I A. balabacensis
I (Baisas, 1936)
14
I A. koliensis
I (Owen, 1945)
17
Bia
Ki
Wl
w.
■wB If’
Bi
I GroupAjenus I Nyssortiynchus-group
:cies
yssorh
I Neocellia (Theob., 1907)
'heles
us lyp
I Myzomyia (Blanchard, 1902) I Cellia (Theobald, 1902) I
I---I At
innult
s anm
2
I<
■■ • .as,
I
I
i a. /coiiensis
I (Owen, 1945)
'
I A. koliensis
I (Owen, 1945)
17
fe- v1
K'
I’
§
Oq
S’
g
2
§
O
o
I Group/Genus I Nyssorhynchus-group
I Neocellia (Theob., 1907)
I----------I Species
I Nyssorhynchus
I Anopheles fuliginosus typicus
I (Author)
I fuliginosus (Giles, 1900) I (Giles, 1900)
I
I
I N. maculatus
I A. maculatus
I
I (Theobald, 1901)
I (Theobald, 1901)
I----------I
1
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I A. maculatus var.
I dravidicus
I (Christophers, 1924)
I A. maculatus
I (Theobald, 1901)
I
I Group/Genus I Myzorhynchus-group
I Anopheles s.s. (Meigen. 1818)
I Anopheles (Meigen, 1818)
I Anopheles (Meigen, 1818)
I Species
I Myzorhynchus sinensis
I (Wiedemann, 1828)
I Anopheles hyrcanus typicus var.
I sinensis (Wiedemann, 1828)
I Anopheles sinensis
I (Wiedemann, 1828)
I Anopheles sinensis
I (Wiedemann, 1828)
9
I M. sinensis var. vanus
I (Theobald, ?)
I A. hyrcanus typicus var.
I nigerrima (Giles, 1900)
10
I M. barbirostris
I (Van der Wulp, 1884)
I A. barbirostris typicus
I (Van der Wulp, 1884)
I
I
I A. barbirostris bancrofli
1========
I (Author)
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
1 Myzomyia (Blanchard, 1902) I Cellia (Theobald, 1902) I
I-------------------------------I Anopheles annularis
I Anopheles annularis
I
I (Van der Wulp, 1884)
I (Van der Wulp, 1884) I
4-------------------------------I A. maculatus
I A. maculatus
I
I (Theobald, 1901)
I
I (Theobald, 1901)
I (Giles, 1902)
I A. umbrosus
I (Theobald, 1903)
I
I
I A. umbrosus var. novumbrosa
I
i
I (Strickland, 1916)
24
I
I
IBB
B
I A. nigerrimus
I (Giles, 1900)
I A. barbirostris
I (Van der Wulp, 1884)
I A. barbirostris
I (Van der Wulp, 1884)
I
I
6
[■ '
I A. bancrofti
I A. bancrofli
I (Giles, 1902)
I
I
8
I (Giles, 1902)
K ■
-|---------------------
I A. umbrosus
I (Theobald, 1903)
.4---------------------------I A. umbrosus
I (Theobald, 1903)
.4---------------------------I A. baezai
I (Cater, 1933)
.4---------------------------I A. letifer
I (Gater, 1944)
.4---------------------------I A. roperi
I (Reid, 1950)
I A. bancrofli
I (Giles, 1902)
8
I
I A. umbrosus
I (Theobald, 1903)
2
u
I A. umbrosus
I Theobald,(1903)
2
I A. baezai
I (Gater, 1933)
3
I A. letifer
I (Sandosham, 1944)
4
I A. roperi
I (Reid, 1950)
5
I A. vanus
I (Walker, 1859)
.4---------------------------I A. venhuisi
I (Bonne-Wepster, 1951)
4---------------------------I A. indiensis
I (Theobald, 1901)
I A. vanus
I (Walker, 1859)
7
I A. nigerrimus
10
Li
I (Giles, 1900)
I A. nigerrimus
I (Giles, 1900)
{ ;•
10
I- 5
y
1
I
A
gw?
I A. nigerrimus
■4----------------------------------------
I
I
iilf
24
I (Giles, 1900)
I------------------------------------
4------------------------------I A, bancrofti var.
I barbiventris (Brug, 1938)
I M. umbrosus
I (Theobald, 1903)
6.1
23
.1--------------------------------------
:=========:=:==============:==================:====^====:= —==============
® i V; ?
■
■ 1
■■ ■v -
‘
J
■r :
.....
■ -wo
Table 3.6 Geographical distribution of 24 important malaria vectors of Indonesia, (source: Bonne
wepster & Swellengrebel. 1953: Knight & Stone. 1977).
Faunistic region
Australian
Island
Irian Jaya i
Oriental
Java
Sumatra
Borneo
Celebes
A. aitkenii
o
o
o
o
A. umbrosus
O
O
A. beazai
o
o
O
o
A. letifer
O
o
A. roperi
O
O
A. barbirostris
o
o
o
A. vanus
I
o
O
1
A. bancrofti
A. sinensis
A. nigerrimus
O
O
A. kochi
o
o
o
o
A. tesselatus
o
A. leucosphyrus
A. balabacensis
o
o
o
I
O
A. punctulatus
A. farauti
I
A. koliensis
A. aconitus
O
A. minimus
O
A. flavirostris
O
O
?
o
O
11
A. sundaicus
A. subpictus
A. annularis
O
O
O
A. maculatus
o
O
o
o
Explanation:
O - species present in that part of Indonesia;
• - species has shown to play a role in malaria transmission in that part of Indonesia.
7 - distribution and role as vector unknown in that area.
20
V
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
n
3B - The bionomics of aquatic stages of anophelines
Introduction
An understanding of the bionomics of the vector is of importance in connection
with epidemiological studies and in relation to malaria control. This branch
of biology, often referred to as ecology, has to do with the relation of organisms
to their environment. It involves, in so far as mosquitoes are concerned, place
and time of oviposition. factors controlling larval development and also mating,
feeding, flight, and resting behaviour of adults, together with whatever tropisms
are believed to govern the reaction of the insect to environmental change. The
various stages of the life-cycle will be considered in the following sections, start
ing with the breeding habitats.
At some stages of their life-cycle mosquitoes require a water surface on which
to deposit their eggs. Even under suitable climatological circumstances, areas
free of any stagnant water are usually free of malaria. Based on these principles
one can extract viable control methods (WHO, 1982):
- The application of chemical larvicides.
- The introduction of biological agents in the breeding habits.
- Environmental management works.
These methods can be used on a large scale and can be highly effective, as has
been demonstrated by numerous examples elsewhere (Bruce-Chwatt, 1985).
However, in the Dutch East Indies of pre-World War II, chemical larvicides
(and also adulticides for that matter) were hardly available and larval control
was mainly based on environmental management. For the purpose of this review
we studied factors such as larval ecology, breeding habits and environmental
factors (light, temperature, salinity etc.) in relation to the control methods used
in Indonesia at that time, in particular species sanitation. We are particularly
interested in differences in breeding habits that can be exploited for vector con
trol to-day.
At the start of this century research in Indonesia was mainly focused on breed
ing sites. Hygienists considered malaria control at the larval or pupal stage as
more important than any other control method developed so far. However, they
faced many problems (De Raadt, 1918):
- There was no evidence that, once anophelines were eliminated in certain
breeding places (e.g. fish-ponds), they could select other habitats (like rice
fields). In other words, hygienists were unable to determine species as being
’specialised’ or ’indifferent’.
- Nothing was known about the perniciousness of the anopheline species.
-For certain species it was not known whether they were able to transmit mala
ria (A n. argyropits; An. schuffneri).
- In some areas a species transmits malaria, whereas in another area it is com
pletely harmless.
^Va^eningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
21
.f:'
........ >
...
Although De Raadt mentioned some species which could be controlled, he was
not convinced that malaria control at the larval/pupal stage could be successful
in Indonesia. This view changed later as fundamental research on vector biono
mics and breeding habitats gave more insight to viable control of the aquatic
stages. In the next section the breeding habits of the 24 species listed in Table
3.5 will be described. It must be stated that many of the descriptions found
are not detailed, and apart from salinity estimations (mostly estimated by taste!)
there are hardly any chemical (acidity, oxygen, nitrogen etc.), physical (tempera
ture), meteorological (microclimatic) or ecological data given. Therefore it must
be kept in mind that although species seem to be more or less indifferent, detailed
studies of the breeding habits could determine whether species actually tolerate
a broad spectrum of e.g. salt or organic matter (Williamson, 1927). This research
could solve the question why for example An. sundaicus breeds extensively in
certain marine fish-ponds but cannot be found in the same breeding places a
few km further on; it might be caused by a small change in salinity (Balfour
1922; Kuipers, 1937).
(
I
Characteristics of larval habitats
In Indonesia studies on larval habitats began soon after Ross’s discovery of
the transmission cycle in 1897. Many expeditions in the Archipelago (mainly
on Sumatra and Java) resulted in fairly good descriptions of breeding sites and
distribution maps of the anophelines so far known (Swellengrebel & Swellengrebel-de Graaf, 1919a; Schuurmans Stekhoven & Schuurmans Stekhoven-Meyer,
1922). Fischer (1917) describes 13 different factors which are of importance
regarding anopheline breeding places. Schuffner (1916a; 1917) stressed the
importance of knowing the exact breeding habitats in relation to the control
of aquatic stages. Swellengrebel & Swellengrebel-de Graaf (1919a) describe
breeding sites in great detail and list six general aspects required to attract a
female that is ready to oviposit:
1
1. Vegetation-. With few exceptions it can be said that Indonesian anophelines
are found in breeding sites where vegetation is present. Some antagonism be
tween certain larvae and plants (An. sinensis and An. barbirostris with Pistia
stratiotes) is reported. On the other hand water completely covered by vegetation
is free of anopheline larvae (Russell et al., 1946) and some plants are thought
to act as repellents to anophelines (Boyd, 1949).
€
2. Size of the breeding place-. Authors noticed anophelines breeding in small
pools but also in lakes. They state however that breeding in habitats without
vegetation occurs only in covered small pools (protection against predators;
optimal foraging. The conditions under which this occurs have not been de
scribed.
I
(
J
V
22
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
I
'
'A''".?
•
■
■
'•
•.-- '
-
■■
-
was
ssful
bionolatic
able
iuund
taste!)
eranust
^tailed
rate
irch
ely in
aces a
>ur.
>'ry of
ixinly
nd
creieyer,
ice
he
ntrol
’
• ‘-y
3. Depth of the breeding place: Larvae were mainly found in shallow water collec
tions, and it was assumed that the way the larva feeds, and the frequency of
breathing plays an important role with respect to water depth.
4. Turbidity/pollution of the water: Most of the anophelines avoid turbid or pol
luted water. Authors found An. subpictus, An. kochi, An. punctulata, and An.
sinensis in turbid water, and An. punctulata in polluted water. Hill-species require
clear water. Directly related to pollution is the oxygen content of the water,
and larvae die rapidly when the oxygen concentration declines (Russell et al.,
1946).
.^3
5. Absence of predacious fish species: Russell et al. (1946) and others, report
the relationship between larvivorous fish, their effectivity and the role of vegeta
tion in which the larvae seek shelter.
6. Sunlight and shade: Russell et al. (1946) distinguish three groups as regards
the relation of sunlight and shade to their typical breeding places: heliophilic
(sunloving) species, like An. maculatus', heliophobic species like An. umbrosus
and An. leucosphyrus', and indifferent species having well marked tendencies to
wards sun or shade (e.g. An. culicifacies. An. albimanus. An. stephensi).
Russell et al. (1946) add other important factors which determine breeding of
anophelines (7-12):
■ "W'
-
7. Water movement: Some species show high preference for running water, (An.
aitkenii) whereas others require standing water. Several authors (e.g. Rodenwaldt, 1925) mention that tidal movement of seawater keeps An. sundaicus out
of mangrove forests, but Russell et al. (1946) disagree with this.
''ri'be
: a
.•
es
e’istia
i‘•■‘on
i
it
I
11
It
Lors;
8. Temperature'. Water temperature determines not only the development of
larvae but also the distribution of the species. In general anophelines are less
tolerant to low temperatures than culicines, a fact which may contribute to the
more tropical distribution of the former.
^•^2
9. Surface tension: Most mosquito larvae must remain at the surface in order
to breathe, and so are dependent on surface tension. In Boyd (1949) an explana
tion for the orientation of larvae around vegetation and debris is given, based
on surface tension.
10. Hydrogen-ion concentration'. Though seen as unimportant by Russell et al.
(assuming that anophelines tolerate a broad spectrum of pH values), Boyd
(1949) states the value of pH-measurements.
11. Mineral salts'. Most species can be readily classified as salt water, brackish
water or fresh water forms.
^-.
)
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
23
■
■
•
t -•
...V’
12. Larvalfood: In nature all mosquito larvae probably depend directly or indi
rectly upon microscopic plant life for their nutrition. The type of microscopic
plant life as influenced by pH and other factors may determine to some extent
the species of mosquito present.
Table
ria
Boyd (1949) adds:
BREEDING
13. Nitrates: The impact of nitrogen on larvae can be considerable, inhibiting
certain species to breed (Williamson, 1928).
Salinity
of the water
Turbidit
of the w
Species-specific review of larval habitats
Using these criteria (1-13) details of the breeding habitats of the 24 selected
anopheline species are listed below. From the many references cited it appears
as if most species occupy a very wide range of breeding habitats. It should be
mentioned, however, that on a local scale this is rare, and mostly one or two
habitats are preferred. These habitats will be studied with a view to estimating
for each species the level of danger related to malaria epidemiology and the
potential for vector control. For easier reference, the data from this section are
summarized in Table 3.7.
Whenever the years 1921, 1932, and 1953 are mentioned, they refer to the
taxonomic works cited in section a of this chapter. Throughout the remaining
chapters of this review, the nomenclature used was taken from Knight & Stone
(1977).
1. Anopheles aitkenii (James. 1903).
Swellengrebel & Swellengrebel-de Graaf (1919a) classify An. aitkenii as a typical
‘hill-species’, they found the species in low hills up to 1500 m. Russell et al.
(1946) denote An. aitkenii as an upland form, Boyd (1949) as a typical jungle
form. In 1921, 1932. and 1953 the descriptions of the breeding places remain
the same: the larva prefers shaded breeding places, particularly at the edges of
swiftly running small streams, seepage springs; in jungle and forest, seldom in
rice fields. It has been found in swamps, marshes, channels, rivers, and rock
pools, once at the mouth of a hill stream, where it reached the sea; the water
was decidedly brackish. Although in 1953 the epidemiological importance of
this species is neglected, Swellengrebel (1920a) gives records of malaria in which
An. aitkenii played a role (though together with other more dangerous species
like An. aconitus). and he found An. aitkenii for 97% in running small streams.
2. Anopheles umbrosus (Theobald, 1903).
De Raadt (1918) classified An. umbrosus as a specialised species. Of the three
types of specialised species (1. forest species, 2. shade-demanding species and
3. running-water species) An. umbrosus belongs to the first type, breeding inside
forests and depositing eggs in clear water. Swellengrebel & Swellengrebel-de
Graaf (1919a) distinguish brackish and fresh water breeding places,-and classify
24
Light
intensity
IVageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
Water
movement
Vegetal
* Coi
• Rare
? No
'
NATUR
Natural
water
collections
(large)
Man-m<
water
collections
(large)
Natural
water
collections
(small)
Man-m<
water
collections
(small)
Artificia
• Preferre
* Co
O Ra
An. r
repc
swaiup
are sek
have
ditcl
for in p
greb ’
TMiateSter
RT' '
- ----
Table 3.7 Breeding site characteristics and natural and man-made breeding sites of important mala
ria vectors in Indonesia.
3
e
iln
BREEDING SITE CHARACTERISTICS
< < < <
V)
•C .g
i ■§
ill
s 1 I t1 I
(A
< < < < <
Light
intensity
Heliophilic
Heliophobic
*i *• *i *i *; *■ *; *
Salinity
of the water
High (brackish)
Low (fresh)
*i«i
Turbidity
of the water
Clear
Polluted
Water
movement
Stagnant
Running
Vegetation
Higher plants, algae etc.
No vegetation
a <2
«
1
Its!
§ | i
<
<
<
isilllfi
1 i 111 i I
S e i .e « £ |
<<<<<<<’<'<<
*; *: •
*:
• ;*!*:*
;?:?
*:
• i*; *■
i<i* *
• ; *; * *:*;•:*
*
*i ?
*
*: *
*: *: *i •
*i*:'?:«i*:*:*i*i*:*:»
i *i *:
*
*
*i
*
* Common, most typical for the species concerned
• Rare
? No reference found
NATURAL AND MAN-MADE BREEDING SITES
Natural
water
collections
(large)
Lagoons
Lakes
Marshes
Bogs
Slow flowing rivers
Man-made
water
collections
(large)
Borrow pits (large)
Rice fields
Fish ponds
Irrigation channels
Natural
water
collections
(small)
Small streams
Seepage springs
Pools
Wells
Depressions in ground
Man-made
water
collections
(small)
Overflow water
Irrigation ditches
Borrow pits (small)
Wheel ruts
Hoof prints
Puddles near rice fields
Artificial sites
o
*
o
O
O
•:*:*:*:*iO:O:O:
*
o
*
•;*:O;O:*;*
*
empty cans, shells etc.
*
o
• ieioiei
*
ioio
io
Oi*
*
OIO • • i * i *
i i ioi
o;oi*io;
oi*;«
* = *•**• •
O
• ;
iO:O: :
;«iOiO;*i«;«iO
ioio
o
•Oi
■*:O
o
*iO:*
:O:
OiO
io
OiO;O
O
o\o
oi i
*;OiO
o
O;*
o
0:0
0:0
• Preferred habitat
* Common habitat
O Rare habitat
An. umbrosus as a shade-demanding species. In 1920, though, Swellengrebel also
reports sunny habitats. Boyd (1949) and 1953: breeding places in the dense
swampy jungle of the coastal plains, where the water is brown and peaty. They
are seldom found outside the jungle and then only under heavy shade. The larvae
have been found in small numbers in innumerable pools. Also in overgrown
ditches in rubber plantations. It seems likely that they should also be looked
for in pockets along the edges of small deep, slow moving water courses. Swellen
grebel (1919) thought this species to be specialised, but the variety of places
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
25
••
AV
c
higi
to v
t'i
4. .
a
dra
brn
Myzorhynchus Umbrosus (Theobald).
Nyssorhynchus Fuliginosus (Giles).
it
h.
thei
ii
j'
(191
dAp
Nyssorhynchus Schuffneri N. Sp. (Stanton).
195
’>nnnm
t
intc
t
:
art
Nyssorhynchus Maculatus (Theobald).
Nyssorhynchus Karwari (James).
cou
s
Anopheles Gigas (Giles).
Photo 2 Original drawings of Anopheles species from Indonesia, (source: Schuffner W. & H.N.
Van der Heyden (1917) De anophelinen in Nederlands Indie, -Medeelingen van den Burgerlijken
Geneeskundigen Dienst in Nederlandsch-Indie 4: 25-41)
7
plai
suitable for breeding, a.o. mangrove swamps (Russel et al., 1946), stagnant
pools, swamps and ponds (Bruce-Chwatt, 1985), justify classification as an indif
ferent species. WHO (1982): pools, ponds, swamps, and sluggish streams, par
tially or heavily shaded water in forests or jungles. References to larvae in brack
ish water possibly refer to An. baezai (Horsefall, 1955).
6. .
P
s
Sial
3. Anopheles baezai (Gater, 1933).
This species very much resembles An. umbrosus. In 1953 the description is almost
the same as that for the latter species: stagnant pools and swamps under shade
(unlike An. sundaicus which favours sunlit breeding places) along the coast; as
a brackish water breeder it easily finds favourable conditions along the extended
26
tha
I
c
i
pla<
I •
Wagenin^en Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
i
...
~
■■■.
r -
5 TSI
coastline of the Malayan Archipelago; sometimes it breeds in water with a very
high salt content. An. baezai tolerates a wide range of salinition from fresh water
to water that is as salt as the sea (Horsefall, 1955). The species disappears with
the exclusion of salt water.
N. Sp. (Stanton).
:es).
& H.N.
■urgerlijken
stagnant
indif, parn brack-
s almost
; shade
st; as
xtended
1990)
4. Anopheles letifer (Sandosham, 1944).
Closely resembles An. umbrosus and An. haezai. 1953: abundant on the flat coast
al plain, where the larvae are found in the many pools and stagnant agricultural
drains of the Malay settlements and plantations. It has a preference for the dark
brown water of peaty land that was formerly covered with jungle swamp, but
it is found in many places along the coast where there is vegetation in or over’ hanging the water. An. letifer is intolerant of salt water; it was never found where
there was contamination with more than 3% of sea water despite its presence
in fresh water pools only a few yards away. It does not breed in the virgin swampy
jungle of the coastal plain, while contrasting strongly with An. umbrosus. WHO
(1982): shaded or partly sunlit pools, drains, especially with accumulations of
decaying leaves and other vegetation.
5. Anopheles roperi (Reid, 1950).
1953: This species seems to be most common in low, rolling jungle country,
where the land is mostly from 100 to 300 feet above sea level. The streams mean
der sluggishly through the jungle, and there are frequent shallow side channels,
into which they overflow in wet weather. When such a stream subsides shallow
pools are left in the storm-water channels, and decaying leaves soon collect in
them. It is in these pools that An. roperi is principally found, though it sometimes
appears in similar pools in shaded drains on rubber estates in this type of
country. These temporary pools in the storm-water channels of jungle streams
seem to be much favoured by the jungle-dwelling Anopheles spp. (An. roperi.
An. umbrosus).
There is a general resemblance between the breeding places of the various
species of the umbrosus-group, but each has its own preferred breeding places,
and these preferences result in a characteristic zonation. An. baezai is confined
to the brackish water zone; An. letifer and An. umbrosus follow on the flat coastal
plains, one in the open country and the other in virgin jungle, while An. roperi
appears in the foothills (Bonne-Wepster & Swellengrebel, 1953).
6. Anopheles barbirostris (Van der Wulp, 1884).
De Raadt (1918) classified An. barbirostris as a specified species, demanding
shade (see also above under An. umbrosus'). This is denied in 1932, where it is
stated that there is no preference for shaded places. De Raadt (1918) also stated
that this species could be found anywhere with the exception of brackish water,
but Swellengrebel (1919), Russell et al. (1946) and Boyd (1949) report indepen
dently that the species is found in salt-water ponds and swamps. 1953: Breeding
places usually in clear water (rice fields), slowly running streams, ponds (Swellen
grebel & Swellengrebel-de Graaf (1919a) found 61 % of 8739 larvae in fresh water
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990 )
27
"
-
-
;
r
1 -
;-”i
■
fish-ponds) and swamps, in ditches and wells; much vegetation and shade is
preferred, though the larvae may also be found in sunny breeding places. The
larva is found at lower or higher altitudes (Swellengrebel & Swellengrebel-de
Graaf (1919a) mention 0-600 m).
7. Anopheles vanus (Walker, 1859).
This species resembles An. barbirostris closely and for a long time it was consi
dered to be identical. This species though is more or less restricted to Sulawesi
[Celebes] whereas An. barbirostris mainly occurs in Java and Sumatra. In 1953
Van Hell is cited, recording the breeding places as ubiquitous, even man-made.
bf
in
of A
V(
ci
is io
pr^
si
11.
S’
8. Anopheles bancrofti (Giles, 1902).
This is a species which in earlier years was often taken for An. barbirostris. It
appears that An. bancrofti breeds in the jungle, in old cut-off courses of the
Digul River (Irian Jaya [New Guinea]), where coarse reeds, algae and Azolla
combine to give shade and shelter. In Australia it is reported to have its breeding
places in shaded swampy areas. Russell et al. (1946) report shallow, slow
moving water, with much vegetation. WHO (1982): lowland grassy or weedy
streams and irrigation ditches, running courses, clear fresh water, and direct
sunlight demanded. Although this species should have been excluded because
of its distribution, it is mentioned here because it is considered to be a very
important vector of malaria (see next section).
fe
Roc
n?,ir
gi
sugi
b
g;
1?
v
in v<
9. Anopheles sinensis (Wiedemann, 1828).
De Raadt (1918) classifies An. sinensis as indifferent, though often found in rice
fields. In 1921 Swellengrebel describes the breeding places of An. sinensis
together with its allied forms; together with the description of 1932 these two
vary from the 1953 version in that they report the demand for rich vegetation
in the breeding places. Besides rice fields, the 1953 work mentions lakes, grassy
pools, swamps, borrow-pits, edges of slowly moving water (grassy streams or
ditches) as breeding sites; usually in unshaded water, though they have been
recorded as breeding in shady pools; occasionally they have been reported breed
ing in brackish water. Boyd (1949) gives the same breeding places as for An.
nigerrimus. WHO (1982): large bodies of fresh water in full or partial sunlight.
Mentioned are: impoundments, lakes, pools, bays, large borrow pits, slow rivers,
and pools in drying beds of rivers and major streams, marshes, bogs, swamps,
and rice fields. Larvae occur in floating or emergent vegetation or floatage near
the edges. Bruce-Chwatt (1985) adds to this the preference for cool water.
10. Anopheles nigerrimus (Giles, 1900).
Resembles An. sinensis. In 1953 the same breeding places as for An. sinensis
are given. Russell et al. (1946): rice fields, stagnant canals, borrow pits, lakes,
slow streams, impounded water. Bruce-Chwatt (1985) adds deep ponds and
swamps with much vegetation, and the preference for sunlight. The species origi
nally described by Bonne-Wepster in 1951. An. venhuisi was later classified as
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
Oth
w
T
1?
T
lene
its a
k
d <
and
h "
ii
I
Slice
ingi
a ;
si )
ruts
s< :
C I
swai
groi
w
being An. nigerrimus. The description of the breeding habitat of An. venhuisi
in 1953: closely resembles An. sinensis and An. nigerrimus. The breeding places
of An. venhuisi are mostly rather deep swamps and swampy rice fields with much
vegetation of Azolla pinnata, Pista stratiotes and Jussieua repens, Hydrilla verticillata, Eichhornia crassipes and Spirodela polyrhiza. Where this same vegetation
is found in large borrow pits with stagnant water, larvae of this species are often
present. The water in the breeding places is often clear, stagnant, fresh and not
shaded. But An. venhuisi has also been found in brackish water.
11. Anopheles kochi (Donitz, 1901).
Swellengrebel & Swellengrebel-de Graaf (1919a) denote An. kochi as being indif
ferent. This might be the reason for its wide distribution (Swellengrebel &
Rodenwaldt, 1932). 1953: An. kochibrevds by preference in small, shallow, often
muddy collections of water in the open, such as small pools, with or without
grass, stagnant drains, buffalo-wallows, hoof-marks and collections in rice fields
before planting commences; also along grassy banks of streams, in springs,
sugar-cane fields and fresh water fish-ponds. It easily adjusts itself to the availa
ble breeding places. Russell et al. (1946) mentioned artificial containers and irri
gation ditches as well, Boyd (1949) breeding in cut bamboos.
12. Anopheles tesselatus (Theobald, 1901).
1932, 1953: The larvae are usually found in rice fields; also in the shaded pools
in the woods, now and then along grassy banks of running streams or in swamps.
Other breeding places are fresh water fish-ponds and small pools with brackish
water (Boyd (1949) reports breeding in hoofprints with strongly saline water).
The larvae can stand a good deal of pollution.
13. Anopheles leucosphyrus (Donitz, 1901).
This species only demands shade but could breed anywhere according to Swellengrebel & Swellengrebel-de Graaf (1919a) and Swellengrebel (1920b). In 1932
its avoidance for brackish water is reported though in 1953 brackish water habi
tats are mentioned, found in North Kalimantan [Borneo]. Russell et al. (1946),
dividing Anopheles species into three groups as regards the relation of sunlight
and shade to their typical breeding places mentioned An. leucosphyrus as general
ly found in well-shaded water. 1953: An. leucosphyrus has its breeding places
in deep jungle and so they are difficult to detect: pools, well-shaded along
streams. But on the other hand many records are there of An. leucosphyrus breed
ing in open jungle. The variety of breeding places of this elusive species is remark
able: pools with dead leaves; pools without vegetation in Nipah-forest; in
springs, with or without vegetation; elephant foot-prints; bomb-craters, wheel
ruts. Apparently the most universal feature of the species as a whole is the pre
sence of a layer of leaves on the bottoms of the pools (Horsefall. 1955). WHO
(1982): partially or heavily shaded water in forests or jungles: pools, ponds,
swamps, sluggish streams, springs, shallow seepages and puddles on forest
ground. To this Bruce-Chwatt (1985) adds hoof-prints.
IVageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
29
■ ■''•■■. 7;: • —.'
14. Anopheles balabacensis (Baisas, 1936).
1953: The typical breeding place of An. leucosphyrus as recorded from other
countries is in deeply shaded pools, under jungle cover. Although An. balabacen
sis was recorded on several occasions from such places, heavy larval concentra
tions were frequently found in open, lightly shaded or sunny situations, in bomb
craters, wheel ruts and miscellaneous pools; these usually had a fine silt bottom
and clear water, though it is stated that these might be atypical breeding sites
due to abnormal conditions, possibly drying up ofjungle seepages. WHO (1982):
partially or heavily shaded water in forests or jungles: Springs, shallow seepages,
and puddles on forest ground. Bruce-Chwatt (1985) adds to this that these habi
tats are often covered by thick undergrowth.
sit
part
new
in
mi.,
has ;
sh
be
dryr
fil—
to
Stu.
in la
ex
th
num
th'"gr
15. Anopheles punctulatus (Donitz, 1901).
1953: This species breeds in open sunny water collections, whether these be natu
ral ground pools filled with clear water or turbid water, temporary pools, foot
prints or artificial pools such as gutters or even pipes filled with water, barrels
or puddles in light groves of sago palms. The margins of streams in exposed
Waiv
bree'
ly
he
in ti
bc~'
19
Wn
Swe
frc
fet
is inc
i;
16
In u
greb
br
W
St
WJ
An. i
lai
dr
bree<
tree
4.(
68
vege
Photo 3 Billiton: searching for breeding sites of malaria mosquitoes, (source: photo archives of
Dr. Swellengrebel, private collection)
30
W(
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
Wc
L
" "
d from other
i An. balabacenirval concentraions. in bomb
te silt bottom
I breeding sites
WHO(1982):
low seepages,
that these habi-
r these be natu' pools, foot'ater, barrels
ms in exposed
o archives of
s90-7 (1990)
•’■'T
situations and pot holes in drying stream beds are also utilised occasionally,
particularly during the dry season. Boyd (1949) describes its preference for small
new pools in clay soil without vegetation and exposed to full sunlight. The pools
in which this species occurs may be entirely free of vegetation and floatage or
may have marginal herbaceous vegetation and dense algal growth. Though it
has a very decided preference for breeding in sunlight, it is also found in partial
shade. Eggs float in numerous meniscuses about emergent vegetation and often
become stranded on the sides of vegetation as pools recede during periods of
dryness (Horsefall, 1955). A small percentage of eggs withstood stranding on
filter paper in a most chamber for 14 days at summer temperatures in a labora
tory. In periods of dry weather it resorts to breeding in streams (Overbeek &
Stoker, 1938, supposed it would not). After an occasional heavy rain it appears
in large numbers in temporary pools. During the rainy season An. punctulatus
extends its range into the coastal plain near the mouths of the river and utilises
the same breeding places as An. farauti (see next section). Larvae are most
numerous in small puddles with turbid water: a typical hoof print breeder. Al
though here it is said that the species never was found in brackish water, Swellen
grebel & Swellengrebel-de Graaf (1919a) found numerous larvae in brackish
water (foot prints) together with An. sundaicus. They furthermore refer to muddy
breeding places, just like those described for An. kochi. Although it was original
ly assumed that anophelines were ‘groundbreeders’ (Schiiffner, 1916a; 1917)
here it is obvious that this is not true: An. punctulatus has been found breeding
in tin cans, water barrels (Swellengrebel & Rodenwaldt, 1932), bilges of small
boats (Russell et al., 1946) and other man-made receptacles (Bruce-Chwatt,
1985). Though breeding in polluted water is given by Bruce-Chwatt (1985), the
WHO (1982) reports breeding in muddy, but certainly not in polluted water.
Swellengrebel & Swellengrebel-de Graaf (1919a) found a vertical distribution
from 0-600 m, Russell et al. (1946) from coastal levels up to 2000 or even 3500
feet. Since this species is an important vector in Irian Jaya [New Guinea], it
is included here for further study.
16. Anophelesfarauti
1902).
In 1921 it was described as Nyssorhynchus annulipes var. moluccensis by Swellengrebel, and apart from cesspools this species was found in almost all sorts of
breeding places (with or without vegetation, sun or shade, fresh or brackish
water) (Swellengrebel, 1920a). In 1932 it was described as heliophilic, just like
An. maculatus, and therefore important regarding man-made malaria. 1953: the
larva breeds in any natural or artificial (even water collecting in native boats
drawn ashore) water collection provided it is not shaded, Boyd (1949) reports
breeding in metal drums, wooden kegs, tin cans, coconut shells, and holes in
tree trunks. In coastal regions it even breeds in brackish water (a salinity of
4.6% is reported, though Russell et al. (1946) reports breeding in a salinity of
68% of that of sea water). Brooks, irrigation ditches, with or without marginal
vegetation, and, in the interior, large streams with grassy banks and floating
wood are good breeding places. WHO (1982): small collections of seepage water.
IVageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
31
- -
stagnant and often muddy, full or partial sunlight. Vegetation present or absent.
Russell et al. (1946) gives a vertical distribution from coast level up to 2000
feet, Bonne-Wepster & Swellengrebel 2250 m in Irian Jaya [New Guinea]. Con
sidered to be a dangerous vector in Irian Jaya, and thus included.
sta
i
i
17. Anopheles koliensis (Owen, 1945).
1953: The larvae of this species have been collected from temporary pools in
grassland and in pools along the edge of jungle. They prefer water exposed to
sunlight rather than dense jungle conditions. They have always been associated
with An.farauti and in one locality were collected from the same water together
with An.farauti and An. punctulatus. WHO (1982): like An. farauti but also
breeding in brackish or saltwater marshes and lagoons; saltwater fish-ponds;
u or partial sunlight. Bruce-Chwatt (1985): An. koliensis seems to prefer to
breed in marshy pools at edges of forest streams.
the
\
Ce
riu.
\
\
Bo
C
c
hat
to (
r
18. Anopheles aconitus (Donitz, 1902).
De Raadt (1918) reports An. aconitus solely from running water, he probably
meant the variation form described by Swellengrebel (1921), later classified as
An. minimus (see next section). Swellengrebel & Swellengrebel-de Graaf (1919a)
found the type form in rice field (42%) and fish ponds (31 %), and the variation
type in running water (88%), hill streams etc., only 1.7% in rice fields. In 1920
Swellengrebel wrote: T found An. aconitus only in rice fields, and this shows
a high preference for these breeding places, though in other places I found them
in irrigation ditches, marshes, fish ponds, turbid water pools etc.’ It is not clear
why he did not mention the two forms here. In 1932 it has been found that
in rice fields, especially shortly before the harvest, when the grass-blades touch
the water surface, breeding of An. aconitus increases rapidly. Furthermore rice
fields become fabulous breeding places if the irrigation water is not properly
drained whenever there is no crop on the field (Mangkoewinoto, 1923). Russell
etaL (1946) lists the following breeding places: Ponds, rice fields, swamps, irrigatCheS’ Creek. and river beds’ storm drains earth-bound reservoirs. Boyd
( 949) adds breeding in tanks with grassy margins. The description given by
Overbeek & Stoker (1938) and in 1953 are similar: the larva breeds in low country
as well as at higher altitudes, most frequently in rice fields and fresh water ponds
with grassy edges, not so often in running water. Swellengrebel & Swellengrebelde Graaf (1919a) found An. aconitus up to 600 m, Russell et al. (1946) up to
2500 feet (see: Sundararaman et al.^ 1957). WHO (1982): larval habitats such
as rice fields, lakes, ponds, swamps, impoundments. Bruce-Chwatt (1985)
reports heliophilic characteristics.
20.
C
(
nee
is °
tl
ti__
whf
P
war
fo”i
1
21.
IV .
ir
moi
pu«
tl
i
O1 v>j
19. Anopheles minimus (Theobald, 1901).
Swellengrebel (1921) found the same breeding places as for the variation form
of An. aconitus, later classified as being An. flavirostris : 88% running water
breeding places, 1.7% rice fields and 10% fresh water fish ponds. In 1953 it is
assumed that these breeding places bring them to a somewhat higher altitude
32
greb
w
S<
IVagenmgen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
w
i
■
-■
'
•:
■
■
■-■
ent or absent.
;1 up to 2000
v Guinea]. Coni
porary pools in
;r exposed to
en associated
: water together
anti but also
r fish-ponds;
ms to prefer to
:r, he probably
I classified as
raaf(1919a)
iu ihe variation
fields. In 1920
1 this shows
found them
' It is not clear
found that
>lades touch
nnermore rice
s not properly
23). Russell
mps, irrigaservoirs. Boyd
: m given by
i ow country
h water ponds
Swellengrebel946) up to
-bitats such
?hwatt (1985)
?r’ation form
i ning water
. -a 1953 it is
igher altitude
i90-7(1990)
than where An. aconitus is usually found. Although being a running water species
Russel et al. (1946) and Boyd (1949) report that An. minimus is unable to with
stand a current having a greater velocity than 0.29 feet per second. Wave action
is highly destructive to them and constant agitation by wind, or by man or beast
may keep potential breeding places free from larvae. Russell et al. (1946) report
that this species shows relatively little discrimination as to the character of the
water on which it will deposit eggs; thus the species makes no distinction between
water from its natural breeding areas and waters from widely different sources.
Certain types of pollution, however, such as rotting leaves and stems of Eupatorium, repelled them, though tests showed that their larvae could develop in water
with pollution thirty times as great. Evidently the tropisms of the adult female
were not as closely attuned to the limits of larval tolerance as was expected.
Boyd (1949) mentioned a thermal death point of 40 °C. WHO (1982) and BruceChwatt (1985): flowing waters, such as foothill streams, springs, irrigation
ditches, seepages, also rice fields and borrow pits. Prefers shaded areas of sunlit
habitats. Larvae are found in margins of clear flowing water, where they cling
to overhanging plant parts, especially roots (Horsefall, 1955). Only Boyd (1949)
reported artificial breeding places (tanks).
20. Anopheles flavirostris
1914).
Originally this species was described as being the variation form of An. aconitus
(Swellengrebel, 1921). He reported as breeding places: 88% running water, 1.7%
rice fields, and 10 % fresh water fish ponds. In 1953 the following description
is given: Breeding in foothill streams along the shaded edges, especially among
the bamboo roots. It is sometimes found at the edges of rivers, canals and irriga
tion ditches. It has been found in wells and occasionally in stagnant water pools,
where presumably it had been carried by an overflow from its natural breeding
place. Russell et al. (1946) figures An. flavirostris a most typical slow moving
water breeder. It has seldom or in small quantities been found in typical stagnant
water (fish pond, rice fields), in Bali (Boyd, 1949). The species has never been
found at a higher altitude than 600 m (Swellengrebel & Swellengrebel-de Graaf,
1919a; Bonne-Wepster & Swellengrebel, 1953).
21. Anopheles sundaicus (Rodenwaldt, 1925).
Many authors consider this species to be the most dangerous malaria vector
in Indonesia (Overbeek & Stoker, 1938). It is also the species of which an enor
mous amount of data have been collected of all the different life stages, breeding
places, epidemiology etc. Lastly in connection with species-sanitation many of
the works mainly involved the battle against An. sundaicus, and logically most
of the literature found involves species-sanitation against An. sundaicus. Swellengrebel et al. (1919) describe two forms: the fresh water form and the brackish
water form, and detailed descriptions of their breeding habits are listed in
Schiiffner et al. (1919):
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
33
7-
-
:A\
■
-
-
1. Coastal breeding sites:
a. Brackish water:
- Coastal brackish water breeding habitats, fish ponds present:
i. Breeding in the fish ponds;
ii. Breeding in habitats outside the fish ponds (wells, hoofprints, lagoons
- Coastal brackish water breeding habitats, fish ponds absent:
i. Mangrove forest coastlines;
ii. Sand coasts with lagoons.
b. Fresh water.
2. Inland breeding sites:
a. Fresh water fish ponds;
b. Rice fields (’Sawahs’).
Swellengrebel (1921) reports breeding in water up to 40% salinity, and a high
preference for vegetation (algae). Other authors mentioned that An. sundaicus
arvae require floating algae such as Enteromorpha, Cladophora and Cvanophvseae. Boyd (1949): larvae occur most frequently in seawater lagoons and
swamps, collections of brackish water behind coastal embankments, borrow pits
and hoof prints or any water collection in cleared mangrove. They will not breed
in water subject to daily tides. From the wide range of optimum salinity (0.2
to 1.8%) recorded by various workers, it appears that salinity itself has practi
cally no direct effect, but that it controls the breeding by its effect on the microflora and fauna on which the larva feeds. WHO (1982) and Bruce-Chwatt (1985):
salt or brackish waters, lagoons, marshes, pools, seepages, especially with putreying algae and aquatic weeds, mainly a coastal species, but found in fresh water
inland pools in Java and Sumatra.
In fresh water, breeding in rice fields occurs only then, if these are free of
vegetation, and become similar to the fish ponds (after harvesting, compare with
similar situations concerning An. aconitus). In 1932 it is reported that An. sundai
cus also can breed in heavily polluted water.
>
I
!
i
22. Anopheles subpictus (Grassi, 1899).
1932. Of this species, originally named Myzomyia rossi, the majority of breeding
places are similar to those of An. sundaicus, but An. subpictus has got a much
broader spectrum of those factors which determine the specialism of An. sundai
cus: they have been found in fresh water, but also in salt pans (84.6% NaCl),
they are not depending on vegetation in rice fields or fish ponds. Therefore An.
subpictus often can be found in higher densities than An. sundaicus in breeding
sites where the two species occur together. Rice fields yielded most larvae when
the fields were fallow and turbid, and populations progressively declined to zero
by the time the crop was 0.6m high (Chow, 1949). Boyd (1949) also reports
breeding in many sorts of stagnant or running water, but adds artificial breeding
sites such as buffalo wallows and roof gutters. 1953: rice fields and drains are
34
I
i
i
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
i
i
-...
added. WHO (1982) and Bruce-Chwatt (1985) mention the same breeding
places.
resent:
□fprints, lagoons
>sent:
nity, and a high
that An. sundaicus
and Cyanophyir lagoons and
ments, borrow pits
"hey will not breed
im salinity (0.2
tself has practifect on the micro•Chwatt(1985):
■ ally with putreund in fresh water
23. Anopheles annularis (Van der Wulp, 1884).
De Raadt (1918) classified An. annularis (at that time N. fuliginosus) as being
a heliophobic species. He found An. annularis breeding in marshes with clear
fresh water, where eggs were deposited underneath shade providing water plants.
Swellengrebei & Swellengrebel-de Graaf (1919a) stress the importance of clear
water; the water may be fresh, brackish or salt but not polluted. The 1921, 1932
and 1953 descriptions are the same: High preference for fresh clear water, rare
in brackish water. Fresh water fish ponds, rice fields etc. often together found
with An. sinensis and An. barhirostris. It increases in abundance in rice as the
crop grows taller in much the same manner as does An. sinensis. Boyd (1949)
gives some extra details: larvae occur in tanks, swamps, rice fields and borrow
pits, predominantly in still water, associated with floating vegetation and fila
mentous algae, along shallow margins of lakes or in ditches. WHO (1982) also
reports the preference for floating vegetation. Swellengrebei & Swellengrebel-de
Graaf (1919a) found a vertical distribution from 0-600 m, Russell et al. (1946)
report the species at 7000 feet (in India).
F’
J
■■ f
1*'“
Wil
ese are free of
compare with
d that An. sundai-
jnrjty of breeding
s as got a much
S— of An. sundais (84.6% NaCl),
1 Therefore An.
■ is in breeding
aost larvae when
' ^clined to zero
) also reports
i v.Jcial breeding
s and drains are
pers90-7 (1990)
Photo 4 Semarang: Anopheles breeding site in a village, (source: photo archives of Dr. Swellengrebei
private collection)
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
35
4SSS
’ o’.-
?
isil
24. Anopheles maculatus (Theobald, 1901).
Swellengrebel & Swellengrebel-de Graaf (1919a) classified this species as a ‘hill
species’. Though most often found in the vicinity of hills and/or mountains,
the species is, apart from its preference for streams with clear running water
(dead corners of small streams), quite indifferent (they report 13 other breeding
places). The 1921, 1932 and 1953 versions describe the same breeding places,
and classify An. maculatus as a stream and river-bed breeder. Russell et al. (1946)
report its strong heliophilic character; Rodenwaldt (1925) already noticed the
high increase of mosquito densities soon after the clearing of jungle vegetation
had started; another example of typical man-made malaria (see also BruceChwatt, 1985). The WHO (1982) description: small, sunlit stream margins, seep
ages, springs, rice fields with running water.
3C
Th ■
spt
beiia
stitut
co:
(aftei
sei
1.
2. L<
3. Si
4.
5. H
6.
7.
8. C
ad
na._.
an ep
ad
long
at
liv
the ..
and.
ad
seen
- r\
I
^*i
P.
Im
ad 4
sit
36
Wage/
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
I
..tW
-
3C - The bionomics of adult mosquitoes
secies as a ‘hillnd/or mountains,
running water
other breeding
z ureeding places,
lussellez al. (1946)
idy noticed the
igle vegetation
(see also Brucemargins, seep-
The taxonomic status and breeding sites of 24 of the most important anopheline
species of Indonesia are described in the previous parts of this chapter. Adult
behaviour as well as factors determining the threat that the adult mosquito con
stitutes will be reviewed in this section.
In estimating the importance of a species as a malaria vector, we have to
consider the bionomics of the adults, consisting of the following parameters
(after Swellengrebel et al., 1919; Swellengrebel, 1920a; Rodenwaldt, 1924; Rus
sell et al., 1946; Boyd, 1949 and Bruce-Chwatt, 1985):
1. The density in which the species occurs (relative abundance);
2. Longevity;
3. Susceptibility of the species to malaria infection and its ability to transmit
malaria;
4. Feeding habits (anthropophily - zoophily);
5. House-frequenting habits (exophily - endophily);
6. Site of feeding (exophagy-endophagy, related to 5.);
7. Dispersal (including flight range);
8. Climate and season in relation to transmission.
ad 1 - The density in which a species occurs is important if combined with the
natural infection index. High infection indices combined with low densities have
an epidemiological status equal to low indices combined with high densities.
ad 2 - Longevity of the vector is an important parameter: if it does not live
long enough to mature an infection (P. vivax 9 days; P. falciparum 10-11 days
at 26 °C.), then no transmission can occur. Furthermore the longer the vector
lives the higher the chance that it becomes infected (more contacts with man),
the more gonotrophic cycles can be completed (from blood meal to oviposition)
and, consequently, the more offspring there will be.
ad 3 - Though being an important parameter on its own it should always be
seen in combination with other factors (see ad 1.). Two indices can be estimated:
- Experimental infection index’, the percentage of females that became infected
after feeding on a gametocyte carrier. Experiments with different parasites
can show whether there is a higher susceptibility for e.g. P. falciparum than
P. vivax. It can be estimated what role an unimportant vector can play during
an epidemic caused by a dangerous species.
- Natural infection index’, the percentage of infected females caught in the field.
Important is where and when to estimate the index (in relation to periodicity,
see ad 8.); the age of the infected females; how many should be dissected to
have an accurate estimate.
ad 4 - A species that solely feeds on animals is unimportant in malaria transmis
sion; an overwhelming preference for human blood is of course very dangerous.
oers 90-7 (1990)
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
37
■
■
£
-• •
&
3
Species often show a high degree of variability in anthropophily: in space (geo
graphical), and in relation to the abundance of animal hosts.
T;
ol
ad 5 and 6 - Exophilic species are considered to be more dangerous than endophilic species, especially since it is impossible to control them by indoor spraying.
Species that are in the vicinity of human dwellings, and often stay indoors are
important as well, because they can theoretically bite man at all hours of the
night.
Fe
ad 7 - Some factors are important when considering mosquito dispersal:
- The wind, especially if strong, can determine the direction in which dispersal
occurs.
- ‘Host barriers’: a group of (animal) hosts can stop the adults from further
dispersal, thus protecting areas at a greater distance (from the breeding
places).
- Productivity of the breeding places: the more adults emerge, the higher the
densities, and it has been observed that migration to other areas occurs at
certain densities of adult mosquitoes (of course in relation to the number of
hosts available).
Resting
Biti
Insectic
resistar
*
• Ran
? Nor
(+)
ad 8 - Periodicity: Determining the factors that induce periodicity can lead to
new control methods (see An. sundaicus); implementation of vector control
operations should coincide with lowest adult densities (just before the onset of
the ‘new’ season).
Many of these factors were already understood by hygienists early in this
century (Swellengrebel et al., 1919; Rodenwaldt, 1924). In fact Ross (1911), in
his first book presented some mathematical malariology, reviewed by Van der
Eyden (1938). These are the most important factors, determining the importance
of a certain Anopheles species. There are some other factors which can be of
importance, but these are mostly related to one or two species. Now we can
give some characteristics of a dangerous species: it occurs in great numbers;
the females live long; it is highly susceptible for parasite infections; it is strongly
anthropophilic; exophilic; exophagic; it has a strong flight capacity, active dis
persal; and it prevails throughout the year. For a completely harmless species
the following characteristics can be drawn: It does not occur in great numbers;
it does not live long enough to mature the parasites; it is not susceptible to infec
tions; it only feeds on animals (wild or domestic); it is not present in the vicinity
of human dwellings; it takes its bloodmeal outside the house; it can not fly very
far; it prevails only for a short period each season. These eight factors theoreti
cally make it possible to define 128 different degrees to classify how dangerous
a certain anopheline species is or might be.
Using the above mentioned criteria, the bionomics of the 24 selected species
mentioned in Chapter 3A (Table 3.5) have been reviewed. The numbers placed
in brackets at the beginning of a line refer to the factors (1-8) which determine
a species’ epidemiological importance as stated above. Whenever the years 1921,
<
1< !
3/ _l
have
1.
(n
(2)
(3
(<P
(5,
(6
(7 ox
2.
(1)
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
i
I
I
".....
•
: in space(geo-
Table 3.8 Characteristics of adult ecology of important malaria vectors in Indonesia and occurrence
of resistance against organochlorine insecticides.
v>
*irous than endo
doorspraying.
„.ay indoors are
all hours of the
dispersal:
• which dispersal
uvS from further
>m the breeding
the higher the
areas occurs at
“ the number of
I 1 3
&
3
. J
M 8 I § s d
II
1 | Ist i L sill
i
U
i
t I 11111
n s s I s s 11HI ~5
<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<
£
?
5 S
S’ 9
Feeding habits
Anthropophilic
Zoophilic
: i ::::::: j 1
* •
Resting habits
Exophilic
Endophilic
*:*
Biting habits
Exophagic
Endophagic
?
Insecticide
resistance
DDT
Dieldrin, HCH
i i i i i i
::::::
• i *i *i ? : *
?
*
1 :::: I ? 1 I i 5
-----: . ... . .
*
*
••
*
: • •;*
i*i? :? i? i*
*
H...........
* Common habit
• Rare habit (two dots: indifference for the factor concerned )
? No reference found for this parameter
+ Species resistant in Indonesia ( Bruce - Chwatt. 1985 )
(+) Species resistant in S.E. Asia ( Bruce - Chwatt. 1985 )
icity can lead to
'ector control
e the onset of
early in this
oss (1911), in
wed by Van der
.the importance
ich can be of
Now we can
great numbers;
; it is strongly
ty, active dislarmless species
sreat numbers;
tible to infecn the vicinity
can not fly very
tors theoretiw dangerous
selected species
nbers placed
:h determine
the years 1921,
'ers 90-7 (1990)
1932 or 1953 are mentioned these refer to the taxonomic works listed in Chapter
3A. Similarly to what was done for the aquatic stages, the data from this chapter
have been summarized in Table 3.8.
1.
(1)
Anopheles aitkenii (James, 1903).
Swellengrebel & Swellengrebel-de Graaf (1919) found An. aitkenii larvae
in large quantities in Soendatar (Sumatra) and the Karoo upland plains
(Sumatra); in other localities it was rather rare.
(2) Green (in Boyd, 1949) found under laboratory conditions a mean survival
of 5 days (range 3-7 days).
(3) Swellengrebel et al. (1919) did not include this species in their experiments
on the susceptibility to malarial infections in Indonesia.
(4) Observed trying to feed on man, recorded feeding on a bull (1953). Walch
(1932) did not include this species in his studies of biting habits.
(5) Although found breeding in valleys (streams) near plantations, it was not
found in houses or cow-sheds by Doorenbos (1925). Puri (in Boyd, 1949):
Adults are wild and shy and rarely found in houses.
1953 (after Christophers, 1933): it is doubtful whether this species takes
(6)
a very active part as a bloodfeeder (see 5).
(7-8) No data were found.
2.
(1)
Anopheles umbrosus (Theobald, 1903).
No data were found.
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
39
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
Boyd (1949) after Green (1935), reports mean survival under laboratory
conditions of 38 days (range 28-59 days).
An. umbrosus has been found infected in nature in all parts of its range.
1953:4.96%. Bangka, Sumatra; 3.6%, Belawan, Sumatra; 0.4% Sanggau,
Kalimantan [Borneo]; 15.2%, Sungei kakap, Kalimantan (Overbeek &
Stoker, 1938).
Walch (1932) reported that An. umbrosus is highly anthropophilic (results
from 34 females all containing human blood in Sanggau, Kalimantan).
Boyd (1949) after Green reports from Malaysia that out of 106 females
caught (where cattle was scarce), 95% contained human blood.
The adult is often caught inside houses (1932), and resting in the early
morning on branches of rubber-trees is reported in 1921. 1953: In jungle
An. umbrosus will feed at any time of the day. It enters houses and bites
freely from dusk to dawn. It is not confined to the jungle or its immediate
vicinity and will enter houses half a mile or more from the jungle edge
(see 7!), and will attack boldly even under an electric light. Fierce biters,
found in deeply shaded places in dense forests and also in houses (Puri
in Boyd, 1949).
see 5.
Ave Lallement et al. (1931) reports the findings of Watson in the Malay
States, who found a flight length of 750 m. Boyd (1949) after Barber
reports a considerable distance . Puri in Boyd (1949): An. umbrosus is
a strong flier but its effective flight range probably does not exceed 1000
yards.
No data were found.
3.
Anopheles baezai (Gater. 1933).
(1-3) No data were found.
(4)
It feeds readily on domestic animals as well as on man (Bonne-Wepster
& Swellengrebei. 1953).
(5) The adults can often be found during the day, resting on Nipah palm
fronds (Bonne-Wepster & Swellengrebei, 1953). The mosquito may be
taken both indoors and in swamps (Horsefall, 1955).
(6-8) No data were found.
4.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Anopheles letifer (Sandosham, 1944).
In one area of Malaysia [Malaya] a moderate to severe epidemic of malaria
occurred where this species comprised 99% of anophelines present (Reed
& Hodgkin, 1950).
In the laboratory females lived 38 days (range: 20-59 days) (Kingsbury,
(5)
No data were found.
An. letifer bites man more often than An. umbrosus but also commonly
feeds on animals (Bruce-Chwatt, 1985).
Rests outdoors after feeding (Bruce-Chwatt. 1985).
40
IVageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 11990)
.. ' ’ -u.'i
,
.
ider laboratory
parts of its range.
0.4% Sanggau,
n (Overbeek &
opophilic (results
, Kalimantan),
of 106 females
blood.
ng in the early
1953: In jungle
uouses and bites
3 or its immediate
he jungle edge
. Fierce biters,
o in houses (Puri
5.
I (Kingsbury,
;o commonly
')ers 90-7 (/990)
Anopheles roperi (Reid, 1950).
d-3) No data were found.
Feeds readily on man, found biting in the day time (Bonne-Wepster &
Swellengrebel, 1953).
(5-8) No data were found.
(4)
6.
(1)
(3)
onne-Wepster
.._.nic of malaria
?s present (Reed
-V-l;.
The adult enters houses and bites freely from dusk to dawn (Bonne-Wep
ster & Swellengrebel. 1953); Bites animals and man mainly outdoors
(Bruce-Chwatt, 1985); WHO (1982): females enter houses at night to feed
on man; also attack by day in the shade.
(7-8) No data were found.
(4)
on Nipah palm
quito may be
...
(6)
(2)
son in the Malay
•49) after Barber
n. umhrosus is
Dtexceed 1000
a-----
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
Anopheles barbirostris (Van der Wulp, 1884).
In Malaysia it was regarded as dangerous if present in large numbers,
whilst from Indonesia it was considered to be a wild species, since often
larvae were found in enormous amounts, but only few adults were detected
(predation?) (Bonne-Wepster & Swellengrebel, 1953).
Green (in Boyd. 1949) reports a survival under laboratory conditions of
34 days (range 7-63).
Swellengrebel et al. (1919) report an experimental infection index of
10-13%. In Mandailing (Sumatra) they found a natural infection index
of 0.5%, dissecting 544 mosquitos. Apart from being a malaria vector.
An. barbirostris is the most important vector of Brugia malayi in Indonesia
(Brug, 1937).
Walch (1932) reports that from an area where cattle was present 9% of
the examined mosquitos (46) contained human blood if cattle was scarce
he found an index of 31 % (out of 13 females). Swellengrebel & Rodenwaldt
(1932) report a preference for cattle 23x larger than for humans. Boyd
(1949) adds to this that the degree of anthropophilism in this species in
different regions may show marked variation (India: zoophilic; Sulawesi
[Celebes]: anthropophilic).
see 1, according to the large densities of larvae, and comparatively few
adults, this species is wild and has an exophilic character. In India it is
much less often found indoors than further to the East. In Sulawesi it
is the commonest species in houses (Boyd. 1949).
Since this is correlated to the geographical distribution, in India females
will be exophagic, while on Sulawesi they will spent more time inside
houses.
Ave Lallement et al. (1932) report a peak of activity between 19.00 en
20.00 h, with a rapid decline afterwards and record flight distance of
300 m.
Russell et al. (1946) report a seasonal distribution, with a peak in January
(Madras, India). Swellengrebel (1921) found a seasonal abundance corre
lated with the rice-growing season (as for An. aconitus).
Wa^enin^en Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
41
‘
...
‘
■
■
••
7.
Anopheles vanus (Walker, 1859).
(1-2) No data were found.
(3) Bonne-Wepster & Swellengrebel, 1953 (after Machsoes 1939) report a na
tural infection index of 13.3% from Sulawesi [Celebes].
(4) The adults are decidedly anthropophilic and are found far more frequently
in houses than in stables (Bonne-Wepster & Swellengrebel, 1953 after Van
Hell (1950)).
(5-8) No data were found.
8.
(1)
Anopheles hancrofti (Giles, 1902).
In Irian Jaya [New Guinea] it is considered to be an important vector
because it appears in much larger numbers than other vectors. Out of
10,668 anophelines caught in barracks, 7840 or 73.5% were An. bancrofth
and 2735 or 25.9% An. farauti (see below) (Bonne-Wepster & Swellengre
bel, 1953).
(2) No data were found.
(3) The average number of oocysts on the stomach wall of infected specimens
is always low: 8, against 12 in An. farauti (Bonne-Wepster & Swellengre
bel, 1953, after De Rook, 1935). It may also be a host for Wuchereria
bancrofti and Brugia malayi. Swellengrebel & Rodenwaldt (1932) report
a natural infection index of 4.3% (438 specimens) in Irian Jaya but the
index for An. farauti was higher, 12.7% (63 specimens).
(4)
Walch (1932) reports that this species solely feeds on man. Known to feed
readily on man, indoors and out (Boyd, 1949), but Bonne-Wepster & Swel
lengrebel, 1953 report specimens from Irian Jaya that did not feed on man.
and were morphologically indifferent. Horsefall (1955) states that this
mosquito seems to vary considerably in its feeding habits in different loca
lities.
(5) No data were found.
(6)
This species is not as endophagic as An. farauti (3:1), and is particularly
active at night (Overbeek & Stoker, 1938).
(7-8) No data were found.
9.
(1)
(2)
(3)
Anopheles sinensis (Wiedemann, 1828).
Overbeek & Stoker (1938) report its importance in areas where it occurs
in large densities.
Green (in Boyd, 1949) reports a survival under laboratory conditions of
28 days (range 7-57 days).
From the Sumatran coast infection data are described of An. hyrcanus
(the complex), by Swellengrebel & Rodenwaldt (1932). They report infec
tions from Soendei Toean (1%, 15,612 specimens). Doorenbos (1925)
found An. sinensis capable of causing an epidemic also in Sumatra
(Kisaran, 6.8%, out of 1398 specimens). Doorenbos (1925) also reports
epidemics caused by An. sinensis from Deli (Sumatra). Swellengrebel et
| I
i
<
a
(4)
In (
t
t
enc
(
(5)
11K
the
(6)
(8)
Z
ma
N
10.
/itK
(1)
(2)
No
C
2
Da’
if
e
froi
seci
C
1
gin.
(7)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
T
I
It R
but
1(
(7-8) r .
11.
(1)
C
(2)
(
(3)
3_ J
Swe
d
n
tra:
| 09
42
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
?
it c;
Wagenin^
:■
''
r
939) report a na-
(4)
□re frequently
i, 1953 after Van
(5)
ortant vector
ctors. Out of
re A n. barterofti,
?r 8c Swellengre-
ected specimens
'c Swellengrer Wuchereria
It (1932) report
in Jaya but the
..nown to feed
Vepster&Swelfeed on man,
ites that this
i different loca-
particularly
”uere it occurs
(6)
(7)
(8)
\n. byreanus
eport infec‘renbos (1925)
in Sumatra
also reports
vcilengrebel et
rs 90-7 (1990)
al. (1919) give experimental infection indices: 20.8% with P. vivax (129
exam.); 1.16% with P. falciparum (258 exam.).
In China An. sinensis is zoophilic, in Indo-China the species is opportunis
tic in its feeding habits, while in Indonesia the species is much attracted
by man (Horsefall, 1955); the relative abundance of cattle does not influ
ence its preference, it remains highly anthropophilic (Walch, 1932). He
reports 83% human blood meals if cattle is present; 90% if absent. Boyd
(1949) also reports the overwhelming preference for human blood.
The adults often can be found in large numbers inside the houses, during
the daytime (Bonne-Wepster & Swellengrebel, 1953)
No data were found.
Ave Lallement et al. (1931; 1932) report peak activity at 20.00h and a
maximum flight range of 1500m.
No data were found.
Anopheles nigerrimus (Giles, 1900).
No data were found.
Green (in Boyd, 1949) reports a survival under laboratory conditions of
23 days (range 6-45 days).
(3) Data on the feeding habits and dissections indicate that this species rarely
if ever enters the reservoir for human plasmodia (Horsefall, 1955). How
ever, Swellengrebel & Rodenwaldt (1932) report a natural infection index
from Tandjong Morawa (Sumatra) of 11.79%, out of 3638 specimens dis
sected.
(4) Generally, An. nigerrimus bites man an animals (Horsefall, 1955). Van
Thiel (in Boyd, 1949) reports 83% of the bloodmeals being of human ori
gin.
(5) The female rests outdoors after feeding (exophilic) (Bruce-Chwatt, 1985).
Bites man and animals mainly outdoors (exophagic, Bruce-Chwatt, 1985).
(6)
It feeds readily on human and animal blood, usually at dusk or by night,
but also sometimes by day, even in full sunshine (Bonne-Wepster & Swel
lengrebel, 1953).
(7-8) No data were found.
10.
(1)
(2)
11.
(1)
v vonditions of
I
•.r'Tfa'itaii '
(2)
(3)
Anopheles kochi (Donitz, 1901).
Overbeek & Stoker (1938) report that if An. kochi prevails in large densities
it can be an important vector; if not, then its pathogenetic role can be
neglected.
Green (in Boyd, 1949) found a survival under laboratory conditions of
32 days (range 10-59 days).
Swellengrebel et al. (1919) did not find An. kochi infected in Java; neither
did Swellengrebel & Rodenwaldt (1932). In Sumatra An. kochi was found
responsible for an epidemic (Doorenbos, 1925). Infections found in Suma
tra: Kisaran, 1% (Doorenbos, 1925), Soengei Toean, 5.08% (Schiiffner,
1923) and Angoli, 2.1% (all natural infection indices). Bonne-Wepster &
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
43
-
■<•»,■> .'—w-'- ..
. ■; OS
■ Hi.
’A
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
12.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
13.
(1)
(2)
(3)
44
Sweilengrebel (1953) report varying indices (0.4-11.5%) from Indonesia
(Sumatra?).
Walch (1922) classified An. kochi as more or less zoophilic (cattle scarce:
17% human blood meals; cattle present 4%). Bonne-Wepster & Sweilen
grebel (1953) reported that in experiments the females preferred buffalo
blood to that of man; the percentage of engorged females that had animal
blood in their guts was always higher than with human blood.
Classified by many authors as typically endophilic (Sweilengrebel, 1921;
Sweilengrebel & Rodenwaldt, 1932; Boyd, 1949); being a domesticated
species it is found in houses, stables and cow-sheds, having a peak activity
between 19.00-20.00 h. (Ave Lallement et al.. 1932).
Though preferring animal blood, because of its highly endophilic charac
ter will bite man inside houses.
Ave Lallement et al. (1932) experimentally recorded a maximum flight
distance of 1000 m.
No data were found.
Anopheles tesselatus (Theobald, 1901).
Boyd (1949) states that since this species almost never occurs in large
numbers in can be considered of minor importance.
No data were found.
Sweilengrebel & Swellengrebel-de Graaf (1919) found a natural infection
index of 0.7% (139 exam.) in Modjowarno (Java), Soesilo an index of
0.79% (126 exam.) from Nias (Sumatra).
Over all of its range, man is a minor host (Horsefall, 1955) and bovines
are the preferred host. Walch (1932) recorded 47% (19 examined females)
human blood meals when cattie was scarce.
Buxton & Leeson (in Boyd, 1949) report enormous amounts of resting
females on the brick lining walls of wells, thus exophilic tendencies. Russell
et al. (1946) reports the same places. Boyd (1949) also found them resting
among roots of trees in jungle, along banks of streams, but also caught
specimens inside houses and cow sheds.
see 5.
Ave Lallement et al. (1932) experimentally recorded a maximum flight
of 1000 m.
From Madras (India) peak densities were recorded in December, which
continued prevalent for the next two months (Russel, 1946).
(3
(5
(6
15
Anopheles leucosphyrus (Donitz, 1901).
Roper (in Boyd, 1949) reports selective breeding, sometimes numerous
enough to be an important vector.
No data were found.
Clark & Chowdhury (in Boyd, 1949) report a natural infection index of
2.4% from Assam (859 exam.). Sweilengrebel & Swellengrebel-de Graaf
(1919) did not find infected females in Java. Doorenbos (1925) and Bias
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
■
-j.
-
i Indonesia
(cattle scarce:
t* & SwellenI red buffalo
di had animal
•d.
r ebel. 1921;
mesticated
i peak activity
ilic charac-
(4)
(5)
(6)
iximum flight
(7)
:
rs in large
i
)
il infection
n index of
id bovines
:d females)
its of resting
i es. Russell
em resting
t also caught
(imum flight
(8)
(in Swellengrebel & Rodenwaldt, 1932) recorded natural infection indices
of 1.94% and 1.7% respectively from Siantar (Sumatra). Bais experimen
tally infected up to half the females used with tertiana (Swellengrebel.
1921).
Ramsey et al. (in Boyd, 1949) examined 102 females and found in 75.5
% human blood. In areas without cattle Walch (1932) recorded 90%
human blood meals.
The adults are seldom found in houses on account of the very late hours
they choose for their meals and the habit of leaving the human habitation
immediately afterwards to fly straight back to the jungle (Bonne-Wepster
& Swellengrebel. 1953).
Adults enter houses to feed on man, with peak activity between 12.00
and 02.00 hours (WHO, 1982). Bruce-Chwatt (1985) on the contrary
reports outside feeding and resting.
Although females may travel at least 800 m, Bruce-Chwatt (1985) reports
only short flights, which makes it important only in the vicinity of heavy
vegetation.
Bais noted declining densities in December and January in Siantar because
of drying of breeding places (Swellengrebel, 1921).
14. Anopheles balabacensis (Baisas, 1936).
(1-2) No data were found.
(3) Colless (in Bonne-Wepster & Swellengrebel, 1953) found a natural infec
tion index of 1.6% in Kalimantan [Borneo].
(4) Adults bite animals and man (Bruce-Chwatt, 1985); WHO (1982) classifies
An. balabacensis as strongly anthropophilic.
(5) After feeding the adult rest outdoors (Bruce-Chwatt, 1985); WHO (1982)
report that shortly before and after feeding the adult female rests inside
houses.
(6) The adults bite humans and animals outdoors (Bruce-Chwatt, 1985);
WHO (1982) reports feeding in or near forests, indoors and outdoors.
Maximum rates of attack occur between 24.00 and 03.00 hours with no
significant difference between rates indoors and outdoors (Kirnowardoyo, 1988).
(7-8) No data were found.
>er, which
numerous
i index of
^.-de Graaf
25) and Bias
90-7(1990)
15. Anophelespimctulatus (Donitz, 1901).
(1-2) No data were found.
(3) Swellengrebel et <7/. (1919) did not find naturally infected females in Java,
and could not succeed in infecting them experimentally. Later, De Rook
et al. (1932) report a natural infection index of 2.4% from Irian Jaya [New
Guinea].
King (in Boyd, 1949): all members of the punctulatus group are known
(4)
to attack man, and their feeding activity is chiefly at night, either in or
outdoors. Furthermore it is stated that An.farauti and An. koliensis were
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
45
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
found biting in much larger numbers than An. punctulatus. Walch (1932)
found that this species exclusively fed on human blood, and seldom found
it indoors.
For the punctulatus group (punctulatus typicus. farauti and koliensis) the
same behaviour patterns are described (WHO, 1982): anthropophilic,
endophilic, endophagic; Gandahusada & Sumarlan (1978) report exophagic and exophilic characteristics (?).
see 5.
WHO (1982) reports an observed flight of 1 km. Bruce-Chwatt (1985):
species of the punctulatus complex are relatively poor fliers, they do not
move far away from their breeding places.
No data were found.
)
(6
(1
(3
16.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
Anophelesfarauti (Laveran, 1902).
Because of its similarity with An. punctulatus many descriptions of biono
mics are given for the punctulatus complex as a whole.
No data were found.
Under laboratory conditions, caged females lived as long as 51 days
(Perry, 1946).
De Rook (Overbeek & Stoker. 1938) found a natural infection index of
12.7% in Irian Jaya [New Guinea]. Heyden (in Boyd, 1949) established
a 100% experimental infection with P. falciparum, and 40% with P. vivax.
and found a natural infection index of 3.9% (206 exam.) from Irian Jaya.
King (in Boyd, 1949): An. farauti partly has the same biting habits as An.
punctulatus. but is a more vigorous human biter. Of 321 precipitin tests
11 % was of human blood (rather low compared to the figures given by
Walch (1932) for An. punctulatus).
Horsfall (in Boyd. 1949) reports adult resting places: grass stems, close
to the ground in heavy stands of Kunai grass; resting often in the vicinity
of man, sometimes far away from the breeding places; also in human
dwellings (huts, houses, inside bed nets); Bonne-Wepster & Swellengrebel
(1953) mention cool, moist and shaded spots.
Bonne-Wepster & Swellengrebel (1953) found feeding outdoors, and dur
ing the daytime in shady places.
King (in Boyd, 1949) found, that if this species was present in larger
numbers, it could fly considerable distances. Females have been observed
to fly as far as 1600m (Daggy, 1945).
No data were found.
'1
1
J
17.
Anopheles koliensis (Owen. 1945).
Much of the bionomics of this species are characteristic for the punctulatus
complex, see An. punctulatus and An. farauti.
(1-3) No data were found.
(4)
Adults were found biting on man in larger numbers than An. punctulatus
(King, in Boyd, 1949). Bonne-Wepster & Swellengrebel (1953): The adults
46
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
(1
32)
I
ind
the
■
lie.
opna-
-5):
o not
I
10-
ys
ex of
>hed
> An.
;ts
iv
•'^se
ty
...an
ebel
-~?r
d
are strongly anthropophilic, and have been found resting during the day
in houses in greater numbers than any of the other local anophelines (up
to 90%).
(5) see 4; They become active about 9:00 pm and continue to fly until daylight.
The period of greatest nocturnal activity was after midnight.
(6-8) No data were found.
18.
(1)
Anopheles aconitus (Donitz. 1902).
It is only dangerous and can cause severe endemic malaria if it occurs
in high and continuous densities (Gandahusada & Sumarlan. 1978).
(2) Green (in Boyd, 1949) found a mean survival under laboratory conditions
of 24 days (range 8-41 days).
(3) Infection rates recorded from W-Java vary between 2.9- 17.8% (various
authors e.g Swellengrebel et al. 1919). Doorenbos (1925) found it naturally
infected up to 11.5% in Sumatra. Mangkoewinoto (1919) 7.3% (W-Java);
Swellengrebel et al.(V)\9) 2.3% Modjowarno (E-Java).
(4) ' Walch (1932) reports that in areas where cattle was present 12% (229
exam.) were human blood meals, if cattle was absent 61% (137 exam.).
He does not record this species as highly anthropophilic, though Mang
koewinoto (1919) found it this way in the Cihea [Tjihea] plain (W-Java).
Generally it is considered to be an important man biting species, though
locally it can show zoophilic tendencies, especially if cattle is present in
large numbers (Bonne-Wepster & Swellengrebel. 1953; Chow et al.. 1959).
(5) Though sometimes found in houses and cow-sheds, this is a highly exophilic species; it can be found resting in large numbers along stream banks
and irrigation ditches (Gandahusada & Sumarlan, 1978; Bonne-Wepster
& Swellengrebel. 1953). Bruce-Chwatt (1985) records endophilic and exophilic habits.
Biting of man occurs indoors and outdoors (WHO, 1982; Bruce-Chwatt.
(6)
1985).
Mangkoewinoto
(1923) recorded 350 m (W-Java); Ave Lallement et al.
(7)
(1932) recorded a maximum of 550 m; they also mentioned that An. aconi
tus was highly anthropophilic since most specimens were (re)captured
inside human dwellings. Puri (in Boyd, 1949) regards An. aconitus capable
of long flights. WHO (1982): observed flight 1 km.
(8) An. aconitus in Indonesia has a defined periodicity, strongly correlated
with the harvest time. In the south coastal area of Java An. aconitus
appeared together with An. sundaicus causing endemic malaria. Near
Semarang, Central Java two peaks were found, one in March-April, the
other in August-September (Gandahusada & Sumarlan, 1978. after Joshi
etal. 1977).
It US
11 us
Lilts
I
19.
(1)
(2)
Anopheles minimus (Theobald. 1901).
No data were found.
Treillard (in Bonne-Wepster & SwellengrebeL 1953) report that An. mini-
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
4'1
..
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
mus lives 5-10 times longer than An. vagus under identical conditions in
the laboratory which might be the reason of its efficacy as a malaria vector.
No detailed information from Indonesia was given in before 1953; Soesilo
found it infected up to 3% in Sulawesi [Celebes].
Boyd (1949) classified An. minimus as a distinctly anthropophilic species.
From Indonesia no feeding habits were recorded but from other regions
high percentages of human blood meals are recorded (up to 86.5%).
The adults are commonly found in houses and cattle sheds (Bonne-Wepster & Swellengrebel, 1953). Puri (in Boyd, 1949): Adults are found in
large numbers in dark houses and huts, the majority resting on the lower
half of the walls. Most of them feed after midnight and there is very little
feeding activity two or three hours after sunset.
Adults feed on man both indoors and outdoors; biting activities occur
during the first part of the night (WHO, 1982).
Harrison & Ramsey (in Boyd, 1949) reported a maximum flight of 1 mile.
No data were found.
20. Anopheles jlavirostris (Ludlow, 1914).
(1 -2) Females lived up to five weeks (Thomson, 1941).
(3) Walker & Barber (in Boyd, 1949) achieved an experimental index of
18.01% (320 females tested), and recorded a natural infection index of
0.3% in Manalang, Philippines (10820 exam.). Overbeek & Stoker (1938)
report results from Indonesia: 3% natural infection in West-Java (Tjipadani), and infected specimens from Poelau Laoet (Kalimantan [Borneo]).
Locally, it can be an important vector (Afridi, 1948).
(4) Zoophilic species, although it will bite man indoors.
(5)
Resting adults may be taken from overhanging creek banks and similar
outdoor shelters (WHO, 1982).
(6) Adults enter houses to feed on man but leave early in the morning so
that they are seldom found in house catches (WHO, 1982). Bruce-Chwatt
(1985) describes the same habits: endophagic/exophilic.
(7) Craig (in Boyd, 1949) recorded a maximum flight of 2.5 miles, but wind
played an important role in the experiments. WHO (1982): maximum
observed flight 2 km.
(8)
Manalang (in Boyd, 1949) reports a seasonal incidence of infection of
An Jlavirostris, with highest rates in May (2.56%), until August (1.29%),
data from the Philippines.
21.
(1)
(2)
Anopheles sundaicus (Rodenwaldt, 1926).
Van Breemen (1919) studied mosquito densities in Northern Java (Bata
via) and estimated an average daily production of 0.6 billion mosquitos
in an area of 5 million square meters.
Green (in Boyd. 1949) reports a mean survival under laboratory condi
tions of 27 days (range 5-46 days).
(3.
(4:
(5)
(6
(7)
(8
22.
(r
(2)
48
IVageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
Wi
.:
■ '
■
-
-
-
■.
OSS
ms in
(3)
jctor.
: Soesilo
ecies.
icgions
>k
Wepnd in
ic lower
little
(4)
?s occur
mile.
(5)
idex of
iHex of
1938)
, jipa)rneoj).
(6)
(7)
similar
Ig so
_..watt
wind
num
(8)
r’^n of
)%),
lata>quitos
22.
(1)
ndi-
(2)
This species has been found infected in almost every occasion; Swellengrebel & Swellengrebel-de Graaf found it naturally infected up to 35% in
Java; Kuipers & Stoker (1934) even up to 46.6% (see also Snellen, 1988).
Experimentally Swellengrebel et al. (1919) could infect it with P. vivax
up to 80%, with P. falciparum up to 100%. Overbeek & Stoker (1938)
report an index of 39.2% from Banjoewangi, East-Java. In Sumatra it
was also found highly infected: 20% in Belawan (Deli) (Swellengrebel &
Rodenwaldt, 1932). In other areas only low indices were found (Batavia
1.6% in 1917; 2.4% 1918 (Van Breemen, 1919). Soesilo (in Boyd, 1949)
compared experimental infection rates of the fresh and salt water form
(with P. falciparum)’. 88.8% against 80% respectively.
Walch (1932) reports a very strong anthropophilic character: If cattle is
present (even in large numbers) still 86% of the blood meals were of human
origin; if cattle was scarce 94% were human blood meals. These figures
count for both the fresh and salt water form, both are highly anthropophi
lic.
The adults are found abundantly indoors, in houses but also in cow sheds
(Bonne-Wepster & Swellengrebel, 1953). WHO (1982) reports an activity
peak between 22.00 and 24.00 hours; WHO also reports outside resting
sites (crevices in sand banks and bushes). Bruce-Chwatt (1985) adds
mainly indoor resting, especially after feeding.
Bites man and animals indoors and outdoors (Bruce-Chwatt, 1985); dur
ing the daytime and nighttime (Puri, in Boyd, 1949).
Van Breemen (1919) recorded experimentally a flight distance of 6 km
(Batavia, Java). Swellengrebel & Swellengrebel-de Graaf recorded 1-3 km
in Semarang (W-Java). there is evidence that the flight distance is corre
lated with the adult density and the availability of hosts. Leopold (in Swel
lengrebel & Rodenwaldt, 1932) recorded flights of 9 km, when adult
densities were high. It was found that An. sundaicus sometimes travels
‘by train’, so that the data have to be regarded with some susceptibility
(Mangkoewinoto in Swellengrebel & Rodenwaldt, 1932). WHO (1982):
observed flight 0.5-6.2 km.
Especially in the salt-water breeding sites a marked seasonal periodicity
was found. In June, July, and August numbers declined, and from Sep
tember onwards no larvae could be found. It is thought that evaporation
causes a sharp increase in salinity thus preventing An. sundaicus from
breeding (An. suhpictus
still present then, up to a salinity of 86.4%)
(Van Breemen, 1919; Swellengrebel, 1921; De Vogel, 1929; Zon, 1939).
No periodicity was found in the fresh water form.
I
|W
!W
i
A
Anopheles suhpictus (Grassi, 1899).
Van Breemen (1919) recorded very high densities from Batavia (see An.
sundaicus), and though found only with low infection rates, its density
increases its importance.
Mayne (in Boyd, 1949) found a short longevity, often less than one week.
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 ( J990)
'990)
■
49
i•
- -
OW4
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
Natural infections were always low (0.3-0.7%), sometimes up to 3% (Swel
lengrebel & Rodenwaldt, 1932). Swellengrebel et al. (1919) were not able
to infect it experimentally in Java. Though infection indices from Sulawesi
[Celebes] were low, because of its high densities it became an important
vector there (Overbeek & Stoker, 1938).
Puri (in Boyd, 1949) reports feeding on man, but they apparently prefer
animal blood. Walch (1932) found the same: if cattle was present, 12%
of the blood meals were of human origin; if cattle was absent, it increased
to only 15%. Buxton & Leeson (in Boyd, 1949) found a geographical varia
tion in the feeding habits: They recorded it solely zoophilic in India, but
more eastward (Sulawesi) it was found to be more anthropophilic.
Buxton & Leeson (in Boyd, 1949) often found specimens in man’s sleeping
places though containing animal blood (cattle/buffalo). It is quite regu
larly found in houses, and an interesting relationship with the An. sundaicus density has been discovered; if An. sundaicus densities dropped, An.
subpictus was found more in houses and vice versa.
Bruce-Chwatt (1985): Bites man indoors and outdoors and rests indoors
and outdoors.
In Java females were retrieved 6.2 km from points of release (Van Breemen, 1920). Ave Lallement et al. (1931) recorded a maximum flight of
200 m, and an activity peak between 20.00 and 22.00 hours.
No data were found.
(8
(1
(2)
(3
(4)
(5)
(6;
23.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
50
Anopheles annularis (Van der Wulp, 1884).
It was only considered to be of any importance if it occurred in large
numbers, mainly because of its low infection indices.
Bates (in Boyd, 1949) reported a mean survival under laboratory condi
tions of 17 days. Green (in Boyd, 1949) found 27 days (range 9-41 days).
An. annularis is rarely found infected (Horsefall, 1955). In Soendatar (WSumatra), however, an infection of 0.3% was reported; other data are diffi
cult to interpret because they might refer to closely related species such
as An. philippinensis.
Walch (1932) classified An. annularis more or less as a zoophilic species;
if cattle was present 10% were human blood meals; if absent 50% (only
2 examinations). In experiments (Chang in Bonne-Wepster & Swellengrebel, 1953) An. annularis preferred human blood to buffalo blood; it fed
readily in nature in certain areas and then was one.of the most greedy
human blood suckers.
Puri (in Boyd, 1949): Adults are found in large numbers in cattle sheds,
and sometimes in houses also.
Bites man indoors, rests inside and leaves the house in the early morning
(Swellengrebel & Rodenwaldt, 1932).
Ave Lallement et al. (1931) found a maximum flight of 250 m, and an
activity peak between 20.00 and 23.00 hours.
(7
(8)
w
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
1
welible
lawesi
~tant
piefer
(8)
Swellengrebel & Swellengrebel-de Graaf (1919) recorded a periodicity like
that for An. aconitus in Modjowarno (E-Java).
24.
(1)
(2)
Anopheles maculatus (Theobald, 1901).
No data were found.
Green (in Boyd, 1949) recorded a mean survival under laboratory condi
tions of 34 days (range 13-66 days).
Lamprell (in Boyd, 1949) recorded a natural infection index of 1.9% from
Indonesia. Doorenbos found a natural infection index of 2.83% in Kisaran
(Sumatra); Walch & Soesilo in central Java 3%; Essed & Rodenwaldt in
Riouw 11% etc. (Swellengrebel & Rodenwaldt. 1932). Doorenbos (1931)
17% in Londut, Sumatra.
Walch (1932) did not classify this species as distinctly anthropophilic
though if cattle was absent 97% human blood meals were found (cattle
present: 11%). Puri (in Boyd, 1949) reports a geographical variation in
feeding habits, but classifies An. maculatus as anthropophilic in Indonesia.
The adult is usually not found in houses in the daytime, though in certain
areas and circumstances it may be taken in houses and cattle sheds (BonneWepster & Swellengrebel, 1953). Rests mainly outside after feeding
(Bruce-Chwatt, 1985); WHO (1982) adds an activity peak between 21.00
and 24.00 hours, and that most females leave houses before 8.00 hours.
Daytime resting places are probably dense vegetation, woods.
Bites domestic animals and man indoors and outdoors (Bruce-Chwatt,
1985).
Wallace (in Boyd, 1949) recorded experimentally a maximum flight of
1.38 miles. WHO (1982): observed flight: 2 km.
No data were found.
. 12%
ised
(3)
riaa. but
>ing
reguundai; An.
(4)
doors
(5)
eenit of
(6)
rge
(7)
ondivs).
Wffisuch
(8)
es;
(only
n are-
i
ed
~dy
is,
ning
in
0)
51
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
05694
■ -
- • .rU--
-
...
'*^4
3D - Evaluation of taxonomic and bionomic data with respect to malaria epidemio
logy and control through species sanitation.
Using the data from the previous sections (Chapter 3A-C), it is now possible
to estimate the danger each species constitutes as a malaria vector (the epidemio
logical importance) and whether species sanitation may be considered a poten
tial method of control for that species. The anopheline species discussed are
those mentioned in Table 3.5 (Chapter 3A). A map indicating the location of
the more important towns and villages mentioned in this chapter is added as
Figure 3.1.
I. Anopheles aitkenii (James. 1903).
Generally speaking An. aitkenii is not considered to be a very important vector.
Its role as a contributor in malaria-epidemics with more dangerous species (with
An. aconitus in Soekaboemi and Bandjar, where spleen indices of 65% and 85%
were found (Mangkoewinoto, 1919); Swellengrebel (1921) found it together with
An. farauti), is not understood. Therefore this species has to be regarded with
suspicion. In this literature study no records of positive infections of An. aitkenii
were found. Swellengrebel & Schiiffner (1920) dissected two females from Mandailing, both negative, one from Soendatar, also negative. If its longevity is really
that short, combined with its exophilic and exophagic habits, the species logically
can be regarded as being of minor importance.
(
2. Anopheles umbrosus (Theobald, 1903).
This species is a very important vector in Malaysia, but its bionomics make
it an important vector in Sumatra. Java, and Kalimantan [Borneo] as well. It
is however difficult from old literature to extract its importance since many data
refer to closely related forms. Although found in the vicinity of other important
vectors. An. umbrosus has shown to be responsible for the hyperendemic situa
tion in Sanggau, Kalimantan, where it was the only Anopheles found infected
(Soesilo, 1932b).
Since An. umbrosus is a typical shade loving species, control of it would simply
imply exposing the breeding places to sunlight. But since these places are of
many different origins, this hinders control, especially species sanitation sensu
strictu. Although exposing to sunlight might be useful (1. clearing of hidden
breeding places; 2. drying of shallow breeding places; 3. land development)
according to Russell et al. (1946) the removal of shade has more often resulted
in increased mosquito breeding than otherwise. Moreover hygienists in Indone
sia noted that the eradication of shade loving species (in this case An. umbrosus)
by clearing of jungle resulted in extensive breeding of a sun loving species. An.
maculatus, an even more dangerous species (Schiiffner. 1917; Swellengrebel.
1920b). So prevention of breeding after clearing implies draining of the exposed
breeding places, which was too expensive or impracticable. Swellengrebel
(1920b) reports the results of the British in Malaysia, where they immediately
52
0
IVageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
1
IVageni .ct.
-
0
O
zr 3
'C
S cr
3 I g.
< £sJ a 5 3
q
I
P.
•
I
c 3
XT <T>
3
Q. O
S'
s:
(Z>
CD
O
?5‘
5’ 3
S’ 5-1
i a? =
$x>
21^ 1 IS
“
r* —.
r-
1 a:
Um
a:
™ CL £.
<^■3 S.
2. q Q.
o'
2.
5
CD
rM r-> Q. JI 3
ZT 3 a:
u
r—1
r-f-
s.O
D
<
CD
S: n* zr o'- zr r*
G>
'sr
5
CL 2 S a: -2.-0
a
n. %
c_
CD
“
Q-
o
a: O
C/5
—
CL
as
IO.
.. _
S S? ?o' S
i
■
CD
1
FIM
fil
ifc1
i ;-
.Calang
3
i
I
pl'
Sinabang
Kisaran
w -■
Bintan
Hutanopan'
I
§
Kotatengat
0
K
c>
Ketahun
Bengkulu
Lampung
Jakarta
■Tanjung Periuk
Pelabuhanratu
Sukabumi
Cianjur
Cihea
Pameungpeuk
Tasikmalaya
Surakarta
Purworejo
Pacitan
Bojonegorq^
Tuban
Brengkok
Bangkalan
Surabaya
Sidoarjo
Bangil
Pasuruan
Probolinggo
Panarukan
Banyuwangi
Gianjar
Tanamerah
Baubau
'Bulukumba
Ujung Panda ng
Ende
Fig. 3.1 Towns and villages of Indonesia which are mentioned in connection with species sanitation (Chapter 3D).
C/i
UJ
H
-
-
■
after clearing of the jungle planted rubber trees, providing shade and thus pre
venting An. maculatus from breeding.
Swellengrebel (1921) writes about the species sanitation in Malaysia aaainst
An. umbrosus (after Watson, 1913; 1915): ‘They cleared vegetation and drained
pools where this species occurred, and completely neglected the breeding sites
°f An- subpictus and An. kochh this being one of the first examples of successful
species sanitation’. Watson also controlled malaria by clearing the vegetation
750 m around the houses, the maximum flight distance of this species (Ave Lallement et al.. 1931). Boyd (1949) reports that pollution of water with cut vegetation
of breeding places can be successful for An. umbrosus control since this species
occurs in waters with ‘a surprisingly low degree of pollution'.
si
anir
umk
e*
6. /
B
m
cies
tV"'
3. Anopheles baezai (Gatev. 1933).
i
Comments: see below (under An. roperi).
7. A
Comments: see below (under An. roperi).
Cox,,
5. Anopheles roperi (Reid, 1950).
What can be said regarding the umbrosus group with respect to species sanita
tion:
From the taxonomic point of view, it has been stated that early data are difficult
to interprete, since they might refer to allied forms (Bonne-Wepster & Swellen
grebel, 1953). This becomes obvious if we compare the distribution maps. Data
of An- umbrosus from 1932, refer to An. baezai in 1953, for Sulawesi [Celebes]
and Java. The importance of this species as reported by Swellengrebel in 1921
and 1932 in Sanggau, Kalimantan [Borneo] is probably because of the occur
rence of An. letifer in that specific area. Furthermore it can be said that the
taxonomic division of the umbrosus group is of considerable importance since
of the eight forms described in 1953, only four are of any importance. (An easy
explanation for the fact that hygienists found An. umbrosus infected in one area,
but not in another is the lack of taxonomic insight into this group of closely
resembling species).
On regarding the breeding sites we can conclude that these four taxonomic
different forms use breeding places which vary considerably:
- A n. roperi'.
Brackish water zone.
Flat coastal plain, the first in the open
country, the second in the virgin jungle.
Foothills.
8.
C<
in Iri
trc11'
th<
(B^
Th
sef
an
in Iri
to ~ 9. /At
Cc
i
10. A
Th -i
spe
the oi
10 foi
be
scri
and R
mic
I
The division of early forms of An. umbrosus into An. letifer and An. umbrosus
( typicus) is, from an epidemiological point of view very important, especially
54
fi;
th.
bree
be
tii
4. Anopheles letifer (Sandosham, 1944).
- An. baezai:
— An. letifer and An. umbrosus'.
--
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
Wag
-
■
■:
■ •
..
4^132-- ' •
- --
I thus preysia against
■’nd drained
iding sites
/. successful
3 vegetation
Xve Lalle'egetation
this species
"
since these species differ in their bionomics: An. letifer bites outdoors, man and
animals, and rests outdoors often in the vicinity of human dwellings, whilst An.
umbrosus is mainly endophilic/endophagic, and is more restricted to jungle/forest.
6. Anopheles barbirostris (Van der Wulp. 1884).
Because of its preference for fresh water breeding places (not always though),
mainly fish ponds and rice field, especially if there is shade and vegetation, spe
cies sanitation as described in chapter 4 becomes advisable. Boyd (1949) gives
two control measures for An. barbirostris; 1. The use of voracious weed-eating
fish (Puntiusjavanicus), as stated by Walch & Soesilo (1935) which secured effect
tive control of the anophelines (An. barbirostris. An. sinensis and An. aconitus')
breeding among the aquatic vegetation, close trimming of the margins, also
being necessary, and 2. pollutional ponding by cut vegetation, especially effec
tive if combined with larvivorous fish (see chapter 4).
7. Anopheles vanus (Walker, 1859).
Comments: see below (under An. bancrofti).
ss sanitaire difficult
Swellen.ps. Data
u [Celebes]
bel in 1921
le occurthat the
lance since
'An easy
me area,
> of closely
conomic
8. Anopheles bancrofti (Giles, 1902).
Comments: As stated before this species is an important malaria transmitter
in Irian Jaya [New Guinea]. Because of its preference for shade it has been con
trolled in some areas by clearing of vegetation. In other areas though it worsened
the situation because of expansion of An. farauti, causing severe epidemics
(Boyd, 1949).
The species An. barbirostris, An. vanus and An. bancrofti are geographically
separated so it is difficult to confuse them: An. barbirostris on Sumatra, Java,
and Kalimantan [Borneo]; An. vanus on Sulawesi [Celebes]; and An. bancrofti
in Irian Jaya [New Guinea]. Taxonomically the division of the group has led
to six forms of which three play an important role in malaria transmission.
9. Anopheles sinensis (Wiedemann, 1828).
Comments: see below (under An. nigerrimus).
. ^mbrosus
especially
10. Anopheles nigerrimus (Giles. 1900).
The interpretation of bionomic data of this species is extremely difficult, since
species of this group are very difficult to separate. Therefore the records on
the biology and the pathogenic importance consequently are unreliable. Of the
10 forms of the ’hyrcanus’ group (described in 1953) only two are known to
be important. An. sinensis and An. nigerrimus. In 1921 An. nigerrimus was de
scribed by Swellengrebel as An. sinensis var. vanus; in 1932 by Swellengrebel
and Rodenwaldt as An. hyrcanus nigerrima. Both these descriptions lack biono
mics, and only bionomics of the group as a whole are described. Soesilo (1935)
•
Wagenin^en Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990 )
le open
jungle.
-7(1990)
55
'7
i -•• • >-<&•
....
■
reported a form in between An. sinensis and An. nigerrimus, Venhuis (1940) de
scribed it as An. hyrcanus X from Java and Sulawesi [Celebes], later called An.
venhuisi, taxonomically changed into An. nigerrimus. This latter deviation is odd
since these two forms show interesting differences in their bionomics (which
of course is important considering species sanitation):
An. venhuisi is frequently caught in houses, which suggests endophilic and endophagic characteristics, whilst An. nigerrimus was described (Bonne-Wepster &
Swellengrebel, 1953) as being a wild form, breeding independently of the proxi
mity of habitations and was not commonly found resting in houses and cow-sheds.
Species of the hyrcanus group are often found breeding in rice fields, and
control of this species as a rice field breeder will be discussed in detail in Chapter
5.
14. /
Of thc/i
in Kali;
Bonn
malai
flight pt
15. A
In Java
Jaya [Nl.
Boyd
lian r_w
response
In rec
been i
unknow
etal., 19
Conti
11. Anopheles kochi (Donitz, 1901).
Mangkoewinoto (1919) considered the importance of An. kochi as low. This
was quite logical since he worked in west Java, where An. kochi was not found
infected. But since many records of infected females were reported from Suma
tra, its importance especially if occurring in large numbers should not be neg
lected (Doorenbos, 1925; Swellengrebel & Rodenwaldt, 1932). Bosch (1925)
confirmed Doorenbos’ findings, he found An. kochi in large densities, naturally
infected (3.7%) and could experimentally infect it up to 86.6% (with P. falci
parum); no other anophelines were found infected.
Boyd (1949) also denotes An. kochi as an important vector in Sumatra. Door
enbos (1925) who describes an epidemic solely set up by An. kochi (Soengei
Baleh, Kisaran, Sumatra) reports the impossibility of controlling An. kochi by
using species sanitation since this species is found in many different types of
water collections.
16. Ano
The r<
the rc
species r
ter.
type c
impor._
of the cc
12. Anopheles tesselatus (Theobald, 1901).
Though being recorded as a vector in Indonesia by Boyd (1949), indirectly it
was not considered to be of any importance (Swellengrebel & Rodenwaldt,
1932).
13. Anopheles leucosphyrus (Donitz, 1901).
McArthur (in Boyd, 1949) reports An. leucosphyrus as being the most important
vector in Kalimantan [Borneo], and that An. flavirostris nor An. maculatus are
of significant importance. Bonne-Wepster & Swellengrebel (1953) noted the
importance of clearing up the systematics of this species, and reported six to
seven forms, of which An. balabacensis (see further) also was of some impor
tance. Since breeding occurs in dense vegetation inside the forest, control of
breeding is difficult to achieve. Exophilic and (often) exophagic habits make
control attempts even more complex. Vegetation removal and jungle clearance
would seem appropriate control strategies (WHO, 1982) but the creation of
extensive breeding sites for heliophilic species should be kept in mind.
i
i
\
56
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
17. .
Bonne-V
a dang
De
comply
(Irian Ja
mitter
For i
the speci
collect'-;
diffici
trol of m
insecticic
resista
tus dr;
An. punc
causin i
^Vagenh
)40) de
led An.
tion is odd
i (which
and endoV^pster &
s proxi./-sheds.
”ields, and
Chapter
n. This
l.U found
om Suma< be neg; (1925)
. naturally
h v.falci-
i.«. Door'■ (Soengei
ochi by
ypes of
u./ectly it
Jenwaldt,
nnortant
i tus are
hMied the
ted six to
impor• trol of
?its make
< ’ arance
■i
ion of
U/990)
14. Anopheles balabacensis (Baisas, 1936).
Of the An. leucosphyrus group this is considered to be the most important species,
in Kalimantan [Borneo] mainly together with the type-species. Colless (in
Bonne-Wepster & Swellengrebel, 1953) reports this species as being the principle
malaria vector in Sabah [British N. Borneo]. Because of the shy habits and late
flight period not much is known about this species.
15. Anophelespunctulatus (Donitz, 1901).
In Java An. punctulatus is not considered an important vector unlike in Irian
Jaya [New Guinea] where it plays a very important role in malaria transmission.
Boyd (1949) regards An. punctulatus as the most important vector of the Austra
lian region, and it is considered to be as important as An. sundaicus in Java,
responsible for the maintenance of the hyperendemic malaria in those regions.
In recent years several ecological studies on the An. punctulatus complex have
been undertaken on Papua New Guinea, providing much information that was
unknown to the scientists working in pre-World War II Indonesia (Charlwood
et al., 1985; 1986). This information has not been included in the present review.
Control: see after An. koliensis.
16. Anophelesfarauti(Laveran, 1902).
The role which An. farauti plays in Irian Jaya [New Guinea] was compared with
the role of An. sundaicus in Java (Covell, in Boyd, 1949). It is also a typical
species regarding man-made malaria situations because of its heliophilic charac
ter. Wherever the jungle is cut. or vegetation is cleared, breeding in almost every
type of water collection occurs. An. punctulatus and An. farauti also play an
important role as vectors of human filariasis (IVuchereria bancrofti). Control
of the complex will be described after An. koliensis.
17. Anopheles koliensis (Owen, 1945).
Bonne-Wepster & Swellengrebel (1953): This species has to be considered as
a dangerous carrier.
De Rook (1924) did some research on two species of the punctulatus species
complex, An. punctulatus and An. farauti, in Pioniersbivak and Prauwenbivak
(Irian Jaya [New Guinea]), and confirmed their role as important malaria trans
mitters.
Ford (in Boyd, 1949) gives some general considerations for the control of
the species of the punctulatus group: a) breeding occurs in many types of water
collections, b) females rest outdoors after feeding, c) deviation to animals is
difficult and can worsen the situation (extensive breeding in hoof marks). Con
trol of these species in the past has been successful by aerial spraying of residual
insecticides (95% population reduction) (Gandahusada & Sumarlan, 1978), but
resistance to insecticides makes this strategy unapplicable. Against An. punctula
tus drainage can be a very successful method, and can easily be achieved since
An. punctulatus only breeds in shallow water collections. Stream rectification
causing a freer flow has also been able to reduce An. punctulatus breeding. ClearWageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
57
kb
ing of vegetation has been unsuccessful (once again) and in some places wor
sened the malaria impact (see also An. bancrofti).
From recent research on the ecology and control of members of the An. punctulatus complex in Papua New Guinea (J.D. Charlwood, personal communication)
it appears that control of these species is difficult. The best approach seems
to be to undertake a detailed ecological investigation in each locality before
decisions on specific control measures are being taken. The use of impregnated
bednets has proven to provide protection against new infections, especially in
small children (WHO, 1989).
water coul
in the Philipj
proposed me
were fount
with sowii
etal., 1946)7
in Java,19
18. Anopheles aconitus
1902).
This species has been found infected in Indonesia, India, Indo-China and Malay
sia but only in Indonesia it appears to be a vector of real importance. In central
Java it is considered to be the principal malaria vector (Chow et al., 1959). Over
beek & Stoker (1938) considered An. aconitus in W-Java as important as An.
sundaicus in other areas. Christophers (in Boyd, 1949) almost always found An.
aconitus in combination with malaria infestation. Bruce-Chwatt (1985) reports
that An. aconitus in central and west Java is fully resistant against DDT. William
son (in Boyd, 1949) reports the achievements from Indonesia in controlling An.
aconitus with naturalistic methods (see Walch & Soesilo, 1934). These sanita
tions and others (such as control of An. aconitus in rice field) will be described
in detail in Chapter V.
19. Anopheles minimus (Theobald, 1901).
The importance of An. minimus is not as great in Indonesia as elsewhere. In
India, Assam and Northern Bengal it is the most important vector (BruceChwatt, 1985). Control: screening of houses was considered to be ineffective
because of the exophilic and exophagic characteristics of this species. Because
of its heliophilic habits, this is another species often contracted whenever vegeta
tion is cleared (man-made malaria). In Assam there have been successful vector
control campaigns by shading of the breeding sites (Russell et al., 1946). Not
only the shading inhibited this species from breeding, but the growth of grass
along the edges declined, leading to increased current velocities, in which An.
minimus could not breed. In Indonesia these techniques were first applied in
the 1930s, typical examples of species sanitation. Not only for An. minimus but
(in Indonesia) mainly for An. maculatus shading of slow running streams by
planting Tithonia diversifolia (marigold) was very successful (Soesilo, 1936;
Overbeek & Stoker, 1938).
20. Anopheles flavirostris (Ludlow, 1914).
Though previously reported as the chief malaria vector in the Philippines its
role as a vector in Kalimantan [Borneo] and West-Java is doubtful, see An. leucosphyrus. Bruce-Chwatt (1985) states An. flavirostris sometimes is seen as a
subspecies of An. minimus as it was before (Swellengrebel & Rodenwaldt, 1932).
Since An. flavirostris is a typical slow running water breeder stagnating of the
58
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
i
21. AnopheK
Because of t
Sumatra, n
the major
and some ex;
from Sumi
works aga;
Soesilo (193:
malaria cont
Tegal (Jav
Belawan (L.
Probollingo rily directe
of mechan
with the sea <
rang, Bata'"'
nation witl
tioned brie..
- Salination
changing
in the p;
personal c>
- Tidal me"
vent An
(Rodenwa
- Shading: b
for parti
- Larvicid
tance agaii
1985).
- Zooprop
be deviatci
phylaxis). :
cus' high
would n<
Wageningen a
ome places wor-
>1 the An. punctula11 communication)
approach seems
-j locality before
se of impregnated
ns, especially in
linaand Malay/i <:ance. In central
't al., 1959). Overiportant as An.
ways found An.
att (1985) reports
DDT. William
controlling An.
■t). These sanitawill be described
s elsewhere. In
vector (Bruceio be ineffective
species. Because
lenever vegetaccessful vector
■t al., 1946). Not
rowth of grass
, in which An.
e rirst applied in
An. minimus but
i ng streams by
Soesilo, 1936;
e Philippines its
>tful, see An. leui s is seen as a
( iwaldt, 1932).
tagnating of the
pers 90-7 (1990)
water could prevent the species from breeding. This however was not successful
in the Philippines, because freshening of a series of pools still occurred. Another
proposed method was the use of a fungus against An.flavirostris, since specimens
were found disabled by it in the Philippines. It would be interesting to experiment
with sowing of cultures of this fungus in the daytime resting places (Russell
et al., 1946). WHO (in Bruce-Chwatt, 1985) reported resistance against Dieldrin
in Java, 1978.
21. Anopheles sundaicus (Rodenwaldt, 1926).
Because of the importance of An. sundaicus as a malaria vector in Java and
Sumatra, much has been written about this species in the past. Species sanitation,
the major issue of this review, was mainly undertaken against An. sundaicus
and some examples are presented in Chapter V. Control of the fresh water form
from Sumatra has been described by Soesilo (1936). Overviews of the sanitation
works against An. sundaicus have been given by various authors e.g. Walch &
Soesilo (1935), Soesilo, (1936) and Overbeek & Stoker (1938). They report on
malaria control through sanitation from many places: Sibolga (Sumatra, 1919);
Tegal (Java, 1928-1929); Batavia (Java, 1928-1932); Soerabaya (1916-1920);
Belawan (Deli, Sumatra, 1919); Tjilatjap (Java, 1919); Semarang (Java, 1927);
Probollingo (Java, 1921); and Banjoewangi (1928). All these works were prima
rily directed against the salt water form of An. sundaicus. They consisted mainly
of mechanical measures like filling, draining, construction of open connections
with the sea etc.; in some places natural methods were used (Pasoeroean, Sema
rang, Batavia). These sanitations were executed by civil engineers often in combi
nation with hygienists or fish-culture experts. Other methods need to be men
tioned briefly:
- Salination: because of the specific range of salinity An. sundaicus can tolerate,
changing the salinity of fish-ponds or other breeding places has shown success
in the past, and is still used in Indonesia (Russell et al., 1946; J. Hudson,
personal communication).
- Tidal movement: it has been shown in the past, that tidal movement will pre
vent An. sundaicus from breeding (i.e. mangrove forests along the coast
(Rodenwaldt, 1925).
- Shading: because of its heliophilic character shading by plants may be useful
for partial control (Bruce-Chwatt, 1985).
- Larviciding, and the use of adulticides has declined partly because of resis
tance against DDT and Dieldrin in various parts of Indonesia (Bruce-Chwatt,
1985).
- Zooprophylaxis: it was thought (Doorenbos, 1925) that An. sundaicus could
be deviated from man, by using cattle as a 'barrier1 around houses (zoopro
phylaxis). Schuffner et al. (1919) rejected this method, because of An. sundai
cus' high preference for human blood; and moreover the vector production
would not drop, but might even increase. Walch (1932) found the same.
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
59
Tabl<
to sp<
A detailed overview of the control measures against An. sundaicus in Indonesia
has been given by Gandahusada & Sumarlan (1978). In Chapter 5 some exam
ples of species sanitation from Indonesia have been described in detail.
22. Anopheles subpictus (Grassi, 1899).
Christophers (in Boyd, 1949) regarded this species as totally unimportant, but
it has shown to be a locally important vector in Sulawesi [Celebes] (Bonne-Wep
ster & Swellengrebel, 1953), and in Irian Jaya [New Guinea] it has shown to
be an important co-transmitter together with An. farauti (Gandahusada &
Sumarlan. 1978). Residual spraying with DDT in those areas achieved a 95%
population reduction of those species.
sniB/.
i
suB/nuui
snio;-1—'.
snoit
23. Anopheles annularis (Van der Wulp, 1884).
This vector was found naturally infected on several occasions and in different
areas. Though in several areas An. annularis is not considered as a vector of
importance, in other parts it appeared to be the principal transmitter, with other
vectors quite rare (An. minimus). On the other hand it may be found uninfected
in areas where An. minimus is the principal vector (Bonne-Wepster & Swellengrebel, 1953). An epidemic of malaria was reported by Swellengrebel & Swellengrebel-de Graaf (1920) where An. annularis and An. sinensis were the only species
found infected, although An. aconitus and An. maculatus were also present.
24. Anopheles maculatus (Theobald, 1901).
Originally, though being an important vector in Malaysia (Watson in Swellen
grebel, 1921). An. maculatus was not seen as important as it was. Later on it
was found that it was capable of keeping up an epidemic in Sumatra (Doorenbos,
1925; 1931). Often it was closely connected with man-made malaria because
of its heliophilic character.
Control of this vector has been implemented in various ways: the eldest known
(though quite expensive) is sub-soil drainage, which was indeed very effective
and inhibited An. maculatus from breeding (also used at Sibolga, see Nieuwen
huis, 1919). Shading experiments, along stream banks with Tithonia diversifolia
and other scrubs or trees were used in Western Java estates, with varying success
(Soesilo, 1936; Overbeek & Stoker, 1938). Agitating and stagnating (with addi
tion of larvivorous fish) have been used successfully in Malaysia (Russell et al.,
1946).
snujiuiu
sniiuan
60
>
SISI
!i
sniBinizunc
SISUdOBQBIBC
snj/ijdsi
i
sniB/-
snujujeBu.
sisi
;
Hioj
;
suisojiqjBc
IB
snsojquir
I
I
Discussion
The data from this section are summarized in Table 3.9 which shows the histori
cal methods used for the control of aquatic stages of anophelines in Indonesia.
From this it is immediately apparent that species-specific control methods were
used successfully against only a few species in Indonesia (asterices) and elsewhere
in South East Asia (solid circles). Using the data from this chapter, we have
indicated how each method, in theory, could be effective against a number of
i
SU)S<
I
i
Wage
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
l
I-*-
3 7»
3
u.
= fra
3“ 3
'*
2. O
Q.
O
33
O
po
8 £*■"o
O
3 ’o>~5 &r 722.
-
o
cr o
i
CD
o
c 3
§ o'
c a>' a
CD
“
B
*% M
r-^
o
£■
f-*
3^9 e-o -r
>c
;c
«
3
□
rf
CD
'J
3
I§
* -s
C S'
o
~!
3
CO
GO
y
<
CD
o
ssI?
3
c
••
rv>
5-1
CD. O 3
S3
n (ra era £ 2 2 s
a
o “ o 2-
o
s-i
3
O' £*
% w-o
p; C/5 ~o o
3*
3Q. 3" 33 2
S O fD 3
3
2.
O Q. " Sr"
CD
CD* CD*
3 3 CD
=
s ? ? a
3“
n>
Q.
^2
o 2
3
3
cd cr
-o V 2
£
^8 53
3
<T> -
Q-
O
X
Ifc. -
3
CD
3? £•
Si i?
. ■ : t1
• A?-:
W .<5
S
s
3
i i §
§
s!X)
MODIFICATION OF BREEDING SITES
Cultural methods
Mechanical methods
Ci
§
5
- replacement of natural vegetation
- exposure to sunlight
- introduction of aquatic vegetation
- shading
- screening (=shading)
- modification of water edges
favourable for breeding
- silting
- flooding
- agitation of water
- water stagnation, impoundment
- control of river flow
- freshening of water
- salinifying
- intermittant drying
<<<<< < << X
O:*:O
O:«:
in •g a
1
s
ill
2
r
§It
a a 2 o. -si K
_____
5
O
y
<
: : O: : :
O:O:O;O;O!
i io
oieio
O O:O
: :O
; ; ;o;o:
3 8
■< <
- water diversion
- reparing of leaks
- removal of empty containers
- earth filling
- removal of standing water by pumping
- construction of tidal gates
- water drainage
<S
CD
■
< X
w 3
5‘ S?
oio
Oi»
:*
O
Blrfe
•
pwr.
Is,
??'
3~i r?
O
o;o
5 3
213
o
o
c»
OiOiO
0:0
:*:0
O
o
0:0:0:*; : i
* *;*;O:O>
05
§
C.
□ o
Q- C/3
ELIMINATION OF BREEDING SITES__________
Cultural methods
- drying by planting of crops
Mechanical methods
O £
•3 —
0:0
O:O:O:O
O:O:O:O
O
3 3
{ S 3
O
O
•S
O
O
O
3 c^33
89’ |
3
S .55 P
i
I
!
I' '
vi
n
co
3.2,
O
O
:O:Oi
oioioo
o; ; ;
o
o
:
oioioioioioioioioioio
o
?
oioio
r
*
o
reg
DIRECT CONTROL
Biological control
- create conditions favourable for
predatory fish
Chemical control
- larvicides
*:O
* *
*
*
s.
—
2‘
*- method successfully applied in Indonesia in the period 1900-1940:
• -method successfully applied in South-East Asia in the period 1900-1940;
O- method recommended against that species based on the findings from this review.
O\
rt
t ■■
jgMgp
..... ............ _
species (open circles). Although each method will have to be retested in the field,
there is good reason to believe that several of these methods can be used for
malaria control today. The implications of these results will be discussed in
Chapter 8.
Chi i
Sw< i
J.P. Vet
Intro
Gene*-0!
anop I
I
method,
these mt
grow
occui (
figure, t
gives "
in thi
lands
(1917-H
Thef
1
i
62
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
I
Profe*'"':
of th< ’
proton
and rece
Mesn
in Zi
Amsterc
tail’s ’ ]
hand <
of gover
In 191
the c<
vice, l
and coll
seum
tra) \ e
learnea i
sitic pro
ofSh ;
Sin
studies h
publi; i
lVagen...oe
4'-
,A,d,
>r
- .n
. .
Chapter 4
Swellengrebel and species sanitation, the design of an idea
J.P. Verhave
Introduction
Genera principles of malaria control were established as soon as the role of
anophehnes in transmitting the disease was discovered. The specialized control
method, which is the subject of this review, assumed its shape after several of
these measures had failed locally. Here we attempt to trace its conception, larval
growth pupal rearrangements and final emergence as a full grown idea as it
occurred in the Indonesian Archipelago. A selection from writings of the central
figure, the zoologist Nicolaas Hendrik Swellengrebel, in his particular style,
gives a vivid impression of visionary science. The genesis of his ideas took place
in three phases: the chance confrontation with malaria control in The Nether1017 Foiowk'65 (1*9I3); the preconceived investigations in the Archipelago
(1917-1919), the malaria control in The Netherlands (1920-1960).
The first stage
Ptr°feS^>r,J J: 7." Loghem’ director of the new department of Tropical Hygiene
of the Colonial Institute, Amsterdam, recruited Swellengrebel in 1911 to teach
protozoology The zoologist, 27 years of age at the time, had studied biology
ln PariS’ at the Institut Pasteur- under Professor
■ 7 • In 2°S he d‘d hlS PhD studles °n potato diseases under Professor Lang
in Zurich. He was nominated lecturer in protozoology at the University of
Amsterdam and subsequently carried out postdoctoral work in Professor Nut
tall s department in Cambridge. In 1912 he completed a second edition of the
handbook of parasitology by Sluiter and participated in courses for the training
of government physicians selected to work in the colonies.
In 1912 Swellengrebel himself was sent to the Netherlands East Indies to lead
the control programme of plague, under the auspices of the Civil Medical Ser
vice, founded in 1911. When his term was over he was charged with staying
and collecting biological and pathological specimens for the educational mu
seum of the department m Amsterdam. Swellengrebel travelled to Deli (Sumara) where he collaborated with Dr. W. Kuenen in studies on amoebae. He
earned a great deal about clinical, tropical hygienic and control aspects of para
sitic protozoa from Kuenen and planned to use this knowledge in an update
of Sluiters handbook on parasites (which he issued in 1923).
Since the discovery of the role of anophelines in malaria transmission, several
studies had been undertaken in the Netherlands East Indies, which were mostly
published in the Geneeskundig Tijdschnft voor Nederlandsch-Indie’. SwellenIVageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
grebel knew the authors and must have had a general knowledge of their work,
although he had no special interest in malaria.
Dr. Terburgh, military physician and later inspector of the Civil Medical Ser
vice in East-Java, had been sent to Italy as early as 1903 to study malaria control;
in 1904 he had recommended the prophylactic use of quinine and, if possible,
clearing of marshes and regulating the water drainage. Around Jakarta [Batavia]
general sanitation works had been carried out. There Dr. Kiewiet de Jonge had
reported on his search for breeding places, fish ponds and rice fields, and how
to make them unsuitable for anopheline larvae (1908). Except for combatting
epidemics he saw no possibility to control malaria among the local population
by quinine prophylaxis. The hopelessness of the prospect of quininisation was
later confirmed by Terburgh (1919). Back in Holland Kiewiet de Jonge pleaded
for better education of physicians in protozoology, a job with which Swellengrebel was charged. Dr. De Vogel, Resident and physician in Semarang, had found
that certain anophelines were adapted to water with a high degree of salinity
(1906); one of these mosquito species appeared to be an efficient vector of mala
ria (1909). Despite De Vogels’ complaint that literature was difficult to come
by, he had set the trend for research in the years to come.
By the time of Swellengrebel’s stay. De Vogel was Chief Inspector Civil Medi
cal Service and thus his superior. Swellengrebel conveyed to his parents that
discussions with De Vogel were very enlightening. After the initial discoveries
of malaria being transmitted by mosquitoes, and indeed, by Anopheles, aware
ness was growing that only certain species of Anopheles transmit the malaria
parasite.
At that time Swellengrebel also met Schiiffner, physician of the Senembah
Tobacco Company, who was interested in the biological and clinical aspects
of malaria and its prevention (Schiiffner, 1902). To his parents Swellengrebel
wrote meticulously about his activities and whereabouts. Although malaria was
hardly mentioned in his correspondence, he made series of blood smears from
patients in Medan with quartan malaria and began a study of the relatively
little known parasite. He was more interested in the protozoa than in the insects
which transmitted them.
Then, in Medan, Swellengrebel met someone else...
In a letter to his parents from Medan, March 12th, 1913 he wrote (*)'
From Thursday till Monday ht had a visit by an Englishman from Malaysia, who
had been controlling malaria there. The strange thing is that whilst malaria is
so bad in Malaysia (close by), it hardly occurs here. Thus, he wants to know
why this was so and it appeared that those anopheline species that transmit malaria
in Malaysia, do not occur here at all. One doesn't know why. Maybe it is because
Malaysia has a granite ground and here there is a volcanic soil that pollutes and
troubles the water, inhibiting Anopheles to live in it. For him it’s of course of
majc
also in
I went
phel
M
been si
near
mel)
the Fet
phel»n<
inde
malt
and m
govc
tion
therein
in com
resp
with
which i
S\
later
Hygier
!
!
Kuei
entei
talk Ai
no n
told
and I i
Of WL'’.
amo
nial vo
so; halj
ingr
It
1
problei
same
we s
tO shui\
our oh
o/ tl
first
malari<
I
!
1 All marked (*) citations are translated by the author (J.P.V.); Otherwise the citations were originally
written in English and cited without attempting to correct the English.
64
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (19901
i^S^-
nr work.
ledical Sercontrol:
possible,
a [Batavia]
Jonge had
ind how
nbatting
population
ion was
pleaded
>wellengrehad found
salinity
. ?f malailt to come
.
il Mediirents that
Jiscoveries
i awaremalaria
lembah
aspects
'llengrebel
>’laria was
rs from
Jatively
the insects
;
)'
: ia, who
t.^laria is
s to know
' nalaria
- because
Hutes and
'‘''urse of
re originally
7 (1990)
major importance to know the ins and outs of it and thus, Strickland (who is now
also in Malaysia) will probably come over to investigate the case more closely...
I went with the Englishman to the rice paddies in the neighbourhood to catch anopheline larvae.
Malcolm Watson, of whose work apparently no one in Deli was aware, had
been supervising the general sanitation of Klang and Port Swettenham in the
nearby Malay States. The resulting decrease of malaria was achieved at extre
mely high costs. In 1911 he had published his book "Prevention of Malaria in
the Federated Malay States’ in which he described that different species of anophelines occur in the plains of Malaya. On the basis of their natural infection
index he concluded that only Anopheles umbrosus was responsible for the local
malaria transmission. It bred in the forest and Watson had found that spleen
and mortality rates decreased in people who lived away from the forest. The
government decided to clear the forest within 0.5 mile from the houses of planta
tion labourers. Water reservoirs outside that area and the anophelines breeding
therein could be ignored from then on, which meant a considerable reduction
in control expenditure. Watson found that another mosquito, A. maculatus, was
responsible for malaria transmission in the hills. This species bred in clear brooks
with fast-running water. He suggested subsoil drainage as a measure of control,
which had an immediate effect.
Swellengrebel described the encounter with Watson in Deli thirty-seven years
later in a lecture presented at the London School of Tropical Medicine &
Hygiene as follows (1950):
Kuenen, director of the laboratory for pathology in Medan (eastern Sumatra),
entered my room one day in May 1913, and inquired if, as he expressed it, I could
talk Anopheles. Without the least feeling of shame I was able to say that I could
no more talk Anopheles than I could talk Egyptian. Neither could Kuenen. He
told me he had been interviewed by a man from the other side', meaning Malaya,
and I had better come and talk to him, as Kuenen could not make head or tail
of what he was saying. We were both deeply immersed in the subject of dysentery
amoebae, and much resented having to turn our attention to anything so unconge
nial as Anopheles. However, the sacred duties of hospitality compelled us to do
so; half-heartedly at first, with our whole heart and mind once we had succeeded
in grasping Sir Malcolm's meaningfor I need not tell you that he was our visitor.
It was rather a shock to him, I believe, to find that malaria was not a major health
problem in that part of Sumatra, but Schaffner, to whom we introduced him the
same afternoon, convinced him that we knew what we were talking about when
we said it was not. We took him around through various parts of the province,
to show him whatever small foci of malaria there were to be seen. He showed us
our own Anopheles, adults and larvae, and introduced us to the first principles
of that field of entomology. Shortly after he left, Schuffner and I gathered the
first fruits of Watson’s tuition, by collecting A. leucosphyrus in houses in the only
malarious spot in the neighbourhood, and nowhere else...
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
65
■
ESHfr
^WL
' ■■ -'«f!
... .-
A few weeks afterwards, De Vogel, Director of Health for the whole of Indonesia,
came to us for a short visit. He was on his way to Sibolga, an important seaport
on the west coast of Sumatra, where a serious malaria epidemic had broken out.
We told him all about Watson’s work in Malaya. I am afraid it was not all quite
accurate, the information we gave him... He was so much impressed by all this
that he got it in his head that we knew a great deal about the subject. As a matter
offact, he himself and Schuffner were the only ones who had ever before occupied
themselves with it. Of the three of us Schuffner, Kuenen and myself, I was the
only one who was under De Vogel’s orders, and so it was I who had to accompany
him on hisfive days ’ crossing of the island of Sumatra [ to Sibolga]...
For his parents Swellengrebel recorded on April 20th, 1913 (*):
Practically everyone falls ill here (ifyou don't take 0.5 gram quinine per day prophylactically, as De Vogel and I do). Malaria reaches out into the town: masses
of anopheline larvae in saltwater puddles in parts that are incompletely filled up.
Further filling up would, at least initially, create many breeding places. More mos
quitoes, more parasite carriers, more malaria right into the European quarters!
Thefurther offthe less malaria. But larvae are alsofound in the paddies: apparently
these were not so dangerous earlier. They must disappear in order to allow for
expansion of the town on behalf of the Europeans.
Naturally, all these plans, based upon our investigations on malaria and anophelines, are carried out technically by an engineer, if it appears at all possible, finan
cially and otherwise... Furthermore, I have got an apprehension of the course of
a campaign for malaria control andfinally I became really able to assist De Vogel
with the determination, collection etc. of mosquitoes.
And during a lecture on malaria-epidemiology, in 1916 for the Netherlands
Society for the Advancement of Science, Medicine and Surgery, he recalled the
situation as follows (*):
The health situation there was so bad and the continual evacuation of officials
was so detrimental, that the transfer of the site of local administration to another
place was contemplated... the malaria was a direct obstacle for the development
of this seaport.
One year later he and Schuffner wrote in an article on anophelines and malaria
in Deli (*):
Behind the heavily infected quarter of the Europeans were rice paddies, where
Myzorrhynchus sinensis breeds. Yet, the danger doesn't hide there, because — as
Schuffner demonstrated- this mosquito does not transmit pernicious malaria (the
almost exclusive type in Sibolga). The source of the evil was the partly filled up
marsh in another section of the town, where Myzomyia vaga (ludlowi) occurred
in large quantities, a mosquito that, according to the investigations by De Vogel
and Christophers, also transmits perniciosa.
The species differentiation of the anophelines is of importance for the practice
of malaria control.
Swellengrebel evaluated the situation further in his lecture for the London
School in 1950:
Failing to find maculatus, we turned our attention to sundaicus (or ludlowi
66
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
I
I
c
c
did
e~'\
r.
fror.
a
i
t
\
Dr.
i
b
i
Sic}(
rect<
L .
n
full)
of Indonesia,
rtant seaport
iad broken out.
not all quite
•d by all this
As a matter
before occupied
If, I was the
) accompany
per day proe town: masses
letely filled up.
More mosan quarters!
'ies; apparently
to allow for
ia and anophe•Jossible, finanhe course of
'st De Vogel
Netherlands
recalled the
on of officials
? to another
levelopment
nd malaria
'addies, where
• because - as
mlaria (the
1. :ly filled up
owi) occurred
> p De Vogel
r the practice
i
le London
s (or ludlowi
r90-7 (1990)
”•
’ik'
h
rtf
11
Photo 5 Dr. Schiiffner and the Swellengrebels in Loeboeg Sikaping (Sumatra), May 1918.
(source: photo archives Dr. Sweilengrebel, private collection)
as it was then called). At that time it derived its only claim to be ranked as a
vector from Christophers’ investigations in the Andamans; Malayan experience
did not lend much support to the claim and was hardly taken seriously. But the
epidemic was certainly caused by sundaicus. It was the old story over again: man
made malaria, this time by trying to improve health conditions by attacking man
grove swamps... It had been done on the false assumption that the smell arising
from mangrove swamps is deleterious to health; a tragic mistake which caused
all the mischief it tried to prevent: breeding places of sundaicus appeared and
malaria with it.
Dr. Watson invented the method of malaria control to which he afterwards allowed
me to give the name of‘species sanitation’, that is, reducing the incidence of malaria
by making use of the habits of one species of Anopheles.
Sibolga became the first example in Indonesia of malaria control consciously di
rected against one species of Anopheles. It was not a clear-cut example, because
it came to comprise a general welfare scheme, with new town quarters requiring
much wider drainage than was necessary in order to deal with sundaicus success
fully. The plan more and more...lost its character ofspecies sanitation. ‘
Sweilengrebel took the chance of further training in entomology by assisting
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
67
‘
-
--
-
’
• . ..
Schiiffner in Medan. From there he wrote to his parents on May 26 and July
24, 1913 (*):
Have been catching mosquitoes together with Schiiffner on the Senembah Comp.,
where malaria is frequent. Of course, as always long searches in vain. Finally we
found breeding places of anophelines near coolie houses and the mosquito itself
inside those houses. We imagine so freely, that Anopheles breeds everywhere in
a malarious area; nothing is less true, it sometimes takes ones utmost to find the
breeding places. Puddles everywhere, mosquito larvae nowhere; then all ofa sudden
you run into a pool, just like the others, riddled with larvae. Not all anopheline
species transmit malaria, that is something to take into account. Of the species
that we found yesterday it is not yet known; therefore, the cause of malaria at
the Tandjong Morawa estate is not yet completely clear.
My article with Schiiffner is finished. Earlier on, malaria was rare here and
now it is strongly on the increase. In those days Schiiffner investigated the anophe
lines here and during our present studies there appear to occur species that weren 7
here earlier. Firm conclusions not yet possible, but significance demonstrated of
a careful study of the anopheline fauna, not only here but in the whole archipelago.
It is an 'Anregung’ for a study on which nowadays the whole malaria control in
other countries is based, but that is very much neglected here, through the insuffi
cient education oj the physicians. I know that De Vogel thinks along similar lines.
In their report on malaria and mosquitoes Swellengrebel and Schiiffner (1914;
1917) stated that tertian malaria was everywhere, pernicious malaria along the
coast and quartan malaria in the hills. Although the authors described several
species, knowledge was lacking to determine which mosquito species were res
ponsible for malaria transmission in these areas. They saw enormous advantages
in knowing the 'pern*ciousness' of the various species to enable sanitation mea
sures to be taken.
Intermission
Directly after his return to Amsterdam Swellengrebel was appointed head of
the zoological laboratory, and his superior. Van Loghem urged him to concen
trate on getting the educational collection in order; ‘the study of anophelines
can come later '. But it remained an urgent matter as well, because he wrote to
Dr Malcolm Watson, then on leave in Scotland: ‘Dr Swellengrebel has returned
from Sumatra and will tell you everything we know and especially the things we
do not know about Anopheles in Java and Sumatra. He will also give you a short
report about the distribution of malaria, but I am sure that it will not be verv
complete. ’
On February 6th 1914 Van Loghem presented to the board of directors his
motives to have Swellengrebel study anophelines with Prof. Theobald in Eng
land, then the world’s leading mosquito taxonomist.
It has appeared necessary to perform the determination of anopheline mosquitoes
as precisely as possible: one species can play an important role, whilst another
species remains irrelevant. This correct distinction is of course of great practical
68
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
in
first
exon
an
nh
lions
Tl
In m
ab
a i._
conti
tie
an
pheli
it i
be....
inspii
lar
on ai
aft"*gn
bec^t
the S
lan
Mt
sanit;
the ~
im
by
in the
len
in
the re
Lit ’
it c
Schui
Th<
par
tor
mosq
I
26 and July
lembah Comp.,
":n. Finally we
osquito itself
everywhere in
tost to find the
ll ofa sudden
ll anopheline
Of the species
f malaria at
rare here and
ted the anophethat weren ’t
onstrated of
le archipelago.
ia control in
h the insuffir similar lines.
huffner (1914;
ia along the
ibed several
ecies were resadvantages
ration mea-
inted head of
to concenanophelines
se he wrote to
'z has returned
e things H’<?
. _ you a short
7/ not he very
irectors his
obald in Eng-
mosquitoes
'..list another
real practical
s 90-7 11990)
importance for control, as it determines which breeding places of mosquitoes are
first to be eligible for destruction. According to this experience Dr. de Vogel has
expressed the necessity to reach as soon as possible a complete overview of the
anophelines in the Indian Archipelago, which has to be used as a lead in the local
malaria control. Dr. Swellengrebel is ready to perform the necessary determina
tions. ..
The onset of the war prevented his trip.
In May 1914 Van Loghem was asked to advise the Minister for the Colonies
about the intended sanitation of Surabaya. Some members of parliament wanted
a more aggressive approach, impressed by the American successes of malaria
control in Panama, Cuba and the Philippines. Van Loghem pointed to the activi
ties of Terburgh in Surabaya, who reported in 1912 on the sanitation of Japara
and the installation of a malaria brigade, through which breeding places of anophelines were detected.
Malaria was to be studied locally: 'as not every anopheline transmits malaria,
it is necessary to know what is the local vector and its breeding sites. This should
be the basisfor choosing appropriate sanitation measures ’. This advice, apparently
inspired by Swellengrebel, was rewarded with an extra Dll 300.000 for the ma
laria control in Surabaya.
In the next year Swellengrebel set himself to the desired systematical work
on anophelines and prepared a series of paintings of the described mosquitoes;
after being drafted for the army he continued in his free time to write a mono
graph on the anophelines of the Netherlands Indies. Some haste was needed,
because one species on his list had just been described by somebody else from
the Straits! It appeared in May 1916 under the title ‘De Anophelinen van Nederlandsch Indie’.
Meanwhile he reviewed an article by Walker & Barber and a book on rural
sanitation by Malcolm Watson, in which he found support for his ideas about
the need for study of the anopheline fauna in the Dutch East Indies and the
importance of knowing which species transmits in a particular area.
By this time Dr. De Vogel thought the time ripe for a more thorough study
in the Archipelago. In his answer of 27 July 1916 Van Loghem stated that Swel
lengrebel could only be missed for a short period. He was to arrange his activities
in such a way that he develop a research principle, and leave the execution of
the research to others.
Little was known about transmitting species. In the preparation of his work
it came handy that a preliminary report on malaria research in Mandailing by
Schiiffner was received in Amsterdam.
The situation in the interior of Sumatra was serious; one in four people carried
parasites, half of the pernicious form Plasmodium falciparum. The exclusive vec
tor for the latter was A. ludlowi, surprisingly, because elsewhere it was a coastal
mosquito. Its breeding places were unknown; certainly not the fish ponds...
Local authorities had enforced strict rules for general sanitation by cleaning
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990 )
69
'
;8
the dwelling places; this as well as other alternatives (compulsory use of quinine
or bednets, regulated rice culture and petrolisation of the water) had become
burdens and failures.
Schuffner introduced a new form of sanitation, only based on the extermination
of anophelines inside the houses. He instructed the people to catch anophelines
daily, particularly the fed ones.
Swellengrebel recalled this unusual approach in his London lecture of 1950
as follows:
w
Fi
Oi’-
Hr
in^^
Cone
Al
lai
that
Schuffner taught the people to recognize Anopheles, he taught the schoolchildren
to identify sundaicus, hyrcanus, annularis, aconitus and vagus. On visiting a vil
lage for spleens and parasites, the first ceremony enacted was the schoolmaster,
with some of his senior wranglers, appearing on the scene, carrying bamboo tubes
containing freshly caught specimens of each... Each village head-man of certain
selected villages had to deliver the early morning’s catch to the malaria laboratory,
where every catch was identified and registered. Conscientious villages could be
known by the majority of sundaicus, the principal house-haunting mosquito. Lazy
villages showed more hyrcanus; they hadfound out that it is easier to make catches
in the carabao sheds.
The first year (1916) it looked as if Schuffner might succeed. The next year the
plan miscarried, because the Central Government stepped in by declaring this pro
cedure illegal, being tantamount to enforced labour...
br
then
took
ev
motl
Su
Pi
or ut
breec
ne
mi
The second stage
fresh
cu
of
Swellengrebel had recently married a schoolteacher, Meta de Graaf, and Profes
sor Van Loghem urged the couple to go together on this trip to the East. Young
Mrs. Swellengrebel could give her husband a hand in his work on identifying
malaria vectors and establishing guidelines for malaria control. Directly after
their arrival in February 1917, they were received by Dr. de Vogel, who gave
his vision on the expected work: 'You are to find out what species of Anopheles
occur in these islands. We know already, from experience in Malaya, which are
vectors and which are not. That is no concern of yours. You simply give me lists
ofnames of Anopheles in every locality you visit. That is all we require ofyou’.
Indeed, a period of travelling lay ahead, the length of which was by no means
clear, nor were the plans; it turned out to be half a year in Java, one year in
Sumatra, with a short trip to Malaysia, and again more than a year in Java,
with a long trip to the eastern part of the Archipelago. What became obvious
from the very beginning was, that Swellengrebel had made up his own mind
when it came to the actual investigations.
In a letter to his mother, from Batavia, 15 February, 1917, he wrote (*):
De Vogel wants me to design a regulation, by which all native doctors throughout
the Dutch Indies are supposed to catch mosquitoes and send them to Amsterdam.
Furthermore, he wants me to visit a number of places and do explorative work.
I told him that in my opinion the latter should come first, because the experience
Th
fish i
br
nil
lion
the h
nu
thi
avera
thi '
co
rema
san'*
stc
As ..
local
70
Wa
is jec.
saltv\
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
!-•- -
gained would be helpful in the setting up of that regulation. He agreed and thus
we go out, firstly to Tjilatjap at the south coast ofJava.
From there, he wrote on March 18, 1917 to Van Loghem (*):
Our work consists of: 1) exploring the breeding places and determining the anophelines of those places, 2) taking the spleen sizes in hamlets, 3) catching anophelines
inside the houses and dissectingfor natural infection.
Concerning item 1) Ifind it convenient to use the larvae for species determination.
As a control I allow them to emerge, but it always tallies. Unfortunately, not all
larvae of our D.I. anophelines are known. Meanwhile, this is such a convenience,
that I have to strive with all my force to fill in this lacuna.
In Tjilatjap no infected mosquitoes were found, though the common ludlowi.
breeding in saltwater marshes was suspect; the proof was easily found during
their subsequent stay in Cheribon (west coast of Java) where a ravaging epidemic
took place: 35% of caught ludlowi was found infected, the very first documented
evidence that this species was a highly efficient vector!
Their next stop was Surabaya on the north coast; Swellengrebel wrote to his
mother on July 1st, 1917 (*):
Surabaya has to expand and the edge is very unhealthy; this needs improvement.
Puddles are everywhere, partly fresh, partly salt. Are all those puddles dangerous,
or only the saltwater ones? In the saltwater puddles and in the freshwater ones
breed different mosquitoes. Which of those species transmit malaria here? It was
necessary to examine a large number of mosquitoes for this. We examined 740
mosquitoes of the saltwater species and found 69 infected with malaria; oj the
freshwater species we examined 634 andfound 3 infected. So, the freshwater spe
cies is not completely harmless, but yet less dangerous. It is impossible to get rid
of all puddles in Surabaya, but for the saltwater puddles (former fish ponds) it
is feasible, indeed. Fairly whole-heartedly we could advise here: do away with the
saltwater breeding places only and leave the rest.
To Van Loghem he reported on October 2nd, 1917 (*):
The big sanitation plans are intended to have that part of the broad stretch of
fish ponds bordering the city of Surabaya to disappear. M. ludlowi and M. rossii
breed in those fish ponds. Further away from the coast breed M. rossii, M. indefinita, M. sinensis, M. barbirostris, N. fuliginosus andM. aconita. Now the ques
tion was: does one take away the dangerous anophelines with this sanitation? In
the hamlets with malaria... particularly M. ludlowi occurred; the next one in
numbers is M. rossii... For investigation of the natural infection we focussed on
these two... The infection rate of thefirst species was 2-22% (in different hamlets)
averaging 9%; that of the last one averaged 0.6%... aconita remained a gap in
the study; it is a species that generally is considered very dangerous, but that was
collected here, during our work, in insufficient numbers... Thus, the question
remained, whether one wouldn’t keep the enemy in the rear, with the proposed
sanitation; this seems the more a danger since the aconita (as I now understand)
starts to increase in numbers after our departure.
As we had found out that for one and the same species this index is subject to
local changes... we had to determine it anew for ludlowi in Mandailing. This pre-
quinine
become
i
lination
phelines
of 1950
oolchildren
ng a vil1 [master,
nboo tubes
i ^certain
1 oratory,
could be
juito. Lazy
catches
v/ year the
*his pro-
Profesist. Young
^-ntifying
ly after
who gave
Xnopheles
lich are
me lists
ifyou.
> means
i year in
u m Java,
ie obvious
n mind
(*):
nighout
1 terdam.
rive work,
ixnerience
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
7(1990)
i
71
"...
!
caution appeared not superfluous, as the index was only 3% for 1800 examined
ludlowi.
With the huge excess of ludlowi occurring here in the houses, one would think
it not difficult to find larvae in corresponding quantities. This is, however, not the
case. My wife found only 50 ludlowi among thousands of anopheline larvae, parti
cularly in the (freshwater) fish ponds. Here, we are facing an as yet unsolved
problem.
Working in Tandjong Morawa, near Medan, Swellengrebel wrote to his
mother on November 18th, 1917 (*):
On Thursday, October 18th, we went to Sibolga, where I was in 1913 during that
severe malaria epidemic, together with De Vogel. The situation there is much better
now, let us hope thanks to the very expensive sanitation measures. A lot has been
done, but not yet enough, Ifear. How much better could I have helped De Vogel,
when I had known then, what I know now! Still, the difference between the para
lysed town of 1913 and Sibolga of 1917 is enormous... But that sort of improve
ments may happen in malarious areas also without any measures!
In another letter on New Year's Day, 1918, to his mother, he confided (*):
How little one can rely on some statementsfrom other countries, may appear from
the following: Watson, the man who actually brought us to study mosquitoes in
1913, claimed that a certain mosquito, umbrosus, living in the forests of lowland
Malaysia, was the most important vector. By cutting the primeval forest one can
get rid both oj that mosquito and the malaria. If unsuccessful, that was always
due to aforgotten piece offorest somewhere. Now, Watson has never really checked
whether this umbrosus actually allows the malaria parasite to grow in her body.
He saw the malaria often in the neighbourhood of umbrosus and not or less near
other mosquitoes, and said then that the umbrosus must be the culprit. We have
now done many experiments with this umbrosus, taking care that in every experi
ment also some good vectors (ludlowi) were included: irefound out that the umbro
sus is one of the least susceptible vectors and only incidentally allows the benign
form ofmalaria parasites to grow inside.
We are inclined to assume, that in Malaysia the situation is not different, that
Watson was thus mistaken and that the results he obtained were only sham results;
thus, the malaria he combatted did not disappear because of his measures, but
through one oj those, to us so mysterious conditions that make the malaria disap
pear without human influence, for good or for some time, from a place were it
prevailed so vividly. So many a measure, in itself utterly aimless, has obtained
an odour ofsanctity by this accidental meeting.
During a visit to Dr. Stanton, director of the Medical Laboratory in Kuala
Lumpur (the one who in 1914 had described a new mosquito species from Suma
tra) Swellengrebel was confirmed in his critical attitude about the approach of
malaria control in the neighbouring country. To his mother he wrote from there
on May 22th, 1918 (*):
Based on infection experiments with several anophelines biting on malaria patients,
he concluded that almost all anophelines can be infected if only all circumstances
are optimally favourable. That is why Stanton thinks that all anophelines are danWagenin^en Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990}
g
IVe
P
con
H
tl
of r
t!
it
is U!
B
P
tc
Ter
T
Oj
den
the
ai
L
brec
th
th
but
No\
th
Vog
th
bl
tion
Tr
as
The
aj.
ut
ingi
In t‘
lu
re^..
seen
us
■
Or.-.-.: -
r 1800 examined
'S, one would think
however, not the
line larvae, parti
al as yet unsolved
»W
-
?el wrote to his
in 1913 during that
‘h.?re is much better
•s. A lot has been
e helped De Vogel,
• between the para
sort of improveic confided (*):
may appearfrom
ly mosquitoes in
/ orests of lowland
eval
forest one can
'YU
■
that was always
er really checked
grow in her body.
I not or less near
?ulprit. We have
at in every experiut that the umbroHows the benign
not different, that
dv sham results;
s measures, hut
the malaria disapmt a place were it
s, has obtained
>oratory in Kuala
■ "ies from Sumahe approach of
wrote from there
lalaria patients,
circumstances
ophelines are danPapers 90-7 (1990)
gerous and thus it makes no sense to discriminate between species.
We had chosen a completely different route in our investigations. Though we had
done similar experiments, mostly we had emphasized the question, not ‘which anophelines can transmit malaria ’, but: ‘which anophelines actually do this in nature
Apart from that, he was (rightly) very critically disposed towards the malaria
control in British Malaysia. He particularly opposed the blunt way of going on
with sanitation: knowing the mosquitoes and not caring about the people. I mean,
they omit the examination of spleen and blood, ‘piece de resistance’ of our way
of working, either completely or they do only a bit of spleen examination. Thus,
they have no idea how the situation was before the sanitation, nor do they know
it afterwards... Stanton said: Tn Kuala Lumpur and Port Swettenham malaria
is abolished by act of Parliament ’. It isforbidden to get malaria in those places'...
Back in Java, the Swellengrebels were sent to Semarang, a city in the coastal
plains and from time immemorial, very unhealthy because of malaria. In a letter
to mother Swellengrebel on October Sth, 1918, the activities of their predecessors
Terburgh and De Vogel were recalled (*):
Terburgh wanted to sanitate the plain by clearing away all anophelines in a belt
of500 meters around the city, thinking that mosquitoes wouldn ’t trespass the bor
derline. Inside the city all breeding places had to be cleared. The fish ponds along
the coast, when kept tidy, were considered harmless and thus not given further
attention in this plan.
De Vogel did not agree, because he thought that this zone of500 meters without
breeding places would not hold out the mosquitoes. He considered sanitation of
the plain unfeasible because of the high costs involved. He thus proposed to have
the population move to the nearby malaria-free hilly area (not only the Europeans
hut also the natives). This last plan was accepted in principal by the town council...
Nowadays, after about 10 years, many Europeans live already in the hills, but
there are only 2 small new hamlets created by moved natives.
A government doctor has found a high mortality there and also anophelines... De
Vogel could not leave this situation unchallenged... He wanted to have the case
thoroughly investigated and in the approved manner (examination of spleens and
blood); that’s why he had us come over from Sumatra to undertake this investiga
tion.
In their report on the occurrence of malaria and anophelines at Semarang
(Swellengrebel & Swellengrebel-de Graaf, 1919c), the Swellengrebels reported
as follows:
The uncertainty still prevailing on the cause offoothill malaria, prevents us from
applying a really rational sanitation in this district. If one does not want to wait
until matters are elucidated, then it will be necessary to do away with all the breed
ing places.
In the plain, along the coast, the conditions are otherwise. There ive know M.
ludlowi to be the cardinal carrier, which up to the present time is almost absolutely
restricted to saltwater. Here a sanitation especially directed against this species
seems to be indicated, although we should not forget that it possibly might surprise
us in a disagreeable way, by, after the saltwater breeding places having been cleared
IVageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
73
/•
■
■■
-
is not appropriate, because these sorts do not have sufficiently specialized demands
with regard to their breeding places, and because the fact of doing away with the
preferred breeding places would interfere too much with the area's economical life.
In the present stadium of our knowledge about these species, we can only recom
mend general sanitation as the means of combating their larvae.
2. In view of the specificity of its breeding places, and also because of the extraor
dinary danger o/ludlowi, much greater than met with in any other anopheline
till now, specific sanitation [species-assaineering] i.e. doing away with its saltwater
breeding places, might be considered appropriate. However it should only be
regarded as a trial, that is: as a modus of sanitation which does not from the onset
hold out a promise of success, but which should be considered to be an essential
part of the investigation to be made in regard of the definite sanitation, and which
has to be made in order to elucidate all the questions and doubts mentioned before.
Towards the end of the work Swellengrebel wrote an article on his malaria
research for the Netherlands Journal of Medicine (1920b) in which he summa
rized his views on sanitation(*):
It would be unjust to think that malaria in the Neth. East Indies is only a matter
of investigation, thereby forgetting control through sanitation. The actual imple
mentation was not part of my job and the BGD has not yet judged the time as
appropriate for giving directions. Yet different sanitation projects are already in
various stages ofaccomplishment.
We conclude from our studies that:
1. Ubiquitous anophelines are the least suitable for sanitation (i.e. An. indefmitaj.
2. Serious malaria foci inland, caused by An. aconitus and An. maculatus are
least accessible with sanitation (sawahs, irrigation canals). A better regulation
of rice culture is recommended.
3. Life habits of An. sundaicus are more favourable for species sanitation: it has
a future here, more than anywhere else.
4. Among other control measures (i.e. catching mosquitoes inside houses, oiling
of water, use of predatory fish, screening of houses, improvement of nutritional
status, increase of living distancefrom breeding sites, zooprophylaxis, and protec
tive chemotherapy of schoolchildren), particularly chemotherapy would aid the
decrease ofmalaria.
At the end of their term the Swellengrebels were very well appreciated by
Dr. De Vogel, who had read their regular reports ‘like a novel’ and had taken
the initiative for a handy booklet for health personnel, to perform malaria stud
ies, and charged Schuffner and Swellengrebel to write it (1918). De Vogel also
had pleaded for a second edition of‘De Anophelinen van Nederlandsch-Indie’.
Van Loghem allowed Swellengrebel to publish an addendum in 1919 (Swellen
grebel, 1919a), whilst the second edition appeared in 1921 (and a third in 1932).
However, not everyone was enthousiastic about this. In 1919 there was a pro
fessional opposition which was voiced in the parliament of the Netherlands East
Indies. Older members of the profession had always looked askance at doctors
busying themselves with mosquitoes: "their entomological pretensions, their bick
ering in entomology'. And at a meeting of hygienists De Raadt showed his pesWageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 ( J990)
. J
s
S
7
0/
tL
To
w
T
M/
T.
TI
wi
'iax
Bi
ail
di
ized demands
niY/v with the
economical life,
(•"n only recom-
■.
i ../the extraor>ther anopheline
i i its saltwater
ouId only he
>1 from the onset
< L an essential
m, and which
Cndoned before.
■ on his malaria
i he summais only a matter
h ictual impleI the time as
.s ure already in
indefinitay.
maculatus are
? "/• regulation
nutation: it has
'< oases, oiling
i f nutritional
xis, and protecould aid the
simism about species-directed sanitation, and rejected the method because there
was not enough information. He called for an extensive research throughout
the Archipelago, surprisingly at the time of the activities of the Swellengrebels
and Schiiffner, Van Breemen in Batavia/Tandjong Priok and Mangkoe Winoto
in West Java.
On the way back home Sweilengrebel summarized the work he had accom
plished together with his wife and the ideas about control that had emerged,
for the head of the Department of Tropical Hygiene of the Colonial Institute(*):
The most important result that our study has yielded, in our opinion, is the insight
into the relative dangerousness of the various anophelines and particularly into
the unexpected importance of M. ludlowi, which earlier was known as a more
or less doubtful vector, hut not as the ubiquitously dangerous, first class transmitter
that wefound this mosquito to be... Investigations about the biology of the anophe
lines taught us that the various species are by far not so specifically adapted in
their requirements for breeding places, and that species sanitation is out of the
question for most species.
This is, however, not the casefor the very specialized ludlowifor the extermination
of which species sanitation seems appropriate, although one needs to he prepared
for disappointments even here.
And in a popular cultural journal in the Indies, he wrote about the prospects
for malaria control and species sanitation (1920b):
The knowledge that in the coastal areas only Anopheles ludlowi. breeding in salt
water, was a dangerous vector, made a simplified sanitation possible, a so-called
‘Species sanitationthis was directed against the breeding places ofone Anopheles
species, whilst all others could he neglected.
The prospects of sanitation have become definitely more favorable for all areas
where the Anopheles \\i(Wov7'\-transmit ted malaria occurs, due to the results of
the modern investigations. Sanitation is in various stages ofpreparation or progress
in different places along the coast: Batavia, Semarang, Surabaya, Tjilatjap and
Tegal. In Sibolga it is virtually completed and the results are very favorable until
now.
The Sweilengrebel ‘School’
appreciated by
and had taken
r lalaria stud! Vogel also
landsch-Indie'.
19 (Swelleni rd in 1932).
:iere was a pro^herlands East
i e at doctors
'L-.j, their hiekhowed his pes
rs 90-7 (1990)
Swellengrebel did not assume it his duty to express clear ideas about the organi
sation of malaria control. Until 1924 there was no special malaria organisation
within the Medical Service, unlike the situation in the Malay States. Yet Christo
phers, one of the important malariologists in British India, concluded after
attending a meeting of the Far Eastern Association of Tropical Medicine in
Batavia in 1921. that malaria had taken a very important place in the research
work in the Dutch Indies (Christophers & Harvey, 1922). By then it had become
clear that it is necessary that almost every malaria-sanitation be preceded by
an investigation of the vector and its biological circumstances on the spot. Coor
dinated by the Central Malaria Bureau, the results of species sanitation further
accumulated (De Vogel. 1929).
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
77
Sir Malcolm Watson later judged a particular application of species sanitation
in the Netherlands Indies: this brilliant application of scientific research in 1928
is an illustration of the control of malaria by changes in the chemical composition
I anticiPated 1910 might be seen byfuture generations (Watson,
ane
ThL .
confid
exa
inve
It is
late- u
Buc
Swellengrebel had established a school of thought, and from then on he took
a leading role in the malaria control activities in The Netherlands. One of his
students, W. Essed, reported on the sanitation of Banjoewangi, which he coined
as ‘a perfect example of species-sanitation in the sense of Swellengrebel’ (Essed,
1932a). Swellengrebel had suggested already in 1917 that composite species
might exist, including sub-species as yet unidentified, but this was dismissed
by the most influential member of the profession in Batavia as ‘trying to find
a loop-hole to save a theory which had been untenablefrom the outsef (Swellengre
bel, 1950).
The problems of splitting anopheline species encountered in The Netherlands,
gave him the opportunity to compare his earlier and later experiences, in the
Medical Journal of the Dutch Indies (*) (Swellengrebel, 1934) and the Bulletin
of the Colonial Institute (Swellengrebel, 1937):
Watson inspired the investigators in the Dutch East Indies by his example. Whether
he was right in every respect is not relevant. Fortunately, the Malaysian example
was not taken for granted in the Dutch Indies. The experiences of Sibolga and
Mandaihng, as well as the phenomenal infection figure of 35°/0 were necessary
for us to appreciate the importance o/ludlowi. Its significance, together with the
stringent demands it presents to its breeding places, have made it the most graceful
subject of species sanitation, as soon as the hygienic exploitation of the fish ponds
had paved the way for it. Of Watsons wide gesture: ‘umbrosus and maculatus
matter, let the rest fly , nothing has remained but a pinched statement such as:
here in Semarang, ludlowi is the vector along the coast, aconitus and maculatus
in the hills, but what the situation is in Tajoe, I don’t know ’.
To the Dutch investigators belongs the credit of havingfound out the harm Ano
pheles ludlowi was doing. To them also belongs the credit of having pointed out
the danger attached to interfering - often quite unnecessarily- with mangrove
swamps, which they proved to be quite harmless, as long as man does not spoil
them... Mangkoe Winoto has successfully controlled malaria [transmitted by
Anopheles aconitus/ in Western Java by draining the fields shortly before the
In hto
•
Facts were gradually accumulating to show that one and the same anopheline spe
cies may be a dangerous carrier of malaria in one country and perfectly harmless
in another. This is very serious. ..At present, some sixteen years after that crisis,
species control’, i.e. the method of dealing with malaria by an action directed
against one species of Anopheles to the exclusion of all others, stands on a firmer
basis than it ever did before.
The principle of species control remains unshaken, but some of the so-called ano
pheline species... were proven to be groups of two or more species, very much
resembling each other in shape and design, but differing in their habits to such
78
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90- 7 (1990)
marise
The
mail
of mal
so a ~
esta.
by(^
betwee
a co
male
The sec
rate
orde
breeutn
been ia
has r
suppt
places,
the sj,
Ea
De Buc
We hay
becai
it qui
with on
can c'
prom
In the
tion:
In the
cies, L. .
has its <
specie
sanitc
If Anop
belonp
Wagen
ft-
ition
1928
position
w"tson,
liv took
e of his
•ined
ssed,
species
■ issed
fM
liengrends,
. 1 the
bulletin
I •ther
xample
ho and
< sary
i
i the
raceful
mds
. atus
itch as:
.'nlatus
;
kOO-
ted out
■ove
) poil
ted by
y‘° the
spe’rmless
isis,
i ?ted
firmer
■,
'HO-
"dich
o such
>90)
an extent as to render one an efficient malaria-carrier and another quite harmless...
This result was worth the trouble, first andforemost because it fully restored our
confidence in species control, and secondly, because it afforded an interesting
example of very effective, although quite unpremeditated, collaboration between
investigators in the Far East with those at home.
It is to be noted that Swellengrebel used here the expression ‘species-control’;
later he returned to his own term of ‘species sanitation’ (Swellengrebel & De
Buck, 1938).
In his obituary of Sir Malcolm Watson, who died in 1955, Swellengrebel sum
marised the pattern of a malaria survey (1956):
The preliminary stage of every anti-malaria campaign. This survey includes two
main sections. The first consists of three parts: (1) determining the distribution
of malaria in the district; (2) collecting adult Anopheles and identifying them,
so as to be able to compile a list of the anopheline species of the district, and to
establish the distribution ofeach of these species; (3) comparing the data afforded
by (1) and (2), in order to find out whether or not a correlation can be established
between the distribution ofmalaria and one of the local anopheline species. Ifsuch
a correlation exists, the species involved is suspect of being the local vector of
malaria.
The second section of the survey consists of two parts: (1) determining the natural
rate of infection with malaria parasites of each one of the local Anopheles, in
order to check the results obtained in the first section; (2) identifying the principal
breeding places of each anopheline species. When the principal local vector has
been identified in this way, and it has been proven, moreover, that this species
has more or less specialized breeding habits. ..it becomes possible successfully to
suppress the breeding of that one species, by dealing with its preferential breeding
places, while leaving undisturbed all other collections of water, and the larvae of
the species breeding therein (species sanitation).
Earlier, in their book ‘Malaria in The Netherlands’ (1938) Swellengrebel &
De Buck stated about Watson:
We have been credited, occasionally, with the invention of species-sanitation,
because we coined this term or, at least, its Dutch prototype. So we wish to make
it quite clear that it was Sir Malcolm Watson who invented the method of dealing
with one species of Anopheles to the exclusion of all others. All the credit we
can claim is of having seen and stated, more clearly perhaps than others, the great
promisefor the future this method holds (p. 56).
In the same book we find several references to the principle of species sanita
tion:
In the Far-East matters look hopeful. Out there. Anopheles belong to many spe
cies, some of them dangerous and numerous others harmless. Each one of them
has its own peculiar habits, and so we can pick out and destroy the dangerous
species, while leaving the harmless ones unscathed. Without practising species
sanitation onefeels helpless (p. 56).
If Anopheles are to be controlled successfully by species-sanitation, they should
belong to a taxonomic unit which remains constant in all circumstances. It is useless
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
79
1
iw
■ H
l-SS
i
i -t .
-^•si
■■
to apply species-sanitation to the control of an inconstant taxonomic unit, since
it will show its inconstancy in its breeding habits and in its ability to act as a malaria
vector (p.80).
Two separate races of Anopheles maculipennis in The Netherlands — shortwings
able to transmit malaria in the autumn (5.6°/o infected), longwings unable to do
so because they do not feed during that season (0.04% infected) - cannot produce
a viable progeny; thus species-sanitation in this country merits careful conside
ration ( compilation from pp. 62-85).
Its applicability depends on the answer to the question: where does that species
Anopheles breed? If the larvae are not catholic in their taste, but show specific
breeding habits, then species-sanitation has a chance of showing what it can do
(P-U2).
The association of shortwings with brackish water (in the narrow ditches) was
close enough to make us contemplate the possibility of species-sanitation by con
trolling the brackish breeding places to the exclusion of thefresh ones (p. 117).
Freshening of the water in North-Holland, due to the reclamation of the Zuydersea
would be no less an instance ofspecies-sanitation (p. 198).
Nature has crowded all infected Anopheles within a very small compass of time
and space. In doing so, she is actually inviting us to kill them there at one stroke;
the opportunity appears so favourable that it is difficult to hold one’s hand (p.
203).
Spraying of houses in the autumn greatly reduces malaria in the next year. It is
a kind of species-sanitation directed against the adults of one single species: the
shortwings (p. 217).
From 1916 onwards Swellengrebel had always had a keen interest in the epide
miology and immunology of malaria. He carefully indicated that epidemic and
endemic malaria had different significances for human health as well as for con
trol measures. In the later years he switched his attention more to what he had
observed in Africa, in Surinam and in Irian Jaya, where he became impressed
with the stability of malaria. Compared to those areas, the degree of communal
immunity in Indonesia was not impressive (Verhave, 1989). In spite of all his
accurate views, Swellengrebel hardly ever elaborated on the consequences this
could have for the people who lived in areas where malaria had been greatly
reduced though species sanitation. Surprisingly, he mentioned the danger of an
epidemic due to loss of immunity only once and incidentally; certainly not within
the context of a series of epidemics that occurred in the nineteen-thirties all over
the Archipelago. Thus, when elsewhere in this issue the failures of species sanita
tion are mentioned and the inadequate attention to maintenance and surveil
lance are brought to light, as was done by many contemporary experts, we would
like to fill a lacuna in the views of all those engaged in malaria control of the
time:
Species sanitation has proved to be a successful vector control measure for
reducing transmission and disease incidence; in order to maintain this desired
effect over decades, surveillance needs to be meticulously maintained in order to
cope with the susceptibility of the increased amount of non-immunes.
80
Chaptei
Success
sanitati
W.B. Snell
5A - Introduc
The cost o
town of Si
= Dutch gui
the initiate
They imph
all breeding s
A specie* *
tion:
- only the
- instead of
way as ti
tion ofte
- water colie
-e.g. ric^ f
ted;the ]
tion.
The diagra
grammes ii
clearly brings
Surabaya|
Cilacap______
Sibplga [
I—
0
)
Banyuwangi R
Probolinggo H
Panarukan
r***
Jakarta I
o
Fig. 5.1 Cost [
towns.
Wageningen A
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
±‘:':
io
-
:v-'-
■
.
'
■
Chapter 5
z.v
Success and failure of malaria control through species
sanitation - some practical examples.
W.B. Snellen
5A - Introduction
!C
e
)
1
The cost of the sanitation works implemented from 1915 to 1919 in the small
town of Sibolga, on the west coast of Sumatra, amounted to Dfl. 650,000 (Dfl.
= Dutch guilders) or Dfl. 134 per inhabitant. The cost was so high because
the initiators of the programme did not apply the concept of species sanitation.
They implemented a total sanitation programme, aimed at the elimination of
all breeding sites of all potential malaria vectors (Nieuwenhuis, 1919).
A species sanitation represents a considerable cost saving over a total sanita
tion:
- only the breeding sites of the vector species need to be considered,
- instead of eliminating a breeding site, it is possible to modify it in such a
way as to make it unsuitable for the vector species to breed in; such modifica
tion often costs less than elimination,
- water collections that are breeding sites and have an economic importance
- e.g. rice fields, fish ponds - could also be modified instead of being elimina
ted; the prevention of economic loss also represents an important cost reduc
tion.
The diagram in Figure 5.1 shows cost per inhabitant for general sanitation pro
grammes in three, and for species sanitations in four coastal towns. The diagram
clearly brings out the cost savings potential of the species sanitation concept.
■
■
Surabaya
Cilacap
Sibolga
0
J___ l_
10 20
30
40
50
60
70
80
i
90
i
100
30
40
50
60
70
I___ [_
80 90
100
Banyuwangi
110 120 130 140
general sanitation
guilders per inhabitant
-a
Probolinggo
Panarukan
J
Jakarta
0
10
20
Illi
110 120 130 140
species sanitation
guilders per inhabitant
Fig. 5.1 Cost per inhabitant for general sanitation in three and lor species sanitation in four coastal
towns.
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
81
•
t
’4
, ..
’W-i
■/
■-'
-
*. ■ ■-
•
''i’5’-
’-'
• • ij/'
■
A-^i;
.. ".
A; VA,
The same trend is apparent in the total expenditures on malaria sanitation
works in Indonesia. In the period 1918-1922 this amounted to Dfl. 1,250,000
per annum, against Dfl. 500,000 p.a. in the late 1930’s. The latter figure also
reflects a trend away from technical measures towards biological control mea
sures. Partly, however, this was an economic necessity: because of the economic
recession of the 1930’s funding of malaria control programmes became increas
ingly difficult.
The other side of the coin is that a species sanitation increases the uncertainty
about the effects of a sanitation programme:
- an anopheline species that was harmless before might assume the role of vector
once the dangerous species has disappeared,
- the vector might also change its breeding behaviour and move to another
type of breeding site that has been unaffected by the sanitation programme.
c
Dr. N.H. Swellengrebel, who introduced the concept of species sanitation in
Indonesia, was very much aware of these uncertainties. In addition, he found
that the behaviour of a particular species may vary from place to place. There
fore, Swellengrebel insisted on a local investigation of anophelines and their
behaviour before starting a malaria sanitation programme. And even then he
considered a sanitation in a new location as an experiment. Given the uncer
tainty of its outcome, the effects of such a programme had to be carefully moni
tored and additional measures taken if required.
Swellengrebel’s recommendations have only partly been put into practice. A
detailed pre-investigation was more or less common practice; the reports on
such investigations in Tanjung Periuk, Solo, Tegal each run well into the 50
to 100 pages.
Far less has been written on vector-bionomics after implementation of the
sanitation measures. The results of a sanitation were commonly evaluated
through its effects on the mortality rate and the spleen index (malaria causes
enlargement of the spleen; the spleen index is the percentage of the population
with enlarged spleens).
Change in mortality rate and spleen index are a measure for the total effect
of a sanitation programme; they do not, however, give information on the effects
of the individual measures on vector density or breeding behaviour. The sanita
tion experiment then becomes a black box exercise.
The shortcomings of this black box approach became apparent in 1938, when
a serious outbreak of malaria occurred in Tanjung Periuk, the harbour of Ja
karta. A whole series of articles appeared in the Medical Journal of the Nether
lands Indies, with opposite views on the cause of the epidemic and indeed also
questioning the soundness of the basic control strategy. The Head of the Central
Malaria Bureau even requested that the editorial board submit articles related
to malaria problems to his office before publication, ‘to avoid unnecessary scrib
bling’(Overbeek, 1938).
This is in sharp contrast with the confidence that radiates from an article
by his predecessors, ‘Malaria control in the Netherlands Indies’. (Walch & SoeWageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
A’A-,.
f
T'
'■
I
.
•
■'W■
•
-
—?
-SO
lalaria sanitation
. to Dfl. 1,250,000
ne latter figure also
logical control mea5 of the economic
5 became increas-
L_40
L_40
100
Jakarta
Tanjung Periuk
A fl80
n
i move to another
L„on programme.
I
:ies sanitation in
Idition, he found
ace to place. Thereo^helines and their
.nd even then he
u. Given the uncero be carefully moni-
into practice. A
ice; the reports on
i”' well into the 50
f
’.^mentation of the
mmonly evaluated
I (malaria causes
f the population
r r the total effect
i on on the effects
aviour. The sanitafit in 1938, when
: harbour of Jarnal of the Netherf and indeed also
d of the Central
mit articles related
unnecessary scribi
• from an article
es’. (Walch & SoePapers 90-7 (1990)
10080
Semarang
L40
is the uncertainty
me the role of vector
9
100
80
J rn20
1925
11932
Cilacap
Rl
J
a
v
3m
A
Probolinggo
L_EJo
Banyuwangi
ll range of spleen index
LuJ in specified year
Fig. 5.2 Decrease of spleen index in seaports and coastal towns of Java in the period 1925 - 1932.
silo 1935). They presented a map (Fig. 5.2) which shows a remarkable decrease
of the spleen index in the seaports and coastal towns of Java in the period from
1925 to 1932.
After presenting these results the authors then said: ‘ ...we wish to emphasize
that the improvements have been obtained through anti-larval measures. It is our
belief that the results ... entitle us to the statement that measures of this kind
are highly suitable for conditions as prevailing in many localities of our archipe
lago'.
In retrospect, it seems correct to say that the epidemic in Tanjung Periuk
in 1938 and the resulting confusion among the malariologists in no way subtracts
from the validity of malaria control by species-sanitation: when concentrating
on the main breeding sites of the main vector an occasional epidemic should
not come as a surprise. The 1938 events do bring out clearly the shortcomings
of exclusive reliance on the spleen index as an evaluation criterion. This has
been pointed out by Kuipers in his dissertation of 1937 and in an article entitled
‘The one-sidedness of our malaria control effort’ in issue No. 40 of the 1939
Volume of the Medical Journal for the Netherlands Indies (in Dutch). A detailed
account of Kuipers’ work is given in Chapter 6.
Table 5.1 lists anti-larval measures and their effects, in those locations for
which records could be found. The list is by no means complete, as can be seen
by comparing the map in Figure 5.3 that corresponds with Table 5.1 and Figure
5.4, that has been taken from a publication by the Netherlands-Indies Medical
and Sanitary Service in 1929 and shows all locations with extensive sanitation
works.
The remainder of this chapter presents a more detailed account of specific
malaria-control activities listed in Table 5.1. It starts with the sanitation of
Sibolga, because many of the technical measures for the control of coastal mala
ria have been applied there. Then it discusses the anti-larval measures taken
in marine fish ponds, which were a major source of coastal malaria. This is
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
83
i
00
.Calang
T
Belawan
iMedan'
, Sinabang
,\ Kisaran
A
'Sibolga \
v ;
Pada ng$ id i mpua n^
Bintan
Hutanopan
KotatengahK
0
%
Ketahun
Bengkulu
Lampung
Jakarta
•Tanjung Periuk
fs
Pelabuhanratu
Sukabumi
Cianjur
Cihea
Pameungpeuk
Tasikmalaya
Surakarta
Purworejo
Pacitan
Ins ’
— Bojonegorp-A— Tuban
-LL- Brengkok
------- Bangkalan
------- Surabaya
------- Sidoarjo
------- Bangil
------- Pasuruan
------- Probolinggo
------- Panarukan
------- Banyuwangi
------- Gianjar
Tanamerah
Baubau
'Bulukumba
Ujung Pandang
1
/pasirian
/ Lumajang
Bondowoso'
Ende
<S
? Fig. 5.3 Locations in the Indonesian archipelago, where sanitation measures described in Table 5.1 were implemented.
it
K; •'■•■^
S’
ns
.
■
'O
§
7
1
Oil t7
r
/)
V
1
■P
4
■P 77
XI
£
l! ': - '
fc
fclR
•"^1
I
p'W- ■.
I
F'
|| • - 1
3
i
r- ■
Oq
I
!
h
5
L;:
)
TAHDJOffO-
.
'O
>^o_-
L/HOG
8
T(l
e1
oo Fig. 5.4 Locations where extensive sanitation works were carried out. Reproduced from: Netherlands Indies Medical and Sanitary Services. Control
of Endemic Diseases in the Netherlands Indies. Weltevreden, 1929.
i
■
<
oo
c\
Table 5.1 Sanitation measures in the Indonesian archipelago and their effects.
Location
Description
Bangkalan
coastal zone
W-Madura
Bangil
Anopheles
Breeding site
Measures
Effects
Reference
?
brackish swamps
drain swamps and after lowering
water table reclaim into ricefields
no data
Anon. 1934
p.104-105
coastal town
E-Java
sundaicus
brackish water
collections in
tidal zone
construct flood dike
no data
1943
Kuipers
Banyuwangi
coastal town
E-Java
sundaicus
marine fishponds;
brackish water
collections in
tidal zone
give up fishponds and restore tidal
action by cutting bunds; fill in
depressions and raise surface level
above spring tide level;construct
dikes and drain diked area through
tidal valves; construct lined
drains in residential areas
reduction in
spleen index
1926 80-90%
1930 < 20%
Essed 1932
Kuipers 1943
Baubau
coastal town
SE-Sulawesi
?
coastal swamp
drain and fill swamp, requiring
150 000 man-days of obligatory
(unpaid) service
reduction in
spleen index
1922 100%
1923
33%
van Hasselt
1925
Belawan
seaport of
Medan,
Sumatra
?
brackish pools due
to construction
activities in
mangrove forest
hydraulic fill immediately after
cutting forest;ban on cutting
mangrove within 2 km of harbour
and villages
reduction in
spleen index
1919 > 80%
1930 < 20%
SchUffner &
Hylkema 1922
poorly maintained
irrigation canals;
fishponds
(proposed): improve irrigation
system; maintenance of field
canals to be paid by govt;
temporary stop on influx of
new settlers
no data
Anon. 1933
p.105-111
s>5
Cl
a
Grq
9
Bengkulu
§
a
£<4
'O
Javanese
settlement
SW-Sumatra
hyrcanus;
sinensis
r
:
■:
ft
§
• rV'nhnn
w
■
u
Bei.6
Javanese
settlement
SW-Sumatra
nyrcanus-,
sinensis
poorly maintained
irrigation canals;
fishponds
(proposed): improve irrigation
system; maintenance of field
canals to be paid by govt;
temporary stop on influx of
new settlers
no data
Anon. 1933
p.105-111
Location
Description
Anopheles
Breeding site
Measures
Effects
Reference
Bintan
oil depot on
island South
of Singapore
maculatus;
sundaicus
& others
stagnant water
collections after
unskillful site
clearing, e.g.
cutting mangrove
forest
evacuate and treat patients;
provide mosquito nets;
fill depressions and level;
larvicide remaining water
remaining water collections
reduction of
parasite index
after measures
but second epi
demic due to
carelessness
Pflugbeil 1933
Bojonegoro
& Bordowoso
E.Java,
interior
aconitus
rice fields
trials with intermittent
irrigation
no data
Kuipers 1943
Brengkok
village
N.coast
E.Java
sundaicus
stagnant rainwater
on uncultivated,
saline ricefields
drain fallow fields by
cutting bunds
no data
Kuipers 1934
Bulukumba
S.Sulawesi
sundaicus
lagoon
fill lagoon
no data
Kuipers 1943
Calang
military
camp on
coast NW
Sumatra
sundaicus
lagoons
drain lagoons by driving
steel pipes through
sandbar
camp freed
of malaria
within four
months
Mulder 1936
Cianjur
village
irrigation
system in
W.Java
interior
aconitus
ricefields that remain inundated after
harvest;field
ditches fish
ponds & -fields
install technical irrigation
system;one rice crop per
year and drain fields after
harvest;’hygienic exploitation’
and confinement of fish culti
vation to an area of 300 ha
no data
Overbeek &
Stoker 1938
Anon. 1935
p.387-392
KVUIU
'O
§
§
s2S
I
ns
'S
oc
Wf
[
oo
oo
IS
S’
Table 5.1 Continued
Location
Description
Anopheles
Breeding site
Measures
Effects
Reference
Cihea
irrigation
system in
W. Java
interior
aconitus
wet ricefields
after harvest;
poorly maintained
field ditches
improve drainage system;
rice cultivation and
irrigation supply only from
October-May and drain all
fields immediately after
harvest;irrigation dept,
to clean field ditches (with
subsidy from health depL)
reduction in
spleen index:
1919 80-100%
1932 0- 20%
Mangkoewinoto
1923
increase in
agricultural
production
Koorenhof
et al 1933
Ende
coastal town
on Flores
Gianjar
?
lagoon
fill lagoon
no data
Kuipers 1943
rice land
interior
S.Bali
aconitus",
minimus
ricefields
intermittent irrigation (9 days
wet,3 dry) in field trials re
duced larvae density by 75%;
trial led local administration
to making intermittent irrigation
obligatory in Bali and Lombok
no data
Smalt 1937
Hutanopan
Sumatra
interior
sundaicus
fresh-water
fishponds
drain all fishponds and ban
fish cultivation within 3 km
of towns and villages
reduction in
spleen index:
1917 80-100%
1930 20- 40%
Soesilo 1938
Jakarta
capital,
N.coast
WJava
sundaicus
marine fishponds
’hygienic exploitation’ of ponds
reduction in
spleen index:
1917 80-100%
1932 20- 40%
Walch &
Soesilo 1935
Jepara
fishing
village
N.coast
CJava
sundaicus
marine fishponds
rehabilitation and re-allotment
of 120 ha of poorly maintained
fishponds; provision of supply
canal 1500 m long,9 m wide
no data
Anon. 1934
p.99-100
Description
Anopheles
Breeding site
Measures
Effects
:anus
fn '
er
fk.......
tri '
’hygi
nF ■■
j/QfAr
a
9
I
2
o
5
B
‘
L-
1
■
4/
I Location
Ketah"'
§
f
1
ploit
a
Reference
S
1938
'?-r'
-
%
• '051
xn i
1*17 8U-1UU%
1932 20- 40%
iva
*
Jepara
'O
*—
fishing
village
N.coast
CJava
sundaicus
marine fishponds
rehabilitation and re-allotment
of 120 ha of poorly maintained
fishponds; provision of supply
canal 1500 m long,9 m wide
no data
10
Anon. 1934
p.99-100
i.
Oil».
S3
I
Location
Description
Anopheles
Breeding site
Measures
Effects
Reference
Ketahun
Sumatra
W.coast
hyrcanus
fresh-water
fishponds
trials on ’hygienic exploitation’
of fresh-water ponds, introducing
weed eating (Puntius javanicus)
and larvae eating fish (Hapolichus
panchax)
no data
Soesilo 1938
rubber
plantation
interior
Sumatra
maculatus;
sinensis
in sunlit water
collections after
clearing forest
drain rubber plantation and land
within 800 m of dwellings;
maculatus control requires extra
measures, e.g. drug treatment or
evacuation of patients
strict super
vision needed
to contain
malaria
Doorenbos 1931
Kotatengah
fibre
plantation
interior
Sumatra
sundaicus
& other
all types of water
collections
(proposed) sanitation of all
breeding sites
company
abandoned
site
Kothe 1933
Lampung
’Senembah’
Tobacco Co.
SE.Sumatra
sinensis
water collections
in newly opened
rice fields
trials with intermittent irrigation
and fast-maturing rice varieties;
introduction of larvae-eating fish;
move settlement camp
no data
Walch 1924
Lumajang
S.coast
E.Java
sundaicus
lagoon
drain lagoon with 80-m-long
tunnel (diam. 1.20 m) through
rocky coastline
no data
Kuipers 1943
Pacitan
S.coast
E.Java
sundaicus
silted-up river
construct 2-km-long canal
connect silted-up river with
larger river
no data
Kuipers 1943
Padangsidimpuan
Sumatra
sundaicus
fresh-water
same as in Hutanopan
I
I Kisaran
I
X|
oo
•
B-1 ■
IS- ■
kp
O
Table 5.1 Continued
Location
Description
Anopheles
Breeding site
Measures
Pameungpeuk
S.coast
W.Java
sundaicus
lagoon;poorly drain
ed ricefields;poorly
maintained irrigat
ion canalsjfishponds
plant shade trees along lagoon
not very
and river stretch along the coast;
successful
employ extension workers to explain
dangers of breeding sites
Anon. 1936
p.256-258
Pasuruan
coastal
plain
E.Java
aconitus
ricefields
draining-off residual product from
sugar factory into irrigation water
reduced density of aconitus larvae
in ricefields
Health Dept,
allowed Co.
to continue
practice
Soesilo &
v.d. Hout
1932
Pasirian
rubber Co.
in hills
near P.,
E.Java
aconitus’,
maculatus
swamps, drains and
brooks after clear
ing forest
drain swamps; plant shade trees
of type Albizzia, which reinforces
embankments and prevents growth
of weeds
spleen index
from 94 to
46%, also due
to strict
supervision
Anon. 1934
p.388-389
f
Pekalongan
N.coast
CJava
sundaicus
stagnant pools in
disturbed mangrove
forest after road
construction
connect stagnant pools by digging
ditches; provide culvert under
road to restore tidal action
no data
Anon. 1935
p.388-389
Kuipers 1943
i
Pelabuanratu
S.coast
W.Java
sundaicus
lagoons
plant leguminous cover crops as
green manure to promote growth
of shade trees on sandy soil
not very
successful
Anon. 1934
p.98-99
Probollingo
N.coast
E.Java
sundaicus
marine fishponds
give up fishponds and restore
tidal action by cutting bunds
spleen index
in 1932 <20%
Walch & Soesilo
1935
Purworejo
S. coast
CJava
sundaicus
silted-up river mouth construct breakwaters into sea
no data
Kuipers 1943
Semarang
N. coast
CJava
sundaicus
fishponds;brackish
water collections in
tidal zone
spleen index
in 1932 still
40-60%
Walch & Soesilo
1935
s
i
'O
§
Effects
gradual filling in of fishponds
and low areas with dry material
e.g. town refuse
Reference
Ki’i-
■
®S.’
fe.,. ’'W
K’5
*
I Location
ibolg
Description
t
ntre
Anopheles
lairu.'
Breeding site
Measures
bn
fill ...
Effects
of ..
...i nnd
Reference
O
la
Pre
5
'O
ast
n.java
unda
Purworejo
S. coast
CJava
sundaicus
Semarang
N. coast
CJava
sundaicus
'o
Location
I Sibolga
§
:en ii
in 1932 <20%
1935
silted-up river mouth construct breakwaters into sea
no data
Kuipers 1943
fishponds;brackish
water collections in
tidal zone
spleen index
in 1932 still
40-60%
Walch & Soesilo
gradual filling in of fishponds
and low areas with dry material
e.g. town refuse
i & 1
1935
I• ?
[Kite?
Anopheles
Breeding site
Measures
Effects
Reference
trade centre
N.W.coast
Sumatra
sundaicus',
sinensis',
aconitus',
maculatus
& other
brackish water
collections in tidal
zone (silted-up
river mouth .stagnant
rainwater on saline
soil);depressions
with seepage from
fill in edge of swamp and construct
embankmenqraise surface of seaside
area 0.15 m above spring-tide level;
replace open drains with closed or
semi-closed drains;hillfoot drains;
river training and construction of
piers
spleen index
1912 98%
“
1917 50%
1922
2%
mortality
Nieuwenhuis
1923
upgrading of 2335 m of supply canal no data
through village cooperation
1912 80/1000
1919 18/1000
Sidoarjo
500ha marine sundaicus
fishponds in
E.Java
marine fishponds
Sinabang
timber Co.
on island
W.Sumatra
various
vectors
swamps;timber cur drain and fill terrain and swamps;
ing basins;stagnant
larviciding;screen houses;drug
water in depressions drug treatment of patients
reduction in
mortality
1914 80/1000
1918 14/1000
Van Voorthuis
Surakarta
interior,
C. Java
aconitus
& other
stagnant water in
sand pits in empty
flood channel
prohibit excavation of sand from
flood channel (not enough water
in dry season to flush channel)
no data
Brug & Walch
1927
Sukabumi
tea estates
in hills
S.WJava
maculatus
brooks and gullies
after clearing
forest
plant shade trees (Tithonia
diversifolid) along watercourses
and gullies
not enough
support from
population
Anon. 1934
p.97-98
Surabaya
N.coast
E.Java
sundaicus
marine fishponds;
water collections in
tidal zone
fill fishponds and depressions
with material excavated for harbour
construction;build flood dike
spleen index
in 1930 :
20-40%
Kuipers 1943
Tanamerah
prison camp
interior
Irian Jaya
bancrofti’,
punctulatus
brooks and water
collections after
clearing forest
install drainage system;spray
remaining water collections
with oil product
favourable
effects pre
vented closing
down of camp
Mooij 1932
£
<1
'O
p fist
and
tidal action by cutting bunds
Description
n9
I
fish
Schuster 1935
1920
Hi
Ip-
If ' *
I ■
■
>
:■
vO
(-J
Table 5.1 Continued
Location
Description
Anopheles
Tanjungpinang small island
S.E. of
Singapore
maculatus
Tanjung
Periuk
Seaport of
Jakarta
Tasikmalaya
Breeding site
Effects
Measures
Reference
J
s:
stagnant water in
drains and depres
sions
install open drains with cemented
no data
floor and lining of loose coral stones;
reservoirs to allow periodical flushing
flushing of drains
Anon. 1929
sundaicus
marine fishponds;
brackish water coll
ections in harbour,
nearby villages and
wastelands
’hygienic exploitation’ of fishponds; spleen index
various suggestions by different
1932 20-40%
authors about causes of 1938 malaria epidemic in
epidemic and required measures
1938
Overbeek 1939
Kuipers 1939
Marwits 1938
Priester 1939
district
E.Java
interior
aconitus
poorly maintained
rice fields, ditches
and fishponds
cooking in huts prevented mosquitoes malaria epifrom entering;malaria increased due demies with
to house improvement scheme aimed high mortality
at eliminating rats (animal hosts of in many villa
ges in district
Pasternella pestis)
Grootings
1938
N.coast
CJava
sundaicus
lagoon;water collfill lagoon, low areas and pits;
ections in tidal zone river training and construction of
(e.g.borrow pits at
piers into the sea
at Chinese cemetery)
N.coast
E.Java
sundaicus
marine fishponds;
water collections in
tidal zone
deepen fishponds;fill pools and pits; no data
trials with intermittent irrigation
Kuipers 1943
sundaicus
lagoon .pools and
pits in tidal zone
construct breakwaters into sea at
rivermouth; fill pools and pits
no data
Kuipers 1943
■
1’
I Tegal
§
I’
^2
I
Tubanbetung
spleen index
1919 80-100%
1932 0- 20%
Walch & Soesilo
1935
I.
■
■
§
§
Ujung Pandang S.Sulawesi
capital
i.’-
E;' .
5
(
mH
■
C
s
co
S 3
°O C
J o
r?
. 'v-
^{■•■ci-
-
followed by a case-study on malaria control in rice fields; in the Cihea plain
malaria was controlled by restricting the period in which irrigation water is sup
plied. Health departments often blame irrigation engineers for causing malaria;
as an antidote the case of Tasikmalaya describes how malaria increased dramati
cally after implementation - by the Health Service - of a house improvement
scheme.
! cn
:: 2
:£
5B - An early sanitation: Sibolga
Introduction
: 3
!
O
!
CH
! 3*
oo ex
2 -u
•S §
Ill
! f -S !
i si
! o C
i ss
§§ i
MP
I
i i’ -s;
•
= c
ill I
i 3
II I
k I
: -SS i
:
S •
iI
••' I
I
CL,
bO
!
I
r.v 90-7 (19901
One of the earliest sanitations in Indonesia took place in Sibolga, from 1915
to 1919. Sibolga was the administrative and trade centre of the regency Tapanuli
on the west coast of Sumatra (Fig. 5.3).In 1912 the health situation had deterio
rated to the point where it threatened the economic viability of the town. The
mortality rate for that year in the living quarters near the market place was
8 %.
Dr. W.Th. De Vogel, as Head Inspector of the Medical Service was sent to
Sibolga, to conduct a thorough local investigation prior to drawing up the sani
tation plan by the Public Works Department. He was accompanied by Dr.N.H.
Swellengrebel, to help him with the determination of the anopheline species (see
also Chapter 4). Swellengrebel was particularly interested in finding Nyssorhynchus willmori. Dr. Malcolm Watson had discovered in Malaya that this species
was responsible for malaria in the rubber plantations in the hills, where they
breed in fast flowing streams (De Vogel, 1913).
Breeding sites
Sibolga lies on a bay, at the mouth of a small river and is surrounded by steep
foothills (Fig. 5.5). The river has created a narrow valley, that starts at a distance
of some 2 km from the sea at an altitude of 20 to 30 m. above sea level. The
highest native residential area of Sibolga -kampong Barangan - is located here.
At 600 m from the sea, the river valley passes into a coastal plain of some 900
m wide. The European residential area and administrative buildings were located
on the river’s left bank. The commercial centre and native living quarters - pasar
Sibolga -was located between the administrative centre and a large tidal swamp.
De Vogel and Swellengrebel searched all water collections for mosquito larvae:
— the highest larval density was found in the swampy area bordering on pasar
Sibolga. This area was used for dumping waste products from a coconut plan
tation and also town refuse from pasar Sibolga. The refuse, together with
the swamp vegetation prevented seawater from flowing in and out, thereby
creating isolated water collections with large numbers of larvae of the species
An. sundaicus,
— no larvae were found in the tidal swamp itself,
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
93
-
'■
7
BAY OF TAPANULt
Nan
Pasa
Si N
71
S:
admin,
centre
Si
Bara
Aek
Pasar
98 /
Si Mare
Mare
81
Sple
T
chile
Sibolga
llir
67
Si Tonga
tonga
52
Ii
Base
as ~
Barangan
30
1. 1
52
spleen index in 1913
2.
•
fc
(native) residential areas
Aek
Doras
15
rice fields
3.
Pi
lo
4.
Fig. 5.5 Map of Sibolga.
in
Sa
only a few larvae were found in the European area; the researchers however
did find various species of adult mosquitoes in their guest house (An. sundaicus,An. rossii, An. sinensis). Their assumption was that these mosquitoes came
from the rice fields just across the river. - all rice fields contained mosquito
larvae, but more Culex than anophelines (An. rossii, An. sundaicus),
in spite of intensive searching, no larvae were found in the fast flowing streams
that run into the river Aek Doras, nor in the river itself.
94
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
De'z
na
be
made
in
toi 1
the P
add:‘.
Wa
Table 5.2 Spleen index in Sibolga
Name area
Pasar Sibolga
Si Mare-Mare
Sibolga Dir
Si Tonga-Tonga
Barangan
Aek Doras
No. of children
examined
No. of enlarged
spleens
218
42
66
60
122
100
214
34
44
31
37
15
Spleen index
98 %
81 %
67 %
52 %
30 %
15 %
Spleen index survey
The results of a spleen index survey in each of the native residential areas among
children aged 1-12 is given in Table 5.2.
Interpretation of findings
Based on the above findings, De Vogel explains the upsurge of malaria in 1912
as follows:
2 1
5 km
ndex in 1913
tive) residential areas
ds
amp
1. The dumping of refuse in the tidal swamp near the market place caused an
increase in production of mosquitoes; this led to an increase of malaria in
the commercial center of Sibolga.
2. Persons who lived in other residential areas but came to the commercial centre
for work or entertainment became infected there and carried the disease back
to their own residential area.
3. The increase in the infection reservoir in the native living quarters and the
presence of anopheline mosquitoes in the rice fields led to an increase in ma
laria.
4. There is a correlation between the increase in malaria and the number of
mosquitoes; this reflected in the proportional relationship between spleen
index and size of the rice land bordering on each residential area.
Sanitation plan
: rs however
e (An. sundaif^iitoes came
i 1 mosquito
t<a),
wing streams
i90-7(1990)
De Vogel recommended elimination of all breeding sites through improved drai
nage. He did not enter into specifics on how the drainage problems needed to
be resolved, this being a matter for the Public Works Department. De Vogel
made it quite clear, however, that he strongly objected to an earlier plan to fill
in the tidal swamp. These plans had been put forward by a previous administra
tor, who saw the swamp as the cause of malaria in Sibolga; he was backed by
the Public Works Department, not in the least because the plan provided the
additional land needed for the expansion of Sibolga’s port facilities. According
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
95
...
to De Vogel filling the swamp was not necessary for health reasons. He recom
mended to plan the extension of the harbour on the other side of the river and
to acquire the additional land by transforming the rice fields there into building
sites.
De Vogel’s recommendations on this issue have not been taken up. Part of
the swamp has been filled and the harbour authorities obtained their additional
land where they wanted it - at the expense of the Health budget. In his report
of 1919 on the implementation of the sanitation works in Sibolga, Nieuwenhuis
does admit that filling the swamp had not been really necessary, but he puts
it in such a way as to suggest that this fact was only discovered after completion
of the works, without mentioning De Vogel’s objections (Nieuwenhuis, 1919).
In 1917, when the sanitation works were already in progress, Swellengrebel
did another larval survey. This time he did find larvae in and near the streamlets
running down from the hills; not Nys. willmori but An. maculatus and An. karwari. Given the fact that the larvae were only found in higher country near areas
with a low spleen index, Swellengrebel concluded that these species were not
dangerous so that no additional sanitation measures were needed. Some later
authors concluded from this that the sanitation works of Sibolga were aimed
exclusively at An. sundaicus and therefore should be considered a species-sanita
tion (e.g. Soesilo, 1936).
Table
other
Nan.
Pasar S
Sibo
Bara
Aek De
Table 5/
Value c
Valu
5.3 g
and
Costs and effects
Figure 5.6 presents annual and cumulative costs of the sanitation works, and
their effect on the mortality rate in pasar Sibolga. (source: Kuipers, 1937). Table
mortality rate in %0
1001----------------------
To p”f
annt
them
stand o
1. T
on a
CC“t
80
2. T
expenditure
in guilders
600,000
cditure
60
40
400,000
20
200,000
Oi oi
5CIntrodu
Fig. 5.6 Annual and cumulative cost of sanitation works in Sibolga and the effects on mortality.
Cult i
been pi
from ai
fishf t
In I
water fi
at th I
96
Wage
01—
1910
A
anual expenditures
1914
1916
mortality
Ui il a n 1_ L
1912
1918
19
1920
•
_Jo
1922
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
i
Me recom: river and
nto building
p. Part of
.. additional
n his report
mwenhuis
it he puts
completion
s, 1919).
llengrebel
ic streamlets
ind An. karaear areas
were not
Some later
ere aimed
es-sanita-
Table 5.3 The effects of the sanitation works on the spleen index for pasar Sibolga and the three
other native residential areas (Source: Nieuwenhuis 1919).
Name area
spleen index
Apr-May 1913
spleen index
Dec 1917-Jan 1918
Pasar Sibolga
Sibolga Air
Barangan
Aek Doras
98 %
67 %
30 %
15 %
50 %
25 %
10 %
10 %
Table 5.4 Annual trade figures for Sibolga (in Dutch florins)
Value of imports
Value of exports
1903
1911
1918
1,228,641
742,042
2,351,333
1,776,931
4,429,400
4,790,700
5.3 gives the effects of the sanitation works on the spleen index for pasar Sibolga
and the three other native residential areas, (source: Nieuwenhuis, 1919).
works, and
"37). Table
To put the costs of the sanitation works into perspective. Table 5.4 gives the
annual trade figures for Sibolga. When looking at these figures and comparing
them with the total cost of the sanitation works - Dfl. 650,000 - two things
stand out:
1. The willingness to spend more than one third of the annual export value
on a sanitation programme indicates the economic importance of malaria
control in those days.
2. The investment in the sanitation works seems to have done the economy
of Sibolga a lot of good.
5C - Marine fishponds
Introduction
mortality.
0-7 (1990)
Cultivation of fish in artificial ponds in the coastal zone of northern Java has
been practised for centuries. The earliest reference is a Javanese code of law
from around 1400 AC, which specifies punishment for stealing from a marine
fishpond (Reijntjes, 1926).
In 1864 the agricultural inspector Van Spall investigated both fresh and salt
water fishpond cultivation practices of local farmers. Marine fishponds in Java
at that time occupied an area of 33,000 ha. Van Spall recommended the govern-
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
97
- OwSS
....
. :.
.....
,. i X’iSPw®
■
-
'■ '■ ■■ :
■ will
I
I
tax
t
gui
In
I
h
S
?
I!*-
z
I
1
s
....
A
/ ,r'Y
J
-W '*
1
.1
■1
1
A I
I
I
J
e
Thc
a
be
in 1
(
z
i
=
I .o'
BX« I
i
J
I*
Ip n
7
=
«
we
'■'r:^TS
I
f
SI
1'i
cor
f
S—
c
«
sta
E
2
■ i
fur
j.f
c
o
a
S2
In ;
t1--
o
s
£
iu i
C-
o
spk
I
£
I
whi
r
e
t
cZ
£
i
98
o
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
I
-
- A-'*
W.- '’’I
O'
R
Hi
i
f
i
I
I
J
M
Ii
I
£
§
Ili1
M
o-
fli
.
<•
ment to actively support the expansion of the cultivated area, by transforming
mangrove forest into fishponds. This would provide extra food, income and
tax revenue, and improve health.
By 1926 marine fishponds occupied an area of 55,000 ha, producing more
than 17 million kilogrammes of fish with a market value of almost 7 million
guilders. The Health Service however, was not at all happy with the expansion.
In a manual for government officials on malaria matters, published by the
Health Service in 1925, Rodenwaldt wrote:
Concerning the large population centres on Java’s Northern coast, we are
confronted with a fatal error. Here one has propagated the establishment of
fishponds in the mangrove coastal zone, which was held responsible for malaria,
in the conviction that by doing so the zone would be made safe. At present
we know that An. sundaicus, the most dangerous malaria vector of the Nether
lands-Indies, breeds in these fishponds which are therefore the cause of heavy
endemic malaria in coastal settlements. It is the task of the hygienist to try and
eliminate these marine fishponds from the surroundings of human settlements.
The matter is further complicated by the fact that An. sundaicus has been found
capable of flying very long distances, which means that all fishponds within
at least 3 km from human settlements need to disappear. Tens of years will
be needed to accomplish this task and even then it remains to be seen whether
in certain regions economic considerations will not prevail over hygienic ones.
One lesson however has to be learned from the results of biological and hygienic
studies of the last ten years: that in the Netherlands-Indies under no circum
stances it can be permitted that new fishponds are established in the coastal
zone, or ponds that have been given up are taken into production again.'
In spite of Rodenwaldt s strong objections, the area of fishponds increased
further from 55,000 ha in 1926 to 82,000 ha in 1941.
This case study examines how opinions on the relation between malaria and
marine fishponds changed over the years and the effect of these changes on
the control measures.
Extensive breeding of anopheline mosquitoes
In a malaria survey in the capital Jakarta, Kiewiet de Jonge (1908) found that
the mortality rate in the second half of the year 1907 among the local population
in the district Pendjaringan near the coast was three to four times higher than
in the other districts of the city. Also, the percentage of people with enlarged
spleens was much higher in the coastal districts.
Kiewiet de Jonge then searched for breeding sites of anopheline mosquitoes.
He found them almost everywhere: in rice fields in all parts of the capital which was in fact more a collection of villages - in the marine fishponds, in
numerous puddles, wheel ruts, hoofprints, near wells, wash-places, so that he
exclaimed: yes, where didn’t we find anopheline breeding sites !’
d1
990)
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
99
In his report, Kiewiet de Jonge considered the following control measures:
1. Elimination of all breeding sites
2. Construction of mosquito proof houses
3. Evacuation of the unhealthy town districts
4. Drug treatment of malaria patients
Ai
zo
Kiewiet de Jonge considered the alternatives 1, 2 and 3 unfeasible. He recom
mended the local administration to set up a programme for the distribution
of quinine - free of charge - to all malaria patients. The administration provided
funds and made Kiewiet de Jonge responsible for the implementation of the
programme. From his report of 1908, it is apparent that Kiewiet de Jonge consi
dered the programme as a temporary solution at best, and also that he was
rather disappointed by the lack of responsiveness from the population.
r»‘a
of
Jakarta sanitation project 1913
th<
In 1913, the Public Works Department began an ambitious sanitation project
in the capital. Since its foundation in 1610, Jakarta had been an unhealthy place.
The Dutch founders had considered the location amidst swamps a strategic
advantage. After Dutch fashion, a network of canals was put in place in the
mid 17th century.
In 1699 there was a large volcanic explosion of mount Salak, 60 km south
of Jakarta. Subsequent floods carried enormous amounts of eruption material,
which blocked the canals and drains and created evil-smelling swamps. In the
18th century, several attempts at improving the situation by diverting flood
waters away from the city failed.
In order to escape the poor hygienic conditions in the old city, a new admini
strative and residential area was built on higher grounds, early in the 19th centu
ry. After the exodus of the Europeans, the sanitary conditions in the lower city
deteriorated even further. By 1910, three centuries after the foundation of the
city, the health condition was considered no longer acceptable.
The estimated cost of the sanitation works that began in 1913 was 4 million
guilders. The major components were (Van Breen, 1913):
- flood diversion works,
- construction of a drainage and sewerage system,
- groundwater level control,
- elimination of stagnant water.
Although the works would reduce the number of mosquito breeding sites, the
plan was not specifically aimed at malaria control. The rice fields and the marine
fishponds, in which Kieweit de Jonge had found anopheline larvae, remained
unaffected.
100
IVageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
d.
e.
f.
£
ires:
. He recomstribution
provided
ation of the
r igeconsiit he was
OU.
tion project
: ’'hyplace,
i strategic
piace in the
cm south
material,
mps. In the
• ’ ig flood-
iew admini19th centujwer city
3n of the
I million
i
>ites, the
3 marine
remained
)-7 (1990)
Marine fishponds: breeding sites of malaria vectors
Already five years later, the chief designer of the 1913 sanitation plan made
an urgent request to the administration for allocation of additional 1.6 million
guilders for the expropriation and reclamation of the fishponds in the coastal
zone of Jakarta, and to allocate annually a sum of 25,000 guilders over a period
of 30 years, for pumping costs and gradual filling of the area with sludge from
dredging operations in the Jakarta harbour and waterways.
This change of ideas was brought about by the outcome of the malaria investi
gations of Van Breemen and Sunier in 1917 and 1918, which were widely pub
lished. The following is based on a summary of their research conclusions which
were an integral part of the advise of the Health Committee to the City Council
of Jakarta (Anonymous 1919):
Tn the summary below we briefly indicate what we at present know for with
certainty about the relationship that exists here in Batavia [ = Jakarta] between
the marine fishponds and the spread of malaria.
a. In Batavia spleen index and mortality are the highest, and indeed very high,
in the marine fishpond zone and gradually decrease from there to the south
[cf. Fig. 5.9].
b. Larvae of the very dangerous malaria transmitting mosquito Myzomyia ludlowi [An. sundaicus] v/eve found, with very few exceptions, in the marine fish
pond zone only and mainly in the fishponds themselves.
c. Breeding-sites of other anophelines, which do not play a role here, were found
all over Batavia. In these breeding-sites, however, no ludlowi [sundaicus] lar
vae were found.
d. In locations south of the fishpond zone with high spleen indices, where many
ludlowi [sundaicus] mosquitoes were caught in the houses, we could not find
any ludlowi breeding-sites.
e. The fish cultivated in the marine fishponds [Chanos-chanos, see Fig. 5.7] is
vegetarian and feeds on submerged water plants which grow close to the sur
face. These water plants grow best when salinity is around 20 o/oo; growth
decreases at higher salinity levels.
f. In addition to the cultivated fish, the marine ponds often contain enormous
quantities of a small fish [Haplochilus panchax, see Fig. 5.7] which in the
literature on malaria control is mentioned as one of the best destroyers of
mosquito larvae.
g. In spite of these larvae-eating fish, the ponds which contain the water plants
mentioned under e. - and also the overgrown banks of the ponds - produce
a large number of mosquitoes, varying from a few up to several hundreds
per square metre. In absence of larvivorous fish, mosquito production figures
as high as 6000 per m2 per night have been observed.
h. The production of mosquitoes decreases with increasing salinity and stops
completely when salinity in the ponds is considerably higher than seawater.
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
101
20^-
G5634
(81
J
.
V
'
■■
|||gy.
K'-
* iiiii
tionable
And apa
they no Ion
supervisi
point of
are totally i
collection^
the paral
The wl_
Council of
solution
part of tl
The govc
was imp!**"
protein p
owners c. .
of any signi
in Jakarl
opposed
0
Chanos-chanos(Bandeng)
cm
Haplochilus panchax (Kepala tima)
Fig. 5.7 Chanos-chanos, the cultivated fish in the marine fishponds, and Haplochilus panchax, an
effective larvivorous fish.
An appe?1 r
E.J. Reijaxvj
i. The level of salinity at which mosquito production stops is so high that it
is not even reached in a year with a less pronounced dry season. This indicates
that stopping mosquito production through maintaining a high salinity level
in the ponds is not feasible.
Java - wro
‘Teysma
on the cr
in the abovwhich flc'**
essential
... From the above it should be clear for everyone that the actual source of
heavy endemic malaria in Batavia is located exclusively in the brackish water
zone and specifically in the marine fishponds4.
The researchers, and with them the Health Committee, recommended the City
Council of Jakarta as follows:
‘Short of moving Batavia to a location outside the sphere of influence of the
brackish water zone, there is only one permanent and effective solution: to fill
the fishponds and reclaim and bring under cultivation the entire brackish-water
zone north of Batavia.’
In their summary report the researchers indicated that various parties had
asked whether it would not be possible to exploit the fishponds in such a way
that they are unsuitable as breeding sites for the malaria vector. For instance,
by getting rid of the water plants near the surface, which provide shelter from
larvae-eating fish. The difficulty involved here - as was pointed out by the
researchers - is that the cultivated fish depend on these water plants for adequate
growth. They mentioned the idea of conducting trials on artificial feeding of
the cultivated fish, yet warned strongly against such attempts:
‘Even if such a way of exploitation were technically possible, it remains ques102
fish cultivc*
Reijntjes
fish feed
Reijnt
ponds. He
later, the
while the
pond wiiu i
an abundar
Reijnt
hardly a
the ponds f
stimulate
plants. J
method in .
of fish culti
Wageningc
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
5
1
tionable whether fishpond owners could be made to adopt the new methods.
And apart from that, exploitation of the marine fishponds in such a way that
they no longer present a danger to public health would require permanent close
supervision. ... the undersigned are of the opinion that from a public health
point of view such attempts to “run with the hare and hunt with the hounds”
are totally unacceptable. Only a radical and permanent clearing of all the water
collections in the brackish water zone can save the population of Batavia from
the paralysing pressure of endemic malaria with certainty and forever.’
The words of the researchers did not fail to make an impression on the City
Council of Jakarta. They adopted the proposal for a radical and permanent
solution and requested the government for funds to implement the works as
part of the sanitation program that had started in 1913.
The government was slow to react and perhaps not without reason: not only
was implementation of the plans very expensive, it also meant loss of a high
protein popular source of foods, loss of income and job opportunities for the
owners of the ponds, and loss in tax revenue. It was not until 1928 that a sum
of any significance became available for malaria control in the marine fishponds
in Jakarta. The time lag provided the opportunity for the initiators and those
opposed to their plans to get together.
an
An appeal from East Java
I it it
licates
v level
]ues-
E.J. Reijntjes - inspector of the inland fisheries department in Surabaya, East
Java - wrote an article on malaria and fishponds in the agricultural journal
‘Teysmannia’ in 1922. Reijntjes disagreed entirely with the researchers in Jakarta
on the crucial issue of the type of plants the cultivated fish feeds on. As indicated
in the above paragraph, the researchers in Jakarta claimed that the water plants,
which float near the surface and provide shelter from the larvivorous fish, are
essential for adequate growth of the cultivated fish. Hence, their conclusion that
fish cultivation and breeding of malaria mosquitoes go hand in hand.
Reijntjes, however, conducted experiments which indicated that the cultivated
fish feed mainly on the bluegreen algae that develop at the bottom of the ponds.
Reijntjes allowed water plants to develop in one of two otherwise similar
ponds. He then stocked the ponds with an equal number of fish. Two months
later, the fish in the pond without floating plants had gained most in weight,
while the mass of water plants remained untouched. The number of fish in the
pond with the water plants was then doubled. After two months there was still
an abundance of water plants, while the fish had lost weight.
Reijntjes pointed out that in East Java the fish were cultivated in ponds with
hardly any plants at the water surface. The common practice there was to drain
the ponds for a few days every month to expose the bottom to sunlight, which
stimulated the development of the bottom algae and killed the floating water
plants. Subsequently the ponds were filled with seawater. By applying this
method in Jakarta, Reijntjes felt, it would be possible to combine the interests
offish cultivation and malaria control. The method depends on adequate water
•
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
rce of
ter
eCity
c he
U fill
water
s ad
i way
r“?e,
) m
y the
juate
1 of
'))
103
1 ftel
■■
-
■
-
management in the ponds, which requires a system of drainage and supply ca
nals. As a first step, Reijntjes recommended trials on improved water manage
ment in the fishponds of Jakarta.
Unfortunately, the appeal from East Java took a long time to reach the
researchers in Jakarta and the trials only started six years later.
at
m
fo
Experiments in pond-water management
Unaware of the practices in East Java and lacking funds for the implementation
of the radical and permanent solution they favoured, the malariologists in Ja
karta started looking for less costly control measures; later on they initiated
the very type of trials that they had warned against earlier.
A low cost method was to give up fish production and simply cut away a
few metres of the dikes of the fishponds, providing free access to the seawater.
The tidal movement then would render the ponds unsuitable as breeding sites
for the malaria vector. Dr. Mangkoewinoto had successfully applied this method
in neglected fishponds at Probolinggo (East Java) in 1921.
Van Breemen tried this method on a fishpond complex at Tandung Periuk
- the harbour of Jakarta - in 1923 and again in 1924, with very poor results.
It appeared that the tidal amplitude at Jakarta, which is about 1 m at spring
tide against 2.5 - 3 m in East Java, was too small to suppress the production
of floating algae and therewith breeding of mosquitoes.
After this failure, Van Breemen conducted an experiment on an area of 10
ha of fishponds in which he achieved a clean water surface by overstocking the
ponds. While the productivity of the ponds was lower than usual, the experiment
demonstrated that it was possible to produce fish without producing mosqui
toes.
The leader of the Central Malaria Bureau at that time was Rodenwaldt, who
was very much opposed - as Van Breemen had been - to any form of ‘hygienic
exploitation' of the fishponds, on the grounds that it would be impossible to
adequately supervise such activities.
ar
fit
Inventory of exploitation methods
Mid 1927 Walch was appointed leader of the Malaria Bureau. He immediately
called for an inventory to be made of the various methods of fishpond exploi
tation in the archipelago, and their effects on malaria (Walch & Schuurman,
1929). This study brought into contact - for the first time - the malariologists
from Jakarta and the fisheries inspector Reijntjes from Surabaya. Reijntjes took
them to the district of Pasuruan (East Java), which represented the type of‘hygie
nic exploitation’ he had described in his article of 1922. They witnessed how
the mass of floating green algae in the centre of the ponds turned into whitish
powder after the ponds had been drained and exposed to sunlight for a day
or two, while the fish remained in a 0.3 m deep and 1.5 m wide ring channel.
104
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 C1990)
Ph
ae-
the
n
Ja■-d
‘j
a
ter.
s
d
:”k
(The researchers from Jakarta were quite impressed: in the course of their own
attempts at obtaining a clean water surface they had once had a few hundred
men working for two days to clear the green algae from a single pond.) After
the green algae were killed, a shallow layer of water was maintained for several
days, which again under the influence of sunlight provided a suitable medium
for the development of blue green algae on the bottom of the ponds. After this,
ponds were filled again with seawater.
The malariologists found the fishponds in the district free of floating algae
and the villages full of healthy children. This favourable impression was con
firmed by a spleen index survey. Higher spleen indices encountered in a few
villages could be explained by local imperfections, such as:
- ponds with too shallow water depth, which allowed regeneration of floating
green algae; the remedial action required was deepening of these ponds;
- ponds that were supplied by rivers rather than directly from the sea could
often not be drained in the rainy season because of high water levels in the
river. This resulted in poor development of blue-green algae on the bottom
while production of floating green algae remained unchecked and was even
stimulated by the lower salinity levels. Remedial action here was digging a
combined drainage-supply canal directly to the sea.
“,g
ion
)
the
-t
The excursion to East-Java convinced the malariologists that the ‘Pasuruan
method’ of fishpond exploitation was worth trying in Jakarta.
ho
Jv
sts
>w
sh
r ..
■
'
'
'
■
Photo 9 Banjoewangi: Fishpond with floating algae (before sanitation in 1926) in which An. sundaicus (An. ludlowi) was breeding in enormous numbers, (source: Essed, 1928)
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
105
<
■
--
'■z.-r
--f : •
-
‘F
Reij
oi
ar
was
. i
thf* r
th
re_„
The
in
ca
da
- le'
rr-
T1
Pi
Photo 10 Banjoewangi: The same spot (as in photo 9) 3 years after sanitation, showing a mangrove
forest where tidal movements take place in a perfect way. (source: Essed, 1928)
In Semarang, on the north coast of Central Java, the researchers came across
another exploitation method: fishponds were not drained monthly, but daily,
under influence of the tide. This practice had developed without any guidance
from the fisheries department, and also resulted in a water surface that was
free of floating algae. The malariologists were quite pleased with their ‘disco
very’. First because the ’Semarang method’ proved that the concept of‘hygienic
exploitation’ was possible with about the same tidal amplitude as in Jakarta.
And second, because such exploitation was accomplished without any supervi
sion.
The inventory took the malariologists also to Probolinggo and Banyuwangi,
both in East-Java, where as a malaria control measure fishponds had been aban
doned to the sea. Their main observations were that this method did not really
provide a low cost solution because of the compensation payments that had
to be made to the owners of the fishponds, and not even a permanent one,
because additional canals had had to be dug to ensure sufficient tidal action
and continuous surveillance was needed to keep farmers from rebuilding the
dikes and resume fishpond cultivation.
The
T1
they
By'’
lo
tiGv,.
tain
gr
th
W
inj:-.
th
tO ML
whib
vi i
that
w
of
not i
106
I
Wagenin^en Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
W.
‘Hygienic exploitation’ after all
n-
Reijntjes’ recommendation of 1922 - of trying the ‘Pasuruan method’ in Jakarta
on an experimental basis - was finally put into practice in 1928. A fishpond
area of 60 ha due north of the city centre and west of the old harbour canal
was selected. The objective of the experiment was explained to the owners of
the ponds in a meeting that was also attended by the burgomaster (mayor) and
the Regent of Jakarta. In the case of a lower than usual fish production as a
result of the new exploitation method, the owners would receive compensation.
The owners agreed to cooperate and preparations started in 1928. These
involved:
- replacing two narrow, winding and overgrown supply ditches by a 7 m wide
canal; the capacity of this canal was sufficiently large to fill the ponds in two
days time;
- constructing a main sluice at the entrance of the supply canal;
- installing a new intake sluice for each of the 23 ponds;
- levelling the bottom of the ponds and where necessary raising the bottom
elevation between 0.1 to 0.3 m above low tide level;
- digging of a ring channel in each pond.
The works were executed by the Technical Department of the Ministry of
Public Health and completed in two-and-a-half months.
*
ive
The trial
.wSS
aily,
ce
as
scor"ic
a.
i
i,
I i?ally
’ d
non
. the
')
The first difficulty was to get the owners to stock their ponds with fish. Normally
they would not do so until a fair amount of green floating algae had developed.
By 20 November 1928, all 23 fishponds were finally stocked. To stimulate deve
lopment of blue-green algae, the water level was allowed to vary daily with the
tide, as in the ‘Semarang method’. But after this, the researchers wanted to main
tain the water level as high as possible, to suppress the development of floating
green algae, which they saw as the source of malaria and the pond owners as
the food source their fish couldn’t do without.
Walch. Van Breemen & Reijntjes (1930) provide details of their dealings with
individual owners and their actions in individual ponds. It suffices here to say
that by implementing the principles of the ‘Pasuruan method’ they managed
to obtain a water surface without floating algae and also free of mosquito larvae,
while producing a sufficient quantity of fish to make exploitation economically
viable.
From the production data until the end of 1929, the researchers calculated
that the first, second and third harvest gave the owners an average return on
working capital of 23%, 108% and 189% on a yearly base. In their calculations
of working capital, they included an annual rent of Dfl. 210 per ha, which was
not actually paid by the owners in the experiment.
IVageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
107
B
FIG. 1. OVERZ1CHTSKAART VAN HET VISCHV1JVERGEB1ED
BIJ BATAVIA.
o
oo
(Map of the fishpond area at Batauia).
g. WK; ■
i
Schaal (Scale) 1:100000,
■ K;.;K; K
b
Hi
lit
l: ■
fa. -
B: '■
■
I;
f:'
’■’ Jd
WKg -p'.
§
c§’
3
?’
L E G E N D A.
*=-■
i
Nog it atMinceren vischv
(Fithpondt yet to be unittted).
Havcntetrein van Tandjong Prioi. waarbmnen tlechtl
weinig vischvijvers gelegen eijn.
Sawih fPice fiM).
Reeds in etploitarie ziinde verbeterde viicbvijvtrs.
(Harbour area of Tandjong Priok. within whidt only few
ftahpondi are lying).
Mocr«ulg terrela f5u>impy gtoand).
(SaniMed fithpondt in exploitation).
tlillll.ia
SilllniHi
In bewetkmg lijndc vischvijveri.
(Fiihponds tn coune of being unitated).
Siad of kampong.
(Town or kampong.)
['' ’ t|
KUppcrboomen
■
'’J y?
l:V '
y
*r
fe ‘
11
Oq
|
I
■
•
1K'KfK ;
i - fcl I SSv
(Coconut tretl).
5
'O
'—
Fig. 5.8 Map of the fishpond area at Jakarta (formerly Batavia), reproduced from Walch et al. (1930).
& A:
<-*
3
00
0>
2
iss
=n>
?= 3 £•
CD
5 •
p
►—<
<
Ci
I f
V5
o>
rv
S
2,
p
3
3
3
JX>
•“J
C
O- 5 • CL CL
co
r-. o
p
CD rf o 3
LT CD
cd r
Cl O
CD
p
GC
3Q
£§ S
CL
S2 S- ?co - O sJ
2. S--3 o 3= 33
S’2,-3 CD
S 3
s-
CD
CD
2
rt>
3
<z
B5
2.
S’
.. .
New sanitation plan
Based on the outcome of the experiment, the researchers recommended sanita
tion of all fishponds in a 4 km long zone north of Jakarta. Figure 5.8 is repro
duced from the researchers’ report and gives a map of the fishpond area. Unlike
in the experiment, the ponds would have to be expropriated and then rented
back to the owners. The reason for this was that most ponds were long and
narrow, which made them unsuitable for digging of ring channels, so that reallot
ment was necessary to obtain ponds with a suitable shape. The researchers esti
mated the cost of sanitation of all 1000 ha of fishponds at Dfl. 5,600,000.
In the period 1928 - 1932 an area of 291 ha of fishponds was actually sanitated,
at a cost of Dfl. 2,000,000. Due to the worldwide recession, no more funds were
available for the sanitation of the remaining 700 ha.
Effects of‘hygienic exploitation’ on malaria
Os
C,
■<S
•S
In 1931 the Malaria Bureau conducted a survey to evaluate the effects of the
sanitation programme (Van Hell, 1931). Figure 5.9 gives the spleen index for
the various quarters of Jakarta, with the figures between brackets referring to
Van Breemen’s survey of 1917. Apparently Van Breemen and Walch had been
£
o
■g
"o
I—
o
■
2
cn
_>>
<u
M.S5«92»)
S
s
8.5K(M«)
2.2Ml 5
RJ
U
S
c
Q.
e
u
'3.8M3W
2.3%<18«)
y
's
—
t
3-3M18K) [
„
.1 2.8* I'
) <3*1 '
\
«.
8.6*(38«)
zZ»2.4*X(r.3%ui%T^
—•UO'W
1.SM8«) P'z'o'mX
' /
/
(18*1 \
2.1*(5*1
X
o
Q.
A
y
legend
3.1%(12*|
|
\_''4.1*(1O*|/
5.8%
(26%)
spleen index for the year 1931
spleen index for the year 1917
0
S
oh
)
Fig. 5.9 Map of Jakarta, with spleen index for the various quarters.
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
109
|||||||
too busy in 1928 with grasping the finer points of fish cultivation to think of
conducting a benchmark survey on the malaria situation in Jakarta. This makes
it difficult to say with certainty that the considerable improvement in the spleen
index in all quarters of the town was due to the hygienic exploitation of the
fishponds. Quarters closest to the sanitated ponds, however, showed the best
improvement.
After hygienic exploitation of the fishponds began, the overall mortality rate
in Jakarta also decreased substantially, from a stable 39 per thousand in the
period 1925 - 1929 to 27 per thousand in 1931. It is furthermore remarkable
that only a few data on mosquito density, species composition etc. are available.
It is not possible to relate the reduction in malaria incidence to lower mosquito
biting rates or infection indices.
Effects of ‘hygienic exploitation’ on fish production
Markus (1941) reported that while productivity in many fishpond areas
remained high (500 kg/ha/year) under hygienic exploitation, it decreased to as
low as 50 kg/ha/year in others. Markus found that high productivity was related
to ponds with a black, homogeneous, soft mud with a high organic matter con
tent. Low productivity was associated with brown to grayish, heterogeneous,
often cloddy mud low in organic matter. Frequent drying of the mud layer
appeared to reduce the organic matter content.
Vaas (1947) reported that to improve the productivity of the ponds they were
Pholo 11 Fishpond after treatment. Each Fishpond is provided with a sluice; by means of supply
canals, discharging into a main canal, in connection with the sea, it is possible to drain and to
refill every fishpond separately. Water surface clean; no algae.
110
IVageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
no longer
from the p i
leguminous c
manure. H
productivi
5D - Cihe?* ?
Introductic..
The Cihea
a short pei
uncultivated
took a joi”*
Agricultui
Cihea irrig^v
introduced ir
water was |
tion’ had
to an accepts
Irrigation
The relativel
metres ab e
making a
Regent had i
- the right
ting irriga t
the river, u. I
input of 50,0
1,300 min .t
in 1874, w i
administratk
assistance ’r
tion Servi
call a pre-iet
estimate. In
the expec 1
days of si i
the cost of 1;
the daily x 2
in Sumati i
at such a pit
after six year:
Wageningen
to think of
This makes
in the spleen
ation of the
^d the best
no longer drained completely and fertilized with a compost made out of weeds
from the pond and vegetation from the banks. Vaas recommended planting of
leguminous crops on the banks, to be incorporated into the compost as a green
manure. He did not indicate how successful the above measures were in restoring
productivity of the fishponds.
ortality rate
and in the
emarkable
re available.
pr mosquito
5D - Cihea: a case of integrated rural development avant la lettre
ond areas
reased to as
was related
latter con-.ogeneous.
: mud layer
Introduction
The Cihea irrigation project took 40 years to build, from 1854 to 1894. After
a short period of high productivity, yields went down and many fields remained
uncultivated because the population was too ill with malaria to grow rice. It
took a joint effort by the Irrigation and Medical Services, the Department of
Agriculture and the local administration to emerge from the swamp that the
Cihea irrigation project had become. After many difficulties, a regulation was
introduced in 1919, that restricted planting dates and periods in which irrigation
water was supplied. Once the farmers’ reluctance to this ‘plant- and water regula
tion’ had been overcome, rice production increased and malaria was reduced
to an acceptable level.
Irrigation Development
they were
r ss of supply
/ain and to
>0-7 (/990)
The relatively dry plain of Cihea is located West of Bandung, Java, about 300
metres above sea level. In 1854, the Regent of Bandung conceived the plan of
making a canal to divert water from the Cisokan river (Elenbaas, 1893). The
Regent had an open eye for the prosperity of his people and used his privilege
- the right of ordering the population to provide unpaid labour - for construc
ting irrigation canals. Because of the deep and steep-walled gorge created by
the river, it took a long time to find a suitable diversion point. In spite of an
input of 50,000 labour days, the population only managed to construct the first
1,300 m in the period 1865-1868. They stopped working on the project altogether
in 1874, when the Regent died. In the same year, a local official from the colonial
administration put forward a proposal to complete the works with Government
assistance. In 1877, the Governor of the Preanger Regencies ordered the Irriga
tion Service - which had not been involved so far - to do what we would now
call a pre-feasibility study. This was followed by a detailed design and cost
estimate. In 1884 the Government decided not to proceed, because it deemed
the expected cost of Dfl. 212,000 - or alternatively Dfl. 116,000 plus 317.000
days of statute labour - too high . From these figures we can calculate that
the cost of labour was valued at Dfl. 0.30 per day. This corresponds well to
the daily wages of Dfl. 0.28 paid to Javanese workers on the tobacco plantations
in Sumatra in 1889. For comparison, the starting base salary for European staff
at such a plantation was Dfl. 200 per year, which could increase to Dfl. 400
after six years of service. Total income could be considerably higher due to profit
IVageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
111
‘ i’.■
sharing, up to Dfl. 2,000 per year (Janssen, 1914).
In 1888, in an attempt to alleviate poverty in the area, the Governor proposed
the project anew. In 1891, the Government allocated a sum of Dfl. 312,852 for
the implementation of the works ‘in free labour’, i.e. not using statute (unpaid)
labour. The first and second section were completed in 1894, and people began
to migrate into the plain. They could only obtain land, however, in the parts
that had not been brought under irrigation yet, as speculators had already taken
possession of the irrigable land. Then the works stagnated, because the allocated
funds had been used up. Many of the immigrants left again, because they feared
that the Government would not complete the works. In 1896 the Government
allocated another Dfl. 143,050 , but also counted on 69,900 days of statute
labour to complete the works. To avoid having to work without pay, more
people left the plain. Much of the land sold by the emigrants came into the
hands of speculators again, who lived in the towns of Bandung and Cianjur.
In 1904 the irrigation works were completed, at a total cost of Dfl. 933,843
and 120,000 days of statute labour. The primary canal was 17.2 km long, with
a capacity of 7 m3/s , the total length of the secondary canals was 35.4 km and
that of the tertiary canals 267.4 km. No less than 255 structures were build,
among those 4 tunnels and several aqueducts. The total irrigable area was 5202
ha, which means that the cost of irrigation development amounted to Dfl.
180,-/ha (Koorenhof et al., 1933/34).
Malaria Investigations
In October 1911, the tea company Tiedeman & Van Kerchem - owners of a
tea plantation East of the Cihea river - addressed a petition to the Governor
General of the Dutch East Indies, requesting him to have such measures taken
as required to improve the health situation on their plantation , ‘also for the
benefit of the local population’. In response, the Chief Inspector of the Health
Service for West Java - Dr.W.J. van Gorkom - visited the estate from 17-19
December 1911. He examined the native workers and their family members who
lived on the estate and found a spleen index that was not exceptionally high:
37.5% for the factory workers and 42.5% for the estate labourers; he found no
patients with excessively large spleens. The estate’s administrator claimed that
malaria was brought to the estate by temporary workers from the Cihea plain.
From a survey in which he examined 635 persons from 7 villages in December
1911 and another 4110 persons in 12 villages in August 1912, van Gorkom found
a spleen index well over 50% in most villages, and a high number of patients
with excessively large spleens. The spleen index for children was much higher,
with an average of 79%. Van Gorkom paints an overall gloomy picture of the
Cihea plain: unhealthy looking people, high infant mortality, houses and villages
in poor state of repair, weed-covered and ill-maintained irrigation ditches, fish
ponds and rice fields. According to the local Civil Service, many fields remained
uncultivated because of the lack of labour, which again was caused by malaria.
Van Gorkom described this situation as a ‘circulus vitiosus’ - the vicious circle
112
IVageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
which become
uncultivated
water-covered
rice fields
which results
in more
Fig. 5.10 Ciiculu.s
indicated in F
To break
- to stop th
- to improx - to ascertain
- to promo
- to distrit
of malaria.
To the te;
- to emplo7 v.
- to introduce
- to set up
ment me;
Five year1
the Cihea pJ
main interes.. >
species - Van
other mosq
houses - an
at the prelimii
studies of tl '
Subsequt
for a more tuu
in houses. On
earlier hype
The pref t
weed-covered
also produc
Mangkoi
siderably sinc<
had also inert
Wageningen A
.
- -
- -
pernor proposed
Dfl. 312,852 for
ig statute (unpaid)
id people began
/er, in the parts
had already taken
ise the allocated
ause they feared
o the Government
)0 days of statute
lout pay, more
> came into the
g and Cianjur.
' of Dfl. 933,843
’ km long, with
> was 35.4 km and
-lures were build,
i j area was 5202
ounted to Dfl.
which become
mosquito
breeding
sites
uncultivated
water-covered
rice fields
which results
in more
which cause
more
malaria
available
labour
which reduces
Fig. 5.10 Circu/us viiiosus .
indicated in Fig. 5.10 (Gorkom 1913).
To break the cycle, van Gorkom recommended the local administration:
- to stop the irrigation supply to fields which are not cultivated;
- to improve the physical drainage system;
- to ascertain that fishponds are kept clean;
- to promote the use of mosquito bednets and of quinine;
- to distribute quinine to the needy at no cost whenever there is an upsurge
of malaria.
To the tea company Tiedeman & Van Kerchem he recommended:
to employ temporary workers only after a medical examination;
to introduce systematic quinine prophylaxis for their workers;
to set up their own company medical service rather than relying on government measures.
;m - owners of a
the Governor
neasures taken
on , ‘also for the
• of the Health
: ite from 17-19
uiy members who
emotionally high:
i s; he found no
i.~r claimed that
i the Cihea plain.
; in December
i iorkom found
mber of patients
much higher,
i picture of the
>«oesand villages
ion ditches, fishr slds remained
i d by malaria.
:he vicious circle
Five years later, in 1917, Van Gorkom’s successor-Van Lonkhuyzen-visited
the Cihea plain, together with S.T. Darling, from the Rockefeller Institute. Their
main interest was hookworm disease; yet they also looked at various Anopheline
species - Van Gorkom had only made a distinction between anophelines and
other mosquitoes. Based on the high number of An. aconitus caught in native
houses - and its reputation as a malaria vector in other countries - they arrived
at the preliminary conclusion that An. aconitus was the main vector. Infectivity
studies of the vector, however, were not done at that time.
Subsequently a government doctor, Mangkoewinoto, was sent to the plain
for a more thorough investigation. Table 5.5 indicates the various species caught
in houses. Only An. aconitus was found to be infected, which confirmed the
earlier hypothesis of this species being the principal vector.
The preferred breeding site appeared to be the inundated, uncultivated and
weed-covered rice fields. Ditches with luxurious grass hanging into the water
also produced large quantities of An. aconitus larvae.
Mangkoewinoto found that the spleen index in the villages had increased con
siderably since 1912. The percentage of rice fields that remained uncultivated
had also increased (Fig. 5.11). According to Mangkoewinoto, very little had
pers 90-7 (1990)
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
I
113
•
■
■
■
-
___
Table 5.5 Numbers of malaria mosquitoes and their larvae found in houses, ditches and ricefields
in the Cihea plain.
No. of Anopheles
caught in houses
A. aconitus
A. rossi
A. punctulatus
A. kochi
A. fulginosus
A. barbirostris
A. sinensis
No. of larvae found *
1919 **
1917
1919
ditches
ricefields
163
126
1
4
25
1155
8
6
8
3
24
44
3845
1
555
7
3
74
34
640
467
26
A
tiating
had of
sugj
sup]
best at
stro
not i
best pi<
further
beca
Mar
Cihea ]
1. C
2. S
3. Cle<
4. D«si
3
83
55
71
*
No. of larvae found by same number of people in same
time span;
** Mangkoewinoto mentions that larval search in 1919 was
done when many ricefields were already being drained.
tons/ha
5.0 r-
ha
2000
4:0
1500
ri
i
3.0 -
1000
---------- mortality rate (%o)
average paddy production
* production (tons/ha)
area of uncultivated
o
■o
rice fields (ha)
o
o
2.0 -
A
500
o
■o—o—0--?
ol_
ol_
1910
1915
50
o
,0
1920
%0
60
.4b
1925
40
30
20
N
1930
10
1935
0
Fig. 5.11 Fluctuations in area of uncultivated ricefields, paddy production, and mortality rate in
the Cihea plain in the period 1910-1931.
Man
put i ■
Dra
rot, wt
Simi'h:
watc
TL_ I
koewin
heal
anot
dent w;
of hr n
In r
note,
organiz
land /
infec
mission
for t1"
‘Plain a
been done about the actions recommended by Van Gorkom; in 1917 the plain
still looked like one big swamp.
Man
of V
Gorkor
to ui j
114
Wage
IVageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
- V
I-'
/
nd ricefields
□reduction
□s/ha)
%0
- 60
50
40
30
20
JJ
10
0
1935
■
•
At that time, the local representative of the colonial administration was nego
tiating with the sugar company Handels Vereeniging Amsterdam (H. V. A.), who
had offered to bear the costs of a sanitation programme, provided it could plant
sugar cane in the plain and build a factory. In his report of 1917, Mangkoewinoto
supported these proposals and said that large scale sugar cultivation was the
best and most rational way to control malaria in the Cihea plain. In spite of
strong support from the administration and the Health Service, the plan did
not materialize. According to Mangkoewinoto because H. V.A. only wanted the
best plots of land; according to Koorenhof et al. (1933/34) because H.V.A. after
further study had concluded that sugar cultivation was not economically feasible
because of adverse soil and climatic conditions. On the basis of his findings
Mangkoewinoto proposed the following measures to combat malaria in the
Cihea plain:
1. Complete drainage of rice fields after harvest.
2. Simultaneous planting of rice fields.
3. Cleaning of irrigation and drainage ditches.
4. Distribution of quinine to population whenever there is an upsurge of mala
ria.
Mangkoewinoto explains that measures 1, 2 and 3 had in fact already been
put into effect by the Irrigation Service for other reasons than malaria control.
Drainage of rice fields after harvest was considered necessary to reduce root
rot, which was assumed to be caused by continuous submergence of the soil.
Simultaneous planting and cleaning of farm ditches was required for a proper
water distribution.
The local irrigation superintendent was reported to be quite taken with Mang
koewinoto’s conclusion that not only the inundated rice fields represented a
health risk, but also the poorly maintained farm ditches: this provided him with
another good reason for persuading farmers to clean the ditches. The superinten
dent was facing great difficulties in introducing the water regulations; for fear
of his own safety he did not go into the plain unarmed.
In an attempt to achieve better cooperation from the farmers Mangkoewi
noto, together with the local administration and the irrigation superintendent,
organized a demonstration of his mosquito research for the village leaders and
landowners. He showed them various anopheline species and their larvae,
infected mosquito stomachs, blood slides etc. and explained to them the trans
mission mechanism of malaria and the importance of the proposed measures
for the well-being of the region.
ility rate in
‘Plant and Water Regulation7 and the Irrigation Service
the plain
Mangkoewinoto’s recommendations of 1919 were not much different from those
of Van Gorkom in 1912. Why the Irrigation Service had not acted upon Van
Gorkom’s recommendations to improve drainage and stop the irrigation supply
to uncultivated rice fields? The answer can be found in the annual reports on
>0-7 (1990)
IVageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7(1990)
115
-- - s
Lhe Cihea irrigation project from the Department of Civil Works (Anonymous
1914-1922).
The 1914 report mentions... ‘preparatory fieldwork for the already authorized
works for improvement of drainage and for the collection of data required for
better water management'.
Report 1915: ‘Since the completion of the works in 1904, water management
has been the responsibility of the local administration; no specific regulation
for water distribution exists, nor is there a cropping plan; everyone plants as
he sees fit...'
‘... of course it is not possible under those circumstances to achieve proper water
distribution; this results in inefficient water use.’
‘In the reporting period a start was made with the enlargement of the drainage
canals and removal of weirs built in them by the farmers, and with the digging
of new drainage canals.’
‘The reason to improve drainage in the Cihea plain was the report of the
Health Service Inspector of 24 October 1912...’
‘A field survey indicated that the majority of rice fields could be drained simply
by cutting through the bunds, but farmers did not make the effort. In other
places, imperfect drainage is the result of poorly maintained farm ditches or
building of weirs across drains by farmers. Only in a few places imperfections
of the main drainage system caused the swampy conditions.'
‘Because of very poor permeability, drainage of the soil requires closely spaced
farm ditches. Construction of the ditches is beyond the capacity of the sparse
population in the area. Much could also be achieved by deep soil tillage, but
again the farmers will not do this themselves. Therefore it seems appropriate
to open up the area for cultivation of sugar cane, also as a means ol improving
the health situation.'
Report 1916: ‘...the superintendent of irrigation reported in December of
this year on the findings of his studies concerning the operation of the irrigation
system; this report can serve as the basis for a water distribution regulation.'
Report 1917: ‘...this year a start was made with a preliminary water regula
tion, for which several discussions were held with the local administration and
the population. The need for a plant and water regulation had been felt for
a long time, but attempts at introduction were always opposed by the farmers,
who could not be persuaded to put some regularity in their time of planting.
Because of the low population density there are not sufficient labourers available
for preparing all the fields in a short time. The result is that farmers in the area
are planting throughout the year.'
‘... farmers prefer to keep their fields submerged, because the heavy clay soils
produce deep cracks upon drying out and then need to be inundated for a long
time before they can be cultivated again. As a result of continuous submergence,
the soil is not sufficiently aerated [which was assumed to cause root rot (Koorenhof et al., 1933/34)]. It also appears that constant inundation affects the health
situation. A medical investigation indicated that not less than 98 percent of the
population suffer from malaria. As a result, the number of population in the
1 16
IVageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
are
sary. 1
obj^t
red
will h:
are
thr
1933/.
r 1
gre ■
did iic
‘In
sta i
All )
- lan<
thr i
to
of me
failur
irr _ i
1 Det
it;
of
of mi
receix
su. . I
so mi
w< i
he
grad i
‘T1
n; :«
62 __r
ward
in i
Wi
Re
sat;°f
bj c
PF
'
u
r
.1
r
i"
i
'
-V:;
'
area is decreasing.'
*... from the above it will be clear that a water regulation is absolutely neces
sary. In the reporting period a preliminary regulation was introduced with the
objective ofhaving an official regulation by 1918. which will be strictly enforced.'
"The tertiary irrigation units are divided into two groups, red and blue. The
red will receive water from November 1, the blue from February 1. Each group
will have 3 months for land preparation and planting.' [The red and blue units
are dispersed over the entire area to allow labourers and plough animals to move
through the area without having to travel lone distances; Koorenhof et al.,
1933/34]
Report 1918: 'The introduction of the plant and water regulation met with
great difficulties. The farmers, who are accustomed to planting when they please
did not keep to the regulatory planting periods.’
'In view of problems with food supply, the local administration decided to
start the irrigation supply to the first group in August rather than in November.
Although there was an ample supply of irrigation water - about 3.5 1/sec/ha
- land preparation was difficult because the soil had developed deep cracks
through which a lot of water was lost. In addition, the farmers were reluctant
to plant so early and did not start land and nursery preparation until the end
of the year. The preliminary plant and water regulation must be considered a
failure.'
Report 1919: ‘Based on the experience in 1918 it was decided to start the
irrigation supply to the first group on 15 September and the second on
1 December. Although in places there was some opposition from the farmers,
it appeared the regulation was more readily accepted. By December 70 percent
of the fields had already been planted or was being prepared. This was the result
of the efforts of the irrigation superintendent and the wholehearted support
received from officials of the local administration."
Report 1920: ‘On February 1, and every 2 weeks thereafter, the irrigation
supply was reduced by 1/6 and finally stopped on April 15. After this date only
so much water was supplied as to meet the requirements for drinking, bathing,
washing and watering of non-rice crops. Fish cultivation was restricted, for
health reasons. The same procedure was followed for the second group, with
gradual reduction of the irrigation supply starting on April 1.'
'The Health Service made available an amount of Dfl. 4,000 for the mainte
nance of tertiary irrigation and drainage ditches. With this amount a total of
62 km of ditches was restored to design profile and regularly maintained after
wards. Due to this improvement, the favourable weather conditions, and the
interruption of the irrigation supply health conditions during the reporting year
were favourable.’
Report 1922: ‘... the planting of rice proceeded smoothly; it can be noted with
satisfaction that the initial opposition against the plant- and water regulation
by now has completely disappeared.’
II''ageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
117
•1
-.SJ-
•'■-'■ :W®
The ‘State Sanitation Farm’
In 1919. the Director of Agriculture announced in the Peoples' Council - the
Parliament of the Netherlands-Indies - that the Government considered the
establishment of large-scale rice farms to alleviate the national food shortage.
An agriculturist was sent to California to study methods of mechanized rice
farming (Anonymous. 1921). In the same year, the Government requested the
Civil Service in Cianjur to purchase 1000 ha of rice land from the population
in the centre of the Cihea plain - where drainage conditions were worst and
the people suffered most from malaria - with the objective of improving agricul
tural practices and the health situation of the farmers.
Koorenhof et al. (1933/34) say that at that time many small farmers left the
area, selling their land at prices around Dfl. 10.- or less, while the Government
had to pay Dfl. 140.- per ha.
Of the 1000 ha, 71 ha was used as experimental fields for growing non-rice
crops - cassava, maize, cotton, groundnuts. The objective was to identify a dry
season crop with very low water requirement, which could help to reduce the
economic loss of growing only one rice crop, without creating a health hazard.
The remaining land was rented to local farmers for rice cultivation; tenants could
obtain loans: Dfl. 10.- after land preparation, another Dfl. 10.- after planting
and Dfl. 5.- after each weeding. All loans were repayable in rice.
Local contractors built mosquito-free houses for European and local staff.
50 cottages, a small hospital, warehouses and stables, for a total amount of
Dfl. 75,000. Also, equipment was bought for mechanized rice farming, including
tractors.
An agriculturist was appointed as manager and a medical technician from
the Health Service was stationed permanently on the farm, with a local Govern
ment doctor visiting once a week.
The manager immediately took up improving the drainage system; in the first
year 20 km of canals was constructed and another 100 km in the following years.
All depressions in the terrain were drained and the ban on construction of new
fishponds strictly enforced.
To prevent illegal rice cultivation in the dry season, the water supply for
domestic use was channelled from the main irrigation canal directly into the
drains going to the villages. When this method proved successful on the sanita
tion farm, it was generally applied on the Cihea plain.
The experiments with second crops and with mechanized rice cultivation both
produced unfavourable results. Yields were minimal and the machinery could
not cope with the heavy and marshy soils of the Cihea plain. As an alternative,
the sanitation farm tried to promote animal traction. The experimental fields
were turned into pasture land and in 1922 the Government provided Dfl. 60.000
for the purchase of breeding-cattle. The results of the breeding programme were
not very good either. The sanitation farm then concentrated its research activi
ties on rice cultivation: fertilizer and crop variety trials.
118
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
F
By 1930, the state sanitation farm, in spite of its high initial cost, achieved
an annual return on investment of 6 %.
ncil - the
'■red the
ortage.
uzed rice
iested the
ulation
rst and
gagricul-
CIHEA PLAIN
spleen indices (children)
left the
vernment
c;
^ro e
oZ
•*’//
Goenoenghaloe
<j//
on-rice
y a dry
jduce the
hazard.
,s could
planting
to Bandung
<£>
co CD
• Cipeujeum
Cipetir
Cirandjanggirang
to Ciandur
il staff.
)unt of
including
n from
Govern-
° Cirandjanghilir
’ Bodjongpitjoeng
<n
CIANDUR
PLAIN
o
Jati
00
he first
...g years,
m of new
o
Cikondang
Cibarengkok
Is
40
ply for
into the
10 sanita-
2
o Soekarama
c((
v.on both
ery could
native,
il fields
n. 60,000
■'me were
activi-
O'
h
I
Illi
spleen indices (children)
in the years
1919, 1922 and 1931
railway
State Sanitation Farm
Fig. 5.12 Location of State Sanitation Farm and spleen indices for ten villages in the Cihea plain
in the years 1919. 1922 and 1931.
7(1990)
Wageningen Agi le. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
119
i-
Results and conclusions
In the period from 1919 to 1932 the population increased from 13.223 to 24,493.
Due to increased productivity the per caput rice production increased from 470
kg in 1917 to 660 kg in 1932 (Koorenhof et al., 1933/34). The increase in rice
productivity is the result of higher yields and decreasing area of uncultivated
rice fields (Fig. 5.11).
Mortality rate in the Cihea plain decreased from about 30 per thousand
around 1920 to values below 20 per thousand in 1930. The spleen index for
the whole of the plain decreased from 90.7% in 1919 to 15.9% in 1931. Figure
5.12 shows the spleen index for children in ten villages in the plain for the years
1919, 1922 and 1931. Although this reveals significantly decreasing spleen indi
ces, in 1931 malaria still prevailed in the western part. This was attributed to
the malarious areas in the Cianjur Plain, on the other side of the river Cisokan.
There, no ‘plant and water regulation’ had been implemented because the indige
nous irrigation systems did not provide sufficient water control. But, in the light
of the results achieved in the Cihea plain, it was decided to replace the village
type systems with a ‘technical’ irrigation system - with separate canals for irriga
tion and drainage - and to introduce a similar ‘plant and water regulation’.
The irrigation works for an area of 12,680 hectares started in 1937 (Anonymous,
1937).
5E - House improvement and malaria
"In
ere
me
Sa
1111
ho
wa
M
Introduction
I
An article with this title appeared in the communications of the Civil Health
Service in 1938. It was presented by J.W. Grootings, government physician and
regional director of plague control at Tasikmalaya. Plague had been present
in the Netherlands-Indies since the world epidemic of 1895. It soon disappeared
from Sumatra and Sulawesi, but persisted in Java, rising and falling in great
epidemic waves which caused 207,666 known deaths from plague in the period
from 1911 to 1936. The disease is essentially one of rats and is transmitted by
fleas — mainly Xenopsylla cheopis. Humans living in close contact with rats can
become infected when they are bitten by infected fleas.
In the country districts, a campaign of house improvement was implemented,
with as its goal the alteration of existing houses, or construction of new houses,
in such a manner that facilities for rat nesting were eliminated. Double walls
are abolished, bamboos used in building are sealed at each end. or replaced
by wooden beams, the use of tiles to replace thatch is encouraged, and regular
house inspections are made. Wilcocks (1944). in an article on medical organiza
tion and diseases of the Netherlands Indies, says: "The Dutch have carried out
this campaign without compulsion, but with the aid of a small bonusfor each com
pleted house, and report astonishing success; by the end of 1938 no less than
1,525,364 houses had been improved. The unexpected effect of this activity in cau120
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
otl
i
trt
I
wl
]
co
I
3.
.■
---
'-frfrti
Uo 24.493.
’ from 470
se in rice
ivultivated
housand
ndex for
■31. Figure
the years
een indiinbuted to
r Cisokan.
e indigethe light
he villagebr irrigaulation'.
lonymous.
sing an increase in malaria has been referred to above.'
Wilcocks refers to his section on malaria, where he says:
In recent years there has been an increase in malaria in those areas in which the
house improvement campaign for the suppression of rats has been pressed. The
reason for this is that in the process of house improvement breeding places are
created, small pools and puddles where earth has been taken, unless great care
is exercised. Much of the house improvement is done by the natives themselves,
and supervision from the point of view ofmalaria is not easy.'
In his article, Grootings observes the same relation between house improve
ment and malaria as Wilcocks does, but comes with a totally different explana
tion.
Sakit woneng
The area Grootings reported on consists of the Regencies Tasikmalaya and Ciamis, located in the interior of West-Java. Contrary to what Wilcocks said, the
house improvement scheme was on a compulsory basis. Begun in 1933, the
scheme by 1938 had been completed in five sub-districts, was almost completed
in two, and in implementation in another two. Among the population, there
was general consent that house improvement caused malaria; they even called
the disease - which had not been common in the region - by the name ‘sakit
woneng (‘sakit’ = disease; ‘woneng’ after Dutch ‘woning’ = house).
Malaria investigations
vil Health
<«cian and
present
.._ppeared
g in great
e period
itted by
h rats can
mented.
houses,
uble walls
•eplaced
regular
organiza~ ried out
ch com■ less than
ity in cau-7 (1990)
Since the house improvement scheme still needed to be implemented in many
other sub-districts, Grootings felt he could not ignore popular opinion and
therefore started an investigation into the matter, with the help of the Provincial
Health service of West-Java, the Central Malaria Bureau, and the local adminis
tration.
Figure 5.13a gives the mortality curve for the years 1931 through 1937 for
8 sub-districts, and on the same time scale the progress of the house improvement
scheme in that sub-district. Figure 5.13b presents the curves for the sub-districts
where the house-improvement had not yet been implemented. The location of
the sub-districts, with the implementation sequence of the house improvement
scheme is indicated in Figure 5.14.
Comparison of the mortality curves learns that house improvement effectively
controlled plague. With respect to malaria, Grootings made the following obser
vations:
1. All curves show an increase of mortality to an unprecedented level* during
and after house improvement
2. In most cases, the mortality curve reaches its peak when 90 to 100% of the
houses has been improved
3. The increase in mortality after house improvement occurs in every season
of the year.
IVageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
121
•z
■4
■■■
CIJULANG
100
80
60
40
20
0
CIKONENG
100
80
60
40
20
0
3
CIAMIS
100
80
60
40
20
0
CIPAKU
100
80
60
40
20
0
INDIHIANG
100
80
60
40
20
0
KAWALI
100
80
60
40
20
0
KAWALU
100
80
60
40
20
0
100
80
60
40
20
0
E
PANAWANGAN
1931
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936
1937
---------- mortality rate in %o
mortality from plague in%0
number of improved houses
as%of total number of houses
Fig. 5.13a Mortality curves for the period 1931-1937 in 8 sub-districts with house improvement.
122
IVageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
SINGAPARNA
100
80
60
40
20
0
PANUMBANGAN
100
80
60
40
20
0
RAJAPOLAH
100
80
60
40
20
0
CISAYONG
100
80
60
40
20
0
TASIKMALAYA
100
80
60
40
20
0
,W
i
CIBEUREUM
100
80
60
40
20
0
MANONJAYA
100
80
60
40
20
0
CIJEUNGJING
100
80
60
40
20
0
9J/
l%0
uses
houses
100
80
60
40
20
0
RAJADESA
1931
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936
1937
---------- mortality rate in %o
mortality from plague in %o
nt.
Fig. 5.13b Mortality curves for the period 1931-1937 in 9 sub-districts without house improvement.
'90)
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
123
rate. -
8'^
1937
Panawangan
Kawali-W
1937
Panumbangan
Kawali-E
1936
A3-
kitchen fire------
19331934
Rajadesa
Rajapolah
1935Cijulang
A
\
Cisajong
B
Cipaku
v
a
A3 p
1933-
1935-^
Cikoneng
1936
A
Fig. 5.15
Ciamis
x 1936\j1937
Tasikmalaya
Kawalu 29
indicate
ty to i
Cibeureum
Manonjaya
project area
Jakarta
''"Bandung m
-before 1 implementation
during |I of house
I after J improvement
JAVA
Grc_i
after hoi
was f
incre< <
of Figur
to the*”while i
—sequence of house improvement scheme
1934
year of implementation house
improvement project
sub—district where house improvement
scheme was implemented
[39]
parasite index
sub—district
□
spleen index
Fig. 5.14 Effects of house improvement programme on spleen indices in sub-districts of the regencies
Tasikmalaya and Ciamis.
The folk
distrr
An. aeon
An. sv1'-)
An. bi
)
mortality rates in the 17 sub-districts as recorded before house improvement;
this was 38 per thousand. The average of the peak mortality rate recorded after
house improvement in the 8 sub-districts is twice as high: 77 per thousand. This
Of those
also ii :>
Frc
breeds ir
sent ii _1
124
Wageni
* From Grootings' curves. I have calculated the average of the maximum
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
Al
Bl
B4
A2
B2
A3
A4
kitchen fire
B3
desa
BEFORE IMPROVEMENT
AFTER IMPROVEMENT
Al thatched roof
A2 no ventilation between ceiling
and walls
A3 partition between kitchen and
bedroom only halfway across the
room and not reaching to ceiling
A4 kitchen smoke enters freely into
rest of the house
Bl tiled roof
B2 ventilation through open
space under roof
B3 kitchen entirely seperated
from bedroom
B4 kitchen smoke leaves
house through smoke hole
in the roof
kitchen fire
Fig. 5.15 Main characteristics of houses before and after improvement.
indicates that Grootings was justified to speak in terms of kan increase of mortali
ty to an unprecedented level'.
Grootings also determined spleen and parasite indices - before,
before, during
during and
and
after house improvement - in a number of sub-districts. It appeared that malaria
was present at a very low level before the house improvement scheme and
increased sharply thereafter. The results of the survey are indicated in the map
of Figure 5.14. The map also shows that the malaria epidemic advanced parallel
to the implementation of the house improvement scheme in the various districts,
while passing by the neighbouring districts without house improvement.
The following species of anopheline mosquitoes were found indoors in all sub
districts:
'l’,uc regencies
maximum
ivement;
i led after
isand. This
)-7 (1990)
An. aconitus
An. subpic tus
An. barbirostris
An. kochi
An. hyrcanus
An. fulginosus .
Of those, only An. aconitus appeared to be infected in all sub-districts; in Kawalu
also infected subpictus and hyrcanus were found.
From this, Grootings concluded that aconitus was the main vector. Aconitus
breeds in poorly maintained rice fields, ditches and fishponds, which were pre
sent in all sub-districts.
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
125
•'
-
■
...
.. V; 5.15
E
F"
Kitchen smoke
riwepthi
Bromot. .
Grootings" investigations supported popular be’.zef
zniprovenk'in led 1
to malaria. Why was this so ?
As is apparent from Figure 5.15. houses before nmrt'.ement were imbued fl
with smoke from the kitchen fire, whereas after i~t — '.'■ement kitchen smoke j
no longer entered the house. Grootings" hypothesis ~ a- tr.at the unimproved fl
houses - because of the smoke - were unattractive t: r rr. t squitoes and difficult
for them to enter, while after house improvement t'.ere was no more smoke 3
to keep the mosquitoes away and the houses b-eenme ei-i-j accessible through
the ventilation openings.
To test this hypothesis Grootings conducted
?sc-ito surveys in villages J
where a house improvement program was in progress Table 5.6 lists the number 5
of mosquitoes found in improved and unimproved t uses in the same neigh- fl
bourhood. at the same moment, during an equal p r.cd of time by an equal fl
number of searchers.
The fact that on average the ratio mosquitoes to h i j-ses was more than three J
times higher for the improved houses appears to sup:?: r. Grootings" hypothesis
that the unimproved, smoke-stained houses were less a active for mosquitoes 1
to enter than the improved houses.
Kf---
Bbo
KI..
hr-
Grootings’ recommendations
Apart from quinine distribution to the popuianor. - which had already been fl
implemented - Grootings recommended sanitation measures in his article which o
are very similar to those implemented in the Cihea p.-in ' C.f. Case study Cihea): 3
- keep irrigation and drainage ditches free from vegetation;
- in village irrigation schemes: cut and burn nee straw alter harvest:
- in technical irrigation schemes: plant nee onl> once a > ear and stop irrigation
supply after harvest:
pto 12 House
Table 5.6a Mosquno survey in houses that r.ac not beer.r
Sub-district
Ciamis
Tasikmalaya
No. of houses
S17
467
bL-
No. of An. aconitits
*
42
No. of mosccizoes
129
125
Table 5.6b Mosquno survey in improved houses.
Sub-district
Ciamis
Tasikmalaya
No. of houses
793
313
No. of mo<-13
316
No. of An aconiins
*
135
zees
J
.. I
w
rfl
* Due to an organizational error the r/amber of
caught was not c<counted 2
total ot H42
separately for unimproved and improved houses zr. Ciamis; of the
mosquitoes caught. 668 (79
were An aconinis.
•'i
126
;
A./r,..
Papers W-”
Jtmingen
I
keep the water surface of fishponds permanently tree from vegetation:
promote the use of larvivorous fish (Hapiochitus oanchax) and weed-eating
fish (Puntiusjavanicus) as an anti-larval measure in fishponds.
ement led
imbued
... smoke
improved
difficult
smoke
through
villages
v number
ne neighi equal
.‘.i’
han three
“othesis
quitoes
4
'■
Mil
^3-7^
.idy been
1 : which
?ihea):
-J '■
..
SW-?';r
’-.f■~r~-
<>.
gation
Photo 12 House after improvement.
uconitus
nitus
ou n ted
. of 842
(1990)
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
127
■
■.< - ■)
V'i: j-S
' "
■
•■’•
•
y"-‘
-
■
■
.
..
.
-
■—'
.
.
■
Chapter 6
Dr. Ir. J. Kuipers - Civil engineer and malariologist
W.B. Snellen
Introduction
F“SF==S~~
cacv Of thUSe °| the epldem'c dnd sometlmes reflecting a concern about the effi
cacy ot the malaria control effort.
In issue no.47 of the 1938 volume. Van Der Eyden wrote on the strategy of
ma ana control. In his view the knowledge of malaria epidemiology in the
melsureTfhe i,ebrtah8nated r " SP'te of millions ‘’'’guilders spent on sanitation
mnio
I H ^establishment of a powerful Malaria Bureau, and countless ento
mological studies. The reason for this stagnation, he said, was the lack of apprecianon for the genius of Ronald Ross as the founder of malaria epidemiology
On the basis of the chapters 'Laws which Regulate the Amount of Malaria in
a Locality and Laws which Regulate the Number of Anophelines in a Locality’
•fX R°,/S b00k ,The Preventl0n of Malaria- (1911), Van Der Eyden concludes:
ic leie is a lot oj malaria, the responsible breeding site is always close by.
istta i ii it tin several hundred metres. Even though the mosquitoes sometimes fly
as tai as p km. malaria seldom spreads further than 750 m from a breeding site
widue, 77n a'an“a,,°1' measure is al^tys adequate provided all breeding sites
utthin 7>0m from settlements are cleared.... The cause ofthe epidemic in Tanjung
Pe> ink the> ejore are the poorly maintained drains with stagnant water and other
uatei pools within the harbour area.' (Van Der Eyden 1938).
The director of the Central Malaria Bureau sent a letter to the editor on
account of Van Der Eyden’s article (Oserbeek. 1938). Overbeek stated that while
clearing of breeding sites within 750 m from settlements may have worked
uga'nst zl/i. maculatus in the Malay States, this did not mean the same principle
research of Va'n R C°ntr01 A'!asmda,cils- As Just one sample, he recalled the
. .
■ freemen m 1917, who in 3 native quarters in Jakarta found
ffskeTwas^km6070’
' Whi‘e
d‘StanCe t0 theclosest breed
latIrhmS°UrCe °f 7ldlaria in Tanjung Periuk, Overbeek wrote in his letter and
of the d r°re e,ab°rate artlcle (Overbeek. 1939), was a swampy area south
ageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
129
....
■
■
SO
Two articles in support of Van Der Hyden’s conclusion appeared in issue
No. 17 of the 1939 volume, both by shipping companies’ physicians based at
Tanjung Periuk (Marwits, 1939: De Priester, 1939). Marwits observed a striking
correlation between the number of malaria cases on board of ships after having
docked in Tanjung Periuk, and the mooring place the ship had occupied. There
were no malaria cases on board of ships of the ‘Rotterdam Lloyd’ which moored
on the far end of dock no. 2. Whereas ships of the ‘S.M. Nederland’ that moored
on the same dock - but some 600m closer to a road along which breeding sites
and larvae of An. sundaicus had been identified - had up to 40 malaria cases
in a crew of 300. As a control measure, ships of the ‘S.M. Nederland’ were no
longer allowed to stay overnight at the landside end of the quay and were moved
some 200 to 400 m away from the road before nightfall. After this measure
no more malaria cases were reported.
Marwits connected the upsurge of malaria with the slackening of maintenance
of the drains and premises during the last few years. De Priester presented mala
ria curves for the native settlements at Tanjung Periuk. and arrived at the same
conclusion.
Issue No.40 of the 1939 volume of the journal reports on a lecture given to
the malariologists in Jakarta by a civil engineer, Kuipers, who accused the malariologists of a one-sided approach:
a 1. They do ask. why is there malaria ?
a2. Yet they do not reflect on why there was no, or less, malaria.
b 1. They do take measures against a malaria epidemic
b2. But they do not use the laws by which it is governed.
c 1. They search for proof of vector production in a breeding site
c2. But they do not specify the relation between mosquito production and the
occurrence of malaria
c
big
the
<
ha
i
cai
Po
Jnc
d 1. They do say: we found larvae in this breeding site
d2. But they do not explain the absence of larvae in other sites.
Kuipers supported his view with a diagram (Fig. 6.1). which indicated the
names of the scientists who had studied the malaria problem in the Tanjung
Periuk area, the various breeding sites (f = fishponds; d = drains; s = swamps)
they held responsible for it, and whether or not they had taken the questions
a 1. a2. b 1, b2, etc. into account (y = yes; n = no; p = partially).
Kuipers was head of the Sanitation Bureau at Surabaya. He was responsible
for water supply and sanitation projects in East Java; this also included technical
measures for malaria control. He had received a doctorate from the University
of Amsterdam in 1937 on a dissertation-in Dutch- ‘Mathematical-statistical
Investigation of Observations on Anopheles in The Netherlands and on Java’
under the supervision of Professor Swellengrebel (for a discussion on Swellen1 30
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
<
ide
pin
1
1
e
i
the
l
-v :
:ared in issue
ians based at
served a striking
>ir»s after having
cupied. There
. vhich moored
nd' that moored
breeding sites
malaria cases
erland' were no
•~d were moved
this measure
i of maintenance
ssented malad at the same
'“^ture given to
ised the mala-
ction and the
■*”' ’ *.P-
■ ■
-
f
f
f
f
d
d
d
s
al.
a2.
y
n
y
n
y
p
y
n
y
n
y
n
y
n
y
n
bl.
b2.
y
n
y
n
y
n
y
n
y
n
y
n
y
n
y
n
cl.
c2.
y
n
y
p
y
y
y
n
y
y
y
p
y
p
y
p
dl.
d2.
y
n
y
p
y
n
y
n
y
p
y
n
y
n
y
n
R&E B
1922 1926
1938
R&E
p
1922 1939
M
1939
1939
B
1918
o
o
B=Van Breemen;R&E=Rodenwaldt & Essed;O=Overbeek;P=De Priester,M=Marwits
Fig. 6.1 Kuipers’ diagram on approach of malaria research in Indonesia (see text lor explanations).
grebel’s work refer to Chapter 4). His dissertation was an attempt at quantifying
the relationships between environmental factors and the potential mosquito pro
ductivity of a breeding site.
In his lecture -and in his dissertation- Kuipers claimed that these relationships
had practical significance for the control of malaria through species sanitation.
The minutes of the discussion following Kuipers’ lecture suggest that the
malariologists did not readily accept his ideas. Shortly after. World-War II
started and when it was over there was DDT. Kuipers then used his mathemati
cal-statistical insights to improve the design criteria for urban drainage systems.
These criteria are still applied in the Netherlands today.
This chapter describes how Kuipers developed his theory of vector production
potential, his criticism of the traditional malaria control strategy and how his
insights might be used in new malaria sanitation programmes.
Kuipers’ early work: Brengkok
:h indicated the
the Tanjung
s = swamps)
n the questions
s responsible
eluded technical
ii the University
cal-statistical
( and on Java’
ion on Swellenoers 90-7 (1990)
In Brengkok - on the northern coast of East-Java - a sudden outbreak of malaria
occurred in 1933, claiming many lives. Some years earlier, an investigation had
identified An. sundaicus as the malaria vector and the marine fish ponds as the
major breeding site. As a sanitation measure, the ‘hygienic exploitation method’
had been implemented: periodical drainage of the ponds to destroy the floating
algae that provide food and shelter to the larvae of the vector species.
Knowing that An. sundaicus breeds in sun-lit brackish pools, Kuipers conduct
ed a field survey to detect all locations where such pools might occur (Fig. 6.2).
As a next step, for each of those potential breeding sites, he checked whether
there had been any changes or abnormalities, which might explain a sudden
increase in vector production.
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
131
I
500 m
JAVA SEA
Laboehan
Soekalilo
Brengkok
Lime stone hills
Lime stone hi Ils
dried
Manjaroeti
<=□
road
feeder canal
bridge
dam
marine fish ponds
waste land
transition zone
Fig.
Bren
saline rice land
Fig. 6.2 Potential breeding sites for Anopheles sundaicus near the village of Brengkok. East Java.
Indonesia.
It appeared that the saline rice fields had not been planted that year, because
the monsoon rains were late and irregular at the start. In normal years, the
shade from the rice plants and the regular dilution of the impounded water with
rain would make the rice fields unsuitable breeding sites for the vector. But when
the fields remained uncultivated and with irregular rainfall, sun-lit brackish
pools could have developed.
Kuipers used meteorological records and soil characteristics to produce a
‘ponding curve’. From the ponding curve he derived a theoretical vector density
curve (Fig. 6.3). The correspondence of the maxima and minima of the vector
density curve and that of the mortality curve was taken as evidence that the
saline rice fields had caused the epidemic.
Because there were no larvae, Kuipers could not check the validity of his vec
tor production model in the field. Due to an organizational mistake in the distri132
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
buti
n
a I
F
ac 3
ing ]
*
I
I- t
n
o. *
base
v
var.
sc
;'
.
-’ll''
P-E
in mm
7001—
pr = precipitation
rE = evaporation
600
.
„ P-E (1932)
RAJ
500
400
P-E (1933)
I
surface runoff —,vAy\\\\\
300 \ ponding
ponding\x SSS
r
ponding
depth
in mm
J
I
-380
wxxxxw xxwwwj
.PONDING CURVE-
saturated field
------ THEORETICAL A-----------VECTOR DENSITY
200 -------------- 1
increasing
soil moisture
/X
100
77
\
dried out field
0
number of
deaths/week
- 30
\
Dec
Jan
'
i
Feb
Mar
Apr
- 20
MORTALITY CURVE
AFTER 35 DAYS \
I
May
I
Jun
-
Jul
- 10
0
Fig. 6.3 Mortality curve, theoretical vector density, and the ponding curve in saline rice fields near
Brengkok, derived from data on rainfall, evaporation and soils.
J
st Java.
icause
ears, the
,tor with
when
Lackish
uce a
i snsity
e vector
f’nt the
..»s vecle distri-
(1990)
bution of anti-malaria drugs, many more deaths occurred than would have nor
mally been the case. This meant that Kuipers could check his production curve
against a mortality curve.
For the above reasons, the Brengkok approach could hardly be recommended
as a new strategy in malaria control. The experience, however, did convince
Kuipers of the usefulness of studying the interrelationship between the variation
pattern of the relevant environmental factors, vector production and the result
ing malaria.
Kuiper’s dissertation
In the Brengkok case, Kuipers used a purely theoretical vector production
model, which he could not verify in the field for lack of larvae. In his dissertation
of 1937 Kuipers presented quantitative vector production models, which were
based on field data that had been collected by other malaria researchers.
In The Netherlands, Van Der Torren had determined larval densities of two
varieties of Anopheles maculipennis. The malaria vector was An. maculipennis
var. atroparvus\ the other variety - messeae - did not transmit malaria. The di
sease had been endemic in The Netherlands for centuries. [The last epidemic
IVageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
133
•Bfla
was in 1946, with 15,000 malaria cases, in spite of house spraying with DDT.
The last recorded case of indigenous malaria was in 1958].
The disease had always been associated with brackish water. The availability
of a large volume of fresh water - after construction of a 42 kilometer long
dike separating the former Zuiderzee from the sea - presented the possibility
of reducing the salt content of the surface water in the province of North-Hol
land, where most of the malaria occurred. In an attempt to predict the effect
of such a malaria control measure, Van Der Torren collected over 1,000 larvae
and water samples during the summers of 1934-1935. He observed that:
- each of the two varieties are found in both fresh and brackish water;
- highest densities of atroparvus are found within the range of 1,500 - 2,000
mg chloride per litre;
- highest densities of messeae occur at 0 - 500 mg Cl/1.
From the above findings, Van Der Torren concluded that after letting in fresh
water and reducing the chloride content below 750 mg/1, malaria could be
expected to disappear.
Kuipers challenged this conclusion, on the grounds that there were other fac
tors beside chloride content that determined the atroparvus - messeae equilibri
um. He used multiple regression equations, with y representing larval density,
x, the chloride content and x2 through x5 factors that he based on Van Der
Torren’s records on type and composition of vegetation.
From Kuipers’ calculations, it appeared that the value of the chloride regression
coefficient (b 1) was indeed much smaller than some of the other coefficients.
Multiple regression analysis in Kuipers’ days required countless hours of cal
culating, which could explain why Kuipers did not take the trouble of testing
the statistical reliability of his results.
Recalculation of the regression coefficients confirms that some of the other
factors (vegetation factors) were more important than the chloride content. At
the same time, it appears that the calculated values lack statistical significance.
As an example, Figure 6.4 presents the equation and relevant statistical informa
tion based on the data collected in June 1934.
st.dev.
of coeff.
The
fu
cu
walo
If
in
- tir
ra
T1
tions
so™
I
ea...i
fortl
or
a.
y = a + b 1 X] 4- b2 x2 -I- b3 x3 + b4x4 + b5 x5
y =
Ir
b.
te
c.
Most
M i
imHu
-7.6 + 0.005 x, + 0.08 x2 + 0.12 x, + 0.08 x4 + 0.08 x5
8.0
0.003
0.24
0.16
0.17
0.17
R Squared = 0.16
y
x,
X2-5
= larval density
= chloride content (mg/1)
= vegetation factors
y
x,
Fig. 6.4 Multiple regression equation which describes (changes in ) larval density as a function
of (changes in ) chloride content and vegetation factors.
134
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
i
;
x2
x3 = n
Fig
Wc
i’V-
i DDT.
v/ailability
'~*er long
;sibility
o.uh-Holthe effect
i larvae
" - 2,000
i
n fresh
uld be
' ier facuilibrii aensity.
Van Der
ession
its.
irs of caltesting
! other
ntent. At
i ?ance.
i orma-
Indonesia
The investigations of Van Breemen in 1918 and 1919 had indicated the marine
fishponds of Jakarta as the major breeding site of the malaria vector An. sundaicus. Sunier investigated the fishponds north of Jakarta in 1917-1919; Rodenwaldt & Essed studied the ponds east of the harbour at Tanjung Periuk, in
1921-22. The investigators found that the larval density of sundaicus was
influenced by several environmental factors:
- tidal movement
- salt content of the water
- abundance of vegetation in the ponds
- rainfall
They produced numerous graphs and tables in an attempt to establish the rela
tionships between these factors, but finally produced only qualitative - and
sometimes contradictory - statements.
Kuipers produced regression equations for each set of data obtained in the
earlier investigations, in order to obtain an objective and quantitative measure
for the relative importance of the various environmental factors and their effects
on larval density (Fig. 6.5).
From those regression equations, Kuipers concluded:
a. Because of the similarity of the two equations, the environmental factors
which determine larval density of An. sundaicus in the fishponds of Jakarta
are essentially the same as those in Tanjung Periuk;
b. Vegetation has a more pronounced effect on larval density than has salt con
tent;
c. Rainfall has little effect on larval density.
Mosquito production
Most malaria investigators used larval density as a measure to assess the relative
importance of a breeding site. These were determined by taking at random a
Jakarta
T.Periuk
a (unction
y = 0.25 - 0.007 xI + 0.68 Xj - 0.0007 x3
y = 0.16 - 0.006 x, + 0.45 x2 + 0.0004 x3
y = observed larval density (as a fraction of maximum density)
x, = salt content (o/oo)
x2 = vegetation factor
x3 = monthly rainfall (mm)
Fig. 6.5 Regression equations for fishponds at Jakarta and Tanjung Periuk.
(1990)
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
135
1
Larvae:
Mosquitoes:
y, = 0.48 - 0.011 x, + 0.45 x2 - 0.0005 x3
y2 = 0.98 - 0.004 x, + 0.57 x2 - 0.0026 x3
I
ACTI
1.
yi = larval density (as a fraction of maximum observed density)
y2 = mosquito production (as a fraction of maximum observed production)
Xj = salt content (o/oo)
x2 = vegetation factor
x3 = monthly rainfall (mm)
i
2. L<
3.
.
3.1 Id
Fig. 6.6 Comparison of adult and larval sampling.
3.:
fixed number of scoops from the water surface, using a hand-held pan. Ultima
tely, of course, it is not the larvae but rather the mosquito emerging from it
that transmits malaria. Some investigators therefore preferred to use emergence
traps, suspended above the water surface. Sunier had used both methods in his
investigations of the Jakarta fishponds. From a series of 31 observations in
which both methods had been used simultaneously, Kuipers produced the
regression equations given in Figure 6.6.
On the basis of the above relations, Kuipers calculated the seasonal variations
in larval density and mosquito production. From these calculations he con
cluded that in the middle of the West monsoon season, when rainfall is high
and salt content is low, mosquito production in the marine fishponds of Jakarta
would fall to zero.
None of the regression coefficients in the above equations, however, have statis
tical significance. By excluding regression on salt and vegetation, we can derive
the following equation, which is statistically significant and describes the trans
formation of larvae into mosquitoes, as influenced by rainfall:
3.3 ld<
4.
5. imj
6.
6.1
(
6.2 Lor
W :
answ
A.
y = 0.62 + 0.51 x,-0.0029 x2
with y = mosquito density (as a fraction of maximum)
x, = larval density (ibidem)
x2 = monthly rainfall
B.
i
C. v\
D. V
I-
This equation tells us that even with maximum larval density (x, = 1.0), the
Jakarta fish ponds do not produce mosquitoes when monthly rainfall exceeds
390 mm. With an average monthly rainfall in the wettest month (January) of
330 mm. this would mean that Kuipers’ prediction of no mosquito production
in the middle of the West monsoon is only true for wetter than average years.
tht
an
Bei
t
i
as rec
by so
cis
up
and o
Kuipers’ criticism
Kuipers’ criticism on the malariologists in the Netherlands-Indies can best be
explained on the basis of the activitv schedule for a sanitation programme (Table
6.1).
136
ria
4.1 De
to
4.2
1
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
4
■J
Table 6.1 Kuipers’ criticism of the traditional malaria control strategy.
ACTIVITY
METHOD
CRITICISM KUIPERS
1. Health monitoring
1. Weekly collection and processing
of mortality statistics
1. Detection of problem
is always late
2. Local medical investigation;
if malaria epidemic :
drug distribution
3. Malaria investigations
3.1 Identify vector species
3.2 Identify breeding sites
vjltima-
! from it
gence
in his
tions in
d the
mations
he conhigh
karta
3.3 Identify breeding sites
4. Planning sanitation programme
4.1 Decide which breeding sites
to include in programme
4.2 Select sanitation measure
2. Drug distribution is always
a step behind epidemic
3.1 Detection of parasites or infected
glands in anopheline mosquitoes caught
in or near houses of infected persons
3.2 Larval finds of the confirmed vector
species
3.3 From general experience and from
field observations of larval
densities and various environmental
factors
4.1 No standard procedure;based on previous
experience
4.2 No standard procedure;consider breeding
sites within vector’s flight distance
4.1 No objective criteria
6. Evaluation
6.1 Short term evaluation:
If SI high, repeat 3.
If SI low, continue with 1.
6.1 Conduct spleen index (Sl)surveys in first
few years after implementation
of sanitation measures
6.2 Long term evaluation:
6.1 As indicated under 1.
6.1 Spleen index surveys alone
do not provide a test for
validity of assumptions made
under 4.1 and 4.2
6.2 Evaluation procedure docs not
always provide information
that is needed for identifi
cation of cause of new
malaria upsurge.
5.
s.
>t be
1, . able
'990)
4.2 No objective criteria
Implementation of sanitation
tatislerive
e trans-
the
« :eeds
• y) of
Juction
3.1 Vector may no longer be
present at time of the
investigation
3.2 Larval findings only re
present situation at time
of observation
3.3 Because of many factors
involved, interpretation
of field observations is
tends to be subjective
When conducting a species sanitation, the following questions need to be
answered:
A. Which is the local vector?
B. Where does it breed?
C. What does it take to make breeding sites unsuitable for the vector?
D. Which breeding sites have to be included into the programme to achieve
the maximum reduction in malaria with minimal cost?
Because of the many uncertainties involved, Swellengrebel had insisted from
the very start that every species sanitation should be considered an experiment
and its results carefully monitored, so that additional measures could be taken
as required. Table 6.2 indicates how this recommendation was put into practice:
by spleen index surveys and evaluation of mortality rates. Kuipers’ main criti
cism on this way of monitoring was that action could only be taken after an
upsurge of malaria occurred, without giving information on why it occurred
and on the type of additional measures required.
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
137
_
“rsasgaaaa
variation pattern
variation pattern
variation
model 2
of environmental model 1
in
in
factors
vector production
malaria
Ste;
Fig. 6.7 Interrelationships between environmental factors, vector production and malaria (after
Kuipers, 1937).
Improved activity schedule
The case of Brengkok taught Kuipers the importance of studying the dynamic
interrelationships between environmental factors, vector production and mala
ria. These interrelationships are schematically presented in Figure 6.7
Kuipers’ dissertation indicated a method of producing model 1. In his later
work, he gave a mathematical expression which relates vector production and
malaria (Kuipers 1939).
Table 6.2 presents an improved activity schedule for the preparation of a ma
laria sanitation program, using Kuipers’ insights. In the early stage of a sanita
tion program, the models are largely based on general knowledge, for lack of
location-specific information. Yet, the models can help identify the source of
malaria, select the intervention measure, and provide a quantitative base for
the design of the sanitation project.
The quantitative base also allows evaluation of each of the assumptions made
in the design stage. And comparison of field data with the data predicted by
the model allows adjustment and refinement of the models, thereby providing
feedback and improving the quality of existing information.
In conclusion, Kuipers’ ideas of 50 years ago give us some indications on
how to set up a malaria sanitation project in such a way that it becomes a process
of on-going improvement. Kuipers’ theory was apparently nowhere put into
practice but his ideas about the use of models to predict the effect of malaria
control measures were later, albeit in a different way, widely followed. Twenty
years after Kuiper’s dissertation, Macdonald (1957) published his now famous
work ‘The Epidemiology and Control of Malaria’, which until today forms the
Table 6.2 Improved activity schedule for planning, implementation and monitoring of a malaria
sanitation programme, based on Kuipers' writings.
Step 1
5
S
Step
Step
Step
SuK
1.
3. I
Identify vector species (taxonomic and parasitological investigations)
Step 2 If only qualitative information on breeding habits of confirmed vector species available :
On the basis of breeding habits and available data on relevant environmental factors, establish
list of all locations in the area which are capable of producing a set of environmental factors
suitable for breeding of the vector . Based on available data on fluctuation of environmental
factors, indicate for each potential breeding site in which period of the year (or under which
special circumstances) this site will be dangerous.
Step 3
138
I
Verify results of step 2 by larvae sampling in all water collections
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
5. (
i
•••• .
iationl
in •
.
Step 4
In major breeding sites, determine fluctuations in larvae/mosquito densities through the seasons
and record relevant environmental factors.
nalaria |
Step 5 From the observations in step 4, produce mathematical models, which describe larvae/mosquito
densities as a function of the relevant environmental factors.
ria (after
Step 6 Compare mathematical models from various breeding sites;combine models for breeding sites
which have similar characteristics, if statistically warranted. Identify causes for discrepancies.
Desired outcome : consistent models, for each type of breeding site.
Step 7 Using records of relevant environmental factors as input, calculate seasonal fluctuation of
mosquito production for the major breeding sites. Compare these theoretical mosquito production
curves with malaria records. Use degree of correspondence of mosquito production curve and
malaria records as a criterion to evaluate the importance of various breeding sites (in addition to
field survey / larval sampling).
ynamic
i mala1 his later
on and
i of a masanitalack of
source of
• ^ase for
Step 8 Comparison of fluctuation in total vector production from the breeding sites within flight
distance of the area that needs to be protected, and the fluctuation in malaria can provide an
indication of the reduction in vector production that is required to bring the incidence of malaria
down to an acceptable level.
Step 9 Differentiate between 1. sites which produce vector mosquitoes for a major part of the year, and
2. sites, which only produce vector mosquitoes under exceptional circumstances. Major
engineering works for vector control should only be directed at sites listed under 1. For sites
listed under 2. , it is better to set up an early warning system and to take action only when a
combination of environmental conditions that is conducive to vector breeding occurs.
Step 10 For sites listed in step 9 under 1., identify the environmental factor that can be easily
manipulated and which modification will have a major effect on vector production. The
quantitative model will help to identify the relevant environmental factor and to quantify the
effects of its manipulation. Also, calculate the cost of implementing the environmental measure
for each major breeding site.
w.ts made
dieted by
)viding
Step 11 Based on required reduction of vector production (step 8) and the effect of the environmental
management measures on vector production in each of the major breeding sites (step 10), and
taking into account the cost , determine the mix of measures and breeding sites that will achieve
the required reduction in vector production at the lowest cost.
.itions on
" process
•ut into
. malaria
1. Twenty
amous
ms the
Step 12 Implement trial sanitation programme, consisting of engineering measures for vector control in
breeding sites listed in step 9 under 1. and an early warning system and action plan for those
listed under 2.
. malaria
Step 13 Monitoring and evaluation :
For sites where measures have been implemented
a.
Evaluation of measure : does measure effect relevant environmental factors as expected If not,
adjust measure, as required.
b.
Evaluation of change in vector production by larvae sampling in individual breeding sites: does
change in environmental factors reduce vector production as predicted by model ? Adjust model,
as required.
2. For other sites : estimate
<
mosquito production by larvae sampling ;does early warning system predict
upsurge of vector production
—as intended ? If not, identify causes and adjust model.
3. From 1 and 2 above, determine fluctuations in (actual)total vector production and check whether
required reduction has been achieved.
4. From observations of no. of malaria cases, produce curve showing fluctuations of malaria
incidence;check whether required reduction has been achieved.
tors, establish
nental factors
ironmental
ider which
7(1990>
5. Compare fluctuations in incidence of malaria as predicted by model (after making adjustments as
explained above) with no. of actual recorded cases. Identify causes for discrepancies, and adjust model.
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
139
t
'
*
■ - ofife
basis for the way malaria control is being approached worldwide. Although
beyond the purpose of this review, a study on the effectiveness of Kuiper's
approach along the lines of Macdonalds model would be worthwile, particularly
to assess the possibility of using ‘species sanitation’ as the control method of
choice.
]
I
I
•I
r
c
1.
n
v
V
u
h
tE
P
140
I
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
iiite
■■
lough
I ipcr's
ticularly
etkod of
Chapter 7
Malaria control in Indonesia since World War II
S. Atmosoedjono
Introduction
Trials using DDT to control malaria were implemented by Indonesian and
Dutch workers in West Java shortly after the second world war. It was intended
to suppress high population densities of Anopheles aconitus in inland rice field
areas and An. sundaicus in coastal brackish-water localities.
The infant parasite rate (IPR) or transmission index (TI) was reduced from
22% to 0% in estates of North Sumatra while overall parasite rates (PR) were
reduced from 23% to 4%. It was observed, however, that DDT had little impact
on the vector species population as a whole and densities remained the same.
It was believed that mosquitoes entering sprayed houses to seek a blood meal
could not survive, and died shortly after exposure. With infection or reinfection
prevented, malaria transmission ceased.
Encouraged by those results, in 1951 the Malaria Institute in Jakarta sup
ported by the International Cooperation Administration (ICA) and WHO
launched DDT spraying operations in various inland and coastal areas of Java,
South Sumatra. Northern Central Sulawesi and Ambon (Maluku). This Malaria
Control Program (MCP) covered areas with spleen rates of 50% or greater. A
WHO Malaria Pilot Project was established during the same year in Cilacap,
Central Java, and from 1952 onwards DDT house spraying was routinely imple
mented. By 1955. a five year plan was implemented aimed at protecting 30 mil
lion people living in malarious areas. At the same time observations in coastal
villages near Semarang showed that the IPR did not decrease; the IPR for 1953,
1954 and 1955 was 5.8%, 0.2% and 5.4%, respectively. The discovery of DDT
resistant An. sundaicus by Crendell in 1954 on the northern coast of Cirebon,
West Java, helped to explain the sudden rise in IPR in Semarang. Chow & Soeparno (1956) observed in Semarang and Surabaya that An. sundaicus vj&s 23
to 27 times more resistant to DDT than the susceptibles. To overcome the resis
tance problem. Dieldrin was introduced at a dosage rate of 0.5 gr/m2 applied
twice a year. The IPR dropped and An. sundaicus gradually disappeared from
the northern coastal area from Java but still occupies the southern coast until
today. Sundaraman (1958) assumed a pattern of gradual behaviouristic resis
tance because the species could be found in great numbers outdoors after spray
ing. It is suspected that differences in ecosystem between the north and south
coastal areas and or differences in vector bionomics play a role in the continued
presence of An. sundaicus along the south coast.
Anopheles aconitus. a rice field breeder, developed resistance to dieldrin in
1
B ageningen Agric. C'niv. Papers 90-7 (1990)
141
■
various places in Java beginning in 1959 and doubled the resistance frequency
to dieldrin and DDT in Central Java by 1962. East Java also showed the same
resistance problem, but the species has been susceptible to DDT in West Java
despite treatment did not differ in all three provinces. Also here the question
of biological differences in An. aconitus of West Java and Central and East Java
arose.
The studies of Van Thiel & Metselaar (1955) and Van den Assem (1959)
showed that DDT was the insecticide of choice to control the punctulatus group
in Irian Jaya. Metselaar (1957) observed that DDT could reduce parasite rates
(PR) to 50% and sporozoite rates from 1.2% to 0.2%. Combined with drug ad
ministration the reduction of parasite rates was further accelerated; however,
malaria transmission continued with P. falciparum predominant over P. vivax
and P. malariae. The fast decline in natural immunity in falciparum patients
was associated with an increase of gametocytes, a source for further transmis
sion. P. falciparum infection would be the first to cease if transmission could
be interrupted completely. Metselaar & Van Dijk (1958) presented data support
ing Metselaars’s statement that DDT and mass chloroquine drug treatment
reduced but did not interrupt transmission completely and that parasite rates
of P. falciparum were higher than that of other species. (Parasite rates of preand post-drug treatment: P. falciparum 17% - 1.8%; P. vivax 14% -0.1%; and
P. malariae 15% -0.5%).
Malaria control programme 1952-1958, and malaria eradication programme
1959-1965
The development of insecticide resistance by various malaria vectors to DDT
and dieldrin was followed by an acceleration of the Malaria Control Program
(MCP) from 1952 to 1959. The protection of 17 million persons in the more
readily accessible areas resulted in a marked decline of malaria.
The following data on the malaria situation and spraying operations in Cen-
Table 7.1 Malaria situation and anti-malaria spraying in Central Java 1953-1959
Spraying
Operation
Dieldrin Population
protected
(kg)
Year
Slides
Positives
SPR
%
DDT
(kg)
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
7,626
65,279
23,994
87,486
197,280
217,144
59,842
1,810
12,624
3,700
12,110
15,009
10,776
426
23.73
19.33
15.42
13.84
7.60
4.96
0.71
5,214
27,758
75,272
181,263
349,232
21,515
153,630
477,068
33,753
1,594,206
236,927 5,062,550
22,373
363,495
start Malaria Eradication Programme
Source: WHO/SEARO, 1987
142
Wa^eningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
I
icy
me
Java
et’on
va
tral Java is given in Table 7.1.
In 1959 the Indonesian Cabinet approved an agreement between the Republic
of Indonesia, WHO and ICA (AID) to convert the control program to an eradi
cation phase. The first ICA malaria eradication protocol was signed in January,
1959. It was planned to eradicate malaria from the entire country by 1970. The
country was to be divided into 66 zones, each with an average population of
1.4 million, while each zone was divided into 20-40 sectors. In each zone the
program was planned to go through three phases; pre-eradication, one year;
attack period, three years; and surveillance, three years prior to maintenance.
The National Malaria Eradication Service (NMES) was established in March
1959 and in July 1959 it was separated from the Malaria Institute and the direc
torship transferred to the Ministry of Health. The first spraying was done on
November 12, 1959, in Kalasan, Yogyakarta by President Soekarno. This inau
guration date of 12 November has been designated as the Indonesian National
Health Day.
It was thought that after the first year of spraying the IPR should become
zero, an indication of no transmission. Spontaneous cure among other age
groups would take place when reinfection does not occur. After three years only
a few cases would remain and radical cure treatment implemented for complete
cure.
Spraying operations were conducted twice a year with DDT at 2 g/m2 to cover
all indoor sprayable wall surfaces. By 1963 a population of 64.6 million, repre
senting the total population in malarious areas in 42 zones of Java, Bali and
Lampung, had been protected by insecticidal coverage (Table 7.2).
959)
up
tes
i ad■ er,
ax
iciltS
^misild
rtnent
.es
and
•T
Epidemiological evaluation
ram
lore
The impact of insecticidal spraying was evaluated epidemiologically by (a)
malariometric surveys during the preparatory phase and early attack phase and
(b) active and passive case detection with epidemiological investigations during
the attack and consolidation phases.
The results of 1960-1962 malariometric surveys in 42 zones indicated that
parasite rates of 2% or higher were found in the areas presented in Table 7.3.
n-
n
Table 7.2 Coverage by DDT spraying. 1959-1963 Java. Bali and Lampung
)15
Year
No.of zones
Covered
Population Protected
(Mihion)
DDT Used
(m. ton)
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
4
12
27
40
42
7,82
12,37
47,11
61,00
64,63
0,660
1,903
6,630
8,231
9,255
l
:uo
’50
mme
Source: Ministry of Health, Indonesia
)
*
■
Wa^eningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 f 1990)
143
Table 7.3 Results of malariometric surveys (1960-1962) in 42 zones.
Province
Zones with Parasite Rates >2%
South Sumatra
West Java
Central Java
Lam pung
Sikabumi, Cianjur, Garut, Tasikmalaya and Ciamis
Semarang, Purworejo, Yogyakarta, Magelang,
Purbalingga,Cilacap
Mojokerto, Madiun, Kediri, Malang
Bali
East Java
Nusa Tenggara Barat
Results of Epidemiological Surveillance carried out in some of the zones dur
ing 1960-62 are shown in Table 7.4.
With the exception of Serang, in West Java, the Slide Positive Rate (SPR)
in most of the zones was less than 1 %. The majority of the cases were classified
imported and P. falciparum represented about 50%.
In most of 42 zones in Java-Bali and South Sumatra epidemiological surveil
lance involving active (ACD) and passive case detection (PCD) had begun by
1963. Results during the 1962-1968 case finding activities in Java-Bali are shown
below (Table 7.5).
The Annual Blood Examination Rate (ABER) varied between 4.2% (1966),
to over 9.0% (1965). To measure the impact of anti-malaria activities, the Slide
Positive Rate (SPR) is considered a better parameter than the Annual Parasite
Incidence (API). Because of year-to-year variation in the ABER and based upon
the SPR, malaria incidence was considered lowest during 1965. The SPR steadily
increased from 0.15% in 1965 to 0.53% in 1968. P. falciparum fluctuated from
32.4% to 49.4% in the years listed.
Table 7.4 Results of epidemiological surveillance. 1960-1962
Province/Zone
(complete or
partial)
Year
Central Java
Yogyakarta
NTB Bali
Blood
slides
examnd.
Pos.
(SPR)
1962
129,560
1962
36,598
1063
(0,82)
30
(0.08)
90
(0,08)
600
(2,12)
897
(1.72)
540
(1.08)
180
(0.22)
13
(0.01)
34
(0.15)
18
Bali
1962
116,872
West Java
Serang
West Java
Serang
West Java
Serang
Jakarta
1960
28,381
1961
52J267
1962
50,523
1961
80,782
Jakarta
1962
150,443
East Java
1962
66,023
Bonjonegoro
1962
59,778
%
Pf
Parasite
Pv
species
Pm
567
484
12
52
481
316
143
14
14
2
0
27
3
0
indigenous
Classification
relapse
of
cases
imported
unc1assified
47
42
1
21
30
25
14
322
262
16
140
Ill
245
25
406
445
46
157
135
267
92
248
290
8
21
98
366
56
116
59
5
26
21
83
43
9
4
0
3
3
7
9
19
15
0
0
1
28
5
4
9
5
4
4
5
5
Source: WHO/SEAR, 1987
Pf - Plasmodium falciparum; Pv - P. vivax; Pm - P. malariae
144
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
- -
' • ./A;" - 'h ■ ■ ■ sSSSglfe
■
■ it-■
Table 7.5 Malaria profile Indonesia (Java and Bali)
Year
nd Ciamis
.6Jang,
J zones dur-
e Rate (SPR)
e classified
>gical surveil1 begun by
are shown
4.2% (1966),
s, the Slide
al Parasite
J based upon
steadily
ated from
of
cases
imported
unclas
sified
16
143
3
0
"S
14
5
25
267
92
^6
56
1
43
7
9
9R
5
5
i-7(/990)
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
Population*
(millions)
—)
59.5
60.9
62.3
63.8
65.3
66.8
68.4
70.0
72.0
73.0
78.0
78.9
81.8
82.9
84.9
86.9
85.6
87.2
88.8
90.9
99.6
101.6
103.7
105.6
Bloodslides
examined
3,827,073
5,396,971
5,726,015
2,696,107
3,905,974
3,919.890
4,551,866
5,946,866
5,655,066
6,700,025
7.383,731
7,519,108
8,209,125
7,859,677
8,084,880
7J57,346
8,020,612
9,085,040
9,121.890
9.196.556
9,197.340
8,545.753
8.483.868
8,294.113
ABER No. of
API
%
positives %
6.43
8.87
9.19
4.23
5.98
5.87
6.66
8.50
7.85
9.18
9.47
9.53
10.13
9.48
9.52
8.47
9.37
10.42
10.27
10.12
9.23
8.41
8.18
7.85
5,846
15,038
8,862
10,011
14,601
20,606
97,553
117,056
72,829
0.10
0.25
0.14
0.16
0.22
0.31
1.43
1.67
1.01
128,830 1.76
346,233 4.44
229,693 2.91
125,166 1.53
96,999 1.17
110,553 1.30
121,140 1.39
78,825 0.92
176,733 2.03
124,637 1.40
84,266 0.93
133,626 1.34
86,072 0.85
47,673 0.46
20,113 0.19
SPR No. of Pf
%
infections
0.15
0.28
0.15
0.37
0.27
0.53
2.14
1.97
1.29
1.92
4.69
3.05
151
1.23
137
1.65
0.98
1.95
1.37
0.92
1.45
1.01
0.56
0.24
SIR
Pf
%
W)
2,862
4,878
3,325
3,655
7,216
0.07
0.09
0.06
0.14
0.18
48.96
32.44
37,52
35.51
49.42
38,630
61,923
38,835
72.172
109,797
79,353
44.351
38,777
42,981
41,495
37,015
82,366
56,324
45,750
64,077
36,828
18,300
7,818
0.85
1.04
0.69
1.08
1.49
1.06
0.54
0.51
0.53
0.56
0.46
0.91
0.62
0.50
0.70
0.43
0.22
0.09
39.60
52.90
53.32
56.02
31.71
34.55
35.43
41.01
38.88
34,25
46.96
46.60
45.19
54.29
47.95
42.79
38.39
38.87
i
I
* Population: mid-year estimates of people living in malarious alias.
Source: WHO/SEARO, 1987
Resurgence of malaria, 1969-1973
Beginning in 1965 malaria had started a resurgence. The number of cases had
increased from 8,862 in 1965 to 20,606 in 1968, with an SPR of 0.15% and 0 53%
respectively.
By the end of 1968 the NMES had been reorganized. It was
was integrated
integrated with
with
the Directorate General of Communicable Diseases Control at
at headquarters
headquarters
level. This body was responsible for planning, management, funding, and provi
sion of logistic support to the program through the malaria sub-directorate.
At the provincial level it was integrated with the general health services under
o
thtInJSPeCtOr Of Health was ^sponsible for the program activities. The
Regency Medical Office was responsible for administration of anti-malaria acti
vities in the periphery. The same general organizational structure exists today
Even with this reorganization the malaria situation continued to deteriorate in
Malana cases in 1973 had increased 16-fold from 20,606 in 1968 to
346,233 in 1973 (Table 7.5).
?
The malaria status, 1974-1985
The highest malaria incidence recorded from 1963 tot 1985 was in 1973 (Table
7.5). Malaria cases totaled 346,233 with an API of 4.4% and a SPR of 4.7%.
owever, the malaria situation started improving in 1974; subsequently a situaWageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
145
i >
I
Table 7.6 Distribution of malaria cases, by province. 1983-1985
Province
Cases
West Java
Central Java
East Java
Bali
D.I. Yogyakarta
VKI Jakarta
10,035
108,626
13,375
71
1,166
353
1983
API
%
0.34
4.08
0.44
0.01
0.41
0.14
ABER
Cases
1984
API
ABER
%
%
5.0
13.2
10.2
9.1
15.4
0.1
3,336
67,258
14,407
69
731
287
0.11
2.48
0.47
0.02
0.25
0.11
5.4
11.8
10.1
7.8
13.6
0.1
%
Cases
1985
API
1982
37788
7085
181
575
62
0.06
1.37
0.23
0.07
0.20
0.01
%
ABER
%
5.1
11.6
10.1
6.3
13.7
0.1
Source: WHO/SEARO, 1987
1
I ’ •
.•A--
tion analysis was conducted in July, 1976 and an in-depth evaluation was done
in August, 1977. During the 1973-1985 period, the API declined from 4.4% to
0.4% and the SPR from 4.7% to 0.56%. However, the frequency of P. falciparum
showed an increasing trend until 1982 (54.3%) but began a downward trend
thereafter.
air
the
uci
Malaria cases in Java-Bali
wa
Malaria incidence was always higher in Central Java and East Java. The total
cases during 1983-85 showed that 78.1% - 81.3% were from Central Java and
10.0%- 16.8% from East Java (Table 7.6).
Seventy-five of 90 sub-districts (Kecamatan1) in the provinces with high inci
dence during 1983 (API: 7.5%) were located in Central Java. By 1985 the number
was brought down from 75 to 27 kecamatans.
Central Java: Table 7.6 shows the API decreased from 4.08% in 1983 to 1.37%
in 1985. The ABER exceeded 11% for each of the three years. Malaria cases
decreased from 108.626 in 1983 and 37,788 in 1985, a reduction of about 65%.
Because An. aconitus was found resistant to DDT, fenitrothion replaced it and
produced a direct and immediate impact in reducing transmission.
East Java: The ABER in East Java was above 10% from 1983-85, the malaria
incidence and SPR increased slightly from 13,375 and 0.4% in 1983 to 14,410
cases and 0.43% in 1984, but decreased in 1985 to 7,085 cases with an SPR of
O. 23%. The reduction of malaria cases was greater than 50% from 1983 to 1985.
P. falciparum also declined from 63.6% of the total cases in 1983 to 47.8% in
1985.
West Java: Malaria cases and SPR had declined from 10,035 cases and 0.57%
SPR in 1983 to 1,982 cases and 0.13% SPR in 1985. P. falciparum was reduced
from 56.7% of the total cases in 1983 to 36.3% in 1985. Imported cases from
1 Kecamatan - administrative grouping of several villages.
146
I
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 ( J990)
me
an*
‘ 3
I
res
I
1
195
19}
1985
API
9
)6
1.37
0.23
)7
’0
)1
the outer islands accounted for more than half of the cases
f - V/
the per‘0d Of 1983-1985 there was a slight reduction in the SPR
.^83 anI0^;983 t0 0''' ?
.ho
„ 1985
ABER
%
5.1
11.6
10.1
0 7Tt^O 03%
3!M °r
PCD that Was conducted in hospitals and health centers over
°re tha" 8°% °f the tOtal
Were imP°rted and none was of
licaforigin.
6.3
13.7
0.1
,985' The SPR dropped
f“"d “
MCP status, 1985-1988
For the fourth Five Year Development Plan (REPELITA) 1984-1989 the MCP
aXf(APIe >C7ei»/Hgh| maItria i,nC'denCe subdistricts from 63 to 37 in HCI
reas API > 7.0 A) to less than 1 per thousand population in Java-Bali In
the outer islands (Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Lesser Sundas, Maluku and Irian Java)
i was done
1.4% to
ciparum
ard trend
- « - - — areas
le total
iva and
bordering with neighboring countries.
l areas ana areas
In Java-Bah, malaria control activities consisted of ACD and PCD laborato
ry exammation/confirmation. drug treatment, indoor residual house spraX
For th1®’ b'olo.s'cal,control and ''mited environmental management
or the outer islands, activities consisted of indoor spraying operations and
*h incie number
X?in ,he pr“J
1.37%
i ria cases
t 65%.
it and
malaria
14,410
PR of
’to 1985.
8% in
d0.57%
educed
> from
(1990)
I
““
032% respectively (Table 7.7). When the ABER approached 10% a mo accu
rate malana assessment could be obtained (Table 7 8)
r,Jhe pr°Jected number of cases for 1987 and 1988 were 29,706 and 50 735
29,706 and 50,735,
respectively, an increase of almost 71%. The SPR for 1987 was 0.27 and 1988
(h 9. The increase of 13,162 cases was alarming. The main cause of increase
malana cases in Java-Bali was attributed to a drastic reduction in DDT-
Table 7.7 Malaria status in Java-Bali. 1985-1988
YEAR
1985
1986
1987
1988
ABER
8.18
7.83
6.50
6.40
CASES
47,673
20,127
19,309
32,471
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 11990)
API/%
0.46
0.19
0.18
0.32
SPR/%
0.56
0.24
0.27
0.49
P.F.%
38.39
38.84
42.30
45.90
147
■ Tv
i
!
Tab
Table 7.8 Malaria in Java-Bali, when Annual Blood Examination Rate approaches 10%.
Year
ABER
Cases
1985
1986
1987
1988
8.18
7.83
6.50
6.40
47,673
20,127
19,309
32,471
Prov
V i
C
E—
Bali
Y D
ABER at 10%
no. of cases
58,279
25,704
29,706
50,735
Source: Ministry of Health, Indonesia
Tota
Table 7.9 Malaria situation in Central Java. 1987-1988
Province
No. of cases
1987
West Java
Central Java
East Java
Bali
Yogyakarta
TOTAL
130.3
61.1
58.0
161.1
17.9
68.2
4,972
18,110
7,013
1,338
1,038
32,471
2,159
11,242
4,438
512
880
19,309
fro“ .
the '
Cekin
Percentage
of case rise
No. of cases
1988
i
<
Hi,
One t
wa~ ‘i
7.5
Source: Ministry of Health, Indonesia
!
and 3
indoor spraying from 421.000 houses in 1986/87 to 150.000 in 1987/88. The P.
falciparum rate also increased from 42.3% in 1987 to 45.9% in 1988. The malaria
situation in Central Java has always produced the greatest number of the cases;
between 55% and 65% of the total cases in Java-Bali. A breakdown is given
in Table 7.9.
The highest percentage rise in cases in Bali was 161.3% and in West Java
130.3 %. Complete absence of indoor house spraying during 1987/88 caused the
increase in both provinces. However, neither of the two provinces had an API
of more than 0.6%. In 1988, the API in West Java and Bali were only 0.15%
and 0.47-%. respectively (Table 7.10). The overall P. falciparum rate increased
Th
.
1. Al
2. ’
3. rc
sic
4.
i
5. Th
Maia
Table 7.10 Malaria situation in Java-Bali. 1986-1988
Province
1986
ABER
1986
CASES
1986
API
West Java
Central Java
East Java
Bali
Yogyakarta
OKI Jakarta
4.7
10.6
10.3
6.6
12.9
0.1
1,964
13,065
4,098
257
705
37
0.06
0.48
0.13
0.09
0.25
Pf.%
1987
ABER
1987
1987
CASES API
Pf.%
34.47
38.89
43.56
24.68
40.85
35.13
4.5
9.7
8.1
4.6
7.8
0.1
2,159
11,242
4,438
512
78
0
0.07
0.41
0.13
0.18
0.30
0.01
34,65
46.65
38.50
27.27
36.5
44.8
1986
1987
1988
ABER
1988
CASES
1988
API
Pf.%
3.8
9.3
4.0
4.9
5.2
4,972
18.110
7,013
1,338
1,038
0.15
0.62
0.21
8.47
0.34
42.1
53.9
30.8
28.5
46.1
1988
Ms
Source: Ministry of Health, Indonesia
148
Th
Of £.
trans?
tio
an
cente
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
Wl
-is..s:..
-■
-
■
■
•;
■
■
Table 7.11 Number of high case incidence kecamatans. 1983-1987
Province
West Java
Central Java
East Java
Bali
Yogyakarta
DKI Jakarta
1983
7
75
8
Total
90
1984
1985
1986
1987
36
8
27
8
9
9
1
1
10
10
44
35
from 31.2% in 1987 to 45.9% in 1988. P. falciparum rates in Yogyakarta showed
the lowest, between 24-28 %, whereas other provinces were between 30-53 %, with
Central Java being the highest in 1988 (53.9%).
i
I
High case incidence kecamatans in Java-Bali
One of the objectives of MCP during the fourth PELITA (1984/85-1988/89)
was the drastic reduction of the number of HCI kecamatans (API more than
7.5%).
The number of HCI kecamatans decreased from 1983 to 1985, being 90, 44
and 38, respectively and to 10 in 1986 and 1987 (Table 7.11).
The following findings are a result of an epidemiological analysis of the HCI.
1. All HCI kecamatans were in inland An. aconitus areas.
2. In such kecamatans the foci of high malaria incidence were always in hilly
slopes with perennial water flow and rice fields.
3. Perennial water flow from springs was responsible for providing clean and
slow moving water in the rice fields throughout the year, which was suitable
for An. aconitus breeding.
4. Farmers utilize the availability of water throughout the year to plant rice.
5. The above factors support An. aconitus breeding for a longer period and over
a wider area thus creating areas highly favourable for malaria transmission.
The P.
e malaria
' he cases:
s given
/est Java
sed the
in API
ly 0.15%
"^reased
Malaria situation in the outer islands
88
’I
1988
Pf%
0.15
0.62
' 1
7
4
42.1
53.9
30.8
28.5
46.1
The overall malaria situation in the outer islands was not well known because
of the very limited malaria control measures attempted in the priority areas of
transmigration projects and socio-economic development areas. Most informa
tion is based upon parasite rates by malariometric surveys in the priority areas
and clinical malaria cases by percentage and slide positivity rates from health
center data.
Malariometric Surveys (MS): In the past MS have been conducted in priority
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
(1990)
i
149
I
ST
y ~j
. . ...... .
Table 7.12 Malariometric surveys in the outer islands. 1969- 1988
P
Year
Blood Slides
examined
Numbers
positive (%)
Parasite
rate (%)
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
25,503
67,983
82,709
159,596
120,930
3,950
8,265
12,546
15,033
11,270
15.5
12.2
15.2
9.4
9.3
Pelita II
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
159,182
148,058
100,914
65,655
193,004
14,907
10,946
6,808
3,585
8,353
9.9
7.4
6.7
5.5
4.3
Pelita III
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
155,892
466,355
559,657
594,926
450,619
6,558
19,283
20,303
30,689
13,310
4.2
4.1
3.6
5.2
2.9
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
698,316
405,374
259,518
266,120
105,372
31,618
17,697
11,162
15,193
7,245
4.8
4.3
3.7
5.7
6.8
Pelita I
Pelita IV
Source: Ministry of Health, Indonesia
areas in order to determine the impact of DDT spraying operations and in nonoperational areas to determine the base-line endemicity. Therefore, the data
poorly represent the entire malaria situation in these provinces (Table 7.12).
Of the 21 provinces, 14 had priority areas with parasite rates in excess of 2%.
Provinces with high malaria rates have been: North Sulawesi, Central Sulawesi,
.Nusa Tenggara Timur, Maluku, Irian Jaya and East Timor. The overall P. falci
parum percentage was between 35-55% between 1986 and 1988.
Clinical Malaria Cases: During 1986-88 there were 8 provinces which had
a malaria prevalence of greater than 10% of the total outdoor populations.
Higher clinical malaria prevalence was present in the eastern-most group of
provinces. The data are presented in Table 7.13.
Passive Case Detection: There were 14 provinces which reported an SPR more
than 20% between 1986 and 1988.
Table 7.14 shows a number of the tests conducted against four drugs with
the highest failure percentage to S-P (Fansidar) 91.7%. The one case to be resis
tant to S-P was found in Dili, East Timor during 1988.
150
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
blishe
Cen
Pro
(Tabk
P.f '
agai
tans \
resists
198
P _
and 1‘
any
P
falcipi
Ta bl
Yeai
1969
197C
1971
1972
1973
197^
1975
1976
1977
1978
197<
198C
1981
1982
1982
198<
1985
1986
1983
1982
Sour"'*
2 Ka?
Wag
P. falciparum Resistant to Chloroquine: In 1988, of the 27 provinces only
Yogyakarta has not yet reported any resistant cases. Provinces with well esta
blished and wide-spread P. falciparum resistance to chloroquine were Irian Jaya,
Central Java, East Kalimantan, West Java, East Timor and Lampung, Sumatra.
Problem foci were present in 105 kecamatans, in 62 kabupatens2 in 26 provinces
(Table 7.15).
P. falciparum Resistant to Mefloquine: Tests have been conducted since 1983
against mefloquine. During 1983-88, 475 cases of P. falciparum in 35 kecama
tans were tested against mefloquine; two cases have so far been found to be
resistant one in Kupang, NTT in March 1986 and one in Irian Java in February
1987.
P. falciparum Resistant to Quinine: 45 in vitro tests conducted during 1987
and 1988 in South Sulawesi, Riau, West Java and Timor Timur did not reveal
any case of P. falciparum resistance to quinine.
P. falciparum Resistant to Amodiaquine: All but one of eighteen cases of P.
falciparum so far tested against amodiaquine were found resistant.
te
7o)
Table 7.13 Clinical malaria cases and slide positivity rates (SPR). 1969
nonic data
. -’.12).
2%.
lawesi,
a. falci-
( had
ations.
( ) of
< more
Year
Clinical Malaria
Blood slides
examined
Positive
SPR
%
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
441,152
704,850
516,052
566,906
650,007
740,177
774,602
747,555
635,676
579,756
1,075,658
1,241,403
756,771
1,214,496
831,824
1,395,389
1,036,528
1,009,841
1,418,101
1,158,514
17,541
13,936
114,055
261,654
335,248
240,498
318,641
358,093
217,858
236,203
358,427
488,616
353,788
410,946
421,631
456,290
228,088
179,719
421,695
262,095
6,971
5,030
50,377
94,013
136,774
90,478
78,234
73,486
52,805
51,962
87,105
130,279
90,730
104,814
84,268
105,416
44,057
36,368
108,337
77,095
39.7
36.1
44.2
35.5
40.8
37.6
24.5
20.5
24.2
22.0
24.3
26.7
25.6
25.5
19.9
23.1
19.3
20.2
28.0
29.4
Source: Ministry of Health, Indonesia
vith
:sis2 Kabupaten - administrative grouping of several kecamatans.
)90)
1988 (21 Provinces)
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
03694
■4^: '-Ajj
.
re
.
...
Table 7.14 Status of P. falciparum sensitivity/resistance to drugs. Tests Conducted in 1988
i
ft
Radica
P. vivax:
Test
No.
Tested
Resist
ant
Sensi
tive
Failure
Chloroquine
(in vitro)
Chloroquine
(in vitro)
Mefloquine
(in vitro)
Quinine
(in vitro)
Amodiaquine
(in vitro)
S-P
(in vitro)
48
21
6
21
77.7
43.7
28
12
15
1
44.4
3.6
42
0
20
22
0
52.4
36
0
18
18
0
50
9
7
1
1
87.5
11.1
36
1
2
33
33.3
91.7
R %
F %
P.falci
In the out
10 tabled
Prop
sensitiv_.
areas.
Vector
Source: Ministry of Health, Indonesia
! ll1
Table 7.15 P. falciparum resistance to chloroquine by 1988.
number of
Provinces
■ hi
fe;L:-
Java-Boi;
with D
biologic,
of the tot
decreas
DDTs
in 1985/8
with fe”^
same p
Resile
houses in
verage
that sai
Larvici
tions v
was ap
protecluu
sites were
Biol, i
a case
kabupate
kabup;
number of
Kabupatens
number of
Kecamatans
Sumatra
DKI Jakarta
Java
Bali
Kalimantan
Sulawesi
Nusa Tenggara Barat
Nusa Tenggara Timur
East Timor
Maluku
Irian Jaya
8
1
3
1
4
4
1
1
1
1
1
16
1
12
1
7
10
1
2
4
1
7
23
1
28
1
11
13
5
6
6
2
13
TOTAL
26
62
105
I.*-?:
rr;
||
r
r'
Drug treatment in Indonesia
Presumptive Treatment
600 mg chloroquine - (adult dose) - to fever cases from ACD and PCD in JavaBali.
In chloroquine resistant areas: in addition 45 mg primaquine-(adult dose)
152
T
1
I i.
Table7.io I
Particulai
Total hoi
Target for si
Percentage t
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
Wagenin^
i
- - -
-
'
Radical Treatment
P.vivax'.
chloroquine 1,500 mg over 3 days and primaquine 75 mg in
5 days (adult dose),
P. falciparum'.
sensitive areas:
chloroquine 1500 mg - 3 days
primaquine 45 mg - 3 days
resistant areas:
fansidar, 3 tablets, single dose
(kecamatan)
primaquine, 3 tablets
F %
17
3.6
.4
In the outer islands, the majority of clinically diagnosed malaria cases were given
10 tablets of chloroquine to be taken in 3 days.
Prophylactic treatment consisted of 2 tablets chloroquine (adult) weekly in
sensitive areas. Fansidar is no longer recommended for prophylaxis in resistant
areas.
50
.1
91.7
Vector control
Java-Bali: In Java-Bali and outer islands indoor residual house spraying (RHS)
with DDT was the main strategy of vector control. In Java-Bali, larviciding,
biological control and source reduction were applied in limited areas. Only 2%
of the total houses in 1985/86 were under spraying coverage (Table 7.16). This
decreased to about 1% in 1986/87 and 0.25% in 1987/88. The total number of
DDT sprayed houses decreased from 649,650 to 239,848 to only 4,994 houses
in 1985/86, 1986/87 and 1987/88, respectively. The number of houses sprayed
with fenitrothion also decreased from 273,864, 184,507 and 130,248 during the
same periods.
Residual Spraying in the Outer Islands: Until 1986/87 only 6% of the total
houses in the outer islands were under insecticidal coverage. In 1987/88 the co
verage was reduced to under 0.6% because of the drastic cut in the MCP budget
that same year.
Larviciding Operation: In West Java, East Java, and Bali, larviciding opera
tions were conducted in An. sundaicus areas. Fenthion at a dose of 1 cc/50 m2
was applied on a weekly basis during April-October. Every year the coverage
protected an estimated 0.7 million population. A total of 70 hectares of breeding
sites were treated.
Biological Control: Breeding areas of An. aconitus in inland areas with high
a case incidence were treated with larvivorous fish. During 1985/86 only four
kabupatens in West. Central and East Java were included; this increased to 25
kabupatens in 12 provinces.
Table 7.16 Insecticide Spraying Coverage in Java-Bali. 1985-19X8
iava-
Particulars
!
0)
Total houses (estimated)
Target for spraying (2 cycles)
Percentage targetted
1985/86
1986/87
1987/88
21,176,600
1,011,500
2.3%
21,592,000
561,000
1.3%
22,028,000
105,000
0.24%
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
153
-
-
■■
-
J•
'■
1
■■
■
Environmental Management: Drainage pipes were constructed in suitable
locations in order to reduce An. sundaicus breeding sites in West Java, East Java,
Bali, Nusa Tenggara Barat, Nusa Tenggara Timur and East Timor in 12, 14,
and 1 location for the years 1985/86, 1986/87 and 1987/88, respectively.
Ch
Die
mo
External support to the malaria control programme
W. T
The MCP continues to receive assistance from WHO, World Bank and USAID.
WHO: WHO supports the MCP with a long-term technical staff (malariologist-epidemiologist) which continues to assist and collaborate with the national
authorities concerned in planning, implementation, field supervision, periodical
evaluation, staff training and field research throughout the year 1988.
World Bank: World Bank assistance in South Sulawesi, Central Sulawesi and
South-East Sulawesi under the Provincial Health Development Project during
1982-87 showed that the population protected was 89.2% and the reduction of
malaria incidence was satisfactory from 140/1000 population in 1982 to
48.6/1000 population in 1987 (Dr. P.O. Kesavalu).
USAID: The USAID assisted MCP in 13 kabupatens of East Timor and 4
kabupatens in Nusa Tenggara Timur was terminated in December 1987. Field
trials in NTT commenced in 1988 with the following objectives in order to reduce
malaria prevalence:
1. Implementation of surveillance and chemotherapy through integrated service
pool (POSYANDU);
2. To control malaria through the use of impregnated bed-nets;
3. To develop training materials on malaria and malaria control activities, i.e.
posters, flip charts, laminated cards, slides and brochures.
154
From I
Indo™
succ<
extei..
knowk
tives
of n
was qu
Netb-r
revit
dow._,
that sp
appl
by 1'
nesia o
surer k
the i
mala...
(reduct
scier
nue
of coni
his t1—!
time
reduw<
was re]
take i
cies. •
in Mai
(Brucont I
this mu
Oft!
26 c< :
that i
througl
caus
Wage
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
i
s.
A
^■*'■■>777.;
»
<_ ..^ -a,xi.<tKu,.aa.
t cted in suitable
3 Java, East Java,
’i 1'imor in 12, 14,
’Dectively.
Chapter 8
Discussion: relevance of the Indonesian experience for
modern-day malaria control
V. Takken, W.B. Snellen and J. P. Verhave
k and USAID.
aff (malariolowith the national
vision, periodical
i 988.
1 Sulawesi and
nt Project during
I e reduction of
t 1 in 1982 to
J
I
j
?ct Timor and 4
i ?r 1987. Field
n _rder to reduce
i
grated service
>uS tad M .d ?" k ’ T'*1 °f|,revi“-1’
’«» control X
sures had faded to bring down the malaria incidence in Jakarta Our st> dTnf
o’ activities, i.e.
™iZ°eXS
»f <to“ «■» h» »uEh. ~ .tat tta°fc, otata
ol: °..Sta »T.
"«“"POT“"“
=SES==^~=
throughout the archiX/oVhT51^^ ■T' imP°rtant ma,aria vectors
tataed by the ta ttat .petto s.nlX*” ”d‘ S” p"X”„ taS
90-7(1990)
^Vageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
f
j
!
....
-
-• ... -.Si-'
-vs-
'
■-
-
■-
-
■
they occurred in areas where important agricultural and economic activities were
taking place (large-scale rice production, fish production, construction of rail
ways and harbours), whereas in areas that received less attention, malaria may
have been equally serious, with vectors other than sundaicus and aconitus. In
a recent publication (Kirnowardoyo, 1988) both An. sundaicus and An. aconitus
are still considered important vectors in Indonesia and the emphasis on the con
trol of these two species in the past and today seems therefore justified.
At least 19 of the 24 Anopheles species discussed in this review have been
proven to be malaria vectors (Chapter 3C). Although we did not find a reference
confirming the role of the remaining five species (An. aitkenii, An. beazai, An.
letifer, An. roperi and An. koliensis), their role as vectors must be suspected and
should be studied. For instance, in Papua New Guinea An. koliensis is an impor
tant malaria vector (G.B. White, personal communication) and therefore will
most likely be a vector in the adjacent area of Irian Jaya. Kirnowardoyo (1988)
states that 18 of the 80 Anopheles species found in Indonesia are vectors of mala
ria. Unfortunately, he does not refer to any of the malaria studies mentioned
in this review and since his publication does not contain a species list, it is difficult
to compare his statement with our findings. In 1975, the Centre for Disease
Control Subdirectorate of Entomology initiated ecological studies on vectors
of malaria and other vector-borne diseases throughout Indonesia. The results
of these studies will provide valuable information, with which the role as malaria
vectors of the 24 species mentioned in this review can be reassessed.
Another difficulty in assessing the importance of some Anopheles species as
malaria vectors is the expanding knowledge on species-complexes (Service,
1988). This has led to a number of species being divided into groups of closely
related siblings of two or more species, each with a different ecology. Of the
salt and fresh water forms of An. subpictus sensu lato, apparently only the former
is a vector (G.B. White, personal communication). This would explain why in
some areas the species was considered a vector and in other areas not. The same
may hold for other species, of which different breeding habits have been reported
(e.g. An. sundaicus). It is likely that further studies will reveal the nature of these
sibling complexes, adding even more species to the already long list of southeast
Asian Anopheles species. At the time this paper went to press, we learnt that
the An. balabacensis complex is now named the An. leucosphyrus complex, com
prising An. balabacensis. An. introlatus, An. leucosphyrus A. and An. leucosphyr
us B (Peyton, 1989). It was too late to include these changes in Chapter 3, but
such changes reflect the continuous developments in the field of insect taxono
my. Obviously, a proper distinction between species, also within species com
plexes, is essential not only for the study of malaria epidemiology but also for
the planning of malaria control strategies.
The data in Chapter 7 show that malaria is still a highly prominent disease
in much of Indonesia today. For instance, on Java-Bali the malaria incidence
rate in 1986 was almost similar to that of 1963. With an almost doubling of
the population, a higher number of people is therefore suffering from the disease
than
some
----------e 30 years ago. The Malaria Control Programme is to be commended
156
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
ft**’ -
omic activities were
3nstruction of railLcntion, malaria may
icus and aconitus. In
is and An. aconitus
iphasis on thecon>re justified.
review have been
iot find a reference
enii. An. beazai, An.
I,<!t be suspected and
lensis is an impor, md therefore will
irnowardoyo (1988)
e vectors of malatudies mentioned
cies list, it is difficult
Centre for Disease
udies on vectors
Jesia. The results
h the role as malaria
;sed.
pheles species as
omplexes (Service,
croups of closely
ecology. Of the
only the former
uld explain why in
is not. The same
/e been reported
the nature of these
list of southeast
’ we learnt that
complex, comid An. leucosphyrChapter 3, but
insect taxonothin species comi’"?y but also for
i^iTiinent disease
nalaria incidence
i >t doubling of
• 3m the disease
3 be commended
ipers 90-7 (1990)
••••■.
for an excellent surveillance system, which allows the monitoring of malaria
epidemiology in much of the country on a year to year basis. Several problems
are mentioned that prevent an adequate control of the disease. The increasing
levels of drug resistance and insecticide resistance are the most important factors
responsible for this, but we would like to add two more factors. Firstly, the
‘malaria eradication era’ (1955-1969) was directed against the malaria vectors,
without paying attention to the ecology of the vectors. This has led to a nation
wide shortage of vector ecologists capable of addressing the problem within
an ecological context. Secondly, the general impression that malaria is a primar
ily rural disease has in many countries diverted attention to diseases which are
more common in the urban areas, since these tended to receive more attention
because of a rapid increase in urban populations and the improved standards
of living there. Only in recent years rural development, including health care,
has begun to receive more attention from central governments and donor agen
cies. Since then, there has also been a growing awareness that malaria is increas
ing worldwide and that without effective control measures this situation will
deteriorate even more (WHO, 1990).
One of the conclusions of this review is the apparent discrepancy between
the malaria control measures in Indonesia during the days of the NetherlandsIndies and those in use today. Most of the vector control measures that had
proven to be effective in the Netherlands-Indies such as species sanitation were
no longer in use by the early fifties, and emphasis of control had largely shifted
from environmental measures to insecticide spraying, so much so. that the past
control measures were only sporadically being considered as alternative control
measures. We have not been able to discover when and why the malaria control
service in Indonesia decided to abandon the environmental measures in use dur
ing the colonial days. It suffices to observe that occasionally in central Java
An. sundaicus is still being controlled by management of fishponds (Kirnowardoyo, 1988).
It is generally agreed that effective malaria control can only be achieved
through a multidisciplinary approach including drug-therapy, vaccination and
vector control. The rapidly increasing drug-resistance makes the future use of
this method uncertain unless drugs are developed that belong to a totally differ
ent chemical group than those presently in use. The recent discovery of an anti
malaria drug derived from Artemisia may be such a development (WHO, 1990).
The development of malaria vaccines looks hopeful but the availability of such
vaccines should not be expected in the near future (Marshall & Cherfas, 1990).
Vector control is the most effective method for the prevention of malaria trans
mission and whenever possible this should be the general strategy of control
programmes in combination with surveillance and chemotherapy. Whereas clas
sical insecticidal spraying may still play an important role in malaria control,
emphasis must be placed on integrated control with other than insecticidal mea
sures because of the anticipated development of insecticide resistance which will
nearly always occur under the classical larviciding and house-spraying tech
niques. Among the alternative measures presently under consideration are the
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
157
•v
iS",'
.......................... ’
>
-
life
■
I
< i !
! I
use of insecticide impregnated bednets (this method is far less likely to lead to
insecticide resistance than house spraying or larviciding), biological control with
larvivorous fish and mosquito pathogens, and environmental measures. The lat
ter are the subject of this review, from which it is apparent that most of the
historical mosquito control measures based on environmental management are
still applicable today. Where malaria control measures are required, detailed
ecological information such as mentioned in Tables 3.7 and 3.8 should be col
lected for the vector species concerned. It can then be decided whether environ
mental measures can be considered. Table 3.9 shows that a large number of
anophelines found in Indonesia qualify for this method of control and that often
a combination of methods should be considered. However, it should also be
mentioned that data collected 50 or more years ago should be assessed on their
validity today. Environmental changes caused by the rapid increase in the
human population may have affected the habitat as well as the behaviour of
malaria vectors. The data from this review will facilitate the research required
for such studies.
rvu
A
An
An
An
1
Acknowledgments
An
i i :
i ■
i i
sH
The completion of this review would not have been possible without Mrs. Fran(?oise Takken, who spent many hours on translations, editing and preparation
of the reference list. We greatly appreciate her assistance. We are grateful to
the Ministry of Health of Indonesia for allowing us to publish the data on mala
ria and malaria control of the last decade. Dr. G.B. White kindly commented
on the taxonomic details of Chapter 3 and was helpful in setting the stage for
the discussion. Several figures were prepared by Mr. Piet Kostense of the
Gecombineerde Diensten of the Agricultural University. Mr. Gerard Pesch
assisted with the correct spelling of the historical names. We gratefully acknow
ledge the kind gesture of the Swellengrebel family to use their parents’ correspon
dence and the valuable remarks to the composition of Chapter 4 by Mrs. drs.
G. van Heteren, of the Nijmegen Institute for the History of Medicine. Publica
tion of this review was made possible by financial assistance from the Society
Fonds Landbouw Export Bureau 1916/1918’ (LEB-fonds) and the Directorate
General for International Cooperation (DGIS) of the government of the Nether
lands.
f
Av
Bai
t
I
i
v
r
Boi
Bo
A
)
Brt
158
I js!
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
I
4
i
A
likely to lead to
deal control with
! measures. The latthat most of the
management are
-jquired. detailed
3.8 should be col✓hether environarge number of
:trol and that often
•’* should also be
issessed on their
increase in the
> the behaviour of
search required
out Mrs. Frani and preparation
r~ are grateful to
j data on malauidly commented
ting the stage for
ostense of the
Gerard Pesch
atefuily acknowits’ correspon4 by Mrs. drs.
■ eoicine. Publicafrom the Society
le Directorate
: oftheNether-
References.
Afridi M.K. (1948). Mosquito problems in the Far East, -in Proceedings IVth Int.Congr.trop.Med.
2: 1588-1596.
Anonymous (1914-1922). Verslagen over de Burgerlijke Openbare Werken in Nederlandsch-Indie.
Vijfde Gedeelte. Bevloeiing, Afwatering en Waterkeering. Landsdrukkerij Weltevreden.
Anonymous (1919). Zout- en brakwater vischvijvers als bron voor malaria gevaar. -De WatersiaatsIngenieur 5: 223-225.
Anonymous (1921). De Tjiheavlakte en de voedselvoorziening. -Koloniaal Tijdschrift 10: 64-75.
Anonymous (1929). Control of endemic diseases in the Netherlands Indies. -Netherlands Indies Me
dical and Sanitary Service, 1929, 15-32.
Anonymous (1933). Jaarverslag Geneeskundig Laboratorium over 1932. -Mededeelingen van den
Dienstder Volksgezondheidin Nederlandsch-Indie 22: 105-111.
Anonymous (1934). Jaarverslag Geneeskundig Laboratorium over 1933. -Mededeelingen van den
Dienst der Volksgezondheid in Nederlandsch-Indie 23: 45-110.
Anonymous (1935). Jaarverslag Geneeskundig Laboratorium over 1934. -Mededeelingen van den
Dienst der Volksgezondheid in Nederlandsch-Indie 24: 386-398.
Anonymous (1936). Jaarverslag Geneeskundig Laboratorium over 1935. -Mededeelingen van den
Dienst der Volksgezondheid in Nederlandsch-Indie 25: 246-267.
Anonymous (1937). Jaarverslag Geneeskundig Laboratorium over 1936. -Mededeelingen van den
Dienst der Volksgezondheid in Nederlandsch-Indie 26: 262
Anonymous (1988). Indonesie schaft chemische bestrijding af. -Eindhovens Dagblad, 121211988, uit
‘World Watch'Jan.-Feb. 1988.
Amerasinghe, F.P. (1987). Changes in irrigation techniques as a means to control disease vector
production.- pp. 82-86 in Proceedings 7th annual meeting WHO/FAO/UNEP panel of experts
on environmental management for vector control. FAO, Rome, Sept. 1987. Publ. No. AGL/
MSIC/12/87.
Ave Lallemant, G.F.H., Soerono, M. & Soekaria, M.S. (1931). Proeven over de vliegwijdte van
enkele Anophelinen. -Mededeelingen van den Dienst der Volksgezondheid in Nederlandsch-Indie
20: 12-23.
Ave Lallemant, G.F.H., Soerono, M. & Stoker, W.J. (1932). Proeven over de vliegwijdte van enkele
Anophelinen. (Tweede Mededeeling). -Mededeelingen van den Dienst der Volksgezondheid in
Nederlandsch-Indie 21: 17-20.
Balfour, A. (1921-1922). Mosquito breeding in saline waters. -Bull.ent.Res. 12: 29-34.
Bang, Y.H. (1985). Implication in the control of malaria vectors with insecticides in tropical coun
tries of South-East Asia Region. Part II - Consequences of insecticide use. -J.Com.Dis. 17:
300-310.
Bhuiyan, S.I. & Sheppard, B.M. (1987). Modern rice technology and its relationships to disease
vector propagation, -pp. 10-17 in Proceedings 7th annual meeting of the joint WHO/FAO/UNEP
Panel of experts on environmental management for vector control. FAO, Rome, Sept. 1987.
Publ.No. AGL/MISC/12/87.
Bonne, C. (1940). Acta Conventus Tertii de Tropicis atque Malariae Morbis. Amstelodamum.
MCMXXXVIII. Pars II. -Geneeskundig Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch-Indie
240-255.
Bonne-Wepster, J. & Swellengrebel, N.H. (1953). The anopheline mosquitoes of the Indo-Australian
region. -504pp. Amsterdam, De Bussy.
Bosch, W.G. (1925). Wederom Cellia kochii de overbrenger van malaria. -Geneeskundig Tijdschrift
voor Nederlandsch-Indie 65: 760-765.
Boyd, M.F. (1949). Malariology. A comprehensive survey of all aspects of this group of diseases
from a global standpoint. Vol. I and II. -1643pp. Philadelphia & London, Saunders Company.
Bruce-Chwatt, L.J. (1985). Essential malariology. Second edition. -425pp. London, William Heine
mann Medical books.
Brug, S.L. (1937). De overbrenging van Filaria malayi te Kalawara. -Geneeskundig Tijdschrift voor
Nederlandsch-Indie 77: 1462-1470.
\pers 90-7 (1990)
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
159
!
Brug, S.L. & Walch, E.W. (1927). Verslag van een orienterend onderzoek van een malariaepidemie
te Solo. -Mededeelingen van den Burgerlijken Geneeskundigen Dienst in Nederlandsch-Indie 26 (3):
653-705.
Charlwood, J.D., Birley, M.H., Dagoro, H., Paru, R. & Holmes, P.R. (1985). Assessing survival
rates of Anopheles farauti (Diptera: Culicidae) from Papua New Guinea. -J. Animal Ecol. 541003-1016.
Charlwood, J.D., Graves. P.M. & Birley, M.H. (1986). Capture-recapture studies with mosquitoes
of the group of Anopheles punctulatus Donitz (Diptera: Culicidae) from Papua New Guinea.
-Bull.ent. Res. 76: 211-227.
Chow, C.Y. (1949). Observations on mosquitoes breeding in plant containers in Yunnan. -Ann.ent.Soc.Amer. 42: 465-470.
Chow, C.Y. & Soeparno, H.T. (1956). DDT resistance of Anopheles sundaicus in Java. Bull Wld
Hlth. Org. 15: 785.
Chow, C.Y., Ibnoe, Moh. R. & Josopoero, S.T. (1959). Bionomics of anopheline mosquitoes in
inland areas of Java, with special reference to Anopheles aconitus Don. -Bull.ent. Res. 50: 647-660.
Christophers, S.R. & Harvey, W.F. (1922). Malaria research and preventive measures against mala
ria in the Federated Malay States and in the Dutch East Indies. -The Indian J. Medical Research
10: 759-771.
Grendell, H.A. (1954). Resistance of Anopheles sundaicus to DDT. -Mosq. News 14:194.
Daggy, R.H. (1945). The biology and seasonal cycle of Anopheles farauti on Espiritu Santo, New
Hebrides. -Ann.ent.Soc.Amer. 38: 1-13.
De Priester. W.F. (1939). Malaria en het gotenstelsel te Tandjong Priok. -Geneeskundig Tijdschrift
voor Nederlandsch-Indie 79: 1031-1038.
De Rook, H. (1924). Specieel Anophelinen onderzoek. Uit deGeneesk. verslagen der wetenschappelijke centraal Nieuw Guinea expeditie 1920-1921. -Geneeskundig Tijdschrift voor NederlandschIndie 64: 643-656.
De Vogel. W.T. (1906). Anophelesmuskieten in zeewater. -Geneeskundig Tijdschrift voor Neder
landsch- Indie 46: 66-85.
De Vogel. W.T. (1909). Myzomia Rossii als overbrengster der Malaria. -Geneeskundig Tijdschrift
voor Nederlandsch-Indie 49: 585-595.
De Vogel. W.T. (1913). Report about the investigations carried out with regard to the sanitary
conditions of the port Sibolga. Residency Tapanoeli. and the measures for improvement of that
condition, taken from 24st April until 6th May 1913 by the Head Inspector, Head of the Civil
Medical Service Dr.W.Th. de Vogel. -Mededeelingen van den Burgerlijken Geneeskundigen Dienst
in Nederlandsch-Indie 2: 62-98.
De Vogel, W.T. (1929). Comparaison de la mortalite urbaine et rurale a Java. La malaria, cause
de la haute mortalite dans les ports situes sur la cote septentrionale; mesures prises pour la reduire.
-Bulletin de TOffice International d'Hygiene publique 21:1340-1358.
Doorenbos, W.B. (1925). Species assaineering en afleiding op dieren. als bestrijdingsmaatregelen
van malaria in de tropen. -83pp. PhD.-thesis, Univ. Leiden.
Doorenbos, W.B. (1931). Eenige ervaringen op malariagebied. Vol. I-III. -Geneeskundig Tijdschrift
voor Nederlandsch-IndielV. 1229-1248(1), 1379-1394(11) & 1458-1478(111).
Elenbaas. W. (1893). Aantekeningen omtrent de Werken tot Bevloeiingder Tjiheavlakte.-Tijdschrift
der Afdeeling Nederlandsch-Indie van het Koninklijk Instituut van Ingenieurs. Bijlage D. p.XI-XVI.
Essed, W.F.R. (1928). De malaria te Banjoewangi en de vooruitzichten op een doeltreffende speciesassaineering. -Mededeelingen van den DienSt der Volksgezondheid in Nederlandsch-Indie 17:
573-590.
Essed, W.F.R. (1932a). De gezondmaking van Banjoewangi. een typisch voorbeeld van speciesassaineering volgens Swellengrebel. -Mededeelingen van den Dienst der Volksgezondheid in Neder
landsch- Indie 21: 41-50. (with an English summary)
Essed, W.F.R. (1932b). Over de assaineering van Banjoewangi en over eenige problemen der malariabestrijding in Nederlandsch Indie. -Geneeskundig Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch-Indie 72:
993-995.
FAO (1984). Environmental management for vector control in rice fields. -152pp. FAO Irrigation
and Drainage Paper, No.41, Rome.
160
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
f
S
F-
(
b
GF
u
Hill
F
K
Hul
F
/a
Ir
Jarx.
J
E
Joyt
F
Ka\
ir
K
K...
Kin
F
Knh
F
Koc
de
Kuir
K
Kuij
oidemie
'26(3);
Sept. 1987. FAO. Rome AC L MISQ^/S?
g survival
p,:ol. 54;
I
'assfissKss-'*
23“
juitoes
Guinea.
Proceedings
EnV"'°nmental Management for Vector Control.
zondheidin NederlaLch^lT.
H1312™' -Mededeeli^en vm
D'^' der Volksge-
n.cnt.-
"^'t^XJrefcJencetofou^East A°aA S
'nil. Wld.
ReCenl advanc“ in ™laria
Hill, R.B. & Cambournac. FJC ( 941)’ Intermit'W
1.34.
on yield, water consumption and JIX
h
nCe cu,tivation and its effect
Horsefall W R (d A pH eS product,on
J- fop. medicinell. 123-144
RTnald^S
" bi°nOmiCS and relati°n t0 diSeaSe‘ -723PP- N- York.
□es in
-660.
ui malatesearch
i
Tijdschr. ^orGenees^°ir\l^
MalaHa beslriJding «n Nederlandsch Indie. -Ned.
nigengestich? te Bukenz^en'ma^treeT^i65 br°edp,aatsen opde te*reinen van het krankzin-
. New
landsch-Indie^-. 124-150
mddtreSe,en daartegen. -Geneeskundig Tijdschrift voor Neder-
'^'h88’' VerCtOr_b°rne disease contro1 in humans through rice agroecosvst.
conZ .'"SneOeLndW°rkShOP
a"d l™ning "eedfinThe “y :em
'
management,
vector-borne disease
International Rice RTTrcTTs.TtT dCVe'0P'"8 “"h^'05- 9’'4
l987' -237PP' Manila-
‘■•hrift
PPeindsch-
■
JasX^mSterdLm.Senen,bah MaalschaPPij 1889 ~ '9I<- -52 PP- Roeloffen-Hubner en Van
c/er-
I
i
'schrift
ni2^0™ PrOblemS °f m°SqUit0 Contro1 in the tr°P'cs- -Journal of Economic
KaTwliS' ^at“rehelps Indonesia to cut, is pesticide bill. -Mor Seietniv ibJune 1988-35
- E pp
ary
hat
y.ivil
licnst
ise
re.
K,,rT:bUaToAoNS(l(91398,8ynTtT
?n
i
!
ft
i
hrif'l
' FM S-
-South East Asian J. Trap. MedC°nlr01 meaSUreS aPP'ied in IndonesiaKlBflhtimore The'Geo 'v/ K^'c
°f
MoscIui[oes of the world. (second edition)/-612pp
Knight, KT'. S SuppleXZcaa7alTUbr
S-ty of A.eriiaT'
K Vd T ■|a7vPP- PUbl' by ,he E"tomo|o^>l SoWAmTica
control1 .n'the WH^South-37TT’'
SupPlement t0 V°L
d~s for planning malaria
Koorenhof. A.C.. c2s A H 1
7't
Re8'onal Offe
South-East Asia.
de laatste 15 jaren aldaar bereikt op assaineerin
?4>,it,De 1Jlhea’vlakte en de resultaten in
tenzorg. Java) 9: 441-489.
' ‘
gS’ en ^andbouwkundig gebied. -Landbouw (Bui-
17;
104™ °P de onderneming Kota Tengah. -Ceneeskundig Tiidschrift mor
i la-
>
ow
in
0VCr A"OPheleS in
voor A'e*r/OTItZr(/I-/n379n24-139OnderZ°ek
de malar'abestrijding- -Geneeskundig Tijdschrifi
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 11990)
161
■_
^72’.y A
Stra,eg‘e d" ^anabestrijding. -Geneeskundig Wrift voor
filing, r L“pBUnS',U' Sanilat,On WOrkS in the Indian Arch,pelago' Technical raaiai" Ooswava. -Ge^kundig T^chrifl
L17an^V(an9Do^&bCCoHea'th
'
'h^65'3' ChaP‘er VL Ma'aria C°"tr°1- ’PP
G^kmdig;n
i
“"-1- * —a Pest mana-
(,977)-
Ma"ino.o RM M'^^A^onh3?11
Den Haag/
w 0^a'ar,a- L°ndOn’ °Xf°rd
P-s.
-Mededeelingen van dm Burgerli]ken
Mangkoewmo'o R.MA1. (1923). Assaineering der Tjiheavlakte. -Mededeelingen van
den Burgerlijn Geneeskundigen Dienst in Nederlandsch-Indie 12: 237-275
891U9’|0B' (I94I)’ OVer deD si'bbodem van zoutwatervijvers.' -Landbouyv
(Buitenzorg, Java) 27:
Marshall, E. & Cherfas, J. (1990). Malaria r
research - What next? -Science 247: 399-403.
Ma026-S|'030L' (l939>' De ma‘aria ‘e Pri°k’ -Geneeskundig Tijdschrift
.
, f voor Nederlandsch-Indie 79:
...........
i •
T““t Bo-awl.
TIIVM,.
ixajera, j.a. (1987). Malaria and nee: strategies for control, -do 123-137 m \/^r k
heid van
h^d
u-
: 229-243.
rd .
c ? versPreiding va" de malaria in verband met de geologische gesteld
Mee[,n^amb^o^°--Geneeskundig Tijdschrift voor NederlandscLndielg. 125-
Nlfdeeel.b g GH 19199N9)4ASSa'neering Va" S,bO'Sa' -62PP' DCP'der Bu^'«ka O^nbare Werken.
N,e-enhu,s, H.G. (1923). S.adshygiene door bodemassaineering. -De Waterstaatsingenieur H:
O'-etbeek. J,G,(1937). Bestrijdingder malaria. Vereenigingsnieuws.
-Geneeskundig Tijdschrift voor
Nederlandsch-Indie ’ll: 960.
Overbeek, J.G. (1938). Ingezonden. Concerning: Th.J. van <’
’
der Eyden in Geneeskundig Tijdschrift
78’ An' 4?NOV' 1938'
Tijdschrift^ede7
OZX’ u^-l939’- De ma,aria te Tandj°n8-Priok- -Geneeskundig Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch-
162
i •
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
183^'
;: -J /
■
..
....
■
>
!
^tchrift voor
Pao-Ling, Luh (1984). Effects of rice growing
in MaFher, T.H & Tnn^
POpU,ati°n °f disease “ ’PP 130-132
FAO Irrigation and Drainage Lper Na 41 “ h1303^1
fields’
MO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 41
Perry, WJ. (1946). Untitled. -J. nat. Malar. Soc. 5: 127-139.
Peyton,
^udo E. L. (1989). A
°f thC LeucosPhy™ group of Anopheles (Cellia). -MosT" I T
/»
iling Bata-
0_ nr’
■
«
____
-------------
r
1,pal malaria
rijdschrift
\I IT
Zl/\Jx*x
“
&
* **U4U. JL,li Vll V
w »
‘7 r:nCij0Cn8 °eban- Meded-li"g Wens vergader.ng
^LgOostk^
Den Haag/
^erlandschm 186.
Reed, and Hodgkin. E.P.
I
:st mana-
Reises’ E ]' H926) d'8*”!“ ma|ariabestrijding.-Teysma,mia33: 241-253.
vo To. D p
zoutwatervijvers. .^ede^en van de Afdeeling Landhom.
rsity Press.
gerlijken
' N,Jverheide" Ha"M- l^9 (in Dutch with English summary)
SPeaesassa"-erung. -Archie fur Schiffi- und Tropenhygiene. 28:
Rodenwaldt E RK 1924
313-334.
(
• Jurgerlij’iva) 27:
Geneesk. 72 2263 2280
malanabestnjding in Ned. Indie. -Ned. Tijdschr. voor
'
'^'intos^n’BfzugaufdkMalaria ^M^d" geOmOrphoi°8ischen Situationen Niederlandtschlandsch./ndie 21 98-109
'-indie 79.
-Mededeelmgen van den Dienst der Volksgezondheid in Neder-
? fields.
Rus'sel^P F l^Thte?Trt'OnOfmalar,a- -711PP- London, Murray.
W.B. SaundeTsCompan^
el'’ R D' <1946)'
Malario1^- ^PP- Philadelphia,
v Guinea:
na Tropi-
S
ft voor
en muskietenlarven. -Geneeskundig Tijdschrif.
2~~;“ ““ ” d" °"»
i’skundig
ext of
disease
>p on
dand
Jarch
°-?43.
opmerk\ngenover devoorutochu P
ken Geneeskundigen Dienst in
teld125-
“
mUSkielen’ hunne behandeling en enkele korte
-^dedeeiingen van den BurgerliJ-
TO^de^^
““o'18 ‘he construction of the Ocean-harSchaffner. W. & Swellengrebe” nX 914, G^kund‘^n Di™' ‘n Nederlandsch-Indie U : 41-19.
der malaria. -Geneeskundig Tiidschrift
/ nop elmen m Deli in verband met de uitbreiding
Schufiher. W. &
140-152.
tiung der Malaria. -Mededeel^n van den R
m ?eli lm Verband
der Verbrei-Mededeelingen
IndieA: 1-24.
8
d Burgerlijken Geneeskundigen Dienst in Nederlandsch-
erken.
II.
t voor
“eL\mhe^
rift
.
voor het epidemiologisch malaria-ondermDtenaren bij den Burgerlijken Geneeskundigen Dienst.-Wehevreden, Albrecht &
“:^oSeS^s^t^XS±
«^^chtar; A?9192-On
• Mededeelingen van den Burgerlijken Geneeskundigen Dienst
’ h-
voor Nederlandsch-Indie 3: 65-88
Schuster. W.H. (1935/36). Verbetering
van de Kali Boejoek ten behoeve van de vischvijvers. -Landbouw (Buitenzorg, Java) 11: 67-73.
l
I.
I.
^Vageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
163
—-
. .. -~■ n>
*
.»••'
......... •____ ___ _ __ __ - -^-'
Schuurmans Stekhoven. J.H. (1919). De larven der Nederlandsch Indische Anophelinen. Concern
ing: Swellengrebel. N.H. en Swellengrebel-de Graaf, J.M.H. in Geneesk. Tijdschr. Ned. Indie,
57, afl.2. -Ned. Tijdschr. voor Geneesk. 63: 1963-1964.
Schuurmans Stekhoven, J.H. & Schuurmans Stekhoven- Meyer, A.W. (1922). Een onderzoek naar
de in Noord-Soemedang voorkomende anophelinen haar larven, en de verdeeling der soorten over
de verschillende broedplaatsen. -Geneeskundig Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch-Indie (fl. 441-473.
Service, M.W. (Ed.) (1988). Biosystematics of haematophagous insects. -363pp. Oxford, Clarendon
Press.
Service. M.W. (1989). The importance of Ecological Studies on Malaria Vectors. -Bull. Soc. Vector
Ecol. 14: 26-38.
Smalt. F.H. (1937). Periodical drainage of rice-fields for the prevention of Malaria. -Mededeelingen
van den Dienst der Volksgezondheid in Nederlandsch-Indie 26: 217-285.
Snellen, W.B. (1988). A malaria epidemic caused by Anopheles ludlowi in East Java. 1933. -pp
217-224 in Vector-borne disease control in humans through rice agroecosystem management.
Proceedings of the Workshop on Research and Training Needs in the Field of Integrated Vectorborne Disease Control in Riceland Agroecosystems of Developing Countries, 9-14 March 1987.
Manila, International Rice Research Institute.
Soerono, M., Ave Lallement. G.F.M. & Soesilo, R. (1932). De stand van de malaria in de Tjiheavlakte. -Mededeelingen van den Dienst der Volksgezondheid in Nederlandsch-Indie 21: 21-27.
Soesilo, R. (1932a). Over: Swellengrebel, N.H. en Rodenwaldt, E. Die Anophelinen von Niederlandisch-Ostindien, Jena, Gustav Fischer, 1932. -Geneeskundig Tijdschrift voor NederlandschIndie IT. 1405-1406.
Soesilo, R. (1932b). In Jaarverslag van het Geneesk. Laboratorium. 1931. -Mededeelingen van den
Dienst der Volksgezondheid in Nederlandsch-Indie 21: 145-180.
Soesilo, R. (1935). Het hyrcanus (sinensis) vraagstuk op Java (voorloopige mededeeling). -Genees
kundig Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch-Indie 15'. 767-769.
Soesilo. R. (1936). Malariabestrijding in den Oost-Indischen archipel. -Geneeskundig Tijdschrift voor
Nederlandsch-Indie Feestbundel: 45-72.
Soesilo, R. (1938). Sanitation of fresh-water fish-ponds. -Acta Conventus Tertii de Tropicis atque
Malariae Morbis. Amstelodamum. II: 76-83.
Soesilo, R. & van der Hout, O.H. (1932). Het verband tussen melasse-liquidatie in irrigatieleidingen
en malaria; de ecologie van A. aconitus. -Geneeskundig Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch-Indie 72’
842-850.
Stanton, A.T. (1914-1915). A new anopheline mosquito from Sumatra. -Bull. ent. Res. 5: 373-375.
Sundararaman, S., Soeroto, R.M. & Siran, M. (1957). Vectors of malaria in Mid-Java. -Indian J.
Malariology 11: 321-338.
Swellengrebel, N.H. (1916). De Anophelinen van Nederlandsch-Indie. -182pp. Amsterdam. De
Bussy.
Swellengrebel. N.H. (1916a). Malariabestrijding in de Philippijnen. Concerning: Walker and Barber,
Philipp. J. of Science. Vol.9, 381. -Ned. Tijdschr. voor Geneesk. 60: 994-996.
Swellengrebel, N.H. (1916b). Nieuwere onderzoekingen over de epidemiologic van de malaria. -Ned.
Tijdschrift voor Geneesk. 60(2): 2311-2319.
Swellengrebel. N.H. (1916c). Bookreview concerning: Malcolm Watson, Rural sanitation in the
tropics, 1915. -Ned. Tijdschrift voor Geneesk. 60(2): 432-434.
Swellengrebel, N.H. (1919). -Kort verslag epidemiologic der malaria in Ned. Oost Indie, aan de
Dir.Afd.Trop.Hyg. K.I. (unpublished, arch. Swellengrebel lab. Trop.Hyg., Amsterdam).
Swellengrebel, N.H. (1919a). Aanvullingen en verbeteringen op Swellengrebel's Anophelinen van
Nederlandsch-Indie. Edition Burg.Geneesk.Dienst NI and Trop.Hyg.Koi.Inst. Amsterdam. Wel
le vreden. Albrecht & Co.
Swellengrebel, N.H. (1920a). De vooruitzichten der malariabestrijding in Nederlandsch-Indie. De
Indische Mercuur, 9.1.1920. -14pp. Amsterdam, De Bussy.
Swellengrebel, N.H. (1920b). Malaria-onderzoek in Nederlandsch Indie. -Ned. Tijdschr. voor
Geneesk. 64: 770-786.
Swellengrebel, N.H. (1921). De anophelinen van Nederlandsch Oost-Indie. 2edruk. -155pp. Mede
deeling No. 15, Koloniaal Instituut, AfdeelingTropische Hygiene No. 10. Amsterdam, De Bussy.
164
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
MSI i
.
)helinen. Concerndschr. Ned. Indie.
Een onderzoek naar
1 gder soorten over
e 62:441-473.
>xford. Clarendon
-Bull. Soc. Vector
i. -Mededeelingen
ast Java. 1933. -pp
:m management,
itegrated Vectors, 9-14 March 1987.
tria in de Tjihea:21: 21-27.
~..nen von Niedervoor Nederlandsch'eelingen van den
edeeling). -Genees' Tijdschrift voor
’ de Tropicis atque
rigatieleidingen
ndsch-Indie 72:
Res. 5: 373-375.
lava. -Indian J.
. .msterdam. De
erand Barber.
malaria. -Ned.
•'"nitation in the
Indie, aan de
lerdam).
Knophelinen van
iterdam. Welndsch-Indie. De
'ijdschr. voor
• -i55pp. Mededam. De Bussy.
90-7(1990)
I
•
Swellengrebel. N.H. (1922a). Een nieuwe Nederlandsch-Indische Anopheline. -Ned. Tijdschr. voor
Geneesk. 66:443-444.
Swellengrebel, N.H. (1922b). Twee, voor Nederlandsch-Indie. nieuwe Anophelinen. -Ned. Tijdschr
Geneesk. 66:1535-1536.
Swellengrebel, N.H. (1925). Cellia errabunda n.sp.. een nieuwe Anopheline voor Ned. Indie. -Ned.
Tijdschr. voor Geneesk. 69: 1913-1915.
Swellengrebel, N.H. (1934). De splitsing der Anophelessoorten. -Geneeskundig Tijdschrift voor
Nederlandsch-Indie 74: 706-711.
Swellengrebel. N.H. (1937). Malaria in the Netherlands Indies. -Bull. Col. Inst. Amsterdam r
1937-1938.37-45.
Swellengrebel. N.H. (1950). How the malaria service in Indonesia came into being, 1898-1948. -J.
Hygiene 48: 146-157.
Swellengrebel, N.H. (1956). Sir Malcolm Watson (obituary). -Nature 177: 162-163.
Swellengrebel, N.H. & De Buck. A. (1938). Malaria in The Netherlands. -267pp. Amsterdam, Scheltema & Holkema Ltd.
Swellengrebel, N.H. & Rodenwaldt, E. (1932). Die Anophelinen von Niederlandisch-Ostindien.
Dritte Auflage. -242pp. Jena, Gustav Fischer.
Swellengrebel, N.H., Schuffner, W. & Swellengrebel-de Graaf. J.M.H. (1919). The susceptibility
of Anophelines to Malaria infections in Netherlands India. -Mededeelingen van den Burgerlijken
Geneeskundigen Dienst in Nederlandsch-Indie 3: 1 -62.
Swellengrebel, N.H. & Swellengrebel-de Graaf, J.M.H. (1919). Over de eischen, die verschillende
anophelinen stellen aan de woonplaatsen hunner larven. -Geneeskundig Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch-Indie 59: 267-310.
Swellengrebel, N.H. & Swellengrebel-de Graaf, J.M.H. (1919a). Malaria in Modjowarno. -Mede
deelingen van den Burgerlijken Geneeskundigen Dienst in Nederlandsch-Indie 10: 73-112.
Swellengrebel, N.H. & Swellengrebel-de Graaf, J.M.H. (1919b). Researches on the Anophelines
at some stations of Java and Sumatra in connection with the occurrence of malaria. -Mededcelingen van den Burgerlijken Geneeskundigen Dienst in Nederlandsch-Indie 10: 1-67.
Swellengrebel. N.H. & Swellengrebel-de Graaf, J.M.H. (1919c). Report on the occurrence of malaria
and Anophelines at Semarang. -Mededeelingen van den Burgerlijken Geneeskundigen Dienst in
Nederlandsch-Indie 8( 10): 113-168.
Swellengrebel, N.H. & Swellengrebel-de Graaf, J.M.H. (1920). List of the anophelines of the Malay
Archipelago with special reference to adults and larvae of new or incompletely described species
or varieties. -Bull. ent. Res. 11: 77-92.
Terburgh. J.T. (1904). De malaria-bestrijding in Italic. -Geneeskundig Tijdschrift voor NederlandschIndie 44: 527-610.
Terburgh. J. T. (1919). Quininisation as an expedient in the fight against the malaria among the
Native population. Mededeelingen van den Burgerlijken Geneeskundigen Dienst in NederlandschIndie 11: 72-139.
Thomson R.C.M. (1941). Untitled. -J. Malar. Inst. India*. 247-255 4- 3 pls.
Vaas, K.F. (1947). Biologische inventarisatie van den binnenvisserij in Indonesie. -Landbouw (Bata
via, Java) 29: 522-543.
Van den Assem, J. (1959). A window traphut experiment to test the effects of dieldrin under local
conditions in the Merauke Area (Netherlands New Guinea). Doc. Med. Geogr. Trop. 11: 32.
Van den Assem. J. & Van Dijk. W.J.O.M. (1958). Distribution of Anopheles mosquitoes in Nether
lands New Guinea. -Trop. Geogr. Med. 10: 249-255.
Van Breemen, M.L. (1919). Verdere gegevens betreffende het malaria vraagstuk te Weltevreden
en Batavia. -Geneeskundig Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch-Indie 59: 311-344.
Van Breemen. M.L. (1920). Untitled. -Mededeelingen van den Burgerlijken Geneeskundigen Dienst
Nederlandsch-Indie 4: 66-115.
Van Breemen, M.L. (1930). Verdere gegevens betreffende het malaria vraagstuk te Batavia. -Mede
deelingen van den Dienst der Volksgezondheid in Nederlandsch-Indie 19: 197-225.
Van Breen. H. (1913). De assaineering van Batavia. -Tijdschrift van het Koninklijk Instituut van
Ingenieurs, afdeeling Nederlandsch-Indie: 64-80.
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
165
Van der Burg, C.L. (1903). Malaria vrije plaatsen in Oost-Indie. -Ned. Tijdschr. Geneesk. 39: 31.
Concerning: Koch, R., Deutsche Med.Wochenschrift, 5 en 17 (1900); Kohlbrugge, D.H.F.. De
Indische gids, mei 1900; Hulshoff Poll, D.J., Geneesk. Tijdschr. Ned. Indie, 41,887; Swart Abrahamsz, Geneesk. Tijdschr. Ned. Indie, 43, 117; Louwerier, Geneesk. Tijdschr. Ned. Indie. 43,
166.
Van Dijk, W.J. (1958). Mass chemoprophylaxis with chloroquine additional to DDT indoor spray
ing. Doc. Med. Geogr. Trap. 10: 379.
Van Driel. B.M. (1919). De malaria te Batavia, (concerning Van Breemen in Geneesk. Tijdschr.
Ned. Indie, Vol.59 (3)). -Ned. Tijdschr. voor Geneesk. 63: 1885-1886.
Van der Eyden, Th.J. (1938). De strategic der malariabestrijding. -Geneeskundig Tijdschrift voor
Nederlandsch-Indie 78: 2936-2960.
Van der Eyden. Th.J. (1939). Ingezonden. Antwoord aan de Heer Kuipers. -Geneeskundig Tijdschrift
voor Nederlandsch-Indie’ll-. 1144-1147.
Van Gorkom, W.J. (1913). Rapporten over Malaria in de Tjihea- Vlakte. Uitgebracht door den
Inspecteur van den Burgerlijk- Geneeskundigen Dienst in den Geneeskundigen Afdeeling WestJava. 47pp. Batavia Landsdrukkerij.
Van Hasselt, Th. L. (1925). De assaineering van Baoe-Baoe, hoofdplaats van de onder-afdeeling
Boeton (Zuid-Oost Celebes). -Mededeelingen van den Burgerlijken Geneeskundigen Dienst in
Nederlandsch-Indie 14: 74-88.
Van Hell, J.C. (1933). De malaria te Weltevreden, Batavia en Tandjong Priok in het jaar 1931.
-Geneeskundig Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch-Indie 22: 1-12.
Van Thiel, P.H. (1936). Onderzoekingen omtrent het gedrag van Anopheles ten opzichte van mensch
en dier, mede in verband met de rassenstudie bij Anopheles maculipennis. -Geneeskundig Tijdschrift
voor Nederlandsch-Indie 76: 502-503.
Van Thiel. P.H. & Metselaar, D. (1955). A pilot project of residual spraying as a means of controlling
malaria transmitted by Anopheles of the Punctulatus group in Netherlands New Guinea. -Doc.
Ned. Geogr. Trap. 7: 164.
Van der Torren, G. (1935). De zoogeographische verspreiding van Anopheles maculipennis atroparvus en A. m. messeae in westelijk Nederland met het oog op ‘speciesassaineering’. -48pp. PhDthesis. Univ. Amsterdam.
Van Voorthuis, J. A. (1920). Over de assaineering van Sinabang. -De Waterstaatsingenieur 8: 18-21.
Venhuis, W.G. (1940). Het hyrcanus vraagstuk in Ned. Indie met beschrijving van een zeer verbreide
nieuwe malaria-ooverbrengende varieteit: An. hyrcanus X (eerste mededeeling). -Geneeskundig
Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch-Indie 80: 35-43.
Verhave, J.P. (1987). The dutch School of Malaria Research. -Parassitologia 29: 263-274.
Verhave, J.P. (1989). Malaria: epidemiology and immunity in the Malay Archipelago, in Dutch
Medicine in the Malay Archipelago 1816-1942 (eds.G.M. van Heterenero/.). Amsterdam-Atlanta
G.A.. Rodopi B.V.
Walch, E. W. (1924). De M. sinensis als gevaarlijke overbrenger (een sawah-epidemie). -Geneeskundig
Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch-Indie 64: 1-27.
Walch, E.W. (1929). De assaineering van de vischvijvers bij Batavia. -Geneeskundig Tijdschrift voor
Nederlandsch-Indie 69: 1123-1124.
Walch, E.W. (1932). Het verband tusschen de voorkeur van Nederlandsch Indische Anophelinen
voor menschen- of dierenbloed en haar gevaarlijkheid (tweede mededeeling). -Geneeskundig
Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch-Indie 72: 682-709.
Walch. E.W. (1933). Over de gezondmaking van Banjoewangi. -Mededeelingen van den Dienst der
Volksgecondheid in Nederlandsch-Indie 22: 16-19.
Walch, E.W. Van Breemen. M.L. & Reyntjes, E.J.. (1930). Deassaineeringder zoutwatervischvijvers
van Batavia, bijdrage tot de ‘hygienische’ exploitatie der bandeng- vijvers. -Mededeelingen van
den Dienst der Volksgezondheid in Nederlandsch-Indie 19: 547-580.
Walch, E.J. & Schuurman, C.J. (1929). Zoutwatervischvijvers en malaria. -Mededeelingen van den
Burgerlijken Geneeskundigen Dienst in Nederlandsch-Indie 28: 250-277.
Walch, E.W. & Schuurman, C.J. (1930). Zoutwatervischvijvers en malaria. Mededeeling uit de ma
laria- Afdeeling van het Geneesk. Lab. te Weltevreden. -Geneeskundig Tijdschrift voor Neder
landsch- Indie 70: 209-234.
166
s
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
V
V
V
Walch, E.W. & Soesilo, R. (1935). Malaria control in the Netherlands Indies. -Mededeelingen van
den Dienst der Volksgezondheid in Nederlandsch-Indie 24: 86-94.
Ward, R.A. (1984). Second supplement to a catalog of the mosquitos of the world. Mosquito syste
matics. Vol. 16 (3): 227-270.
Watson. M. (1911). The prevention of malaria in the Federated Malay States. -139pp. Liverpool
School of Trop. Medicine.
Watson, M. (1913). Mosquito reduction and the consequent eradication of malaria. -Trans, soc.
trop. med. and Hyg. 7: 59-82.
Watson, M. (1915). Rural sanitation in the tropics. -320pp. London. John Murray.
Watson. M. (1935). Some pages from the history of the prevention of malaria. -Glasgow Medical
Journaini: 130-202.
White, G.B. (1989). Malaria, -pp. 7-22 in ‘Geographical distribution of arthropod-borne diseases
and their principal vectors'. WHO/VBC/89.967.
WHO (1982). Manual on environmental management for mosquito control with special emphasis
on malaria vectors. -283pp. WHO Offset publication No. 66. Geneva, World Health Organisation.
WHO (1985). Weekly epidemiology record, 60. 39. Geneva, World Health Organisation.
WHO (1987). Global estimates relating to the health situation and trends. -41pp. WHO/HST/87.3.
WHO (1989). The use of impregnated bednets for the control of malaria and other vector-borne
diseases. WHO/VBC/89.981.45pp.
WHO (1990). World Report on Tropical Diseases. - WHO Features 139: 12pp.
Wilcocks, W. (1944). Medical Organization and Diseases of the Netherlands East Indies before
the Japanese Invasion. - Tropical Diseases Bulletin 41: 983-996.
Williamson. K.B. (1928). Mosquito breeding and malaria in relation to the nitrogen cycle. -Bull,
ent. Res. 18: 433- 438.
Wolff, J. W. (1924). Een malaria-epidemie, veroorzaakt door het aanleggen van rijstvelden. Concern
ing: Walch, E.W. in Geneeskundig Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch-Indie. deel 64. 1924. I. -Ned.
Tijdschr. voor Geneesk. 68: 683- 684.
Wright, J.W., Fritz, R.F. & Haworth, J. (1972). Changing concepts of vector control in malaria
eradication. -Ann. Rev. Entom. 17: 75-102.
Zon. B.K.. (1939). Zoutwatervischvijvers en malaria. -Geneeskundig Tijdschrift voor NederlandschIndie 79: 529-540.
b. 39: 31.
H.F.. De
Swart Abra.1. Indie. 43.
Dr sprayk. Tijdschr.
'rift voor
/ Tijdschrift
loor den
ig West- "'fdeeling
lienst in
jaar 1931.
mensch
jdschrift
controlling
a. -Doc.
.... atropa8pp. PhD-
: 18-21.
irbreide
teeskundig
1 Dutch
m-Atlanta
I
ikundig
chrift voor
helinen
kundig
Dienst tier
ivijvers
^en van
'an den
de maor NederWageningen Agric. Univ. Papers 90-7 (1990)
'1990)
I
I
167
Position: 2631 (2 views)