HINDUISM
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RF_RJS_4_SUDHA
RJS-
WHAT DO "HINDUTVA" AND "HINDU RASHTRA" MEAN?
The words "Hindutva" and Hindu Rashtra"
have been constantly used by the BJP combine
and its opponents in the recent past. Yet most
people do not know what these words stand for.
what their history is. and why they have
assumed such importance today. The Sangh
Parivar has tried to rewrite histoiy and make
people believe that these words and issues have
been important for centuries. This pamphlet
provides the historical background to these
concepts and answers questions about the
kind of society that the Sangh Parivar wishes
to build. It is based on the writings and
speeches of leading Hindu fundamentalist
figures such as V.D. Savarkar, Golwalker. Bal
Thackeray and Sadhvi Rithambara, on the
"esearch of independent historians, on recent
events, and particularly the recent actions of
the Sangh Parivar.
I
the lower rungs of the Hindu caste order and
other Hindus who do not believe in the
Hinduism of the BJP.
Some features of theocratic or right wing
regimes worldwide include :
• Coming to power using democratic methods
(say the elections) and then changing the
laws so that they can stay in power.
• Defining citizenship in a way as to exclude
those of differing religions, and labelling
them "anti-national". Thus not only Muslims,
Christians, Sikhs, Parsis and Jains, but also
Dalits, or Indians who may not profess any
particular religion, will become second class
citizens.
• Defining and fixing the role of women in very
narrow terms and making it difficult for
women to claim equal rights.
Opposing political groups and processes
which are democratic, and defining politics
solely in religious terms.
Hindutva is a violent, aggressive, intolerant
and death seeking instinct within India today.
Although it claims to be the voice of Hinduism.
demolishing places of worship, such as the
Babri Masjid, burning the homes of Muslims.
and terrorising people and violating the laws of
the country has nothing to do with the spirit of
the Upanishads, Kabir, Basavanna and
Gandhi.
"Hindu Rashtra" is the political expression
of Hindutva that the Sangh Parivar hopes to
bring into existence. Itwill be a theocratic state.
where the 'Hindutva" of the BJP combine will
be the state religion. Only those showing
allegiance to Hinduism as defined by the BJP
will enjoy "citizenship" of this state.
Yes. It will mean changing the secular
democratic basis of the Constitution
altogether. The definition of the "Hindu citizen"
will leave out members of minority religions.
Very recent! The concept of a unified
"Hinduism" as a religion is itself very recent.
Since Hinduism has more than one religious
text, and no centralised church structure,
people usually defined themselves in terms of
the local caste or community. But when the
British gained political control of India, they
gave one name to all these multiple
practices:Hinduism. This term was refined by
the reform movements of the 19th century,
such as the Arya Samaj, which tried to develop
Hinduism along the lines of Christian Church.
As a political concept. Hindu Rashtra is even
more recent: the term "Hindu Rashtra" did not
really enter political discourse till as recently
as the 1920s after the Hindu Mahasabha
(1915) and the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh
(1925) were set up.
Not at all! Those who fought for India
independence did not define India as the
homeland of the Hindus, but as a nation where
several religions could co-exist.
The "nation" is the most recent of political
formations in human history (as opposed to the
monarchy, or the oligarchy). Nations are
"imagined communities", unities that are
conscious!}’ built around some identity, such
as language, culture, or shared historical
experiences, not necessarily religion. If all
members of one religion belonged to one nation,
there would be only a few nations in the world.
IN OUR OWN REGION, BANGLADESH
SPLIT AWAY FROM PAKISTAN AROUND A
BENGALI CULTURAL IDENTITY. THERE ARE
SEVERAL NATIONS IN THE WORLD, SUCH AS
INDIA OR THE USA. WHERE PEOPLE OF
DIFFERENT RACES, LANGUAGES AND
BELIEFS CO-EXIST.
Absolutely not! The concept of "Hindus" and
"Muslims" constituting two separate political
communities is very recent, a British creation.
When the British established their rule over
India, they portrayed themselves as those who
established law and order in a divided country.
To them, religion was the prime moving force
in history: that is why British historians started
the practice of dividing Indian history into
Hindu (pre 1206) and Muslim (after 1206 to
1757) periods. But they called their own rule
"British" not "Christian"!
It was only during the colonial period that
political representation began to be defined in
terms of religious communities. This gradually
led to the demand for Pakistan from some
Muslim communalists. Yet even when India
was partitioned in 1947. the majority of
Muslims decided to stay on in India.
Most Indian rulers did not see themselves as
"defenders of the Hindu faith" or the "Muslim
faith". In fact, temples were routinely
plundered even by Hindu kings, since they
were centres of wealth and treasure.
• Subhatvarman, a Parmara ruler
(1193-1210 A.D.) attacked Gujarat and
plundered Jain temples in Dabhoi and
Cambay.
• King Harsha of Kashmir (1089-1101) (not the seventh century Harsha) melted
down all metal images in his kingdom
when he faced a grave economic crisis:
he even appointed a minister called
"Devotpatana Nayaka" i.e. "a high
minister for uprooting gods".
Destroying shrines was also a way of
expressing political supremacy. The Jagannath
temple at Puri is built on the ruins of a tribal
shrine, and in Bodh Gaya, a Buddhist vihara
was destroyed by Sasanka to build a Hindr^
shrine in the sixth century.
”
* IN JULY 1991. THE BJP/RSS/VHP
COMBINE IN THE NAME OF KAR SEVA
DESTROYED SEVERAL TEMPLES
INCLUDING THE SANKAT MOCHAN
HANUMAN MANDIR IN AYODHYA.
‘ ON 6TH DECEMBER 1992. THE SAME
COMBINE DESTROYED THE RAM
CHABUTRA AND SITA RASOI ALONG
WITH BABRI MASJID.
Even Tipu Sultan, who has been painted as
a bigot by colonial historians and is believed to
have converted large numbers of people to
Islam, always had a temple very near eveiy fort
he built. He even assured the Sringeri Math of
assistance when it was threatened by the
Marathas.
We do have one Indian king who used all the
state machinery to propagate one religion by
declaring it the state religion. His name is
Ashoka, the religion was Buddhism, yet he
continues, even today, to be considered a great
ruler.
The Babri Masjid was a small mosque built
in 1528 at Ayodhya by one of Babar's nobles.
Mir Baqi. There are several mosques and
temples in Ayodhya. Until 22 December 1949.
namaz was offered daily at the Babri Masjid.
and Hindus worshipped at Sita ki Rasoi nearby.
On that date, the local District Magistrate. K K
Nayar, allowed some priests, one of whom is
still alive today, to instal a few idols in the
mosque. The Babri Masjid was sealed, namaz
was stopped, and the case was referred to the
court.
THE DISPUTE OVER THE BABRI MASJID
WAS NOT A NATIONAL ISSUE UNTIL 1986
WHEN THE CENTRAL GOVERNMENT OF
RAJIV GANDHI ALLOWED THE FAIZABAD
ADMINISTRATION TO OPEN THE TEMPLE
FOR DARSHAN ON MAY 1. 1986, EVEN
BEFORE THE CASE WAS DECIDED IN
COURT. SOON THE DEMAND FOR BUILDING
WlE RAMJANAMBHOOMIATTHE SAME SPOT
AS THE BABRI MASJID BECAME AN ALL
INDIA AFFAIR DUE TO THE EFFORTS OF THE
BJP AND VHP. IN 1989. THE CONGRESS
GOVERNMENT. JUST BEFORE IT FELL.
AGAIN GAVE PERMISSION FOR THE
CONDUCT OF SHILANYAS PRELIMINARY TO
BUILDING A TEMPLE.
On
December
6.
1992.
the
BJP/RSS/VHP/BajrangDal and the Shiv Sena
bigots destroyed the Babri Masjid in open
defiance of the constitution, the judiciary and
the central government.
B Eminent independent historians with
national and international reputations who
have extensively studied the historical and
archaeological evidence have shown that there
is no authentic basis for the existence of an
11th centtuy shrine.
The VHP. however, has been claiming that
there was a Vaishnava shrine celebrating the
birth place of Rama at the site of the Babri
Masjid.
We condemn the destruction of all religious
sites whether in Punjab. Kashmir, Pakistan,
Bangladesh, or South Africa. Unfortunately,
religious structures have routinely been
destroyed in communal riots since
independence.
• it is not even established whether the
spot is the birthplace of Rama.
• no evidence exists in the texts before the
16th century that people venerated the
site for being the birth place of Rama.
• 14 black pillars which were found at the
site with figures on them do not match
each other, were brought from
elsewhere, do not have Vaishnava
markings, and could not have been from
a temple.
• the first suggestion that there was a
temple at the site came in the writings
of a Jesuit historian Joseph Tiefenthaler
in 1788: this was categorically denied by
another colonial chronicler Francis
Buchanan in 1810.
• the BJP historians have not allowed the
independent historians to examine the
archaeological notes on which they base
their claim.
THE DEMOLITION OF THE BABRI MASJID
IS DIFFERENT FROM ALL SUCH
DESTRUCTION. IT WAS NOT JUST AN ACT OF
VANDALISM BY A MOB OUT OF CONTROL.
BUT WAS PART OF A SUSTAINED CAMPAIGN
AGAINST THE RULE OF LAW AND
DEMOCRATIC INSTITUTIONS. PUBLICLY
ANNOUNCED AND SUPERVISED BY THE
LARGEST
OPPOSITION
PARTY
IN
PARLIAMENT. THE BJP. WHO SWORE TO
UPHOLD THE CONSTITUTION.
The events of the past few months have caused untold suffering, loss of life and
property and serious disruption of normal life for millions of Indian people. Many of
us feel pained, ashamed and extremely anxious about the future of secularism and
democracy in India. Fascist goon squads have unleashed a reign of terror and appear
to be bent on destroying the democratic foundations of this country; even those who
have sworn to uphold the Constitution have violated the rule of law.
The activities of the fascist goon squads bear no resemblance to religious activity
of any description. On the contrary these violent schemes have torn the fabric of the
nation and polarised the nation in ways unseen since Independence. Hence it is
imperative that these forces be countered. We must not be overwhelmed by the large
numbers that have been mobilised by the BJP. VHP. RSS, Bajrang Dal, and Shiv
Sena. The choice is between the politics of life and death, between secular democracy
and communal fascism, between India and Hindu Rashtra.
We believe that in a multi-ethnic, multi-language, and multi religious nation such
as ours, there is no alternative to the path of secular democracy. Secularism must
guarantee all citizens the absolute and unconditional right to practice the faith of
their birth or choice, provided it does not impinge on the democratic rights and
freedoms of other citizens.
The Indian state must guarantee equality of all religions before law. and cannot
implicitly or explicitly support the demands of any single religious group. Neither
language, religion nor ethnicity can be the sole basis of citizenship in this country
nor should any of these identities be considerations to deny access, on a fair and
equitable basis, to any of India's citizens.
Recent events have clearly shown that secularism cannot be merely a political ideal
enshrined in the constitution and enforced by the state. The current situation
demands a massive movement of all Indians committed to secular and democratic
freedoms, i.e. the broadest possible alliance between parties, groups, organisations,
unions and individuals committed to fighting these communal forces. Such groups
have already emerged and begun working in all parts of India. In Bangalore too,
several writers, artists, scientiests and activists have formed a broad based coalition
to bring out materials, organise educational programmes and network with the state.
Come, Join our fight for a just, secular and democratic India.
Begin now. by using the information in these pamphlets to counter lies and
misinformation in conversation with friends, relatives and colleagues in schools,
colleges and places of work.
COALITION FOR SECULARISM.
e
g-ps-u
MY EXPERIENCE WITH SADGURU SAI SHANKAR
(Lord Shankar manifest in the instrumental person
of Sri A. T. Kariappa)
h
1 am the grandson of Late Sir A.P. Patro, Kt., K.C.I.E.,
Minister of Law and Education, Madras State, leader of the
Justice Party and member of the team led by Mahatma
Gandhiji to the three Round Table Conferences held at
London; son of late Sri A. V. Patro, M. B. E., I. P., Commi
ssioner of Police, Madras, LG. of Police, Hyderabad.
Having lost my grandfather and father by the age of nine,
I was left entirely in the care of my mother who had to bring
up my three elder sisters and myself. I completed my
graduation and post-graduation courses in politics and public
administration from Loyala and Presidency College, Madras,
respectively. My pursuits in the athletic field comprised of
being a minus one handicap polo player, tennis and swimming
captain of Presidency College team, winner of the Earl Rob
ert’s International Shooting Competition, adjudged All India
Best Cadet at Advanced Leadership Course held at Pahalgaum,
jKashmir, and represented Madras Gymkhana and Cricket
FCIub in the Spencer Trophy Snooker Tournament.
I was brought up under affluent circumstances in an
aristocratic manner moving in the higher echelons of society
and at no stage was denied any wants, which ultimately
boosted my ego to such an extent that I tended to look down
upon people around me whom I thought were financially,
mentally, physically or otherwise of lower degree than I was
at. This conception was carried on along the years until the
cycle forced it down to the lowest where 1 myself had to look
to the same people around me for help. This original
egoistic behaviour of mine proved very detrimental to the
basic factors such as character, self-respect, social status,
friendship and finance. It was due to this maladjustment in
personality that I tended to lean towards the Bohemian life.
Gradually I became deeply involved in gambling, on horse
racing where I lost colossal amounts of money and indulged
in about fifteen years of hard drinking and all the sensual
pleasures that go with it.
It was at this stage when I was at the crossroads of my
life that I just about realised that I had reached the end of
the tether of a wasted life and would soon end in total ruin
if not helped by some strong force. And it was in this
frame of mind that I resolved to seek some spiritual guidance)
which I thought would recast my personality and make me
learn the true values of life that would give lasting peace of
mind. This I believed would show me the path to a more
purposeful future. I sought solace and guidance in various
ways, none of which proved fruitful. I wandered from town to
town trying to assimilate various kinds of advices, apparently
being given to a lost soul more out of pity rather than man to
man and anything constructive or conducive to my frame of
mind at that time. It was during this run-around that I re
membered two close friends of mine, namely Sri M. Harish
Chittiappa and Sri M. Pratap Chittiappa of Coorg, Karnataka
who happened to be the life of parties that I used to attend
during my Bohemian life. I heard that Pratap Chittiappa had
turned over a new leaf and was treading a spiritual path of
total dedication to Lord. He had set up a Spiritual Guidance
Nilayam at his estate in Coorg, complete with cottages for
aspirants, Bhajana Mandir etc. All this had been done,
through the guidance of his spiritual preceptor, Sri Sadguru
Sai Shankar. I contacted Sri Pratap Chittiappa enquiring
details of whether I could stay at the Spiritual Guidance
Nilayam. He consulted Sadguru Sai Shankar who immedia
tely asked Sri Pratap to give his consent to my request.
that this figure did not manifest in itself the Supreme Power.
Initially, in the first few days of my stay in the Spiritual
Guidance Nilayam, I was deluded to think that the Swamiji
clad in long gown, moving freely with me and intimately
enquiring into my problems, was really the person who was
instrumental in correcting and giving peace of mind and
salvation to the numerous educated disciples and followers,
both foreign and Indian, and persons drawn from every strata
of society. The basic feeling of open mindedness to the
subject on hand being discussed with Swamiji made me feel
^hvays at ease that whenever I happened to mention that ‘ 1 ’
did such a thing or ‘ 1 ’ did not do such a thing, the very fact
that I got a neutral reply made me feel that I was emphasi
sing my ego- This fact was more so brought out by the
very simplicity that was the base of all these conversations
wherein rudimentarv facts and figures explained by Swamiji
made me feel already ashamed to say once again that I had
done this or that which only went to prove how small minded
my thinking was.
Upon arrival, I was taken to Prashanthi Nilayam,
Ponnampet, where I was impressed by the atmosphere, activi
ties and the general nature in which they were conducted. Of
Sadguru Sai Shankar. I cannot say that my first impression
was the best but within an incredibly short span, there was a
complete upheaval of my mind towards the father-figure in
every sense of the term. At present I would not believe if
anyone told me that on the first meeting I had evinced doubt
To clear my doubts about the reality of Sadguru Sai
Shankar, I approached Sri P. G. Kuttappa who, incidentally,
gave up a lucrative executive job in a foreign Tea Company to
become Sadguru Sai Shankar’s first disciple. He told me that
Sri A. T. Kariappa, in whom the power of Lord Shankar has
assumed the role of Sadguru Sai Shankar using the figure of
Sri A. T. Kariappa as His instrument, was, to begin with, a
j^in basically shy and an introvert by nature. He attributed
changes in the personality of Sri A. T. Kariappa and all
the activities that centred around him, which was drawing
people from all walks of life, to the manifest power of Lord
Shankar as an inner voice within him, starting from September
18, 1967. He further stated that it was in recognition of this
great truth that he had chosen to give up his vocation and
come to stay close to Sadguru Sai Shankar so that he could
thoroughly purify himself by acquiring ihe knowledge of the
self from Sadguru Sai Shankar and thereafter offer himself to
he used in whatever manner the power of Lord Shankar deemed
fit. This statement was indeed thought provoking and I
realised that the figure of Sri Kariappa was only an instrument
of the Lord to give guidance and salvation to the various
people who gathered around him seeking the same.
2
3
After hearing the guidances of Sadguru Sai Shankar, I
realised that the power of ‘Iness’ and ‘Myness’ should be
annihilated totally which in turn brings about co-operative
thinking and living built upon the base of simplicity and
humility which is in itself love, which again in itself is God.
The root cause of my base mode of life, I came to realise,
had to be done away with. In the past I was made to give up
drinking, smoking, etc., against my will and hence always
had the incumbent desire to revert to the old habits after a
period of time. In this case, the very initiative to give up
sensual pleasures of drinking, smoking, etc , and the total
desire to make a completely new image that fully reflects every
word and deed had come from within. This inner urge to be
good, to see good and do good was kindled by the guidance
imparted by Sadguru Sai Shankar. The subtle nature of the
mind and the pranks it plays on an individual makes a person
take off at a tangent finally leaving the body unaware of how
it came to be doing what it is doing. Simple self-control
methods by Namasmarana (mentally chanting the chosen
name of the Lord), Satsangha (good company), meditation,
introspection, bhajans, etc., prescribed by Sadguru Sai
Shankar has made me what could be termed “aware of
myself” which in itself is a great step taken closer to the
Lord.
During my sojourns through the various parts of the
country, I happened to visit a couple of ashrams and listen
to lectures and discourses by eminent scholars but none of
them had come close to making anyone of the listeners of
their lectures put into practice their sayings. But here I
found that you are not only shown the right path but are told
in more ways than one, how to implement the plan and
practice it in the work-a-day world. Total renunciation of
family life is not advocated whereas it is imbibed into you
that the life of a householder can go hand in hand with a
totally dedicated and spiritual life.
The root cause of ‘Iness’ and ‘Myness’ complex which
essentially stems from basic ‘attachments’ to a certain person,
place or thing if eradicated leads to a life of simplicity,
humility and peace of mind which mankind longs for. The
attainment of this wisdom, Sadguru Sai Shankar explains in
simple terms, that action, work and duty all seem such a
pleasure to perform when the goal to achieve is such a beauti
ful prize.
I am now staying under the fold of Sadguru Sai Shankar
with the purpose of perfecting the art of living a worldly life
and doing one’s duty in the society based on spiritual
principles without having to renounce worldly possessions.
After coming to Sadguru Sai Shankar, I feel that all the
money wasted by me in the pursuit of my sensual pleasures
could have been used for helping the needy by way of provi
ding food, clothing, medical aid, shelter, educational facilities
and drinking water amenities all of which form the main
activities that are being undertaken by my friend Sri Pratap
Chittiappa, who earlier was also wasting money for no
constructive purposes. This radical change in him only
follows the change of his behaviour towards his parents
whom he used to grossly disrespect and to whom he now
owes allegiance, and has utmost respect for. This former
atheist to believe that the Supreme Power of Lord Shankar
is manifest and also his radical change in attitude to life, I
can now believe, could not have been effected by anyone other
than the Lord himself.
After rational thinking and intensive enquiry, I have
realised that the form and the embodied Supreme Spirit are
two separate entities and it is the voice of Supreme Spirit that
I take to be my spiritual guru. It is therefore evident that
if it is not for the manifestation of the Supreme Spirit,
imyself and other educated youngsters will have no reason to
take any guidance from Sri A. T. Kariappa who had studied
upto S. S. L. C. and had only meagre worldly experience.
A. R. PATRO
Follower of SADGURU SAI SHANKAR
Spiritual Guidance Nilayam
Thithimathi Post, South Coorg
Karnataka State
10-4-77
I write this to bring out mainly the reality that I found
centred around all the words and deeds that I have seen,
heard and experienced practically of the nature, being and
self that is Sadguru Sai Shankar so that anyone of you who
read this and are at present deluded by the present way of life
based on fleeting values and so desire to re-orient your way
of life, I put down my humble experiences.
—A. R. PATRO
5
COORO PRINTING PRESS, BANGALORE-3
COMMUNITY HEALTH CELL
326, V Main, I Block
BaZaY"9'X
VISHWA YUVAX KENDRA
NEW DELHI
’
Bangalore-560034
India
SEMINAR ON VALUE ORIENTATION TN HUMAN PROBLEM SOLVING
(NEW DELHI - MARCH 11,
12 and 13.
1982)
Sponsored by : Vivekananda Nidhi, Calcutta
•
and
Vishwa Yuvak Kendra
KEYNOTE BY SWAMI YUKTANANDA
At the outset, may I express my cordial feelings and gratitude
to Vishwa*Yuvak Kendra, and to Dr. K.V. Sridharan in parti
cular for having accepted Vivekananda Nidhi as joint sponsor
of this seminar on Value Orientation in Human Problem Solving.
It is a privilege to address.this assembly of eminent people
participating in the seminar .because of the common concern
for value identification and its orientation towards bringing
in attitudinal changes in people which will improve the
quality of life and also the environment.
2.
Areas for deliberation:
The organisers have selected four areas for the deliberations
with a view to drawing conclusions and preparing action pro
grammes which can be implemented, viz.' Value .Orientation in
1.. cultural interaction
3.
2.
social behaviour
3.
upbringing of children
4.
fighting poverty
Target - priority group z
When the value' orientation movement was initiated, decision
making agencies and media people were recognised as the target
group.
The priority was fixed on the rationale that as a
consequence of the over-growing structured socio-environmental
system, the control over most aspects of human existence is
now consolidated in a small number of decision-making agencies
comprising Governments, Corporate Bodies, Political Parties,
Trade Unions, Communication Controllers, Gurus (religious
leaders) etc.
In such a situation, parochial interests,
errors in judgement or any irresponsible action on the part
of one or more of these agencies could cause irreparable
damage to all human endeavour instantaneously or in a slow
process.
The decision-making people- therefore, have to be
aware of value systems, of the absolute component in them,
as well as of. the components which vary with time and place
and social condition.
4.
■ ■
Value_Orientation:
4.1.When the question of Value Orientation arises in any context,
there are two basic elements to be considered: the valuer,
and the value-referent.
For our present discussion man is the
valuer, and thp value referent is the object, event, process
or condition that forms the experiential locus of value con
cern.
A definition of value places clear emphasis either on
the attitude of the valuer of upon the value referent.
In
the first case we speak of man holding or entertaining values
and in the second of objects, events, etc. having values.
It is significant that the basic human values such as love,
truth, etc., remain-indivisible even though application takes
various behavioural forms.
4.2
The concept of value is essentially behavioural.
A value when
'accepted by society in action is transformed into a social oi
behavioural norm, i,e. orientation does take place.
A value
not accepted, is not transformed into a norm, remains sub
jective and speculative, a mere conjecture or reverie.
4-3
In effect therefore, values mean a commitment to the expen
diture of time, effort ano/or other resources in appropriate
circumstances ir order to achieve ar objective relevant to
some, experiential referent.
In this context, what is to be
emphasised is attribution of value.
For, in a given situation
it is what will make a difference in the behavioural response
and condition of the valuer,
thereby modulating the outcome.
The valuer agrees directly or indirectly to contribute time
and energy or to make the resources at his disposal available
: 4 \
to his fellow beings in their efforts to bring about the
desired state of affairs.
Without this commitment, value ori
entation is an exercise in futility.
It may be assumed that value commitments are implemented
when the
circumstances are appropriate.
It is also true
that the appropriateness of the value-directed behaviour
depends upon the experiential context.
In this view, value is not in any way a property of the refe
rent.
Of course, this does not mean that the view of those
who consider value as a property is absolutely incorrect.
My contention is that the properties of the value referent
are irrelevant to the selected subjects for our discussion.
Values_-_gratificatory ,_unconditional_and_conditional :
In practical terms, we are prepared to accept an activity
as value-directed and make investments in terms of time,
effort and/or other resources; even self-restraint, provided
we obtain some gratification out of the investment or sacri
fice.
If the pursuit does not produce satisfaction or grati
fication .for us, the valuers, we do not usually accept it as
value-directed. ■ This is so because the expected satisfaction
or gratification motivates our behaviour, conscious and con
nate, and imparts meaning and purpose to our existence.
gratificatory values may be unconditional or conditional.
The
: 5
5.2
Unconditional gratificatory yalucs are those which are impe
rative or compulsive irrespective of the sacrifice involved
or the consequence.
Their sources are rigid ethnocentric
beliefs and practices the tradition-bound society dictating
what is good or holy or political*' rigidity.
Such values are
enforced by custom, ritual and social indoctrination.
The
enforcement is supported by selective interpretation of myths
and legends and further strengthened by ceremonies and festi
vals.
In this way unconditional gratificatory values are
institutionalised, inhibiting change and always act as the
motivating force behind struggles to maintain the status-quo;
Because these values are quite unrelated to the experiential
aspect, fresh experiences in altered situations cannot bring
about any modification or correction in their behavioural or
attitudinal components.
Individual emotional experiences such
as insecurity and frustration when of great intensity can
generate similar attitudes.
These result in a loss of flexi
bility and receptivity in the respc ise to experience and a
consequent immunity to modification.
It is possible to replace
myth and legend by objective reasoning in the minds of people,
but the after-effects of emotional experience are not so
amenable.
5.3
From the individual this may be an influence affecting a
larger section of people when the condition is common to
them as in a war, large-scale unemployment or political
instability.
5.4
There is of course the possibility of intense emotional
experience beinq th# cause of fresh unconditional gratifi-
catory values which loosen the hold of the established values
upon the personality of an individual.
In such a situation,
transmission of unconditional gratificatory values from
one generation to the next stops and the result is generation
gap.
5.5
Next to be considered are conditional gratificatory values,
so termed because they are not so compulsive or imperative
as to stop individuals absolutely from pursuing other inte
rests and concerns.
Conditional gratificatory values are
hot looked upon as beyond reasoning.
They can be judged on
the basis of their consequences, which fact effectively pro
duces a control over their influence,
Bei.,g flexible, con
ditional gratificatory values are modified by the assessment
of a given situ ition and the anticipated consequences.
Unlike the unconditional gratificatory values, conditional
values by virtue of their flexibility and adaptability,
allow
themselves to be intellectually organised and to be pursued
by choice, provided the circumstances are such that fixed
habits and rigid customs are not functional.
Conditional gratificetory values are also transmitted from
generation to generation, thus becoming a part of the heri
tage of a society.
There are however, among these values,
some which are born of personal experienc.-. end which do not
survive longer than the life of the individual entertaining
them.
They vary with location, occupation, status etc.,
but those which form part of the heritage are usually acce
pted by the people unawares.
To free our society from the false view of the absoluteness
of unconditional
gratificatory.values,
the most effective
means is a constant and alert exercise of the intellectual
faculties so as to affect a devaluation of all extra-expe
riential considerations in thought and behaviour.
Technolo
gical progress and interaction between different cultures
do bring about social changes which gradually make the esta
blished unconditional gratificatory values■irrelevant, and
without going into the reason behind the cnange, a noise is
raised that values are eroding.
Atxthis point, of course,
there is always an apprehension of new ones being created by
emotional disturbances in individuals and groups.
Though
these cannot by their very nature las.t long, they can give
rise to cults or erratic social behaviour and such other
deviations which may persist for some time, afterwards but
eventually die. out.
So-called value erosion or birth of
cults have nothing with absolute values inherent in man.
: 8 :
5.7
It is a matter of utmost urgency that the minds of decision-making people be made fre . of unconditional gratificatory
values, if the scientific and-technological advancement in
our times is to be fully utilised for the benefit of-mankind.
5.8
Now that this whole planet of curs has effectively become one
neighbourhood and pluralism in the rield of changing man
made values inevitable, we are required to identify the
conditional gratificatory values of greater flexibility in
thought and behaviour, based on the dignity of the indivi
dual, and providing .scope for tolerance of the values of
fellow beings.
This will be a slow .process no doubt, but
imperative for survival.
6.
6.1
Value concerns and change,_and_dynamics_of_improvement :
This flexible approach and the pluralistic view of values
does not in any way mean•acceptance of any kind of permi
ssiveness or disintegration of social value concerns or of
anything damaging to some common purpose.
The point is that
change of sociax value concerns is inevitable, that they
cannot forcibly be made to stay based on unconditional grati
ficatory values ...
6.2
On the basis of what I have submitted to you, we can now .
refer to the four chapters for discussion and see how value
orientation can provide the dynamics of improvement in these
9
four fields.
Values whether unconditional or conditioiiar ’gratifies tory
are derived from some fundamental ideas drawn from the
metaphysical component of human heritage and culture, and
supported by the findings of science.
Political ideology
and religious faith are both founded on these two factors..
Till before the advent of quantum mechanics and the theory
of relativity, a large part of human civilisation oriented
its beliefs,
faith, norms and political concepts on the
mechanistic world view.
Now that science has replaced this
by a holistic world view, it is high time that the clutter
of notions in our minds is cleared up, and we freed ourselves
from the hold of unconditional gratificatory valu systems
to replace them by a conditional gratificatory value system
sanctioned by objective reasoning, based on the insepara
bility of things, events and consciousness--and on the denial
of cessation of existence.
Once we accept the oneness of
the cosmos of which the individual and the world are compo
nents, most of the problems mankind is facing in its efforts
to reach individual and collective fulfilment disappear.
A completely fresh approach to social behaviour, political
ethics and religious pursuits is opened up.
is value orientation.
This, I submit
I shall indicate briefly its impli^
cation in the four fields chosen for discussion.
s 10 s
I.
Value Orientation in Cultural Interaction: -
While working-to preserve the imiqueiw o' one's own
culture, a?1 other cultures ar.
required to accept the
inevitability of interaction with other cultures,
without denouncing any, or attempting to destroy anothe;
culture for the supposed benefit to one's own.
II.
Value Orientation in Social Behaviour :-
The social system is inclusive of all without exception
and alienation or isolation of individuals or grouos
is a contradiction.
The economic system is not a means
for instant gratification of needs or desires but pro
vides a frame-work for living together on the basis of
mutual trust, interdependence and communication.
Ill.Value Orientation in the upbringing of children:-
This is the most sensitive and vital
range of the deliberations.
part within the
It is so because of the
fact that even before the human mind is formed,
fixation t. kes place.
loyalty
'What type of a person the infant
will develop into is to a large extent pre-determined
by the physical and social environment in which the
infant grows.
/
The home and the parents are the primary
contributory factors to the development of the adult
from the infant.
The problem here is that the adults
who create the infant's environment have already acquired
loyalty fixation.
However, acquired conviction in a
value system (which is also socially acceptable)
and
commitment to it can bring about a re-orientation of
attitudes.
It is a great responsibility which does
not admit compromises if we desire a better society.
IV.
Value Orientation in fighting ooverty :-
This has to do with the ultimate aim of value orientati.:r
which is character building.
Truly to fight poverty to
the finish, we have to include in its definition not
only
material poverty but also poverty of the inte
llect, of emotions and power of action.
For it has
become increasingly clear that in any scheme for eco
nomic uplift of any kind of development whatsoever, we
are not deriving the expected output from more than
adequate input in the form of investment, . infrastructure,
technically created planning etc. .'.This is-true 'not only
on the national scene but also.-'on the global level.
Something is amiss somewhere.
It is not difficult to
identify the defect as lying in the performance of
the human component in implementing plans.
If the
individual or group responsible for implementing any
programme is not receptive to the value system as the
dynamics of planning, not only is development retarded
5 12 :
but antivalues grow and result in insincerity, indisci
pline, and corruption becomes institutionalised.
awareness c E values need to be
An
created in people who
form public opinion, in order to reverse the effects.
This requires the initiation of a massive movement in
the field of value systems.
6.5
It is, of cours'te, not only in these four areas, but in ever
field of human pursuits, value orientation in terms of the
changing'values and the enduring ones is imperative.
By
changing values and enduring values I mean, by the former
unconditional and conditional gratificatory values and by
the latter the fundamentals of the value system, i.e.
metaphysical and scientific truth.
6.6
There are other classes of values as perfunctory values and
instrumental values, but for our present purposes it is not
necessary to go into them.
7.
Value_directed action :
In conclusion, I humbly draw your attention to the urgency
of our taking some positive steps;
1.
to develop convictions regarding the enduring values
as found by physics and metaphysics; a holistic world
13 :
view in which the- valuer and the valued are rnanifes ca
tions of the same existence.
2.
to define the situation, iden ify the location of
the individual, find the role-identity of the indivi
dual, and its relation to collective existence and
to acknowledge the reciprocity of obligation.
3.
to accept value-commitment in playing our mutual
roles.
4.
to be aware of the interdependence of individual
humans, of individuals and the ecosystem, and their
interrelation.
5.
to evolve work programmes to achieve these objectives,
which will also make value orientation a shared expe
rience; to take part in various development and
service projects with a view to making them value- ,
directed.
V’ <+-
THB INDIAN IDBOLOG'!Remarks
Defence;-of the Caste System 3
India’s caste system may be one of the most inhuman social
systems of the world. With its thousand and one precepts and
prohibitions, the caste has been able to regulate the minute
details of the individuals life, erect walls between man and man
and;condemn large sections of the people to inhuman conditions
of life. The caste is no doubt the result of a complex historical
pro,cess, and racial,, cultural, economic, geographical and
political facotrs have gone into making of it. Caste difference
is not identical with,..class difference, but it is doubtful
if caste discrimination could have flourished so long and gone
to such lengths .without-, the backing of socio-economic and poli
tical power and the ideology*’, which it produced to legitimize
and stabilize the whole thing. There are certain basic beliefs
and dogmas that gave the system the status of a natural or
divine institution, made-its observance a religious duty, and
immunised it against criticism. These seem to constitute the
me st imoortant ideological. jeonoonent of Indian thought 5 indeed
they may be said' to' make up the Indian ideology.
Though there, .are statements that:favour or justify caste
discrimination in several books of the Hindu Sruti, the most
typical expression of the caste ic’bology may be found in the-Hindu
law-books the Dharma- Sastras. The purpose of thi-s short article
is tc draw attention to the ideological character of Manava-Dharma
Sastra or.of Hindu-laws.■The oxtert Menu smriti attributed tc
the mythical personage Manu,.is a collective work and dates back
at least to the early centuries oi
>ur-era. It contains laws and
regulations that might have originited in different times and in
different communities .standing of JJjhu smrti would require the
.investigation of origin, developme r; and codification of the
different traditions in terms of t.u
dialectics and -beliefs and
life-interests. Such a study is st:
1 outstanding and I do not
presume to bo qualified to..-make a h ■ ginning in the direction.
Therefore, I shall consider the extd at Manava Dharma sastra as
it has been there for centuries, influencing the life and
thought of generations of Indians,
’.eluding those muslims '
and Christian o; n, crt.f f_ cm l.induis».i who are hindu atleast in
this rospecie
2
- 2
The way the word Dharma is usually understood betrays a
basically conservative tendency. For Dharma refers not only to
those rules and laws that regulate man's conduct, social and
individual, it refers also and above all to the cosmic law, rta.
In fact it is in virtue of its being the law of being or the
law of the world that Dharma becomes the law of Man's life and
conduct."The pattern of the laws of behaviour corresponds with
the pattern of the laws of being". True, the laws of behaviour
have or should have something to do with the reality of Man's
life and the world. But to make this a matter of ontological
correspondence would raiso historically conditioned laws and
regulations to a cosmic or ontological status and give them an
absolute, metaphysical quality. It is not surprising in this
context Dharma viewed as eternal, sanatana, and that ones duty,
svadharma, is determined by what one is by birth rather than
through decision. In this way of thinking, what, is sat, is
good; what is not, asat, is bad.. One's duty is to be what one is
ot to become aware of what one is.
It is not realized that what is, is often not as it can or should
be, and thus what is, is not necessarily good. One the contrary,
it may be bad and in this case, what is not, would be the good
man can and should strive for, and this would imply criticism,
change or overthrow of the existing situation rather than conformity
with it. One attains one's true self not simply by being what one
is not, by change, revolution, metanoia.
The truth of our
being consists not so much in knowing what we are but in realizing
what we can be and thus are not. This realization is, of course,
not independent of what we are
a
but dialectically related to it.
The upanisadic, tat tvam asi would in this light have to be as much
a matter of praxis, karma, as of theory jnana. Such an approach
can hardly accept doing a 'duty' that is found to be devoid of
merit rather than one that is found to be good; it would rather
challenge or overthrow a duty, dharma, that is less than good,
and not submit to it merely:because it is said to be one's duty,
svadharma•
The fact that one's dharma is essentially varnasrama-dhrama binds
man to the role he has to play according to his birth and age.
We cannot enter here into the enslavement this means to the
individual's free self-rea.lization, whatever caste one may belong
to. Our concern is rather the way this compartmentalize the
society, erected a rigidly hierarchical social system and
3
- 3 favoured tha oppression and exploitation of the large sections
of the population in the name of religion and morality. For if
the oaste system is something natural and God given, its
inequality and discrimination are not wrong. On the contrary
man is bound to approach (accept) them willingly, without .protest.
It is in this light that we should understand Manu’s repeated
stress on the divine authority of what he says : ’In order to
clearly settle his (i.e. the Brahmana’s) duties and those of the
castes according to the order, wise Manu sprung from the Self-
existent, composed these Institutes (of the sacred Law)*.
(1*102) The brahman is to study and teach them (v• 104)"and if
he does fulfill its injunctions ’he is never tainted by sins,
arising from thoughts, words or deeds’ but will secure welfare,
learning, fame and supreme bliss (V. 106 *CF*10*131) "In this
(work) the sacred law has been fully stated -as well as the good
and bad qualities of (human) actions and immemorial rule of
conduct to be followed by all the "four castes".
(1»1O7) This
rule of conduct corresponds to or follows from the order of
creation. "But for the prosperity of1the worlds, he caused the
Brahmana, Ksatriya, the Vaisya,' and the Sudra, to proceed from
his mouth, his arms, his thighs and his feet". (1»31) Manu
describes in detail the duties and occupations of the four castes,
varnas, brahmans (priests and teachers) Ksatr-iyas (warriors,
princes) Vaisyas (peasants and traders) 'and Sudras (servants)
(1587-91) of these the first three castes are twice born,
dvijas, whereas the sudras have only one birth(lO54). All others
are outside the pale of system (ibid). They are outcastes, avarnas
and as such are not born from the four parts of the deity (1O.j45)
Divinely instituted as they are, the caste duties are absolutely
binding. Those members of the four castes relinquishing their
proper occupations except in case of distress are to become servants
or dasyus, after having passed through despicable bodies (12*70^0.
F W 71-72) It goes without saying that this must have been a
powerful incentive to observe the caste duties. It facilitated the
acceptance of intolerable living conditions without criticism and
protest. For if the evils of the present life are the consequences
of one’s own actions in a past life, karma, there is no use in
criticism or protest.
All that one can do is to boar them
patiently and hope for a hotter life next time. As if this other
worldly sanctions were not enough Manu enjoins the king to soe
that the caste duties are observed by all (7*35)•
- 4 Manu interprets the story of man's origin in tho rigvodic
purusasukta in such a way as to establish the superiority of
those higher up in the social ladder as something divinely
instituted and therefore immutable. ’Man is stated to be pure above
the naval (than below hence the Self-oxistent (Svayambu) has decl
ared the purest (part) of him (to bo) the mouth" (1:92)
"As the Brahmana sprang from (Brahman’s) Mouth, asho was the
first born, and as he possess the veda, ho is by right the lord
of ell creation (V.93). As R G Zaohnor points out, seldom in the
history of the world has a class of man arrogated to themselves
such powers and previliges and such honour as the Brahmins of India:"
Of created beings the most excellent are said to have those
which are animated of the animated, those which subsist by inte
lligence; of the intellegent mankind; and of men Brahnanas;
The very birth of a brahmana is an eternal incarnation of the
sacred law; for ho is born to fulfill the sacred law, and becomes
one with Brahman. A Brahmana coming into existence, is
born
as the highest on earth, the lord of all created beings, for the
protection of tho treasury of the law. Whatever exists in the
world is the property of the Brahmana is indeed, entitled to all.
The Brahnanas eats but his interest on food wears but his own
apparel, bestows .but his own alms; other mortals subsit through
tho benevolence of Brahmana" (1;96-1O1)" By his origin alone a
brahmanais a dioty even for the gods, and (his teaching is-
authoritative for men, because tho veda is the foundation for that".
(11:85) No wonder if the-'gods on earth bhudevas or bhusuras, could
lay claim to all sorts of rights and previliges. And the oridinary
mortals were naturally reluctant to refuse what the brahman sought
Some of Manu’s ordinances arc meant to assure the priestly.classes
the means of substonance without undue care. So is also tho
injunction that Brahmin is not to take, up other occupations
except in case of distress. (4:2-7) As proceeds, however, to lay
down what brahraan should do or avoid, the legislation becomes
strange and self-interested. For Instance, the brahmin is asked
to take care not to unduly fatigue his body" (4:3) ho is to avcid
at all costs serving others, the only occupation allowed to tho
sudras, as service is in roality the 'dog's mode of life',
svnvriti (w.4-6) Agriculture is either strictly forbidden or
allowed with great reluctance. For manu fears that the Brahman, enga
ging in agriculture would have to injure the earth and tho beings
living in it, while ploughing (3Z:64:10.82 :83-83) if this is the
case, it may bo asked how brahmans came to be such monied and.
landed class, which they are even now for tho m. st part.
5
- 5 Some of manu’s ordinance indicate the direction in -which an
answer may be sought. Manu exhorts the king to give liberally to
learned Brahaanas "The king shall offer various (srauta)
sacrifices at which liberal fees are distributed, and in order
to acquire merit, he shall give Brahaanas enjoyment and wealth,
(7 i'(3 JCF also VV37-38) A gift made to a Brahmana is never lost
(WS82-83) Indeed it is better than agnihotra the sacrifice to
the God of fire. (Vs85). "An offering made through the mouth of
fire of Brahmanas rich in sacred learning and austerities, saves
from misfortune and from great guilt" (3598) while "a Brahmana
who stays unhonoured (in the he use) takes away with him all the
spiritual merit" of the householder (v.100) Honouring the Brahsanis
said to be one.'.of the best means for a king to secure happiness
(7s88).
The knowledge governing interest of these statements is
evident. Squally obvious is the effect it would have on pious
sould. History bears witness to tho importance Indian princes
and aristocracy attached to brahmadana, the bestowing gifts on
brahmins in the form of gold and landed property. Manu ordains
that "on failure of all (heirs) brahmanas shall share the estate"
(9s 188) while, the- property of a brahmana shall never be taken
by a Kind" he may do this only in the case of ether castes (VSI89)
The Brahman may take an article necessary for the completion of
a sacrifice, from a vaisya (l1:11-12)ho "may take at pleasure
two or three articles (required for tho sacrifice) from the house
'of a sudra5 for a sudra has no business with sacrifices" (Vs13)
But manu is careful to warn that this may be done only under a
"righteous King" (v.11) and he advises tho "righteous kind" not
to xnflidt punishment on tho brahman for doing so" for (in that
case) the Brahmana pines with hunger through the Ksatriya's want
of care" (v.21) The Ksatriya, on the contrary, must never take
the property of a brahmanj when starving, ho may take tho property
of a dasyu, or of one who neglects his sacred duties (Vs18).
In the same way Brahmans are to be exempted from punishments
which ordinary mortals are liable to. His dignity immunises him
against all capital puiiishnont, "No greater crime is known on
earth than slaying a Brahmaha; a king must not oven conceive in his
mind the thought of killing a Brahmana" (8J399) Whatever crimes
he may have committed, ho may only bo banished from tho kingdom,
and that "leaving all his property (to horn) and his body unhurt"
(v:380) Based as it is on tho•fundamental inequality of men, tho
caste-based laws are to bo applied differently to different jatis
and varnas. It is only after the British introduced their laws in
India that the fundamental equality of all in civil matters was
6
-6 at least theori-rtically admitted. While the killing of a brahman
constituted a severe offence Mahapataka, the killing of a va?isya,
or a sudra was a minor offence, upapataka (9:235:11|55 and 11:67).
This is the case with giving pain to brahman by a blow; as a
.Eimr offence, it was to cause the less of caste, jatibhramsa?
(11:68). To be sure tho Mahapataka demanded more severe penances
after death than the upapataka. The slayer of a Brahman will have
to enter the womb of a dog, a pig, a chandala, a pukkaso etc.
( 12:55)."
A twice-born man who has merely threatened a
brahmana
with the intention of (doing him ) corporal injury, will wander
about a hundred years in the Tamisra hell". (4:165) The inten
tional striking of a brahman even with a blade of grass will have
to be attoned for by passing through twenty one existences
(V:166;GF.W:167-169).
It is natural that community of men endowed with such divine and
human perogatives despise and exclude the others. Manu draws .
long lists of .those to be despised and excluded by the twice-born.
especially the brahman. Numerous professions,
lot to speak of
ordinary labour, are qualified as impure, and those engaged in
them are condemned to.be putcastes (3:155-166). The twice born
are adviced to. avoid these lost they should themselves bo reduced
to tho category of outcastes and condemned to despicable births
afterwards . Even the other two categories of the twice born, i .©.
Ksatriyas. and vaisyas, are not pure nor noble enough for the
brahman. He may not treat the ksatriyas visiting him as a guest,
atithi, and may feed him only after the guests, proper, i.e0
, bfahman may feed him only with his servants ’showing (thereby)
.
his compassionate disposition". (V.112).
If this is the case with Ksatriyas and vaisyas on whose protection
and patronage the brahmin’s well-being largely depended, the
condition of the sutra can be imagined. Born of the deity’s 'feet,
the sudra is in Manu’s view a slave or domestic servant of the
twice-born, especially the brahman. "One occupation only the lord
prescribed for, sudra to serve meekly even these (other) three
castes." (1:91)" But let a sudra serve brahmanas, either for
the sake of heaven or with a view to both (this life and the next
life) for he who is called a servant of Brahmana thereby gains
all his ends. The service of brahmanas alono is declared (;'t6~be)
an excellent occupation for a sudra; for whatever else besides
this he may perform will bear him no fruit. (10:122-123). The
king is asked to order the sudra to serve the brahman(8:41 O)"
But a sudra whether bought or unbought the (brahmana) may compel
7
7
to do servile -works for he was created by the self-oxistent
(Syayambhu) to be the slave of a Brahmana" (V:413) manu cannot
even imagine how a sudra can be frees "A sudra though emancipated
by his master, is not released from servitude since that is
innate to him, who can set him free from it ?" (V:4l4)
In another
place, the interest behind this emphasis on the servile nature
of the sudra is somewhat naively admitted:" No collection of
wealth must be made by a sudra even though he may be able (to do
it) for a sudra who has acquired wealth gives pain to Brahmanas"
(10:129)
In contrast to the other three varans, the sudra is net entitled
to the sacred initiation, ho has to be satisfied with one birth
(10:4) Besides, the sudra is forbidden to study the Veda(j:156:
4:99s10s127) and he is not to be instructed by the brahman(4:80)".
For he who explains the sacred law (to a sudra) or dictates to him a
penence, will sink with that (man) into'the hell (called)
Asamyrta" (V.:81 ) Indued the sudra is so low that "ho cannot
commit an offence, causing the loss of caste (pataka) and ho is
not worthy to receive sacraments; ho has no right to (fulfill)
the sgcrod law ( of the Aryans, yet) there is no prohibition
against (his fulfilling certain portions of the law)" (10:126)
Evon a brahman who has nothing but his name may interpret the
law to the king," but never a sudra" (8:20:CF also V:21). Manu
oven.contends that the presence of many sudras is enough to destroy
a kingdom (v.22). However inhuman and servile his duties may bo
the sudra is bound to fulfill them, as he is created by God for that
purpose and as disobdienco will moan punishment in the next birth(s)
Manu says that the sudra neglecting his duty will bo reborn as a
ghost feeding on moths (8:4l4).
The inhumanity of caste system is most evident in the treatment
meted out to those sections of the population the upper classes call
out castes, avarnas. Manu defines them as "those tribes ifi the
world, which are excluded from (tho community of) those born from
the mouth, arms, the thighs, and the feet of tho (brahman)"
(10.45). The fact that they are called Dasyus, and are said to
speak either the language of the riLecchas or that of tho Aryans (ibid)
seems to point to racial differences that might have been, atloast
partly, responsible for their segregation. However, it is not
likely that all these communities are the result of mixed marriages
between tho different castes and those outside, as Manu contends
(10:7-49)* Whatever that may be, they are all "base-born) apasada,
subsits by and are enjoined to "subsist by occupations reprehended
8
8
by tho twice-born" (10:46). And those groups include not only
butchers and fishors and cobblcrsbut also carpenters, drunisors,
horse-breeders and chariot rankers (W:46-49). They are to live near
well-known trees, burial, grounds, and on mountains (V:50). What
makes their lot ail the more miserable is the fact that they aro
not only defactc dependent on socially despised occupations
but are bound to continue being so by the caste ideology (10:46)
Chandalas are to live outside the village, the vessels they
use are impure, and their only wealth shall be dogs and donkeys
(v.5l). Further "Their dress (shall be ) the garments of the
dead, ( they shall eat) their food from broken dishes, black
iron (shall be) their ornaments, and they must always wander
from place to place" (V.52) Tho authors of these regulations
if not also their practitioners" seems
to have has a measure of
sadistic 'pleasure in condemning other human beings to such in
human conditions.
In the eyes of the well to do, the poor and despised sections are
often also morally deprived. The way Manu describes an impure
caste -chows how the depressed classes arc stigmatized; "Behaviour
unworthy of an Aryan, harshness, cruelty, and habitual neglect
of duties betray in this world aman of impure origin" (10:58)
It would seem that the presence or absence of those vices is all
a matter of birth, whether one is born of brahman of chandala
parents. Tho base-born candala and pukksas are so polluting that
tho twice-born are asked to avoid them by all means. In
case a
brahman happens to touch a chandala he is to purify himself by a
bath (5^85) Indeed a brahman approaching a candala or a very low
caste woman or eats with such persons, will become himself an
outcasts (11:176) And infringing caste regulation meant', as we
a
have seen, also other worldly sanctions in the form of despicable
births and re-births. The only way to beatitude open to the outcastos
is to die "without the expectation of a reward, for tho sake of
brahmanas and cows, or in defence of women and children" (10:62)
It may not be said that all manu’s prescriptions and prohibitions
are meant to safeguard the interests of tho highorup in socio
religious hierarchy. They are not. But a good many of them soon
to serve the purpose, and quite a few statements betray an ex
plicit interest in legitimizing the status quo. This is all the
more evident in view of the fact that the twice-born, especially
tho brahmans, were for the most part responsible for both tho
making and interpretations of tho laws of dharma, wo have seen
how Manu enjoins that tho law be interpreted by brahmans and not
sudras.
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9
On doubtful points of tho law, what good brahmans and sistas
profound is to have legal force, and good brahmans are those
who have studied the vodas and can adduce convincing procfs "from
the revealed texts" (12s108-109) In this respective, it is
natural that tho brahman interpret the law in such a way as to
protect and legitimize their rights and previleges.
That the underprevileged had no right on grounds of faith, to
study the scriptures, let alone interpret them, made it extremely
difficult, if not impossible, for the others to critize or chall
enge the brahmin's interpretations , True, some of Manu's extreme
claims may bo the expression of wishful thinking rather than of
reality. For instance, tho sudras wore not everywhere forced to
serve the brahmans, as Manu ordains 5 on tho contrary, there have .
been instances where tho brahman has to depend on the sudra. Yet,
much of what Manu says reflected tho social and political reality
of Indians life till recent times. There is no denying tho
religious apartheid that caste fostered and tho opportunities
it gave to the upper classes to oppress and exploit the masses of
tho working population in tho name of God and dharma. Wo may not
say this was made possible solely or mainly by the ideology of
varnasrama-dharma. But there can bo no doubt it has helped to
cement and perpetuate the division and difference's arising from
a complex of economic, political, racial, social, cultural and
geographical factors. It gave the subjugation and exploitation
of the poor and weak by those who came to yeild power and
influence the cover of respectability. Indued, it provided a
basically inhuman situation, a cosmic or divine legitimation so
that the previleged classes could enjoy their provilegos without
the prick of conscience and the underprevileged could accept their
suffering and servitude as something inevitable. Infact the caste
even now is a determining factor, in India's social and political
life. This makes tho uncovering and criticism of the caste ideology
a necessary stop on tho way to tho all round emancipation of
India's masses. But this is only a stop, and no more than that.
For emancipation has now to be above all economic, and this would
require a politics of development for all as well as tho elimina
tion of oppressive and exploitative structures. It would bo impo
ssible to achieve this end without tho organised action, es
pecially of tho sufferers themselves, cutting across tho
traditional barriers of religion and community. In this precess,
tho criticism of enslaving ideologies, whether religious,
cultural or social will form part of a theory of the new man
to bo realized by emancipatory praxis.
********
Jeevadhara (January - February 1976)
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28-11-87/50
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