ICMR BULLETIN VOL. 28-No. 12-DECEMBER-1998
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- ICMR BULLETIN VOL. 28-No. 12-DECEMBER-1998
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ISSN 0377-4910
BULLETIN
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December; 1998
Vol. 28, No. 12
CAMPAIGN AGAINST HIV/AIDS : YOUTH AS FORCE FOR CHANGE
**Young people are increasingly seen as agents of
development rather than merely passive recipients of it".
(UN document on International Youth Year, 1985)
As of 1 July 1998, a cumulative total of nearly 1.9
million AIDS cases had been officially reported to WHO.
This represents a 15% increase over the number reported
in July last year. Currently an estimated 30.6 million
adults and children have HIV/AIDS, 5.8 million having
been newly infected in 1997. An estimated 11.7 million
deaths have occurred due to AIDS since the beginning
of the pandemic, 2.3 million of them in 1997. Trends in
AIDS incidence show significant difference between the
regions of the world. The numbers have been falling in
the industrialized countries, whereas in the developing
world, the numbers appear to be increasing and the spread
of HIV is most profound*.
Of the 1.5 billion young people between 10 and 24
years in the world today, 85% live in developing coun
tries. It is estimated that every 12 seconds a young person
somewhere in the world acquires HIV infection. There
are about 10 million yoUng people living with HIV/AIDS.
About half of all new HIV infections occur in this age
group (WHO Fact Sheet No. 186,1997). With adequate
support and proper interventions, the young people can
change the course of this epidemic. They can play a
crucial role in promoting HIV/AIDS prevention by edu
cating their peers, discussing issues related to sex and
sexuality and facilitating safer sex behaviour.
Vulnerability of Young People
Experimentation, discovery, emerging feelings and
exploration of new behaviour and relationships are a
normal part of adolescent development which exposes
them to health risks. Some young people are at greater
risk ofHIV like those who are out of school, who live on
the streets, who share needles with other injecting drug
users, engage in commercial sex, or are sexually and
physically abused. (World AIDS Campaign Briefing
Paper, UNAIDS, 1998).
The results of this potent mix of risk and vulnerabil
ity show up in country statistics. The HIV rates in preg
nant women under 20 years in Maharashtra rose from
2.3 to 3.5% between 1994 and 1996. (World AIDS
Campaign Briefing Paper, UNAIDS, 1998). An impor
tant indicator of the scale of unprotected sex, and hence
of potential exposure to HIV is the incidence of other
sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). Not only are the
other STDs markers fbr HIV infection, the genital sores
and lesions that result from some STDs may facilitate
HIV infection during heterosexual transmission. Young
people are vulnerable because of the biological immatu
rity of the female genital tract. IfHIV infection follows
the course ofother STDs among young people, they are
likely to soon represent the largest age group of HIV
infected individuals in the nation. Of the estimated 333
million new STD cases that occur in the world eveiy
year, nearly half are in the young people (including^nale
Division of Publication & Information, ICMR, New Delhi - 110029
This issue commemorates the World AIDS Day (December 1, 1998)
and female) under 25 years of age (WHO Fact Sheet
No.l 86,1997). A study in Pune found that 75% of males
attending a STD clinic were aged 18-19 years2. The
sexual relations are often unplanned and typically occur
before adolescents have gained experience and skill in
self protection, and before they have acquired knowl
edge about STDs：
In a study conducted fbr the International Centre for
Research on Women, a quarter of the adolescent girls in
Brazil reported having first sex before the age of 13. In
Malawi, the mean age was 13.6 years, and in Papua New
Guinea it was 11 years. (World AIDS Campaign Brief
ing Paper, UNAIDS, 1998)
Girls and boys can often be infected through sexual
abuse by relatives, family friends, teachers and strang
ers. Rape and forced prostitution are other forms of abuse
and exploitation known to fuel the HIV epidemic. Young
people who inject drugs are exposed to high HIV risk if
they share needles. In Manipur, the proportion of young
drug injectors (median age: 25 years) infected with HIV
zoomed from virtually zero in 1989 to 56% within six
months and to over 67% by 19923. Even the non-inject
ing drugs do play a substantial role in disinhibitng sexual
behaviour and placing youth in contexts that increase
sexual risk-behaviours.
The long delay between initial HIV infection and the
onset of symptoms, supports the belief that many of these
people may have contracted the virus during an earlier
period of their life, particularly during their teenage years.
Therefore, the population group of adolescents and young
adults needs to be addressed by prevention programmes.
It is becuase of ignorance, myths and disbelief that they
are ending up in situations that may endanger their health,
or even their lives.
Prevention of sexual and substance-use risk acts
remains the most effective strategy against HIV infec
tion. Comprehensive interventions that emphasize re
sponsible sexuality have reduced sexual risk fbr HIV in
Europe, Australia, and the USA. A relatively large number
of national social marketing campaigns have been
launched, and about half have been evaluated with posi
tive results.
Some Recent Research Studies on Sexuality and Youth
(i) A study is being conducted at the National AIDS
Research Institute (NARI), Pune, which aims to understand
youth sexual behaviour and possible risks to HIV/AIDS
to address the knowledge, attitude and practice (KAP)
118
gap to plan sustainable interventions from ethnic
perspectives. Undergraduates from six co-ed colleges
of Pune were covered (996 girls and 825 boys) using
qualitative and quantitative methods. The results of the
study are ofmajor concern that despite adequate knowledge
of AIDS, youth reported risky behaviour. The results
suggest that AIDS awareness needs to be integrated with
youth programmes involving both boys and girls where
sexuality, and gender relationships are openly discussed
along with reproductive health matters and responsible
safe behaviour. Participatory approaches like workshops
fbr information dissemination through peers leaders be
planned for youth enabling democratic and responsible
decision making by both boys and girls.
*
Q一 ”
World AIDS Campaign 1998
Force for Change : World AIDS Campaign with
Ybung People.
GOAL
lb mobilize young people to reduce the spread of
HIV infection and to strengthen support for young
people infected and affected by HIV/AIDS. lb
promote and protect human rights.
OBJECTIVES
*
Promote young people's genuine participation.
*
Promote policies and action for young people's
health and development using a human rights
framework.
*
Increase awareness of the impact of HIV/AIDS
on young people and young people's impact
on the course of the epidemic.
•
Mobilize social and private sector to work in
partnership on young people's health and
development.
•
Monitor the campaign.
^Source:
AIDS Campaign. Briefing Paper, UNAIDS. 1998).),
The base-line data have provided valuable insights
into why certain behaviours occur and also why certain
beliefs and attitudes are held. This has also enabled in
understanding the vocabulary used by college students
which is an important consideration when intervention
programmes are planned. There is a need to integrate
the efforts with other activities in colleges like the National
Service Scheme (NSS)and the National Cadet Corps
(NCC), where students take an active part. The Friendship
Networks of the students can pave a way fbr a wider
dissemination of information on several aspects that
include sexuality and reproductive issues in the context
of AIDS/HIV/STD. The second part of the study is the
intervention phase through peer educators* training
programme among college students. These interventions
which aim to bring about behavioural change rather than
increasing knowledge alone would pave the way to harm
reduction among the youth4.
(ii) Youth need complete information on HIV/AIDS
within an open, and sensitive vision ofhuman sexuality.
However, interventions aimed at adolescents have largely
been moralistic and rigid laying down patterns of sexual
behaviour in terms of "dos and don,ts,,. Recognizing
this Deepam Educational Society for Health (DESH),
Chennai designed, after extensive field testing a loosely
structured package for youth on issues related to sex and
sexuality. A simple and watertight classification does
not provide adolescents with full and complete informa
tion on the degree of 'risk' and cno risk* attached to a
particular sexual behaviour. A level of risk continuum
is called for if information is to be translated into safe
behaviour and practice. In this continuum, sexual
behaviour may be broadly classified on a scale from high
risk to low risk to no risk. DESH's intervention in some
educational institutions led to an increase in understand
ing of the level of risk continuum among adolescents5.
Human Rights in the AIDS Era
Young people, like adults have a right to informa
tion, life-skills and services that enable them to pro
tect themselves against HIV/AIDS. They have a right
to freedom from coerced sex, rape and other forms
of exploitation. More broadly; young people have a
right to develop in a supportive environment, with
the backing of caring adults in their family; school
and community; They have a right to education, skills,
employment, health, confidentiality^ and protection
from discrimination, including discrimination on the
grounds of HIV status, sexual practice, sex and age.
Research shows that these rights help protect
health and development. Conversely, when they are
not respected and promoted young people become
vulnerable 一 that is, they have little or no control over
their HIV/AIDS related risks. Vulnerability can be
created by violations of the rights to education, health
care, participation, and safety, among others.
This is why action to prevent HIV infection must
extend "beyond AIDS" to the broad social and economic
rights that protect young people's health and
development. This means grounding policies and
programmes in the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights, the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child,
and the UN Convention on the Elimination of all Forms
of Discrimination against Women.
%^(Sowce : World AIDS Campaign Bri顼ng Paper, UNAIDS,
(iii) a study on 2000 college students from 20 colleges
In
in Mumbai regarding sexual terminologies, sexual ini
tiation, and sexual and condom use behaviour, it was re
inforced that it is necessary to evolve a peer based
programme to educate the youth as to how to resist pres
sure from their peers and to provide a comprehensive
contraceptive knowledge package and basic sex/family
life education6.
Empowering the Youth
The Government oflndia is focussing on young people
through a multi-prong attack. It is using a combination
of media campaign, education on AIDS for those attending
school and those out of school and provision of support
ive services like counselling. Five regional workshops
covering all States and Union Territories have been or
ganized for developing an action plan for introduction
of AIDS education in the school system.
AIDS Education in Schools
In consultation with the National Council of Educa
tional Research and Training (NCERT), New Delhi, State
Councils for Educational Research and Training and State
Institutes of Education, projects for introduction of AIDS
education in schools have been prepared and implemented
in seven States.
The NCERT has also undertaken the development
and introduction of "adolescence education" in the school
system in secondary schools on a pilot basis in 1998.
This has been done by adding it to population education,
which already exists in the school curriculum. It has
three components, the process of growing up, AIDS
education and drug abuse. It is too early to evaluate the
impact of the sexual health education programme on risk
behaviour of young people as these programmes are in
their infancy. However, many programmes have shown
encouraging evidence of change in knowledge and atti
tudes. For example, the State of Maharashtra has three
concurrently running programmes that cover almost the
whole, state. Evaluation reports of the programmes in
dicate an increase in knowledge and a positive impact
on attitudes.
To assess the impact of HIV and sexual health edu
cation on the sexual behaviour of young people, the joint
UN programme on AIDS carried out a literature review
in 1997 of 68 reports from developed and developing
countries. It was found that in one third of the studies
HIV/AIDS and sexual health education neither increased
119
nor decreased sexual activity and attendant rates of preg
nancy and STDs. Another third of the studies reported
that HIV and sexual health education either delayed the
onset of sexual activity, reduced the number of sexual
partners or reduced unplanned pregnancy and STD rates7.
AIDS Education for Young Adults
The prevention measures for youth in India were
initiated in 1991 in a phased manner under the banner of
“Universities Talk AIDS". This was through an
intersectoral collaboration of the National AIDS Con
trol Organization (NACO) with the Ministry of Human
Resource Development, Department of Youth Affairs and
Sports. Creating AIDS awareness among youth through
social marketing methods based on participatory ap-,
proaches was a major objective of this programme. A
great deal of AIDS educational material was generated
which was later developed into posters, booklets, etc.
Starting with about 50 universities in the first phase (1991),
168 universities were participating in this Programme
by 1996-97.
This is the first governmental programme for the youth
to spread the message of AIDS prevention. Social
、marketing strategies involved the university officials,
college principals, youth officers in colleges, the non
governmental organizations (NGOs) and through them
the peer educators. The Programme envisaged that the
bands of peer educators would create AIDS awareness
in colleges using participatory approaches.
It was realized that social marketing methods can
prove effective in making the AIDS education programme
low-cost and sustainable. The need to overcome infor
mation gaps, to involve parents and teachers and to in
troduce sexuality and AIDS prevention education in the
curriculum was felt8,9.
In order to make information youth-friendly, an
entertainment programme on*the FM radio channel is
being broadcast in four cities 一 Delhi, Mumbai, Calcutta
and Goa. NACO has also established a National AIDS
Helpline 1097. Through this service young people are
being provided correct information on HIV/AIDS/STDs.
The service is already being implemented in Delhi, Chennai
and Hyderabad and is expected to be expanded to all the
major cities of the country.
NACO is supporting a programme to reach rural youth
through a network of 700 Nehru Yuvak Kendras fbr
spreading awareness on family life, education, responsible
attitudes to sex and safer sex options. Workshops have
120
also been held in several States to integrate AIDS/STD
into their programme activities. In addition, the Vishwa
Yvvak Kendras have trained NGOs working with the youth
in seven major Indian cities.
Programmes have been developed using rural art forms
to disseminate information on HIV/AIDS. Puppetry,
magic, harkatha, qawalit nautanki, folk dance and mu
sic have been used to develop messages. These are being
used in outreach activities ofthe National Service Scheme
and Universities Talk AIDS10.
Non-governmental Efforts
AIDS awareness efforts for youth were also made
by NGOs, though a little later, fbr example in Chennai,
Delhi, Pune, Calcutta and Ahmedabad. The YR Gaitonde
Centre fbr AIDS Research and Education (YRG), Chennai
was the first to initiate a youth programme through training
community-based organizations for starting sexuality and
sex education in schools, involving parents and teachers
in discussing these problems. Subsequently, other NGOs
such as the Deepam Educational Society fbr Health,
Chennai and ASHA, and Indian Health Organization,
Mumbai also started this fbr the school going adoles
cents, and college women, involving younger children,
through religious festivals, street children etc. fbr creat
ing cost-effective and culturally sensitive AIDS aware
ness. These interventions have been carried out to in
crease knowledge. However, efforts to measure the
changes have been limited.
The YR Gaitonde Centre fbr AIDS Research and
Education, Chennai has worked with schools, colleges
and youth in informal settings through sexuality work
shops. It was an uphill struggle for the organization to
convince school and college principals to initiate educa
tion programmes on sexuality. For illiterate youth, 3-5
days programme using various art forms was conducted.
The main objectives of the module were to impart infor
mation, motivate students fbr action, clarify myths and
misconceptions, foster positive attitudes about HIV re
lated issues and living with HIV infection. Despite sev
eral constraints with time the programme has gained a
great deal of popularity among the youth who are also
fairly active in peer education11.
Using Youth as an Instrument of Change : Some
Examples
Creating awareness and knowledge among young
people about HIV/AIDS is not an end by itself. Not only
can they lead a safer life-style but also be an instrument
of change in their family,- lives of their friends, and even
in the community.
There are some eloquent examples of approaches that
have utilized young people to their fullest potentials.
① The Asian Red Cross and Red Crescent AIDS Task
Force trained 1000 young people as peer educators us
ing the life-skill approach. Culturally sensitive train
ing manuals on sexual and reproductive health and HIV/
AIDS were prepared. In consultation with national Red
Cross and Red Crescent Societies in Asia, these mate
rials were finalized and are used for conducting sexual
and reproductive health training to young people (World
AIDS Campaign Briefing Paper, UNAIDS, 1998).
(ii) The Clear Skies Project was initiated in a rural district
outside Chiang Mai, Thailand, to provide emotional
and practical support for people with HIV infection/
AIDS. The project is run entirely by people who are
themselves living with HIV/AIDS, many of them under
25 years of age. Weekly meetings are arranged where
HIV positive people come together to discuss common
concerns; the project provides home care fbr people
with AIDS; and the project works closely with health
care provides to increase their sensitivity to the need
of people living with HIV/AIDS for caring, sensitive,
and confidential care, in addition to other activities
(World AIDS Campaign Briefing Paper, UNAIDS,
1998).
(iii)The ASHA project, Mumbai, observed that more than
25% of persons attending the sex clinic of the project
were aged between 16 and 22 years. This prompted
launching of a programme on youth and life-styles with
fbcus on college students. It addressed HIV/AIDS in
the context of sex, sexuality and life-styles. Seventeen
colleges participated in the programme. The experi
ence indicated that working with youth on HIV/AIDS
is most important and if addressed properly, the AIDS
prevention activity with this group could be very ef
fective12.
(v) A young student properly motivated and guided as to
the basic information on HTV/AIDS developn)ent—mode
oftransmission and consequences could effectively share
education gained with people. In a project in the
Philippines, students are taught to join in discussing
HIV/AIDS when presented in their classroom, and attend
a workshop on * Why-When-Who-and How* HIV/AIDS
becomes a community problem. If each student reaches
out to two members of his/her family who in turn will
reach out to two oftheir relatives and two oftheir friends
and lastly two of their neighbours, 40 students (usual
size of a class) will be able to spread information about
the incurable disease to 320 students. The study
recognizes the power of students to participate in the
prevention and control of HIV/AIDS14.
(vi) In Lagos, Nigeria, counselling booths/centres were
erected at strategic locations in the community. Peer
health educators (PHEs) and reproductive health coun
sellors were available fbr 9 h, 6 days a week and dis
seminated information on issues concerning reproduc
tive health. This entails education on HIV/AIDS, STDs,
early marriage, teenage pregnancy, and use of contra
ceptives with emphasis on proper use of the condom.
To promote information dissemination to all parts of
the community, PHEs cany out house-to-house visits
and work place visits and distribution of IEC materials
to youth. Counselling has brought about an amazing
increase in the number of youth willing to live risk
behaviour free lives, and sale of condoms; and a de
crease in the number of cases of HIV/AIDS/STDs,
teenage pregnancy and abortion15.
(vii) Through training 30,808 peer educators in 1,188 high
schools, a voluntary organization in Chennai, the Deepam
Educational Society for Health, improved condom aware
ness from 3 to 40%, besides, 261 street youths were
trained to function as street educators. The peer edu
cators focussed on STD diagnosis and treatment16.
(viii) In Bhubaneshwar, Orissa, an NGO has a State-wise
network of300 other NGOs dealing with the youth. In
order to educate the youth outside the formal structure
of education, it trained a representative each from 45
(iv) More than 150 Campaigns Among Students on AIDS
NGOs to multiply the message of sex and sexuality to
(CASA) in different high schools, and colleges of
the local and district level. About 500 peer educators
Chittoor district have been organized. CASA has
have been trained17.
provided IEC material on AIDS to more than 89,000
(ix) An experimental intervention with HIV/AIDS preven
students. The students were enthusiastic to know more
tion in mind was initiated in the Philippines, to address
about HIV/AIDS. They learned about sexual behaviour,
the HIV/AIDS problem of children and youth. Imple
safer sex and preventive methods. Two hundred students
mented by children and youth fbr children and youth
have undergone one month training on AIDS, and are
the project includes building capabilities of a core of
actively spreading the awareness to other students and
volunteer children and youth in educating, facilitating
to the society13.
121
and advocating with peers on HIV/AIDS and their is
sues, and concerns using the convention on the Children's
Right as the framework and with alternative form of
education techniques. Child action desks were set up
by the young members of the Society in seven commu
nities to monitor abuses and provide service to their
peers18.
Lessons Learnt
Interventions are important to sensitize the target popu
lation about the AIDS problem. If timely action is not taken
it may jeopardize their future interests. Such information
need to be given in a cultural milieu in which the interven
tions are accessible and acceptable. Social marketing strat
egies are useful as they are participatory and involve the
individual. Sustained efforts can help in making behavioural
changes. There is a need to monitor these changes for a
meaningful impact of these programmes. The indicators
fbr assessing these changes should also be meaningful and
sensitive. For example merely assessing the knowledge
of HIV/AIDS may not be enough but what is required is
how the problem of AIDS/HIV is perceived by the youth
and what changes in their behaviour has the intervention
brought about.
The HIV/AIDS problem to a large extent deals with
sex. Therefore, an emphasis on sexuality is crucial to address
the issues of behaviour modification. Research, specially
formative research has to be built in with the interventions
to get the desired results. Research on these aspects would
then depend on qualitative methods to get the insight rather
than the counting of numbers through survey data, although
this when complemented with qualitative data can give more
power to the interpretation of the situation. Formative
research fbr interventions is important although this is still
in its infancy in India.
The young adults are the pillars of society, any invest
ments on them goes a long way fbr the future of countries.
Youth can be prepared to have positive health attitudes that
can pave the way for better mental, physical and spiritual
health.
The youth have energy, enthusiasm and a commitment,
and with proper support they can face* greater challenges.
To achieve more difficult tasks like promoting good health,
their positive energies can be put to a great use by involv
ing them in activities .of their concern like prevention of
AIDS/HIV. Using the potentials of young, "A youth to
youth programme" has been started by the Ministry ofHuman
Resource Development, Govt, of India. This programme
covers the junior college students and is still in the early
stages of implementation. Such initiatives would first
help the youth themselves and through them spread to their
peers and then to a wide network of their friends. What is
122
important is that they should have the correct knowledge
and develop a positive attitude to change behaviour them
selves first and only then can they contribute in the pre
vention ofHIV. Experience of student volunteers to create
awareness in their own colleges on the harmful effects of
drugs, smoking, alcohol and recently AIDS and HIV through
seminars, talks, exhibition, street plays etc has been effec
tive.
The young people are hesitant to talk about matters
like their own physical and physiological growth and re
lated issues (masturbation, safe sex, condom use, STDs,
contraceptives) with others. Due to the lack of correct
information and knowledge they practice behaviours that
put them at risk. They strongly feel the need of having
someone they can talk to about these matters with ease. A
brigade of student volunteers, both boys and girls to be
peer educators who are concerned about the welfare of their
friends and peers would be a great asset for the AIDS pre
vention programmes.
Conclusions
HIV/AIDS is a health problem of the young. The solution.
to which should also be found by the young. The adults
can work in partnership with the young, show them the
way, provide them support, set an example, but the ulti
mate force for change is the young people themselves. They
are resilient, opjen to change, creative and enthusiastic. The
youth can better appreciate the importance of making their
own life-style safe, and encourage their friends to adopt
safer behaviour practices. They can bring compassion and
help to those living with HIV/AIDS. Young people are a
force, and if channelized properly, this force can change
the course of the HIV/AIDS pandemic.
References
1.
AIDS Watch. SEARO, WHO, New Delhi, Vol.3, No.2-3, p.12,
1?98.
2.
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social profile of male teenager STD patients attending a clinic
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Sarkar, S., Das, N.» Panda, S., Naik, T.N., Singh, B.C., Ralte,
J.M., Aier, S.M. and Tripathy, S.P. Rapid spread ofHIV among
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Mawar, N., Tripathy, S.P., John, J.K., Sinha, S.K., Quraishi,
S.Y., Bagul, R. and Gadkari, D.A. Youth sexuality study fbr
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Sankaran, L. and Sankaran, S. Level of risk continuum as a tool
in HIV/AIDS prevention education. XII World AIDS Confer
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Gurumurthy, R. and Verma, R.K. Risk taking sexual behaviour
in the age of AIDS: A study among college youth in
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No. 14331.
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Andersson, A. UNESCO's contribution in the field of sexual
health education 一 Programme on preventive education agailnst
HIV/AIDS. Indian J Popul Educ 7 (April-Sept): 23, 1998.
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Quraishi, S.Y. Social marketing of AIDS education for youth.
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Bhagbanprakash, Quraishi, S.Y. and Binodini, D. AIDS educa
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15. Ita, M.M. Counselling in reproductive health among young people
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The write-up has been contributed by Dr. Lalit Kant, Sr. Deputy
Directqr General, ICMR Headquarter^, New Delhi and Dr.Neeta
Mawar, Assistant Director, National AIDS Research Institute,
Pune.
ICMR AIDED SYMPOSIA/SEMINARS/WORKSHOPS/COURSES/CO^FERENCES
Date & Place
Symposium/SeminarAVorkshop/
Course/Conference
Contact Address
XXXV Guha Research Conference 1998
December 1-5, 1998;
(at Port Blair)
Dr. Lalji Singh, Convener, GRC 1998, Centre for
Cellular and Molecular Biolcgy, Hyderabad500007.
All India Workshop/Training Course on Application of
Direct Methods in Crystallography for Solving Small/
Medium sized Molecules
December 1-21,1998;
(at Chennai)
Dr. D. Velmurugan, Convener of the Workshop,
Department of Crystallography and Biophysics,
University of Madras, Chennai-600025.
International Conference on Quality of Psychiatric Care
December 2-4, 1998;
(at Calcutta)
Dr. A.N. Chowdhury, Prof-and Head, Department of Psychiatry, Institute of Postgraduate Medical
Education and Research, Calcutta-700025.
Seminar on Responsiveness in Pulmonary Tuberculosis 一
Clinical Relevance
December 12, 1998;
(at Chandigarh)
Dr. S.K. Jindal, Head, Department of Pulmonary
Medicine, Postgraduate Institute of Medical
Education and Research, Chandigarh-160012.
December 14-16, 1998;
(at Varanasi)
Dr. S.K. Singh, Organising Secretary of the Con
ference, Department of Endocrinology, Institute of
Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi-221005.
XXXI Annual Conference of the Indian Pharmacological
Society
December 17-20, 1998;
(at Lucknow)
Dr. V.N. Puri, Organisng Secretary of the Confer
ence, Division of Pharmacology, Central Drug
Research Institute, Lucknow-226001.
V International Symposium bn Biochemical Roles of
Eukaryotic Cell Surface Macromolecules
January 4-8, 1999;
(at Bangalore)
Dr. A. Surolia, Convener of the Symposium,
Molecular Biophysics Unit, Indian Institute of
Science, Bangaiore>560012.
National Symposium on Biological Control of Insects in
Agriculture, Forestry, Medicine and Veterinary Science
January 21-22,1999;
(at Coimbatore)
Dr. K. Murugan, Organising Secretary of the
Symposium, Division of Entomology, Department
of Zoology, Bharathiar .University, Coimbatore641046.
VII Annual Meeting of Molecular Immunology Forum 1999
February 13-15,1999;
(at Hyderabad)
Dr. Ashok Khar, Convener of the Meeting, Centre
for Cellular and Molecular Biology. Hyderabad-
XXVIII Annual Conference of the Endocrine Society of
India
•
500007.
_____ _____________
123
COUNCIL'S TRAINING PROGRAMMES
Leprosy
Nutrition
At the Central JALMA Institutefor Leprosy, Agra:
At the National Institute of Nutrition, Hyderabad：
•
Multidrug Therapy Orientation Course in Leprosy for
Medical Officers (December 7-18,1998).
•
Postgraduate Certificate Course in Nutrition
(December 1,1998-Februaiy 28, 1999).
ICMR BULLETIN INDEX
VOL. 28, 1998
Main Feature
Page No.
Month
Menopause and HRT
1
January
Diumally Subperiodic Bancroftian Filariasis in Andaman and
Nicobar Groups of Islands, India
13
February
Malaria Situation in North-Eastern Region of India
21
March
Epidemiology and Surveillance of Japanese Encephalitis in
Tamil Nadu
33
April
Clinical Features, Pathogenesis and Management of Lymphatic
Filariasis
41
May
Health Hazards of Fumonisin Mycotoxins and its Prevention
55
June
Nuclear Medicine Practice and Radiation Doses to Patients in
India : I. Status of Nuclear Medicine in the Country
63
July
Nuclear Medicine Practice and Radiation Doses to Patients in
India : Part II. Risk Related Radiation Doses to Patients
71
August
Nuclear Medicine Practice and Radiation Doses to Patients in
India : Part III. Calculation of Radiation Doses to Indian Patients
81
September
Contraceptive Research and Development during the Fifty Years of
Independence in India: Achievements and Desired Goal
89
October
Nutrition: A Critical Determinant of Response to Vaccines in Children
105
November
Campaign against HIV/AIDS : Youth as Force for Change
117
December
EDITORIAL BOARD
Chairman
Dr. N.K. Ganguly
Director-General
Members
Dr. Padam Singh
Dr. Lalit Kant
Dr. Bela Shah
Dr. R. Ravi
Dr. V. Muthuswamy
Editor
Dr. N. Medappa
、
Printed and Published by Shri J.N. Mathur for the Indian Council of Medical Research, New Delhi
at the ICMR Offset Press, New Delhi-110 029
R.N. 21813/71
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