CHRISTIANITY
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RF_RJS_3_SUDHA
Christianity
COMMUNITY HEALTH CELL
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Importance of study of religion in general, Christianity in particular
.Religion is one of the characteristics which can be used with
advantage to describe differences among societies because no society is
without sacred beliefs and because these beliefs and practices usually
permeate all parts of a culture.
Religion is a set of beliefs and expla
nations of those spheres of life which man cannot control or about which
he does not have, or cannot obtain knowledge.
Since every human being,
in order to be happy, must have satisfactory explanations for his past,
present existence and future, religion has an important function.
In
addition to being a group of ideas and concepts which give logic, consis
tency, and meaning to life, religion also includes rules of conduct which
guide behavior.
"People from all civilized countries of the earth nave consulted me.
I have treated many hundres of patients.
Among my patients in the second
half of life — that is to say over thirty five, there has not been one
whose problem in the last resort was not that of finding a religious out
look on life.
It is safe to say that everyone of them fell ill because
he had lost that which the living religions of every age have given their
followers and none of them has been really healed who did not regain his
religious outlook"
= Dr. Carl Jung.
We should know Christian religion better because it is the religion
of about one third of the world's population.
It diagnoses man1 s disease more accurately, so it provides the remedy
more adequately.
Sole
Qualification
TOKYO, May 21 - A 37-year old Japanese has earned
a doctor's degree for the study of human soles, wri
tes AP. Ovaichiro Hirasawa of Shizuoka University
has put in 15 year's study on the subject.
"You can judge a person's personality and health by
looking at his sole", he says.
A person in top condition has his body weight equally
distributed over his sole, while in a troubled person
the distribution is unequal, Hirasawa theorizes.
2
life of Jesus Christ.
Ever since its birth almost 2,000 years ago, Christianity has
enchored its beliefs on two forceful convictions that Jesus Christ is
the Son of God, and that God sent Christ to earth to live as humans live,
suffer as humans suffer, die for mankinds' redemption and gloriously rise
again.
These two interlocked ideas separate Christianity from all other
religions.
To Christians Jesus is not just the 1 founder' of Christianity but
the essence of it.
Adam and Eve, by disobeying God sinned.
In his wrath
God expelled them from Paradise and thus they and all prosterity came to
know death, which is not a condition of nature, but the result of sin. At
the same time God foretold the coming of a Redeemer,
This Redeemer and
Saviour was Jesus, sent to bring salvation, to atone for the sins of all
mankind, and thus to open to all mankind the door to eternal life.
was, as the Son of God, divine.
He
But he was also truly human, though He
had been conceived by the Holy Ghost and born to the Virgin Mary, and Him
The early years of Jesus
self was free of the stain of original sin.
Christ which began in the stable at Bethlehem were in the main uneventful.
Then when he was about 30, the carpenter of Nazareth emerged and began to
unfold His message.
In this climatic period of His earthly life, vhich
may have lasted no more than three years, Christ revealed Himself as a man
of simple speech but profound wisdcm, as a story-teller, who could enthral
multitudes and as a being of all embracing compassion and love.
It was
His lot as a Redeemer that He should suffer.
He was born poor.
He toiled.'
He was tempted by the devil.
He thirsted.
He knew hunger.
He shrark from
pain, and in the Garden of Gethsemane He asked, "O' My Father, if it be
possible let this cup pass frcm me: nevertheless, not as I will, but as
thou wilt."
As He suffered on the Cross, he cried: "NJy God, My God, why
hast thou forsaken me?"
He died in agony.
Not until after His death
and Resurrection did Christ's life reveal its true purpose.
Then His
Words, "Because I live, ye shall live also" took on their full significance.'
Ever since through changing times and succeeding generations, ths impact
of His life and words has lifted men to unexpected heights and illumined
their lives and works with beauty.
: 3
The most famous of all Christ's discourses was the Sermon on the
Mount.
Among many other notable passages, it includes the Beatitudes
(Blessed are the poor in spirit, etc.) and the Lord's prayer.
It is a
wonderful exposition of the message of Jesus as Teacher and Saviour.
Throughout his relatively brief ministry on earth, Jesus worked
an outstanding number of miracles.
He did not perform them to win
followers, or to impress important people but in compassion and in res
ponse to simple faith in Him.
Even among Christians, attitudes toward
His miracles have varied greatly, but these stories have played a large
part in the spread of Christianity.
Christ, the founder of Christianity was of the Jewish race and was
brought up under the teachings of Jewish laws.
His teaching by parables
was a Jewish inheritance; many of His Rules for human conduct had been
uttered by the Hebrew Prophets, e.g. the Ten Commandments, before him.
His great work was to reinterpret, humanize and illumine Jewish teachings;
to reveal God to man as He had never been before revealed; to give an
old and tired world new faith and hope, or in his own words, a more
'abundant life'.
The Last Judgment
Jesus Christ in all his glamour will appear again on the day of
the Last Judgment, seated on a heavenly throne, flanked by his apostles
and saints, when the Cherubim will summon the dead to judgment.
Definition of Christianity
We may define Christianity as the ethical, historical, universal,
monotheistic, redemptive religion, in which the relation of God and man
is mediated by the person and work of the Lord Jesus Christ. This defini
tion needs further clarification.
a)
Christianity ethical,not natural religion: Religions may first/all
be distinguished according to the goods, or good which they offer to man.
Where prayers and offerings are made to spirits or Gods to obtain such
earthly boons as Food, Health, safety, etc,, the religion may be described
as natural.
Where, instead of these or along with these, the Gods or
4
Spirits are conceived as capable of bestowing the moral and religious
blessings of forgiveness of sin, strength in temptation, their cwn
fellowship with their worshippers, etc., the religion may be spoken of
as 1 ethical1 .
As Christianity is above all concerned about the inner life of man
in God, it is ethical.
b)
Christianity historical, not spontaneous: Again religions may be
distinguished as spontaneous or historical; spontaneous religion grow up
along with the evolution of the tribe or the nation, without the predomi
nant action of any individual teacher or law-giver.
Historical religion
begins in the life, teaching or work of a religious genius, who so impre
sses his personality on what he transmits as to give it a new character
and influence.
Confucius in China, Gautama Buddha in India, Zoroster in
Persia, Mohanmed in Arabia, may be mentioned as such founders of histori
cal religions.
In no religion are the person and work of the founder of
such significance and value as in the Christian.
c)
Christianity Universal, not national: Among the historical religions
we may make a further distinction into: National and Universal.
The
beliefs and customs of a religion may be so bound up with characteristics
and national peculiarities as to impose, by its very nature, a limitation
in the practicable expansion of the religion, e.g. Hinduism in India and
Confucianism in China,
Buddhism and Islam both claim to be universal in character, and so
have shown themselves missionary in effort as rivals to Christianity. But
on closer examination neither proves itself as suitable for a world reli
gion as Christianity does.
Buddhism, a monastic system, reflecting in its
purpose and method ali ka. the pessimism of the Indian temperament is un
fitted for the role of inspiring and directing any progressive society.
Islam too, is both in creed and code so bound up with the peculiarities
of Arab thought and life, that unless it should undergo a thorough trans
formation, it could not be expected to win acceptance in any highly
cultured and civilized society;
5 :Christianity has shown that on the one hand, it meets the needs of
the soul of man as no other religion does, and that on the other hand,
it can adapt itself in so doing to varying conditions as no other can.
It appears now as the only religion that can properly claim uni vers al i ty,
d)
Christianity monotheistic; One reason for this uni versali ty of
This it shares with Judaism
Christianity is- its monotheistic character.
and Islam but with some reservations.
Although in popular belief and
speech the Christian doctrine of the Trinity, or preferably tri-unity
i.e. God as Father, Son and the Holy Ghost has often come previously
near triethism, yet Christianity is essentially monotheistic, maintain
ing the unity of God as a Cardinal Doctrine.
e)
Christianity redemptive; Man is even in his earthly life con
scious of the reality of physical evil in manifold forms, from vhich he
desires protection and deliverance.
As his moral development advances,
he becomes aware of evil or sin in himself, and feels his need of being
saved from it.
Although this sense of his danger cannot be regarded as
the sole motive of religion, yet there can be no doubt that no religion
can satisfy the whole mean unless it offers him redemption from evil
physical or moral, whichever he may feel most keenly.
Christianity emphasizes moral evil as the root of man’s unhappiness,
insists on loving fellowship with God as Life's highest good, promises an
immortality of glory and blessedness with God, offers the forgiveness of
sin and the renewal of the soul of man by the grace of God received by
human faith, and reveals and realizes that Divine Grace in the sacrifi
cial death of Christ and His continued living presence in His Spirit. It
diagnoses man’s disease more accurately, so it provides the remedy more
adequately.
f)
Christianity centers in Christ’s mediation :
In Christianity,
on the one hand, God is conceived as moral perfection, and on the other
hand man is regarded not only as morally weak but as morally blame-worthy ",
The fellowship between God and man is admitted to be interrupted by sin,
and man must be redeemed to be resotred to this fellowship.
redemption, Christ alone is the Mediator,
In this
As Founder of the Christian
6
Community, He holds in this religion an unique position.
He is not only
teacher and example but in His death He offers the sacrifice by which men
are saved, and in His life by the Spirit, He is Himself ever saving than
who come to God by Him.
Characteristics of the Christian Religion
DOCTRINE - The Doctrine of God in Christianity is monotheistic.
The doctrine of man is that he is a reasonable, responsible being,
free to choose right or wrong but sinful and guilty because he has chosen
wrong.
(Man as viewed by Christian theology is made in the image of God
and as such is rational, moral and free).
The Christian gospel offers man salvation from sin and guilt through
penitence, a renunciation of sin, and faith, accepting the Grace of God
in Jesus Christ, in which not only is sin forgiven, but man is cleansed
renewed and made holy by God's own spirit.
The Christian Doctrine of Christ is that He was truly Divine and
really human (unity of Divine existence).
Evil - in the light of Christianity, is a multiform demoralizing,
corrupting force, arising wilfully, "from within out of the heart of mari
*
and becoming a sinister organized destructive power which assumes the
guise of a personality (Satan) but will be overcome by the greater power
of Good.
Morals - Christian morality has been influenced at least as much
as, if not more than, Christian belief at each stage of the history of
the Christian Church, by the total conditions, economic, social and
political.'
Moral-i t.y is determined by the Christian conception of God and man.
Men as children of God, and thus members of one another, have one duty -
absolute love to God, and an equal love to self and neighbor.
This love
is grateful surrender to God, and sympathetic service of man, even unto
sacrifice of self, hence the life for God, and others is found in losing
the life far self.
This makes morality, not a code of laws but an in
ward disposition.
Morality had developed as tribal or national, now it
-; 7 •-
becomes universal.
The neighbor is not fellow-countryman but fellow
man, and fellow-man conceived as the child of the one Father over all;
Worship - Love towards God expresses itself and must express itself
through love to man in whatever form it can be most effectual.
But this
cannot be its only or full expression.
The relation of God and Man is personal and personal relationship
involves mutual communion, the expression of affection.
This communion
with God may be individual or social.
The Sacraments make the key stages of a Christian's worship.
For an overwhelming majority of the world's Christians the essence
of religious experience is summed up in the Sacraments.
From infancy
to death the sacraments mark the key stages of Christian Worship and
sustain the individual worshipper.
Sacrament is an outward act, derived
from something Christ did or said by whose performance and observation
the individual receives God's Grace.
by various Christian groups.
Sacraments are observed differently
Catholics and many Anglicans count seven —
Baptism, Conformation, Communion, Marriage, Unction, Penance and Ordination^
Protestants accept only Baptism and Communion.
A minority,e.g. Quakers
accept no sacraments as such, saying no external act should come between
God's will and the believer^
Baptism - The individual formally enters Christ's Church. It pre
sents the individual's first act of faith and it seals him as a follower
of Christ, washing away previous and original sin (derived frem Adam' sin).'
Confirmation - completes the work of Baptism and permits the indivi
dual who is usually between 7 and 14 years old to assume greater spiri
tual responsibilities.
The soul receives the Holy Ghost.
Communion - Man partakes of the sacred presence and it
His sacrifice for mankind.
commemorates
It is the noblest of sacraments.
Marriage - The union of man and woman is blessed. Whether it is per-formed as a sacrament or a simple religious ceremony, Marriage is one of
the most beautiful of all Church occurrences.’
8
Penance : A thorough confession helps sinful mankind to sanctity
the soul.'
Mercy and compassion, stemming from the life and character
of the Saviour himself, have always distinguished Christian faith. These
qualities are embodied in the sacrament of Penance, in which the Chri
stian confesses his sins and is granted absolution and forgiveness.
Penance is compounded of two enternal acts -- (i) the confession which
must be accompanied by contrition or sincere repentance, and (ii) the
absolution.
Catholics, confessions must be made indi vi dually to a
priest because the priest has to know what sirs '; have been committed
before he can decide whether the Lord's forgiveness should be conferred
and what restitution, in the form of extra prayers or contributions, the
penitent should make.
screened partition.
The priest hears the confession through the
Devout Catholics usually confess once a
week.
Under no circumstances may priest use knowledge gained in confession
outside the confessional enclosure.
Unction: The sick and dying are reassured of salvation.
Among Roman
Catholic unction is administered only when there is danger of death and
is called extreme Unction.
This service has often helped to alleviate
physical suffering.
Ordination; As a sacrament bestows something spiritual, the power
to administer sacraments is sacred.
This power is conferred through the
sacrament of ordination by which bishqps/prelates make ministers or
priests.
Festivals : Christians observe the following religious festivals -
Christmas
Good Friday
Easter
HOLY SCRIPTURES
1)
Bible<JJ
a) The Old Testament deals with the creation of the world etc.
b) The New Testament tells the beginnings of Christianity.
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2)
The four Gospels,; Mathew, Mark, Luke, John - narrate the birth,
teaching, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ
3)
Acts of the Apostles - a history of the early Christian movement
4)
The Epistles or letters to the Church groupes
5)
The book of Revelation - a visionary Portrayal of the final
triumph of God’s purpose.
Church's view on Family Planning
Archbishop on Birth Control
London, May 22, - Dr, Geoffrey Fisher, retiring Archbishop
of Canterbury, said in a BBC interview tonight, according
to Reuter, that "family planning, properly interpreted,
means that parents must not commit themselves to having
as many children as they physically can produce".
He said: "They have got to exercise restraint and respon
sibility and, to that extent, plan their family. On that
matter the Church of Rome and ourselves are completely
agreed.
"Only, unfortunately, they by family planning, mean
adopting a certain method of family planning. We think
certain methods are legitimate, and can be used in a
Christian manner and they think they can't be.
"Well, that's a dispute about ways and means. But if
you analyse it there's no difference of principle bet
ween us
Dr, Fisher, an Anglican, was referring to the Catholic
and Anglican differences on the question of birth con
trol.
Retiring on May 31 after 16 years of Archbishop of
Canterbury, he also described the moment when he came
nearest to breaking down.
He said it was at the Coronation of Queen Elizabeth
at Westminster Abbey in 1953 when he performed the
age-old rite of annointing her with oil.
10
Christian Church through the Ages
The Christian Church is about 2,000 years old.
It was established
by Peter, one of the Christ's apostles, the death of Jesus Christ.
Jests
is reported to pun on the name and its meaning: "Thou are Peter, (a name
derived from the Greek 'PETROS' meaning 'Rock') and upon this rock I
will build my Church, and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it^
And I will give unto thee the keys of the kingdom of Heaven; and whatso-
-ever thou shall loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven",
In subsequent
career he preached and taught in many places, finally reaching, in some
unknown fashion, Rome where he is believed to have laid the foundation of
the Church and subsequently suffered martyrdom under Nero about AD 65. He
was a fisher by profession.
Jesus said unto him, 'Follow me and I will
make you fisher of men'.
When the apostle Paul preached in Greece and then Rome, Christianity
passed out of Asia the continent of its origin, into Europe; the conti
nent of its destiny,
nity ever since.
Europe has been the main spring of world Christia
Christiandom was long anonymous with Europe.
The
spiritual impact of Christianity has powerfully influenced western
civilization.
The history of Europe is the history of Christianity. The
History falls into three eras: The Ancient Era
embraces the first eight
centuries; the Mediaeval the next seven, and the Modern the last five
centuries.
In the first, the Christian Church spread from Jerusalem
to Rome and from Rome to the borders of the Ronan Empire, and, on its
fall, to the Germanic Nations.
In the second, the Papcy grew in power
until it held full sway in Western Europe; but its decline already
began in the 13th century and various movements towards reform antici
pated the third era.
This strictly speaking b:gan in 1517 with Luther's
posting of the Theses against indulgences and may be regarded as not
yet closed, for no change of such importance has since occurred as to
mark the commencement of a new era.
Reformation
At the Renaissance height of its ecclesiastical pomp and power,
Roman Catholicism was challenged by a wide spread, urgent call for a
return to early Christian simplicity.
The Protest and Reformation,
which resulted has more than 200 million followers - one fourth of
the world’s Christians.
The reformation began in 1517 when the German monk Martin Luther
posted his 95 theses attacking papal authority.
Luther felt the essence
of Christianity lay not in an elaborate hierarchy headed by the Pope
but in each believer's humble direct communion with God seeking that
righteousness by which through grace and sheer mercy God justifies us
through faith;
Within 20 years Luther saw a strong German Lutheran
Church established, the first Protestant University chartered and a
host of other reformers flourishing,some of them far too radical for
Luther's own taste.
Among these were the Ana Baptists who believed that only those old
enough for a heartfelt experience of grace, i.e. adults, should be bap
tized;
John Calvin in Switzerland called his Church, "the most perfect
school of Christ that ever was on earth since the days of the Apostles".
It became a model for reformed and prebyterian churches in most Europe
and later throughout the world.
John Knok took it over and became Scot-
-land's most dramatic Reformation figure.
The Church of England, broke with Papcy under Henry VIII declaring:
"The Bishop of Rome hath not by scripture any greater authority in
England than any other foreign Bishop'.
Its doctrines have remained
Catholic as well as Protestant.
Equally defiant of authority was George Fox whose vision from
Pendle Hell in 1652 led him to found the society of Friends also known
as Quakers because a derisive judge thought Fox quaked before the Lord.
Fox and his followers were persecuted in England.
The inspiration for the last large Church that emerged fran the
Reformation came from an Anglican Clergyman, John Welsley, who never
intended to break at all.
Inl?38 attending a meeting he suddenly felt
his heart "strangely warmed" whereupon he embarked on a preaching cam
paign throughout England that lasted until his death.
Welsley remained
an Anglican but his followers began a Church called 'Methodist1 for its
methodical organization, that stressed the personal approach to religion^
Counter Reformation
The reformation provoked the Roman Catholic Church, in self defence
to a counter Reformation.
Roman Catholicism set itself to remove the
worst abuses which the reformers had exposed and condemned, but its main
purpose was to define its doctrine and practice alike in antogonism to
Protestanism.
The old orders of monks, who had failed to give the Papcy
adequate support in the assault of the Reformation, had to give place
in Pope's favor to a new order, the Jesuits, whose object was to streng
then the Papacy and to drive back the advances of Protestanism in Hun
gary and Poland^
It won back to Papal allegiance much of Germany and
most of France.
All but wiped out the feeble beginnings of Protestanism
in Italy, spread excellent schools over Europe and thrust Catholic
missions into Indict, Japan, China and the New World.
Ignatius Loyola
is the founder of the Society of Jesus - the Jesuit order.
Christian Missionaries and Christianity in India
a) Foreign Missions : There has been, as a result of the missionary
efforts of the last century, a great expansion of the Christian Church
and an incalculable increase of its finfluence.
The gospel has been
carried throughout the whole world and multitudes of converts have
been won,
Dr. Zeller, of the Statistical Bureau of Stuttgart (West
Germany) gives the following estimates for the number of adherents
of the various religions: of the 1,544,510,000 people in the wcrld,
534,940,000 are Christians, 175,290,000 are Muhammadans, 10,860,000
are Jews and 834,280,000 hold other beliefs.
Of the last class
300,000,000 are confucianists, 214,000,000 Brahmins and 121,000,000
are Budhists.
In every thousand there are 34-6 Christians, I44 Moha
mmedans, 7 Jews and 533 adherents of other religions.
But the influence
of Christinaity reaches much further than the bounds of the Christian
Church,
The ancient civilization of the East, as well as barbarism in
all parts of the earth, have been brought into contact with Christendom
by conquests, colonization, and commerce.
European civilization, in the
making of which Christianity has been a potent factor, is beginning to
affect the thought and life of al "I minkind.
In India, China and Japan
especially the old religions are being undermined and the Christian
leaven is working even where there is hostility to Christianity as to
foreign religion.
On the other hand, the Church as an institution has not the same
hold on the bulk of the population that it had a century ago.
Probably
the connection with the Church was in many cases only a tradition and
custom and not due to any personal conviction.
Secularism, Socialism,
etc., are offering modern society a guidance which claims to be better
than the cutdown Christian.
To meet this situation, there have been
attempts to adapt Christianity to its modern environments as 'by modern
ism in the Roman Catholic Church, and by Liberal Protestantism.
In
some circle of social reformers all the stress is thrown on the social
aspects of Christ’s teaching and example, and Christianity is repre
sented as if it were exclusively socialism with a religious sanction
in God's Fatherhood and a moral motive in devotion to Christ as the
first and best socialist.
b) Christianity in India:
Tradition says that after witnessing
the risen Christ, Thomas, the Apostle preached in India and founded the
Mar Thoma Syrian Church of Malabar which still exists there. The Jesuit.
Francis‘Xavier led a mission to India in 1542 and the first Protestants,
two young men from Denmark arrived in 1706. The first missionaries from
the United States reached India in 1812 and others from many countries
have followed.
Despite this long, devoted evangelism, Christians remain
a tiny
*
minority of the Indian people. The evangelism has been most
successful among the Hindu 'untouchables’, India's national government
* Christianity constitutes only 2% of India's population today.
pressed by Hindu Extremists, has restricted entry of missionaries.
Some State
Governments have taken stern steps against Christianity
and individual' Hindus sometimes burn the homes of Christian Indians.
Future of Christianity
If the Christian Church is not only to hold its own, but to win
the world for Christ, as its aim and hope, there are four main tasks
which must be discharged.
It must realize the present opportunity in
the Foreign Mission Enterprise; it must recognize the urgent necessity
of social reform; it must accept the sacred obligation to seek the
unity of the Christian Churces; and it must venture on the theological
restatement of the Christian Gospel which the age demands.
As a step towards unity the world council of Churches formed at
Amsterdam in 1948.
One hundred and sixty three churches from 48 coun
tries belong to the World Council.
Roman Catholic Church and Orthodox
Church, Moscow are not its members.
Dr. Geoffrey Fisher, Archbishop of Canterbury met John Pope XXIII at
Vatican in Rome on 2nd December i960.
It was a historical meeting, a
step to dicuss unification of world churches.
This was the first meet
ing between the two heads since King Henry VIII of England broke away
from Papacy in the 16th Century.
The latest on the unity of the Christian Churches is Dr, Fisher’s
last sermon as Head of Anglican Church:
DR. FISHER'S LAST SERMON AS HEAD OF CHURCH
Canterbury (England), May 22 - Dr. Geoffrey Fisher, preaching
his last sermon as Archbishop of Canterbury, said that the
Angli can Church was "as catholic and apstolic as any particular
church can even hope to be", reports Reuter.
Dr. Fisher added: "It has erred, and errs, as every particular
church always must err in its applications of that faith to
the life of its members and of the world,
"But taught by scripture and warned by the tradition of
Church history, it is always reforming itself nearer to
that robust holiness which Christ inparts in some manner
to every part of his Church,
15
"It is always reaching out to promote in its own members,
and now among all the churches, a true unity of spirit,
faith and order in the one universal church cf Christ".
The 74-year-old Archbishop, spiritual leader of the
Anglican Church, is due to retire shortly.
LIST OF REFERENCE BOOKS
USIS Library
1.
Christian Ethics -
2.
Christian Ethics and Moral Philosophy, Ramsey Paul..
""
Psychiatry and Catholicism - James Herman
..
""
..
""
,.
""
4.
Ramsey Paul
Christian faith and social action
-
A symposium by John A. Hutchinson & others
5.
Christian Values and Economic Life -
6.
The History of Christianity - Scott
..
""
7.
Christ and Culture - Biebuhr Helmut Richard
..
""
8.
A short history of Christianity - Mary Martin E
..
""
9.
An Encyclopaedia of Religion
..
AIIMS Library
10.
Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics - James Hastings
""
11.
Encyclopedia Brittanica
..
""
12.
Readings from Bible
..
US IS Library
13.
The Great Religions of the World Life
John C, Bennett & others
-
Peter Owen
14.
The Illustrated Weekly of India, Christmas Issue, Sunday Sept,25 i960
15.
The Statesman
16.
The Psychologist
peb:
THEOLOGY
OF
LIBERATION
This is not an academic treaties on theology. A pragmatic
and analytical approach will be used in this paper.
roj. an ordinary man in the street or in the village,
theology is not a very respectable word today. This is not
because there is any misgiving about God - Theos - but because
the theological approach has come to mean a mere recitation of
certain propositions, dogmas and faiths, with out any concern
for their relationship to reality. Theology is not an experience
to them, neigher do they turn experience into theology.
The history of theology, and for that matter Christianity
is well-known for its continued accomodation and adaptation of
the changing historical circumstances and to a large scale
social movements. But today the social transformation and
situations are of a different order than itwas in the past. Now,
is it possible and up to us to accommodate and adapt?
In the socio political environment in which we exist today,
the Church is called upon to fulfil its salvitic mission. This
environment is vastly different from what it was ten years ago.
Latin America;
The theology of liberation developed in Latin America
during the 1960s, through an outgrowth of both the changing
political climate on that continent, and of the liberalizing
trends which took place in the Catholic Church as a result of
Vat II. Vat II sharpened with in the Latin American Catholic
community a concern for the poor. For the Christians here, the
gospel became a revolutionary document. Jesus was the liberator,
who placed himself squarely on the side of the poor and the
oppxessea against the forces of injustice and exploitation. To
follow Jesus for those people was to identify as He did and to
work with the poor for the Liberation of all, who suffered from
injustice.
Although untill recently the church in Latin America was
closely linked to the established order, it is beginning to
take a different attitude regarding the exploitation, oppression
and alienation, which prevails here. Individual Christians, small
communities, and the church as a whole are becoming more politically
aware and are acquiring a greater knowledge of the current Latin
American reality, especially in its root causes. The Christian
community is beginning to read politically the signs of the
times in Latin America.
The Advocates of the Latin American Liberation theology
vehemently asserts their right to evolve a theology out of
their own experience. Bit the traditional and established
theologians are sceptic about it on the ground that theology
is made too much anthropolig;.cal.
2
- 2 -
Situation in the Church
The church in the first centuries, with its minority
status in society andthe consequent pressures from the nonchristian world, was very sensitive to the action of Christ.
(They shared everything in common
Acts —4. 32-35)
But this situation of the Christian community changed in
the fourth century. Instead of being marginated and attacked
Christianity was now tolerated (Edict of Milan - AD 313), and
quickly became the religion of the Roman State (Decree of
Thessalonica, 381 AD) . The proclamation of the gospel was then
supported and protected by the political authority. This
gradually changed the manner of conceiving the relationship of
mankind to salvation. By the middle ages, when the church was
co-extensive with the known world of that time and deeply
pervaded it, Christians had the vital experience of security and
tranquility, and that we proclaimed that outside the church,
there was no salvation. To be for or against Christ came to be (
fully forgotten the "Mission aspect" of the church (To be the
salt and light of the world) Today wo are more aware of our
self sufficiency, and that Christ is made to speak what we want
him to speak
*
The church was more concerned about the number of people
saved; (New conversions without giving profound reflection on
salvation) and naturally the church tried to work out the roles
which it has to play in this process.
In the early centuries of the Church, theology was closely
linked to the spiritual life (realm). This theology was monastic,
and therefore characterized by a spiritual life in the early
centuries was thus characterized by withdrawl from the world,
(world, devil, bddy) (lack of love not a sin) and it was
presented as the model way to sanctity.
But with St. Thomas Acquinas, theology began to be
characterized as an intellectual decipline, born of the meeting
of faith and reason, and it was considered as a rational knowledge
But gradually, we are realising that salvation is not
something other worldly in regard to which the present life is
merely a test.
(The kingdom is among you) Salvation in this
real sense means communion of men with God and the communion
of men among themselves. The church must cease considering
itself as the exclusive place of salvation and orient itself
towards a new and radical service of people.
All the same, can the church be a prophet in our day,
if she herself is not turned to Christ. She doesn’t have the
right to talk against others, when she herself is a cause of
scandal in her interpersonal relations and her internal
structures? We cannot talk of the church of the poor without
being a poor church; and that is just what we are refusing to
be - in our life style, transport facilities, our homes and
the property we own.
3
- 3 -
The church has for centuries devoted her attention to
formulating truths and meanwhile, did almost nothing to better
the world. In other words, the church focused ' on orthodoxy
and left orthopraxis in the hands of non-members and to
non-belivers.
Th' fact that there is an inter locking of interests
between the institutionalized church and the dominant class of
society constrain her involvement in the work of genuine
liberation. In order to be more responsive to people’s
aspirations, she needs to dissociate herself from the dominant
class by giving up her interests. She is so much linked with
such system, almost as partners in a marrage (Church the
sprouse of Christ)
In the 19th and 20th centuries, a new awakening is
slightly visible in the attitude of the church. Pope Pius XII,
John XXIII's 'Mater Et Magistra1, 'Pacem In Terris', Paul Vi's
'Populorum Progrossio', in all these development - of man is considered. Gaudium Et Spes IVat. II) uses the term
rLiberation' on two occasions.
'Populorum Progrossio' speaks
clearly of building a world whore everyman, no matter what his race,
religion or nationality, can live a fully human life, freed
from servitude imposed on him by other men or by natural forces
over which ha had no sufficient control.
In the words of Congar, if the Church wishes to deal with
the real' questions of the modern world, it must begin a new
chapter of theologico-pastoral Epistemology. Instead as
classical theology has always done, it
must start with facts
and questions derived from the world and history. So theology
itself has to be liberated from every form of religions
alienation. A theology which is not up to date is a false
theology.
Theology has to be linked to the praxis, and should fulfill
a prophetic function, in so far as it interprets historical
events, with the intention of revealing and proclaiming their
profound meaning. It has to be a theology which is open in the
protest against trampled human dignity, in the struggle against
the plunder of the vast majority of people, in liberating love,
and in the building of a new, and fraternal society (Kingdom of God)
We believe it to be our right and duty to denounce as evil
and sinful? Inadequate wages, lack of food, exploitation of the
poor, suppression of freedom etc. It is here that we often makes
the mistake, Many of us, of considering this a political attitude
and therefore outside our sphere. Yet, Christ's own prophetic
action and fidelity to truth certainly presuppose an inevitable
involvement in politics.
The commitment to the creation of a just society and,
ultimately to a new man presupposes faith, hope and love and
confidence in the future.
(example of Abraham, Moses.....
Heb. 11)
- 4 We have to build a church which is both in its preaching
and oractice committed to the poor, to the weak, and to the
exploited.
God- in History.
The God whom we know in the Bible (history of Bible)
is a Liberating God, a God who destroys myths and alienations
a God who intervenes in history in order to break down the
structures of injustice and who raises up prophets in order
to point out the way of justice and mercy. He is the God who
liberates slaves (Exodus & Egypt) who causes empires to fall
down and raises up the oppressed.
In the dawn of human history, God was seen as a transcendental
being (Mountain) and then a universal being. Then the concept of
God changes (Exodus - Arch) to localization and he was seen as
linked to a particular people (Israel). And then it gradually
extends to ail the people of earth (Amos; 9/7; Is; 41; 1-7)
Is. 40; 20-25, entire book of Joshua). To love Yehoa ( or to
know Yehoa) is to do justice to the poor and the oppressed..
Prophets criticizes the worship thac is devoid of the touch of
reality. " Though you offer countless prayers and sacrifices,
I will not listen. There is blood in your hand
cease to
do evil and learn to do right, pursue justice and champion the
oppressed; give the right of orphan, plead the widow's
cause. (Is. 1; 10-17)
Our encounter with God occurs in our encounter with men,
especially in the encounter with those whose human features have
been disfigured by oppression, despoliation and alienation, and
who have 'no beauty, no majesty'.
(is. 53; 2-3)
This become more clear in New Testament. Through humanity,
each man has become the temple of God. (St. Paul) We meet God
in our encounter with men, we encounter him in the commitment to
the historical process of mankind. In St. Mathew's Eschatological
discourse, ' the least of my brothern (25:49) designates all the
needy? whoever they may be, and not only Christians or a
4
particular group of people.
The spirituality of liberation will centre on a conversion
to the neighbour; the oppressed, and the exploited. Conversion
to the Lord implies the conversion to the neighbour. This
means a radical transformation of ourselves, ie. thinking,
feeling, and living as Christ, present in exploited and alienated
man. It means to commit oneself to the process of liberation
with an analysis of the situation and a strategy of action.
The Christian has.not done enough of conversion - ie. commitment
to the neighbour, to social justice, to history.
In the New Testament Christ is presented as the one who brings
us liberation. Christ the saviour liberates man from sin, which
is the ultimate root of all disruption of friendship, and of
all injustice and oppression. Christ makes man truly free,
that is tgsay, he enables man to live in communion, with him,
and this is the basis for all human brotherhood - the kingdom
of God.
5
5
In this perspective, sin is not only an impediment to
salvation in the after life. In so far as it constitutes a
break with God, sin is a historical reality. It is a breach
of the communion of men with each other, it is a turning in of
man on himself, which manifests in the withdrawal from others.
Because sin is a personal and social infra-historical reality/ a
part of the daily events of human life, it is also and above all
an obstacle to life's reaching the fullness we call salvation.
Christ came and proclaimed the Kingdom of God which meant
a society where, fraternity, justice and love prevails, ie.
complete communion of men with God and of men among themselves.
The poor of whom Jesus speaks and who surrounded him are
the truly poor, the hungry, the afflicted, the oppressed, and
all those for whom society has failed to provide a place.
Through this solidarity with the poor, Jesus proclaimed his
Father's love for all mankind - and he was persecuted.'
Towards a New Theological approach for India;
The situation in India as we have seen, is so dehumanizing
that no Christian can idly stand by and call himself a followjr
of Christ. All the same the traditional response of the church
to this situation is still inadequate. The young people
engaged in social action in India today are really surprised to
find that the kind of Jesus they have met in homilies and.
catechism classes becomes irrelevant in the actual life
situations of the people.
The picture of Jesus transmitted through monastic
spectacles, who prefers order and quiet, lots of prayer, and
minimum commitment to dangerous issues, and. who foels at home
amidst flowers and incense, and likes to dwell in well constructed
monastic houses surrounded by high walls, is out-dateci for India,
and. is irrelevant to committed people.
To start theologizing for the exploited, we have to move
out of our institutions - church structure - which silences the
prophetic voice of the Bible.
Theology as a function was always present in society, India and. elsewhere - but at a certain moment in history, there
arose a professional class of theologians. it must have been
because the society had reached a stage of surplus production
when some no longer needed to work with their hands and could
take some other persuits. Some began to use this leisure to
theologise. Without being conscious of it, their'theology
was bound to be a class theology, because such theologians
depended, on the upper class for their maintenance. This is
true not only of theology, but of the social sciences as well.
( In China professors doing manual work)
6
- 6 -
It is natural that every type of society produced a
theology tO/iegitimize the
position of the new dominant class.
So we had a feudal theology, a capitalist theology, and now
we are trying to produce a socialist theology
The Church in India has become so much inward-looking
(status, position, institutions) that it can never heal itself.
The 'Mission' entrusted by Christ is not found here. We
have to proclaim the gospel - also to the rich, hoping that
some atleast may be converted. In addition, we have to realize
that announcing the '§ood News' also means announcing the
'Bad News' to some. The 'blesseds' have to be accompanied by
the 'woes'.
As Paulo Freire says, According to the oppressed, to be
a man is to be like the oppressed. This is true in theology
also. The oppressed have internalized the God of the oppressorwhich in fact is not the real God (Death of God theology).
1
For an authentic theology for India, and Indian situation,
it has to start from the daily day experiences of the common
man in India. The imported western theology can only prepetuate
and stabilize the situation in India today.
Conclusion;
God acts in history for human liberation, from every
form of oppressive condition - including the oppression of
poverty, racism, sexism, and colonialism. Liberation theology
is thus a theology of salvation for the whole person. Liberation
Theology takes roots in the lived historical experience of a
people. It demands an adherence to it more than just an
intellectual commitment. It demands a conversion to a new way
of life.
Prepared by
Community Health Department
Catholic Hosoital Association of India
157/6 Staff Road,
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ska
DEPARTMENT
of
CHRISTIANITY
in the University of Mysore
326?
Y HEaltH CELL
Banja?...
In-:;/ ‘"t 034
Prospectus
of
B.A, M.A., and Ph.D.
in Christianity
For the Academic Year
1980-1981
(For private circulation only)
Published by
Dr. D.S. Amalorpavadass
Visiting Professor,
Chair in Christianity,.
University of Mysore.
1.
Background History:
The University of Mysore is the most ancient in the
State of Karnataka and the prestigious institution of
higher learning and research founded by the Maharaja
of Mysore.
It has Faculties of Arts, Sciences, Commerce, etc.,
with more than 30 departments. There also functions
the open University system, called the Institute of Cor
respondence course and continuing education, for many
subjects (departments). The sprawling campus of
over 150 acres situated on the western part of the city
is permeated by an atmosphere of serenity, an ambieng
most conducive to deep study and serious research.
The relationship is on the whole good among the mem
bers of the academic community of teachers and stu
dents. The University follows a liberal policy and main
tains its secular character in the academic pursuit.
I.
2.
A CHAIR IN CHRISTIANITY
An unprecedented event and
an unique development:
It is such a university that took the singular
decision to institute a ‘Chair in Christianity’. This was
mainly due to the broad-mindedness and genuine interest^T)
of the previous Vice-Chancellor, Mr. D.V. Urs and the
continuity assured by the present Vice-Chancellor, Prof.
K.S. Hegde who is a man of vision and high ideals. It is
also a measure of the open attitude and secular outlook
of the Government of Karnataka. The initiative taken
by Bishop Mathias Fernandes of Mysore, his persevering
efforts and the excellent public relations maintained by
him, not excluding the sizeable endowment for this
purpose made by the Mysore Diocesan Society with the
help of a subsidy from the Pontifical Works, Rome are
equally important.
3.
Solemn Inauguration:
Thus everything converged towards the desired
goal and the six-year effort culminated in the solemn and
official inauguration of the Chair in the Crawford Hall,
Mysore on the 2nd July, 1979. It was graced by the
presence of two dignitaries among others: Shri Subbaiah
Shetty, Minister for Education, Government of Karna
taka and Archbishop D.S. Lourdusamy, Secretary, Sacred
Congregation for the Evangelisation of Peoples, Rome.
Fr. D.S. Amalorpavadass, Director of National
Biblical Catechetical and Liturgical Centre, Bangalore was
appointed Visiting Professor of the Chair in Christianity.
4.
Vision of the Chair:
In a speech delivered by the Visiting Professor dur
ing the Inaugural Function he shared with the univer
sity authorities and the academic community a vision
of the Chair in Christianity. This will be realised gra
dually but steadily by the programme of the Chair in
the years to come.
The vision is that of the goal towards which all
men, religions and nations tend in historical movement
and spiritual pilgrimage: self-realisation through God
realisation, all-round liberation, and building up a just
society through a process of humanization and universal
brotherhood.
After the II Vatican Council, Christians all over
India are engaged in assuring a new form of Christian
presence to the Indian people. The Chair in Christianity
in this context will be the Christian presence of hum-• ble service and selfless love at the highest level of the
temple of learning, specially in the field of research.
The Chair aims at promoting inter-personal relation
ship among the members of the academic community.
It will follow an inter-disciplinary' approach, facilitate
an inter-departmental collaboration, and do everything
in a spirit of inter-religious dialogue.
In particular, the Chair will present Christianity not in
its western form as often done hitherto, but as rooted
in the heart of India expressing itself in Indian religious
and cultural traditions.
3
5.
The Method and Approach of the Chair:
The teaching of Christianity will take a three-fold
form corresponding to three major realities of India:
1)
A Dialogical study of Christianity i.e. a study of
Christianity in living dialogue with other religions
formerly called ‘comparative study of religion .
2)
A Dia-critical study of Christianity, i.e. a study of
Christianity in sociological dialogue. This will be
in prophetic critique of both Christianity with re
ference to Indian reality, and of the socio-economic
reality of India, in the light of the Gospel. The
goal of this effort is promotion of social justice and
liberation of the oppressed and the poor.
3)
A Dia-chronic study of Christianity, i.e. a study off
Christianity in dialogue with the cultures and ideo
logies of the country, chiefly in the form of inculturation.
While keeping to the secular character of studies
and following a scientific approach and rationality in re
search, one cannot abandon or relegate to the background
the religious dimension. The secularity will be per
meated by the religious aspect and spirituality without
violence to its autonomy. Scientific pursuit will include
spiritual quest. Academic knowledge will be coupled
with spiritual experience. The search for truth will also
be a search for God.
Christianity is, above all, the spirit of Jesus Christ,
and the values of the Gospel as lived and witnessed to
by a community of persons, the disciples of Christ. Hence
the Chair is associated with a Christian ashram, ‘Anjali
Ashram’ which serves, as the dialogue and prayer,
centre of the Chair in Christianity, and where a group of’
Christians will lead a simple life according to Indian
traditions.
6.
The Main objectives of the Chair:
The tasks entrusted to the Chair are spelt out in
the Statutes framed under Section 35 (8) of the
Karnataka State Universities Act 1976. To study Chris
tianity with comparative study of other religions (1)
to promote the study of Christian philosophy in all its
various branches (2) to organise a Post-graduate de
partment of studies in the field (3); to conduct research
4
in various branches of Christianity (5) to hold seminary
symposia, etc., and to conduct such other academic
activities as contributing to a deeper understanding of
the different branches of Christianity (7) to pfublish
in different languages a research journal, monographs and
dessertations pertaining to Christianity (6) and to serve
as a clearing house and exchange centre for the know
ledge and information about Christianity (8).
All this supposes material for research. Hence the
Chair is expected:
- to develop a departmental library of its own which
is equipped with up-to-date Christian publications as
| well as photostat copies, films, etc. of important manu
scripts and rare articles (9)
- to collect historical and literary source material and
up-to-date references for conducting research work as
in different aspects of Christianity (4) and
- to arrange for a suitable number of scholarships for
both Post-graduate and Research Students (10).
7.
The Programme of the Chair:
In order to fulfil the 10 objectives of the Chair as
spelt out in the Statutes, a programme of activities of the
Chair was drawn up. However, they were mostly ex
ploratory in character. Before offering a long-range pro
gramme, we should first assess the real needs of the
academic community of the university and interests of
the general public of Mysore City.
Some of these programmes were carried out in the
first year (1979-80). The programme mostly took the
'form of evening lectures on special topics for a week
every month. We have covered so far:
l
- Christianity’s flew relationships (with the world,
with other religions, and with Indian culture) and
— Christianity as Jesus Christ and His Church,
- Indian and Christian forms of prayer and Meditation;
- Indian Christian arts.
Each of the programmes drew an audience of 80 to
120 persons: consisting of university teachers and stu
dents, members of the general public and Christians. A
full week National Seminar on Christian leadership in
5
COMMU
Society was organised and 180 persons from 11 states
of India attended.
Bangui
Finally, a lecture-cum-exhibition of Indian Christian arts,
recitation of Indian music and performance of Indian
dance (fruit of healthy and dynamic interaction between
Christianity and Indian Arts) was organised and this
drew the largest number of persons.
8.
India
Structural organisation of the Chair:
Much of the time during the first year was spent
in attending to the basic task of establishing the Chair,
in trying to build up a library and in seeking inter-de
partmental collaboration. Above all, much work was put x \
in to pave the way for starting a full-fledged department™
in Christianity. This meant frequent discussions with
University authorities, seeking the collaboration of other
departments, drawing up of syllabus and eligibility con
ditions for Post-graduate and Under-graduate course in
Christianity, getting the perusal and approval of various
bodies for it, going through other formalities and put
ting up the minimum organisation required in this
regard.
9.
An Evaluation:
At the end of one year of presence and service in
the University one has a feeling of genuine belonging to
the University, of acceptance of Christianity and appre
ciation for its new image and approach due to inculturation in all aspects. There is a genuine interest to know
more about it and to study Christianity in depth. The
establishment of the Chair is considered by all as an en- a >
richment and a new dimension to the academic life of
the University of Mysore.
6
TY Health celL
1 Block
la
560034
U-
I.
DEPARTMENT OF CHRISTIANITY
From Chair to Department
With the good work that has been done under the
auspices of the Chair in Christianity during the last one
year (1979-80) it has been possible to pave the way
for the development of a 'department of Christianity’
in the University of Mysore. We have still to go through
a few more formalities. But it is agreed that it will come
into existence from the academic year 1980-81. The
Syllabus for both B.A. Course and M.A. Course in Chris
tianity presented by the Visiting Professor has been
approved by the Board of Studies. Eligibility or Condi
tions for admission to B.A., M.A. and Ph.D., in Chris
tianity have also been approved. They are now await
ing the approval of the Faculty Board and the Academic
Council.
2.
,
B.A., M.A. and Ph.D. Programme
in the University itself:
Our plan is to start in July/August 1980, the first
year of the post-graduate course (M.A. previous) It is
also our wish to start at the same time the under-graduate
course (the first year of B.A.) The under-graduate course
or the three-year B.A. course in Christianity will be
conducted in the University College called ‘Maha
raja’s College’, Mysore. The Post-graduate course
of 2 years or the M.A. Course in Christianity
will be held in the Post-graduate campus called
^‘Manasagangotri’, Mysore. Research students who
''Avant to prepare for Ph.D will be equally welcome to
enroll themselves for this academic year, at Manasagangotri, Mysore.
3.
Conditions for Admission to under-graduate and
Post-graduate course in Christianity in the proposed
Department of Christianity:
(
I.
ADMISSION FOR B.A. COURSE
The Candidates eligible for admission are:
A. Those who have finished PUC or its equivalent
B. Those who fulfil other conditions as for any
other B.A. Course in the University of Mysore.
7
II.
ADMISSION FOR M.A. COURSE
The candidates eligible for admission are any one
of the five following:
Those who have a Bachelor’s degree in Chris
tianity either from a Secular University or from
a Christian University/Faculty in India or abroad
(normally Called B.Th., Bachelor in Theology
or B.D., Bachelor in Divinity)—
2.
Those who have successfully completed the full
integrated course of any Seminary (Philosophy,
theology and allied subjects) for a period of 5
to 7 years.
3.
Those who have a Bachelor’s degree in which one
of the three main subjects is Christianity.
4.
(1) Those who have a Bachelor’s degree in
any subject from any recognised University.
AND
(2) Those who have had an interview with
the Professor of Christianity.
5.
(1) Those who have successfully completed:
a)
the 3-year Course of Christianity at
the Pontifical Institute of Regina
Mundi, Rome.
or
b)
the 2-year Course of ‘Mater Dei’ In
stitute, Goa. or
c)
the 2-year Course of CRI Brothers’
Institute, Bangalore, or
d)
an equivalent Course in Christianity of
2 or 3 years, in any other Institute.
AND
(2) a) Those who have a diploma of the In-'
tensive Training Institute (ITI) of the
National Biblical Catechetical & Litur
gical Centre, Bangalore (60 Credits)
or
b) Those who have successfully completed
a certain number of Courses and Semi
nars on Christianity the total of which
is equal to 50 Credits.
(3) Those who have had an interview with the
Professor of Christianity.
B. Those who fulfil all the other conditions as for
any other M.A. Course in the University of Mysore.
A. 1.
8
III.
ADMISSION FOR Ph.D:
The Candidates eligible for admission are:
A.
Those who have
a Master’s degree in Christianity, from the
University of Mysore.
or
(b)
a Licentiate or a Master’s degree in Christianity
from any Christian Faculty or State University.
or
(c)
a Licentiate or a Master’s degree in Theology
from any Catholic University of Europe,
America and other countries.
(a)
B.
Those who fulfil all the other conditions for Ph.D.
as for other subjects in the University of Mysore.
N.B. These are only proposals. These have been ap
proved only by the Board of Studies. They still
await the approval of Faculty Board and Academic
Council. Much will depend on their decisions.
4.
Application to the Courses/Colleges:
a)
Application for B.A. Course in Christianity:
All those who want to do B.A. Course in Christianity
may apply to:
The Office,
Maharaja’s College,
Mysore-570 005.
As all know, B.A. Course is of three years duration and
— comprises the study of two languages and three optional
Quarts subjects. One of these three will be Christianity. The
Maharaja’s College will offer two or three combinations.
This will be indicated in the prospectus to be published
by the college in May/June, 1980.
Application forms may be got from the Office of
Maharaja’s College, Mysore-570005, by sending a
Money Order for Rs. 5/- (Rupees five only).
According to the custom of the college, admission
list will be put up on the college notice board. They do
not communicate individually through post.
The medium of instruction for the course is English.
9
b)
Application for M.A. Course in Christianity:
All those who want to do M.A. in Christianity may
apply to:
Administrative Officer,
Manasagangotri,
Mysore-570 006.
As everyone knows, all the courses/papers for M.A.
during the entire duration of 2 years will be on Christ
ianity. The Courses available in the University of Mysore
and the conditions for application and admission wil^
be usually published by the Registrar in a Notification.
Application forms may be got from the administra
tive officer paying Rs. 7.50 (Rupees Seven and paise
fifty only) by a demand draft drawn in favour of
Administrative Officer,
Manasagangotri,
Mysore.
Selection will be done by the respective faculties/
departments according to the guidelines given by the
University. A maximum number of 50 students will be
admitted to M A. Course.
Selection and admission will be communicated by
to each applicant in the month of July^p^
The University follows a non-semester system.
c)
Application for Ph.D:
All those who want to undertake research in view
of Ph.D. in Christianity may apply to:
The Head of the Department
Office of Chair in Christianity
Manasagangotri,
Mysore-570 006.
10
5.
Hostel:
a)
For B.A. Students:
The Maharaja’s College is an arts’ college and a
men’s college. However even ladies will be admirted
there (for courses which are not available in Maharani’s
college which is a women’s college, and that is the case
for Christianity).
However the hostel of Maharaja’s College is ex
clusively meant for men. These may apply for accom
modation in the hostel of Maharaja’s College; but the
ladies will have to look for accommodation elsewhere.
For M.A. and Ph.D. Students:
Those who apply for M.A. Course or Ph.D. may
seek accommodation in any of the following hostels, by
writing to their wardens:
Gentlemen’s Hostel I
or
Manasagangotri,
Gentlemen’s Hostel II
Mysore-570 006.
or
Ladies Hostel
J
There are also other hostels for special categories
of students.
Village Hostel (meant for students from each
district of Karnataka).
SC Hostel in Saraswathipuram, Mysore.)
SPECIAL ASSISTANCE
1. All those who encounter difficulties in getting accomOmodation may apply in the last instance to the Bishop
of Mysore:
Rt. Rev. Dr. Mathias Fernandes,
Bishop of Mysore,
Bishop’s House,
Mysore City-570 001. (Tel: 23545)
He will help the Candidates get residence.
2. All those who want additional/special information
or clarification on application/admission to the Course
or to the hostel or who do not get prompt reply or
satisfactory answer from the University officers, may also
seek the assistance of:
11
a)
b)
7.
‘The Office of the Chair in Christianity,
Administrative Building,
Manasagangotri,
Mysore-570 006.
‘Anjali Ashram’, c) Chair in Christianity,
C/o. NBCLC,
35, Temple Rd.,
Post Bag 577,
Jayalakshmipuram,
Bangalore-560 005.
Mysore-570 012.
B.A. Course in some Affiliated Colleges of Mysore
University:
There are several Catholic Colleges in the area of
Mysore University who are all interested in the new^.,
department of Christianity to be started in the Univer-^
sity of Mysore. However this year only a few colleges
are making arrangements to offer the new course.
Two colleges are exploring the possibility.
They are: St. Philomena’s College.
Mysore—570 007.
(Tel: 20728)
Teresian College,
Manoranjan Mahal,
Nazarbad,
Mysore—570 019.
(Tel: 21316)
Those who seek admission to the course and to
the hostel may apply to the Principal of the above
colleges.
These colleges have applied to the University for
affiliation to start teaching the course in Christianity in
their colleges from the Academic year 1980-81. Very
probably affiliation will be granted to them. On thatW
supposition, one may apply to these colleges.
But the M.A. Course in Christianity is available
only in the Manasagangotri, of the University o{
Mysore, Mysore-570 006.
Likewise those .who want to do research in view
of Ph.D. should apply only to Manasagangotri,
Mysore-570 006.
COMMUNITY HEALTH CELL
326, V Main, 1 Block
KQram»ngala
Bangalore-660034
12
India
DEPARTMENT
of
CHRISTIANITY
in the University of Mysore
c°Mmunity
j* 26- V Main, Health CELL
;°fembng5fo
India
I Block
034
Prospectus
of
B.A., M.A., and Ph.D.
in Christianity
For the Academic Year
1980-1981
(For private circulation only)
Published by
Dr. D.S. Amalorpavadass
Visiting Professor,
Chair in Christianity,
University of Mysore.
JESUS’ INVOLVEMENT IN PALASTINE
To understand Jesus and His involvement we have to
understand the Socio-Political context in which He lived
and worked.
We all know for certain that Jesus of history lived
in Palastine. For about 600 years, Palastine was under the
dominion of colonial powers. (Persia:B.C. 538-333; Greece:
B.C.333-63; Rome B.C. 63-A.D. 135). During the time of Jesus
Palastine was subjected also to the internal domination of
the Landlords and the Rich in Palastine itself.
Geographic Features;
Palastine had two distinct geographic regions.
JUDEA:
This region was situated around Jerusalem and the
Temple. It was a mountaneous area, having mostly dry land.
Predominantly, Olive and fruit wore cultivated here. Sheep
and goats were also reared here, since the region had lots of
shurbs and forests.
2. GALILEE:
This was a fertile region. Wheat and Vine were grown
here extensively. Fishing in the lake of Galilee and the
costal regions gave occupation to many. The people in this
region were hard working, and industrious. This was the region
which was most exploited during Jesus’ period. Agriculture,
business, handicrafts, fishing etc. were the livelihood of to
the people. There were two commercial routes that passed
through Galilee. One from Egypt to Damascus and. the other
from Damascus to Jerusalem. Foreign merchants passed through
these routes, and had great influence in this region. Galilee
was called 'territory of gentiles' and 'Land of mixed blood'
since there were many illegitimate children born from the
business travellers. The 'zealot' movement originated here
and there were peasant revollts in this region, especially
during the time of Jesus. (Ifep of Palastine during Jasus
Ministry - Appendix I)
1.
As mentioned above, Palastine was under the Roman
Empire since B.C 63 onwards. At the economic and political
level the Roman domination manifested, itself in the following
way.
Economic leveler
The wealth of Palastine was expropriated by the
Romans mainly through two types of taxes. They were:i. Tributum - This was personal tax, which amounted.
to % of the total harvest.
ii. Annona - The tax in kind or through work, for the
Army.
Apart from these, there were unofficial amounts which the
Roman officials snatched away from the people.
Through official taxes of the Roman Empire alone,
about 6 million Roman Denarii were extracted from Palastine
every year. (One Denarius was equal to one day's work).
- 2 -
Along with the above mentioned two taxes, the Temple
was also extracting taxes from the people. They were:
i. PUBLICUM: This was something similar to the state
tax we have today (eg.sales tax). This was meant
for the state.
ii. DIDRACHM - for the temple
iii.
TITHE - for the Clergy
(ii and iii were Religious taxes')1
Political Level
The Roman Procurator of Judea, who lived in Casarea?
personified the Roman colonial power. It was he who nominated
the High Priest in J'erusalem ( a very powerful position,
religiously and politicaly) from among the h- dominant
and rich families of the time.
- In Galilee, Roman Political power manifested itself
through King Herod Antipas.
- The Roman Empire indirectly controlled the land-owners
through its arbitrary powers of dismissal of property
rights. During the reign of Herod (B.C 37-h-) he
£
confiscated the land from small land holders and
marginal farmers and handed it over to Zamindars and
businessmen, to facilitate increased agricultural
production and large scale export of the produce.
- The intermediary officials in Palastine were recruited
by Rome, from among the Sanhedrin members and the great
families. They remained docile to the Roman powers and
perpetuated the imperial domination.
- Those responsible for collecting the taxes were chosen
by the Romans from among the lower social classes in
Palastine.
- The political power of the Roman Empire was manifested
also through the continuous pressure of the Roman
Army in Palastine who were normally recruited from
among the non-J"ews of Palastine and from Syria.
- Rome also controlled the J'ewish autonomy. They
reserved for themselves the power of capital punishment.
ANALYSIS OF THE VARIOUS SYSTEMS THAT EXISTED IN PALASTINE.
1.
Economic System:
Originally, collective ownership of land prevailed among
the jews, since they believed that the land ultimately belongs
to God. (Leviticus 25/23:'Your land must not be sold on a
permanent basis, because you do not own it; it belongs to God,
and you are like foreigners who are allowed to make use of it 1).
But since the time of Herod feudal system emerged in the
villages. Barter system was also not uncommon at the village'
level. J'erusalem Temple was the centre of intense trade
and commerce. The Temple possesed the treasury and functioned
the role of a national bank. J'erusalem had trade links with
Rome, Greecce and Phoenicia. The celebration of Annual
J'ewish feasts were an occasion for the J'ewish people to come
to J'erusalem. The Urban workers, and the lower middle
class, especially the small farmers suffered very much
during J’esus' period on account of the multiple tax system
that existed at this time, due to which inflation, unemployment,
poverty, birth of armed bands etc. resulted.
....3..
- 3 Social System:
Palastine was a highly stratified society, during the
time of Jesus. There were different social groups. They were:
1.
Saducees: They belonged to the Jewish Aristocracy, and
represented the most conservative group. They were
/colo
closely linked to the/power for their economic interest."ninl
They were learned people and were specialists in 'Torah'
the original law of Isreal. They wpposed the escatological
believes and denied the ressurection of the dead.
2.
Pharisees: They belonged to the urban middle class, and
upheld the escatological beliefs and believed in life
after death. They had a very pessimistic idea of man
and stressed on the other world, which according to them
had to be attained through strict observance of the law.
They believed in individual salvation.
3.
Scribes: They were the specialists in religious legi
slation and of the penal code, and enjoyed a monopoly over
it, since they knew Hebrew well. This group believed in
escatolosy and exerted tremendous control over the
masses and were very active in the synagogues on sabbaths.
However, they could'nt get along well with the Priests.
U.
The Priests: They were a special ethnic group, belonging
to the tribe of Aaron. Among the priests there were
'Higher Clergy' and 'Lower clergy'. The priests enjoyed
the monopoly over the rituals and were responsible for
law and order. The latter function was carried out
through the intermediary of the levites.
Levites; Law and order was maintained by them; i.e. the
police function. They also assisted the clergy in their
various functions.
The Publicans: They had very low social status. Among
those who had Jewish origin were entrusted with the
task of Tax collection.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
II.
Sinners': Those who had one way or other transgressed the
law.
Possessed; Those with illness, especially mental ill
nesses,
Lepers: were considered unpure.
The Essenes: A religious group that existed during Jesus'
time, living a life secluded from the world and society.
The Zealots: This group
was essentially a political one
engaged in guerrilla activities against Romans, to
restore Jewish state in its theocratic dimension, in the
line of Davidian Messianism. (The zealots took over
power in A.D. 68, after killing the high priest in
Jerusalem. They established a new high priest, from one
of the traditional families. In 70, the Romans retaliated
and the zealots tried to defend the temple (symbol of
power and authority) to its last man, but in vein. And
the Romans destroyed the Tefcple thoroughly).
Social Classes: At the Rural Level the upper class consisted
of mainly the big land owners. Generally they lived in the
cities. The different draftsmen belonged to the middle
class. /Those who made perfumes and religious costumes
- U These products were sold out during the Jewsih feasi£ in
Jerusalem). The agricultural workers, the slaves (generallyowned by the merchants), and the unemployed (Mt.20:6)
belonged to the lower class.
At the Urban level, the upper class was constituted
of the sacEEdotal aristrocracy, (composed of the four
families, from among who the Roman procurator chose the High
Priest) the big merchants and the high officials. The urban
craftsmen, small merchants, middle level officials, the
priests and the levites formed, the middle class. To the
lower class belonged the workers attached to the temple, slaves,
sinners, publicans, unemployed, beggers etc.,
The social stratification was done also on ethnic
factors, i.e. pure and ippure jews. Purity of Jewish blood
had to be proved tracing one's origin, to one of the twelve
tribes of Israel (Mt1:1-17). Parental authority in the family
was very much respected.
Political system: The political structure in the Palastinian
society was in the following way. At the village level
decisions were taken and power was exercis< ed by the council
of elders-composed of chosen heads of Jewish ho us eholds-through
regulating cmmunal affairs, settling village disputes, punish
ing transgressors of law etc. There was also a priest in the
council.
At the urban level, also there was a council composed
of aristrocratic families, large landowners etc. They monopo
lised the political and economic power.
At the state level: The Sanhedrin, which was the council
of elders in Jerusalem, composed of 71 members (Pharisees,
scribes, saducees, and priests) was the powerful body.
Sanhedrin was located in the Temple, and was similar to the
supreme court. This body generated ideology and exerted
tremendous influence on the lives of the people. Thus the
state power was located in the temple. Though the sanhedrin
represented authority, the High Priest represented supreme
authority at the social, economic, political and administrative
levels. (See Apendix II)
Ideological system: *
Ideology means the explanation or moral justification of
the social, political and economic life of a person or society
of a given time. Ideology is the basis of all our actions.
In Palastine it was essentially a religious ideology, which
was very conservative and law oriented. The temple, symbo
lized the ideology, for Isreal . Since God resided in the
temple, it gave a divine guarantee to the ideological system.
*
Reactionary ideology - Turned towards the past
Conservative ideology - Supporting the status quo
liberal
"
" - Proposing minor and gradual
changes.
Revolutionary "
" - Aiming at radical changes
- 5 The producers of this powerful religious ideology were
the religious elite. (The high priest, the pharasees, the
scribes etc). The ideological system kept the social and
political system completely under its control.
Apart from the above mentioned systems and structures,
the natural calamities also added its share to make life
miserable for the poor people. Roman histrians and Jewish
Rabbles have written about the famine of A.D.2?, plague of
A.D.29, earth quake of A).D. 31, the devastating cyclone of
A.D. 6U- and the draught of A.D. 6?. Mention of these
incidents are found in the Bible also. Ref. Acts 11:28-30;
Mt. 2M-:7; Lk 21:11.
It was into this Palastine, that Jesus, the Redeemer,
liberator and the Prophet, was born. As He lived mostly in
Galilee, He was fully exposed and thus aware of the plight
of the poor. He took a defenite option for the poor and He
chose to live with them and His apsociates were from among
them.
Right in the beginning of His ministry itself, Jesus
declared His mission in unambiguous terms; That is:
I have come...." To bring good news to theppoor
To proclaim liberty to the captives
To bring sight to theblind
To set free the oppressed
To announce that the Lord will save His people"
(Lk ^:18:19)
To some extent, the word 'poor' used by Jesus is
misinterpreted today. In the gospel according to St. Luke,
whenever Jesus spoke this word. He always meant those people
who were economically and socially deprived, and those who .
were in the lower strata of the society. (and NOT the
spiritually poor !) When Jesus spoke to the deciples of
John the Baptist He mentioned who were the poor for Him
Theblind, deaf, lame, lepers
(Lk?:22) While speaking
about the invitiees for the banquet, he again speaks of the
poor: the crippled, the lame, the blind
(Lk 1b-: 13)
Talking about the rich man and Lazurus, (Lkl6:20) Jesus
illustrates clearely what He meant by poverty. When Jesus •
askedthc rich man to sell everything and give it to the poor,
He meant material wealth, and He had in mind those who were
deprived of it, and not the rich who have made the vow of
poverty (Lkl8:22; Mt. 19:16-21). The economic dimension
of richness or poverty is clear again, when Jesus spoke about
the poor widow (Lk 23 ?3)5 and the rich fool (Lk12:16-20).
From all these it is very clear that Jesus' option was for
those people who were poor in the literal and ordinary sense
of the word
Well, does this mean that Jesus excluded the rich in
His mission, or that He had no message for the rich? One
thing that is clear from the Bible is that Jesus never
overlooked the rich people because they were rich. Nevertheless,
on many occasions, the good news of Jesus turned out to be a
bad news to the rich. (Because He never rationalised or
compromised I)
.6..
- 6 -
Lfeiny t time Jesus accepted the hospitality of the rich
(Lkl4:1, 19:6) But He always had the guts to speak to their
face about their greed and injustice and very often sitting
under their own roofs'. (Lk 6:24, 18 25 etc) The response
of Zacheus (Lk 19:8) clearly indicates the radical change
that occured in him, probably after the long discussion that
Jesus had with him. While eating a meal in the home of a
leading pharisee, we see Jesus boldly exposing their
attitudes and challenging their mentality, and making concrete
suggestions. (Lk 14: 1-14, Lk 7:36-50). In those days, some
at least would have really thought that to invite Jesus
was to invite trouble I
Jesus situated Himself basically within the re]ig.ious
field. But He did not belong to thereligious elite and was
therefore not entitled to enter the ideological system
(Mk11:27-28.); What right do you have. ..... ?) He took upon
the escatology of the prophets, and severely criticized the
Jewish religious practices, as made up of purely external
laws and observances. This brought Him to the violent
confrontation with the pharisees, who saw Him as a threat
to their position and power. He was seen as one who defied
religious authority and was accused as a disruptive element
(lk 23:5) 5 that must be got rid of for the good of the nation^
Apart from upsetting the established order, the popularity
which Jesus enjoyed through His presence and His teaching
(Jn11 :47,48; Mk 11 :18), increased the worry of the elite.
And accordingly they concluded that it was better that one nan
die than the whole nation ^getting destroyed (jn 11:50)•
Btit as capital/was reserved to the Roman authorities., the only
possibility that was open to the Sanhedrin was to make it
appear that Jesus had defied the Roman authority, /punishment
The Sanhedrin condemened Jesus before the High Priest
on the grounds of blasphemy, but played a clever role and
changed their accusation from the religious order to the
political order, in front of Pilate. (Lk 23 2-5).
When Pilate was not convinced of His culpability to deserve
a death sentance, he was threatened of his own position
(Jn 18:28-38; 19:12). The game played by the Sanhedrin to
get Jesus killed is very clear from the passion narratives
given in St. John and St. Luke.
Lk 22:35-38; 4-7-54; 63-71
23:1-27 and.
Jn 18:1-14; 19-40
19:1-16
/that
It is important to note''the questioning of Jesun and the
court procedurewcrd conducted 'early in the morning'
(Jn 18:28; Lk 22:66). This was shrewdly and cunningly
planned by the Senhedrin. Because it was easy, for them
to handle Jesus in the absence of His supporters, who were
already in Jerusalem in large numbers for the passover
feast. They were the people from the countrysides, who
heard and loved Jesus. They were not staying in the Temple
complex. The 'People' and the 'crowd' which St. John
and St. Luke speak of were the many servants and the
workers in the temple. Being the feast time their number
was pretty large. Agreeing to what ever their masters told
was a matter of their own daily bread, and they simjbly
reflected and resounded what was in their masters' minds.
... .7..
w
..7..
After a heavy and late dinner (passover feast) on
the previous night, it was very late in the morning when
the real followers and supporters of Jesus came to the
temple complex; but only to be witnesses of their leader
being led to Calvary. 'Weeping and wailing they followed
Him' (Lk 23:27).
Conclusion:It has to be noted that the execution of Jesus
was the result of the plot jointly hatched by the coalition
between the Jewish religious and social elite and the Roman
authority, because Jesus was a threat to the social &
religious order of the day, which the rich and the powerful
were determined to keep at all costs to maintain themselves
in their priviledged position in the society. Jesus' death
was therefore primarily a political event. Jesus was
crucified (crucifixion was the punishment for political
criminals) not because he claimed to be the Son of God, but
because he attacked the traditionally established ideological
system, which dominated and maintained all other systems,
and because his message and practice aimed at the
subversion of the social order that existed, towards the
creation of a new society where peace, justice and brotherhood
would prevail.
prepared by
community health department
catholic hospital association cf
India
c.b.c.i. centre
goldakhana p.o.
new delhi 110 001
t j :ka • /6/85 -3-0
Appendix - I
Sid an
Palestine .during
/Abilene
» Zarephatl|
JESUS' MINISTRY
Ca-eparea
Philippi
TRACHONITIS
Bethsaida
LAKE GALILEE
mgadan •
Tiberias
Nazareth
Nain
♦ Caesarea
Aenon
Sychar
SAMARIA
Arimathea
Ephraim
Emmaus
•
Jericho
Jerusalem ^^ethph;
JUDAEA
Bethany
aGadara
BethYehem
IDUMEA
20
(Taken from 'Good, News Bible'
:ka
H-0
60
Kilometers
Appendix II
The Jerusalem Temple
The Jerusalem Temple played a very important role in the life
of the Jewish people. The Temple exerted tremendous influence
in the economic, social, political and religious fields. This
was the only Temple for Jews and they came from all over the
world to Jerusalem for offering prayers and sacrifies especia
lly during the time of feasts. Though Synagogues existed in
many places, they were only houses of prayer, and not for
sacrifices.
The first Temple was built by Solomon (1 Kgs Chapter 5 to 8),
but after UOO years in B.C 587, it was robbed and destroyed.
by Nabulsaden • eser the emperor of Babylone. After 50 years,
under Zerubabel, they started the construction again. In
B.C. 515 it was almost completed. During the attacks of Greeks
and Syrians the temple was partially damaged, but not destroyed.
In B.C 20-10, it was King Herod who expanded the Temple and
constructed it in the way it existed during the time of Jesus.
Renovation of the Temple was carried on and the entire work
was completed in A.D.63; but only to be completely destroyed
in 70, by the Roman Army. The foundation stones of the
western side wall is still remaining to this day^ as a
monument of the great Jerusalem Temple.
The cleansing of the Temple (14k 11 :15-18-1 by Jesus was a
symbolic attack on the vested interests and the powers that
were concentrated in the Temple. As mentioned elsewhere in
this paper, the Temple was the seat of all the power structures.
According to St. Mark it was after this incident that the
Jewish authorities started looking for ways and means to kill
Jesus (Mk:11-18)
1. Holy of Holi es
2. Holy Place
3. Main Alter
lf-. Place for Priests and
servers
5- Sanhedrin
6. Place for male Jews.
7. Place for female Jews
8. Store rooms, Class rooms etc
9. Beautiful gate (Acts 3:2)
10. Courtyards for the gentiles
11. Solomon's Portico
12. Tower
■■■■■..
THE7 CHURCH
AS
A
STARLTZTMG
......... W-hp
FACTOR
Our analysis of the Indian situation would not be complete if we
do not analyse'the social function of religion. To/avoid any sort
of ambiguity ahd' possible emotional reactions, lo,t us first
define what wo mean by the social function of religion.
It moans
tho role of a particular religion in the society and tho
influence of society on religion - social function of religion.
It does not imply any judgement on faith, on . thb spiritual7 or
tho ascetic life, or on tho sanctity of a porsqn. Those are the
realities that do not enter into tho field, of. a sociological.
analysis.
In this sense a man of deep faith pr a very hold man,
can play a very bad social function. Tho social function of
religion, does not take much into account our intentions, however
good they may bo.
What matters is our social praxis, what is
embodied in our institutions and in our projects; and, in a much
broader way, in our whole pastoral work.
Wo will, however, limit
ourselves to our social involvement,, although dur social
involvement is vory much rolatod to a broader perspective, including
our vision of tho Church and tho understanding of salvation.
Wo operate in our society mostly through institutions.
I assume
that it is our .conpprn. for,, social p3?o.yl7.oms, ;and.npt ...our oim interest
or prestige, that is expressed in' anti’through"' our Inst itutidns,
or socio-economic projects. Wo can, therefore,
justifiably ask
ourselves a few questions about institutions, be they educational
dr health,; or socio-economic projects
*
Educational Institutions;
Wo studied the allocation of credits,
We-realised -that-tho-Government has given top priority to college
education and has neglected primary education.
Have we really
followed a different pattern?
In 25 years tho growth rate of our
colleges has been 250%.
The dropout rates in tho primary education
in 60%.
The dropout pattern in our schools is. different.
Government has neglected training schools and mass education.
-How
many mass education programmes do wo have. Wo know why mass
education is showerful to make people aware of tho real situation.
As wo neglect mass education, are we not unconsciously accomplices
of the government in keeping tho masses dormant? For evident
political reasons, tho content of our educational system is "neutral",
Is our teaching committed?
Doos our teaching help our students to
understand tho mnchnnH sms at .work in our society?
Can wo say that
wo are preparing conscious citizens and adults?
I have no doubt
that tho education in independent India has brought modernisation
and change.
But what kind of change?
We mentioned above the main
features of our society.
Wo need therefore a school system that
would create ’deviants' in „tho real and deep sense of tho word:
Youth groups that would have tho guts to imagine and commit
themselves for building a new society, in which justice, dignity
of men and thoir equality, the collective promotion and tie
national integration would bo tho basic values.
Is this tho case?
Again my personal view is that our school system creates little
desire for change and much conformity.
The basic assumption is
individual hard work qnd individual promotion ..and. compotition.
The reference society is tho existing ono. The counterpart of
those assumptions, is that those who emmet afford hard wcrk,:
individual promotion and competition aro tho ones loft out of the
system.
When wo have to face the above question, priosts and sistors usod
to often say that they need to follow t|ro syllabus and submit
themselves to tho regulations. Certainly wo have limitations
from this s_do.
But I. wonder if it is not often an easy escape?
It is evident that wo.cannot teach mathematics in ton different
ways.
But what about geography, history, psychology, sociology
and economics?
Behind ovo-.y education system there aro explicit
or latent philosophy, ideology and ospocin.Hy a vi..sion of mon.
Wouldn’t it bo bother
a .fc plaint-- if we de 'ot share also,
consciously or >
o’t r.ly ,
pi i.l< ■ opay, tho ideology and
Health Institutions;
In this fioldwo Christians invested good
amount of criaegy and human and financial resources, Woi cannot
deny the amount of dedication and selfless service.
But wo
cannot but ask a few questions, given t£re importance of health
in human life; given also the amount of freedom compared to the
school system, wo have to organise our health services. The
following is a question wo could ask: Are wo maintaining the
system or not? It. answer it will bo,sufficient to compare the
existing health system with our own. services, wo presume again
that often the Christian witness is simply to stress the priorities
or to do some pioneering work.
It is therefore important to see
what are the main characteristics of our health system and how
our Christian medical services function in the general grame of
national health, in order to ask ourselves if again we maintain,
strengthen or weaken the existing system.
The first characteristic of our health service is tht it is- urban.
We have said already that 50% of our rural population doos not have
basic health services. Arc our nodical services I'ural-oriented?
Have wo opted for village medical care?
But the urban oriontatiaon
is not only a problem of location.
It implies an approach, an
organisation and a particular type “of-training for health services.
The other charactori sti.es. .of our health services will help—us to
understand what I mean.
The tocond charactori stic of our medical system is that it is
curative and they remain curative inspite of the change in
orientation that is noticeable during the past few yoars, When our
health services arc in tho villages, what typo of services do wo
provide?
Are they curative or preventive? .Even-today it is not
rare to see our "island hospitals", health institutions, rac.oi.ving
patients from lo^g distances, but.,situated in a human and
physical environment with terrific health education.
Socio-economic projects:
Ear the last few yoars, the number of
socio-economic-projects has boon increasing very fast.
Maybe
10 yoars ago the presence of tho Church was onvisihonod like this:
Church buildings, dispensaries or hospitals and schools. Today
tho emphasis has changed.
We ar§ undertaking more and more
economic projects.
Their purpose is to raise the inepme of tho '
people by supplying job possibilities.
Are.-thoro apy..risks?
All
the questions wo asked about education and health could bo
summarised with one question:
What is tho vision of man behind
our education and health system?
Tho question wo could ask abort
the projects, could be formulated in this lay.
What is the idea
of development when wo start a project? What do we want to
achieve with a project?
When I ask those questions on my visits tho reply that I received
most of tho time was:
wo want to help tho poor; wo want to
uplift thorn; we want to give help for self help. Those replies
may suggest that we do not understand the real causes cf poverty
and underdevelopment, and that wo look at tho misery oft he people
as fato,and consqquontly assume that our mission is to "help" tho
poor and not to work for a bettor society. In other wojjds, w°
ignore, consciously and unconsciously, tho forces and mechanisms'
at work in our society.
Wo ignore the fact that poverty in India
is a dialectical process, . That somo people rot in misery
because others can onjoy lifo. That our political system works
in such a way, that only a tiny minority gets tho benefits of our
investments, while others stagnate oven if they don't got poorer.
What are then tho' consequences of our poojocts?
In every project
wo have objectives and goals that wo want to achiovo.
But our
projects are economic intorvuntions in a particular socio-ocononic
and political aot-up.
It is theroforts natural that tho project
will have unforeseen consequences, that could maintain, strengthen,
weaken or shako the ozxisting system.
Those are what wo could call
tho latent ftmcl.ons of our projects.
Ono of tho most common negative latent functions of our projects
is that they divert pooplo from tho id al is sues- that-.em .poli.ti.cal,
Tho second latent functions is that in diverting tho poor from tho
political issues tho masses arc diverted from the political and
administrative instances, that finally are responsible for tho
development work. Tho third latent function is that tho project,
helping a small minority could divide and hcnco weaken tho poor.
The result would bo tljat a small minority of poor will cargo, and
tho development as a collective process of liberation will be
hindered, strengthening tho individualistic mentality and tho
idea of privato property and individual promotion.
To conclude, I would like to share with you my reflection and
experience about our institutions. From my experience of
analysing and evaluating projects for the last five years, I have
come to believe that our approach to ind-ian problems has been
"complementary•' and "supplementary" to tho government work.
Wo
tjavo thoroforo^followod more or lo$s tho same pattern. No doubt
our institutions arc bettor administered.
Perhaps wo may ebon
bo Isess corrupt.
But, basically, tho pattern of education, of
health, of social work, is tho same. Having followed tho same
pattern, wo arc caught up in tho same policies.
But, as we have
admitted above, those arc unjust policies!!
Those are policies
for tho rich, with some concessions for tho poor.
Having followed
tho same pattern, being caught in tho same policies, wo are
maintaining the in just system.
In this sense tho Churcljr .is a
stabli .ing-factor.and .not the powerful agont of change that
our society requires.
This is ray fooling and my deep conviction about our instiitions,
based on ray studios.
I may bo wrong, and I would bo very happy
if empirical and sociological studios show.that ray analysis is
wrong.
My experience is not doubt limited.
Also, net much
evaluation of our institutions has boon done.
This evaluation
work seems to to bo tho most important task in tho coming years.
But, important as it may bo, I find ranch hesitation, if not
opposition, most of tho time.
Wo have a tromendoous fear of
serious evaluations. Maybe, that it is because wo vaguely fear'
that something is wrong in our approach; also, perhaps, that our
lovo of tho pooplo wo want to servo, is not deep enough to
overcome fears and insecurities, to destroy the vostod interests
that every institution is bound to create .....
BIBLICAL REFLECTIONS ON LABOUR
,
INTRODUCTION; This paper was originally prepared for a small studygroup in East Berlin, consisting of Christians and marxists. The
group had discussed issues of labour legislation etc., and felt the
need of looking at them from a broader perspective. I was asked to
give some information about the ways in which especially the Old
Testament relates to labour. For the evaluation of the biblical
material I made use of the insights of Karl Marx who spent a life
time in analysing human labour. I found his approach to be very
appropriate and congenial with the biblical outlook in spite of
important differences.
With Marx we can view labour from different angles, namely,
(1) as part of the process of interaction between man and nature; and
(2) as part of the social process in which man interacts with man.
I. Necessity and freedom in the relation of man and nature:
1. Man and labour; According to Marx man emerges from the animal
world as the one who starts wrestling with nature, trying to bring
it under his control, Man is the tool-making animal. It is through
purposeful labour that man becomes man, that he distinguishes him
self from the instinctive ways of the animal world. Thus work is
an essential part of human life. This is also the biblical view.
Other religions and civilisations have developed a different atti
tude. The Greek civilisation and many oriental cultures considered
labour to be something low and inferior, something below the dignity
and true destiny of man. As far as possible it was left to slaves.
Not-to-need-to-work was a status symbol, a sign of high standing, the
privilege of a free man, of a lord. In such traditions paradise is
conceived as the place where lazybones enjoy life in permanent leisure.
a
The outlook of the Old Testament is fundamentally different. Accord
ing to it work is an essential part of human life even in paradise.
God's law expects all without exception to work regularly. The same
we find in the New Testament where Raul bluntly states: "If any one
will not work, let him not eat", a sentence v/hich was happily quoted
by the workers movement as a powerful argument against the rich who
led a luxurious life without labouring.
2. Man and nature: We also find the Old Testament reflecting on
the peculiar dialectical relation of man and nature. Both visions
of creation, in Genesis 1, 1-2, 4 and in Genesis 2 and 3, affirm
the interdependence of man and nature. Man is created on the same
sixth day together with the beasts. At the same time he has received
dominion over them and over all the earth (1, 25-26). He is form<lS.
of dust from the field, "Adam" (man) of dust from "Adamah" (soil)
(2, 7.) Man and field belong together and need each other. As is
said in 2, 15: man is put in the garden of Eden to till it and to
keep it. The word for tilling, 'abad1, means to work, to serve.
The word "to keep", to protect is an important supplement to the
notion of dominion which is used in 1, 26. Ruling over nature can
not simply be a ruthless exploitation. It has also to be protecting
it, so that it can renew itself. For we can never be without it.
But chapter 2 also indicates the special status of man in nature
and over against it. it implies -the giving of names (vs. 20) and
becomes visible in the taming of animals. Keeping in view the conti
nuing dependence of man on nature we can appreciate the high status
given to man as ruler over nature without .taking it as a licence to
ruthless exploitation of nature as it has happened in history. Man
has been given dominion over the earth (1, 26). But he is respon
sible for it to the creator - and he himself remains "Adam" taken
from the soil and returning to the soil (3, 19).
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-2As Psalm 8 puts it:
"What is man that thou art mindful of him,
and the son of man that thou dost care for him?
Yet thou hast made him little less than God,
and dost crown him with glory and honour.
Thou hast given him dominion over the works of thy hands;
Thou hast put all things under his feet
0 Lord, our Lord
how majestic is they name in all the earth."
3. Technology and wisdom: Genesis records the progress of man in
the division of labour and in technological innovation. It mentions
the invention of tents, of lyre and pipe and of instruments of bronze
and iron (4, 20-22). And in job 28, we find a beautiful poem about
man's venturing into mining. It is a song of admiration for the
courage and skills of man digging out of the earth the hidden treas
ures of iron, copper and gold. It is something what no other creat
ure is able to do. "But where shall wisdom be found? And where is
the place of understanding?" (vs. 12). Science and technology are
great achievements of man. But they are not the same as wisdom.
Wisdom is something different. It precedes technical abilities and
scientific discoveries and it transcends them. Science and Techno
logy are tools of man as he tries to bring the earth under control.
But they can easily turn into tools of destruction. Actually, tech
-(p
*
nological progress is mainly dictated by the demands of military
establishments for more sophisticated means of destruction. Where
is the wisdom? Wisdom decides about the direction, about the goal.
Does our technology serve man or does it destroy him? Where do we
find this wisdom? "Behold, the fear of the Lord, that is wisdom;
and to depart from evil is understanding", (vs 28)
4. Labour and Life: The modern world attaches high value to tech
nology and the increase of production as its main articles of faith.
In this connection labour, work is often emphasized as the main
purpose in life. In a later stage affluent capitalism added everincreasing- consumption as equally important for the fulfilment of
life (and for the functioning of capitalist society with its goal of
increasing production for the sake of profit and power). In both
cases, of production and of consumption, the basic point is that they
are considered as ends-in-themselves. It is not related to any fur
ther reaching comprehensive meaning of life. This is no urgent pro
blem as long as the first priority is to secure a minimum of decent
living to all members of society. But afterwards the question arise™
which economists and technocrats don’t like: "for what purpose after
all we are toiling, apart from earning and living?".
The Bible raises this point. Labour is necessary. It is an essen
tial part of life. It is an unique feature of man that he is able
Jfchrough labour to make nature cater to his needs. But life is more
than labouring. That is why the Sabbath is not only a day of rest
but a day of re-creation in the deep sense of the word. It is the
time for the celebration of life which we have received; It is the
day of freedom before God, where we re-discover the purpose of
creation and see 'it was good' - and learn to judge and direct our
life and work in this large framework which gives meaning and dire
ction to it.
5. Sweat and Fruits of Labour: The. Bible gives one more reason
why labour is not all in life and why it should not be all. Labour
is toilsome. It brings sweat and pain. There is no reason to ideal
ize it. It is hard and full of suffering. There is a bitter dis
harmony between effort and fruit. In spite of your sweat the soil
may bring forth not only plants to eat but also thorns and thistles
(Genesis 3, 17). .It is part of the disharmony which there is between
human beings and God. Life is distorted in all its relations, also •
in that of man and nature. But, once more, labour is part of life.
It is not labour which is cursed, but only the soil. And even that
...3/
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-5is not to be accepted as the last word. There is the vision of a
future where "they shall not labour in vain" (is. 65, 25). The pro
phet speaks of new heavens and a new earth (vs. 17) and the Greek
translators of the O.T.- Therefore translated vs. 23: "work shall be
outdated". They found it difficult to imagine that even on the new
earth work would be part of life - with the decisive differences
that all the relations would be in harmony. The new Testament sees
the beginning of fulfilment in the life of Jesus Christ. He is the I
new-Adam, the royal man, who is in the desert with the wild beasts
as in the garden of Eden (Mark 1, 13). He commands the forces of
nature to the service of man in his needs. His so called miracles art
not meant as proofs of his divinity. But as signs of the coming King
dom in which fallen man will be restored in all his relations, to
God, to his fellowmen and to nature. When Simon, the fisherman com
plains "Master, we toiled all night and took nothing", Jesus directs
him to an abundant catch. As the harmony between effort and result
is restored Peter discovers that he is a sinful man (Luke 5, Iff).
In the same way, Jesus commands the evil spirits to leave, the wind
to cease. Healing the sick and sharing the bread with the hungry
the Son of Man restores creation to its original meaning. That is
how the relation of man and nature vzas meant to be. Man not a victim
of leprosy or going hungry in spite of hard work, but enjoying the
fruit of his labour and enjoying life in good health.
"
6. The Goal of Freedom: Even then or all the more labour is not
all in life. It is necessary for making a living. But making a
living is not the purpose of life. As Marx puts it, the process of
labour is determined by necessity. He distinguishes this, realm of
necessity from the realm of freedom in which man as a free subject
finds the fulfilment of life. Labour is a matter of necessity.
"Just as the savage must wrestle with nature to satisfy his wants,
to maintain and reproduce life, so must'civilized man, and he must
do so in all social formations and under all possible modes of pro
duction. "
Only beyond this sphere of material production man becomes a free
subject. "Beyond it begins that development of human energy which
is an end in itself, the true realm of freedom, which, however, can
blossom forth only with this realm of necessity as its basis."
(Capital III, p.820). It is a question for dialogue between marxists
and Christians what the development of human energy as an end in it
self may mean, on the one hand, and how Christians see the fulfilment
£ of human life in the communion of God and men on the new earth, on
the other hand, in any case,' together they will differ from the
bourgeois praise of restless productivity as meaningful in itself,
a heritage from capitalism which is still very much alive in today's
socialist countries. For Marx material production has only meaning
as a means which should make possible the development of the human
potential in freedom. In a way this realm of freedom is like the
Sabbath, beyond the days of labour but based on it. The difference
would be that in the Bible Human history starts with the Sabbath
and not with the efforts of man.
II. Slavery and liberation in the relations of man and man
1. Marx and the Bible about class-struggle: The major problems of
labour, causing suffering and death, stem not from the relation
man-nature, but from the relation man-man. It is there where man
is exploited by man that the sweat and pain of labour becomes un
bearable. It is there where conquerors and owners appropriate the
fruits of the labour of others that the experience of labouring in
vain causes alienation between man and man. Marx has said: "History
is the history class struggles. The key to the understanding of
human history lies not in the ideas of man, not in his religion or
art or culture. It lies even not in politics, not in the abilities
and failures of the leaders of uhe nations.." All these are important
aspects of history. But they can be understood only in relation with
the economic structure of society. It is the way in which economic
life is organised, the mode of production, which determines in the
...4/
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-4last instance the development of history. And it is the mode of
production, which determines in which classes society is divided,
who are the exploiters and the exploited. As we have seen before,
economics is not the final thing for Marx. He is a humanist. The
goal is human freedom, not material production. But he is material
ist in the sense that he sees economic production as the base of
life and as such as the decisive factor in the manifold struggles
of history.
The Bible gives, of course, no marxist theory. It does not give a
scientific analysis of society. (That is why Christianity and mar
xism do not necessarily exclude each other. They do not operate on
the same level.) The biblical story focuses also on human history.
But it sees history in the framework and perspective of the relation
between God and man. Even where it focuses on the same aspects of
human life, on alienation and exploitation, it brings them into con
nection with the alienation in the relation between God and Man. In
so far there is a basic difference in outlook and frame of reference
between Marx and the Bible.
However, the surprising thing is, how much affinity there is between
the two in spite of this. Many movements and ideologies raise
:
questions which don't get attention in the Bible or only in a mar
ginal way. But the key issues of marxism, the exploitation and alie.h-ation of man in society and the struggle for the humanisation of
society, are very close to the core of the biblica;i message, as we
shall see in the Exodus story. It is already remarkable that the
Old Testament in its narrating gives importance to the economic
aspects of reality. The story of the alienation between Abel and his
brother Cain, f.i. which shows the distortion of the human relations
as sin, explicitly mentions the difference in occupation between the
two.
"Abel was a keeper of sheep, and Cain a tiller of the ground."
(Genesis 4, -). That refers to one of the basic divisions of labour
in early history. There is nothing bad about division as labour as
such. It is necessary. But it is a crucial factor which shapes
life. And it can lead to inequality and can become the source from
which murderous conflicts originate. Often we don't notice these
elements in the Bible. Marxists like Ernst Bloch, Milan Machovec
and others have helped us to discover them.
2. Exodus as liberation from Slavery: The Exodus experience of
liberation from slavery is”at the heart of Israel's faith. "I am
the lord your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of
the house of bondage." (ex. 20, 2). That is almost like a definition
of the God of Israel, what sort of bondage is meant? Obviously it
was the bondage of slavery, of ruthless economic exploitation. Acco
rdingly Israel's basic experience of salvation, redemption was an
experience of liberation from economic and political oppression.
The problem of labour which was turned into slavery is at the heart
of the matter;
"So they made the people of Israel serve with rigour, and
made their lives bitter with hard service, in mortar and
brick, and in all kinds of work in the field; in all their
work they made them serve with rigour." (Ex. 1, 13-14)
Not less than five times the key-words 'abad', 'aboda' are repeated.
It is the same word which can mean as well service, as work, as
slavery. The same word occurs in Ex. 2, 23 where it is translated
with'bondage': "And the people of Israel groaned under their bond
age, and cried out for help, and their cry under bondage came up
to God". The word for 'crying'io a standing term for the crying
out of the oppressed (sec f.i. Habakuk 1, 2; James 5, 4).
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-5-
3. The God of freedom cannot be served.'in slavery: The God of
Israel is the one who hears this cry and. who knows the condition of
the people (2, 25; 3, 7ff). In the process of liberation he reveals
his identity. His name "I am who I am" or rather "I shall be who
I shall be", "I shall be with you" will be the answer, when the
people will ask Moses who has sent'.him to lead them out. JHWH is
the name beyond the grasp of magicians and theologians, the name of
the one who will not be domesticated by religious or other manipu
lation. His name is the watchword of freedom, is the call to come
out of bondage and to experience his presence on the march through
the desert. Therefore, this God cannot be served in slavery, but
only in freedom. Slavery, and service to this God cannot go together.
Moses is not sent to ask from the Pharaoh improvement of.the working
conditions and free time for worship. He is sent to say: "Thus says
the Lord, Israel is my first-born son, and I say to you, 'Let my
son go that he may serve me1". (Ex. 4, 22-23). The same word 'abad':
It is a matter of choice: either slavery under Pharaoh or service
of God. As the God of freedom he cannot be served in slavery. How
could he be known and worshipped as the One who brings out from
bondage by people who would continue to live and to be treated as
slaves. Religious ceremonies do not serve him and his purpose, if
the conditions of bondage remain the same. God wants his people to
serve him in freedom, as son not as slaves.
Marxists and many Christians thought and still think that service of
God and slavery can go together. Such Christians think that the two
don't affect each other. Whatever the social-economic condition,
the relation between God'and the soul is not affected by it. Whether
we are rich or poor, it makes no difference in the eyes of God and■
in the relation with him.- And marxists say: that is typical for .
religion that is how it strengthens exploitation and oppression. .
That is why we reject religion, because in it serving Gid and ser
vicing slave-masters:go together.
The Bible sees it differently, and marxists have helped Christians
to discover this,
1) It does not accept poverty as fate, but sees it as a result of
sinful structures, cf injustice and exploitation. That is why the
prophets charge the rich and hold them responsible. That is not .only
a question of bad individuals, but of the set-up of sb.ciety. The
Egyptians must not have been particularly bad people. But they were
slave-masters. That was their role in the system of exploitation.
The living conditions may have been tolerable. The people in the
desert longed back to the cucumber and the fleshpots of Egypt. But
the system was one of slavery. Therefore Moses demands nothing less
than "Let my people go!". No compromise possible. The people may
get second thoughts faced with the hardships of the desert. The
oppressed often tend to accept the ideology of the oppressors.
•Is not his what we said to you in Egypt, Let us alone; and let us
serve the Egyptians? For it would have been netter for us to serve
the Egyptians than .to die in the wilderness. And Moses said to the
people:
"Fear not, stand firm, and see the salvation of the Lord,
which he will work for you today". (Ex. 14, 12-13)
2) Exploitation and injustice directly and deeply affects the re
lation to God. a) Israel confesses its God as the liberator from
slavery. That is the core of its creed, b) The deepest doubt and
despair in faith occurs where people suffer from injustice 'and seem
to wait in vain for God's action and liberation. (Psalm 10, Habakuk
1 etc.)
"Why dost thou stand afar off, 0 Lord?
Why dost thou-hide :thyself in times of trouble?
In arrogance the'wicked hotly pursue the poor" (Fs. 10, 1-2)
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-6-
c) The Godles, the atheists are in the Bible not those who propagate
an atheist theory saying that God does not exist. They are those who
deny his existence in practice. How? By denying him as liberator
of the oppressed.
"For the wicked boasts of the desires of bis heart, and the
man greedy for. gain curses and renounces the Lord,
In the pride of his countenance the wicked does not seek him;
all his thoughts are, 'there is no God." (Ps. 10, 3-4)
This corresponds with the despair of his victims:
"The hapless is crushed, sinks down, and falls by his might.
He thinks in his heart, 'God has forgotten,
He has hidden his face, he will never see it." (vs. 10-11)
Faith in the living God is at stake in the experience of oppression.
Therefore:
"Arise, 0 Lord; 0 God, lift up thy hand;
forget not the afflicted.
Why does the wicked renounce God,
and say in his heart, 'Thou wilt not call to account'" (vs. 12-13)
'0 Lord, thdu wilt hear the desire of the meek....
to do justice to the fatherless and the oppressed,
so that man who is of the earth
W
may strike terror no more." (vs. 17-18)
d) It affects the relation to God so much that Jesus says that the
rich cannot enter the Kingdom.of God. Not as rich. The kingdom of
God and its justice excludes the Kingdom of-Mammon and its injustice.
"You cannot serve God and Mammon" (Matthew 6, 24.) Mammon stands for
the power of money which exploits man for its purposes. An economic
system ruled by mammon, by the laws of profit, is godless, a-theistic
anti the Kingdom of God. It is significant that Jesus puts forward
only this alternative of masters, God and Mammon, and not God and
Jupiter or so. many other of the gods of that time. Obviously he saw
the biggest challenge to his message and to faith coming from this
side, from Mammon and its injustice.
3. All shall work - all shall rest: When liberation from slavery is
so much the essence of the "salvation which Israel experienced in the
Exodus and confessed in its faith, the crucial question afterwards
becomes: how to avoid new slavery. That is what nowadays many seeptical Christians say: there is no point in trying to change the systew
even if it is bad. The same evils will return. Israel had to strug
gle indeed to build up a different type of society. But at least
it tried. And in the process it gave to mankind the unique insti
tution of the sabbath.
After liberation from bondage work, daily work had to go on. How
to avoid that again in the process of work some people would become
slave-masters and others slaves, as it was accepted in all societies
of those days. It was difficult at all to imagine a society without
slavery, just like we find, it difficult to imagine a society without
capitalist exploitation. Israel did not succeed in completely avoid
ing certain forms of slavery and of bonded labour. But it did adecisive step in the right direction. It did not only preach to the
powerful and warn them to be nice to the weak, and to ‘he trustees
of their wealth etc. But it founded institutions which protected
the weak against the strong, even when they did not listen to moral
appeals. Such institutions were the Sabbath and the Sabbath year.
To keep the Sabbath is the most important commandment in the Old
Testament, in the course of time it acquired several meanings.
a) In its oldest form it means to stop working. "Six days you shall
Work, but on the seventh day you shall rest" (Ex. 34, 21). This
commandment is revolutionary as it applies to all, high and low,
master and servant, God and man. "That your ox and your ass may have
rest, and the son of your bondmaid, and the alien may be refreshed"
(Ex. 23, 12). Just like the Lord who made heaven and earth rested
. . .7
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-7on the seventh day, "and was refreshed" (Ex. 31, 17). That hits at
the heart of the slave system. In it some have rest when they wish,
the masters, whereas the others have to work any time, the slaves.
The slaves have no time of their own. They are the property of their
masters, who can do with them whatever they like. Rest for all means
the limitation of the power of man over man. One day in the week
the master has nothing to say over the servant. Even the most de
pendent one, the son of the bondmaid, cannot be bossed around. He
is entitled to the same rest and refreshment which the creator of
heaven and ear^h took on the seventh day. At least once in a week
all are free. That is the way in which the liberation from slavery
finds an institution which protects the human freedom of all and
especially of the weakest members of society.
b) Sabbath is the day to celebrate, to remember, the liberation from
slavery. It is not only a day of rest, but of celebration of freedom.
"You shall remember that you were a servant (ebed) in the land
of Egypt, and the Lord your God brought you out thence with a
mighty hand and an outstretched arm: therefore the Lord your
God commanded you to keep the Sabbath day. (Deut. 5, 15)
It is the day on which to remember that the purpose of liberation is
■a new society in the promised land. It is not just to get refreshed
for the next round of daily labour, but also to renew the vision
of.the new society and to return to work for it with fresh inspiration.
Sabbath is a weekly day of strike - as Roman Writer Tacitus com
plained about the Jews. But it is not a strike just for higher wages
or slight improvements, but for a different society. Remember the
Exodus from Egypt.
c) Sabbath is a day for thanksgiving to the Lord who made heaven and
earth. (Exodus 20, 11; cf. Genesis 2, 1-3). Here the Sabbath is
placed in the widest horizon. Man free from his masters and from the
pain of labour comes before the Giver of life, and finds rest, re
freshment and new vision.
d) In and after the time of exile, the Sabbath becomes the sacrament
of God's covenant with his people. It reminds the people that they
are no slaves, as it did for so many generations of Jews in the
ghetto's all over the world. At the sametime it got the function of
distinction and of separation from the others. Slowly it turned into
an oppressive law with more and more prescriptions how to avoid doing
any work, whereas the spirit of freedom got lost.
e) Jesps restores the meaning of Sabbath as the institution which is
made for man in need, it is there to restore the hungry and the sick
to their freedom. It is there "to do good" and "to save life".
"The Sabbath was made for man, not man for the Sabbath!!. (Mark 2,
23-3, 6)
4. All shall share in the fruits of labour: The tribes of Israel
that settled in the promised land of Palestine started from a more
or less equal distribution of the land among the families. But in
evitably inequalities developed. For one reason or the other,
people got indebted, had to work as bonded labourers, and even lost
their lands. If nothing was done against such 'natural' develop
ments the rich would grow richer and the poor poorer. Israel tried
to prevent such drift to inequality and the injustice and slavery
which result from it. One such institution was that of the redeemer,
as Boaz is in the story of Ruth and Naomi. The Sabbath year and
jibilee year were other institutional measures to counteract with
the trend to evergrowing inequality. The measures were the following:
i) Once in seven years the soil should rest; (ii) Once in seven years
all debts among Hebrews should be cancelled; (iii) At the end of seven
years Hebrew slaves should be released; (iv) Once in fifty years each
family should get back its land and houses. (See Ex. 21, 2—6; 23,
10-12; Leviticus 25-26; Deuteronomy 15, 1-18; 31, 9-13)
...8/
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-8This is Israel's institutional protest against an economy based on
exploitation. It is part of the vision of the new society on the
new earth that all shall enjoy the fruits of their toil. They shall
not labour in vain: "They shall build houses and inhabit them; they
shall plant vineyards and eat their fruit. They shall not build
and another inhabit; they shall not plant and another eat". They
shall live to "enjoy the work of their hands" (Isaiah 65, 21 ff.)
Whereas the main point here is that death shall not untimely inter
fere, still we can also hear the implicit assertion that labour and
its fruits belong together and that neither death nor any other form
of alienation will separate them in the new society.
It seems that Israel found it difficult to implement the Sabbath
year and especially the year of jubilee. Or rather its possessing
classes may have resisted it. Two attempts of implementing the year
of jubilee are mentioned. According to Jeremiah 34 king Zedekiah
made a proclamation of liberty to the people, "that every one should
set free his Hebrew slaves". They obeyed and set them free. "But
afterward they turned around and look back the male and female slaves
they had set free, and brought them into subjection as slaves."
The prophetic answer is "Therefore, thus says the Lord: You have not
obeyed me by proclaiming liberty, every one to his brother and neigh
bour; behold I proclaim to you liberty to the sword, to pestilence .
and to famine, says the Lord," (34, 8-17). Obviously, liberty and
the restoration of equality is a deadly serious matter in his eyes.
Nehemiah 5 describes an other attempt to respond to .the outcry of
those who lost their lands and see their children becoming slaves.
In this case the return of the fields is emphasized.
The underlying assumption of these institutions is that the land is
not simply a commodity at the free disposal of private owners. Just
like man and his life-time cannot be at the free disposal of slave
masters. The Sabbath reminds that the life-time is from God, and
that is man’s protection against slavery. And the Sabbath-year
reminds that the land is from Gel, and that is man's protection
against inequality. "The land baall not be sold in perpetuity, for
the land is mine; for you are strangers and sojourners with me."
(Lev. 25, -23) They are not private owners who can do what they like.
They are sharing the land of freedom, and that is why the restoration
of equal shares should take place.
Jesus started his ministry with the call to practise the year of
jubilee as a preparation for the coming kingdom. He called the
people of Israel to cancel the debts - the main problem of the poor
in his days - and to release the captives (Luke 4, 18-19). That
was his "good news to the poor". His whole way of life is opposed
to the laws of the market,. Market means the freedom of inequality,
the freedom of the strong. Jesus anticipates the economy of sharing
instead. Sharing means freedom of all based on equality. The wor
kers of the first hour may not like it that the workers of the last
hour-, receive an equal share (Matthew 20, 1-16). But that is the
revolutionary law of the kingdom.
Of course, we cannot offer the Sabbath and the Sabbath year as the
institutional solutions for the problems of our society. Nor can
we simply apply the economics of Jesus. Hard work needs to be done
to find new answers .to the different problems of today. But what
we can learn from the Bible is the direction in which we have to
look for answers. All shall work, all shall rest, all shall share
in the fruits of labour that is the basic message of equality and
of freedom before God.• That should encourage us to fight for the
transformation of a society based- on inequality and exploitation
into a society which comes closer to such a vision.
—B. WIELENGA
*
0
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DOMINATION WITHIN THE PALESTINIAN MILIEU DURING THE FIRST
CENTURY A.D.
(Francois Houtard, Director of the Center
for.Socio—Religious Research, Catholic
University of Louvain - Belgium)
How did Jesus see himself in the face of domination in the
society of his time? That is not merely of historic or acad
emic interest.
Today one is becoming more and more conscious
of the necessity of such a step for the comprehension in depth
of the meaning of the sayings and practices of Jesus and as a
source of inspiration for the faith and the actions of Christ
ians.
It is not a question of employing isolated passages
from the Evangile instead of arguments, but rather of adopting
a general perspective which will enable Jesus and his trans
cending message to be resituated in all the dimensions of
reality's
I.
INTRODUCTION
Asia had a particular type of feudal system.
The latter was
characterised by the fact that the peasants lived in very org
anized communities, focused around kinship ties and with very
strong internal cohesion, while the Ste.te, directed by Princes
or kings, appropriated the surplus while exploiting production
through means of -the organization of irrigation. This is. a
model which prevailed in tho regions where rice was cultivated,
in just about all cases.(l)
On the other hand, in Western Asia (the Middle East), where
irrigation wasn't necessary, a somewhat different organization
developed.
These regions were characterized by perpetual wars,
because they were the site of the great communication routes
between the East and trie Jest and between the gfeat Empires
(Babylonia, Egypt) and consequently most of the time it was a
question of aristocratic warrior kingdoms.
This led the State
to deduct as well a large part of the surplus produced
through the activities of people (with regard to both agricult
ural production and exchanges}, in particular in order to be
able to finance wars.
The Roman Empire developed according to another social pattern,
the slave mode of production, due to the intensive development
of sea-born trade.
As a result of the latter, society needed
a very large number of productive agents, in order to be able.:
to multiply the exchanges. This is what led to the birth of
slavery, which particularly characterized a certain number of
Empires bordering on the Mediterranean.
This was, moreover,
to a great extent, the source of the notion of private proper
ty, developed subsequently in Roman law..
Palestine, after the Exile of the population of Israel to
Babylonia, was always subject .to the neighboring Empires
(Persia, Rome, etc...) at the same time that it Was dominated
from within by the class of rich landowners.
During the second
century B.C during the Hellenization process, the region saw
the revolt of the Maccabees.
It was the Roman Empire, under
the command of Pompeii, which in 63 B.C. established a master
over all the region and integrated the economic production of
Palestine into the commerce of the Empire.
Palestine itself during this era was divided into two very
distinct geographical regions.
First of all there was Judea,
an area situated around Jerusalem and its Temple, a mountain
ous area and economically characterized by a sub—asiatic mode
of production.
The lands were■arid and dry.
Olives, fruit
were cultivated and the raising of sheep and goats was quite
widespread.
There likewise were forests.
Cn the other hand, the Galilee was crossed by two great commer
cial routes, one leading to Damascus by the sea and the other
from Damascus to Jerusalem.
It was a very fertile country,
characterized by large properties where wheat was grown and w
where there was as well a lot of stock farming.
There were
fishermen along the sea and the lake.
The foreign merchants
had great influence there, a fact which was at the origin of
one of the characteristics of the G..lilee, that of its being
a land of mixed blood and consequently falling into the cate
gory of impurity with regard to the Jewish race (Matew 4-13 s'
a territory of gentiles $ a people which lives in the shadows).
The Galilee was also the place of origin of a great many
peasant revolts and in particular that of the Zealots,
With regard to the social geography,there was an important
difference between the villages, which subsisted in self-suff
icient entities and according to a social model of a clannish
nature and on the other hand, the particularly developed towns
in Judea, notably Jerusalem with stratified societies.
II.
THE HISTORIC FRAMEWORK CF PALESTINE DURING THE FIRST CENTURY
1.
THE ROMAN EMPIRE
The Roman Empire established its domination, and this took on
several aspects;
It was first of all of an economic nature and pursued through
exactions whose aim was to drain off the surplus, produced in
Palestine, towards the Roman center.
This drainage took place
first of all, officially, through diverse forms of taxes; about
6.000.COG Roman denaries ( 1 denarie = one day of. work for
a worker) were thus transferred each year, by means of the
tributum (personal tax, coming to 1/4 of the harvest)§ the
annona (tax in kind or in uork for the army) and the publicum
(other taxes). However, there was as well an unofficial
amount deducted by the Roman officials or their Palestinian
allies.
Domination was political as well ana took place through the
use of recruited in the dominating classes of Israel and among
the "Romanized" officials.
The following pyramid thus becomes
clear;
From a political viewpoint there was first of all the Procurator
of Judea, who was Roman, residing at Cesarea (probably in
order not to be seen too much in Jerusalem) but who came to
this town at the time of the big festivals.
It was he who
named the high priest, choosing him from one of the four
dominating families in the society of the day.
Over Galilee
it was the Roman Legate of Syria who exorcised power, but
through the intermediary of King Herode jlntipas.
Roman power indirectly- controlled the large landowners and
the aristocracy, by the fact it assumed the right to the poss
ibility of an arbitrary dismissal of their property rights.
It was in the interest therefore of this class to collaborate
with the Roman power.
Finally there were a series of intermediate officials directly
appointed by the Roman power and generally recruited among
the elders of the sanhedrin (Higher Court) and in the great
families.
As for the publicans they were recruited in lower
social classes and were responsible for collecting taxes.
The military domination wo.s carried out through the presence '
of the Roman z-iw in Palestine, recruited generally in Syria
and among the non-Jews of Palestine.
This army was quartered
along the coasts.
3
2.
THE LOCAL SOCIAL HIERARCHY;
There was a meeting of interests between Roman exploitation
and the local exploitation. The latter was carried cut
especially through very numerous contributions given to the
Temple.' The effect of the meeting of these two phenomenon was
a great poverty among the small peasants.
The urban workers.ano. even the lower middle class also suff
ered from the economic consequences of the double Roman and
local exploitation. This was seen notably in a high rate of
inflation, unemployment, the birth of armed bands in the
rural regions etc.
On the other hand, the landowners bene
fited from the agricultural price rise, the urban bourgeoisie
reaped advantage from the function of Jerusalem as a center
of consumption.
Thus the opposition between the three
social groups, the working class, "grande bourgeoisie" and
"petite bourgeoisie" was objectively and sometimes subjects
ively very great.
III.
A SYSTEMATIC ANALYSIS.
'
• ’
A great difference existed between the rural and urban areas
and it is because of this that we are dividing this part of
the account in two,
a)
The rural areas.
In the villages, the production was generally organized on
the basis of small•landed properties, combined with a part
of communal lands, owned by the village communities,. The
latter were generally self-sufficient with regard to agricult
ural production.
There were as well some small craftsmen and
the exchanges generally were based on exchange in kind.
One
cannot therefore speak of a class society in life of the
village.
However, ever since the establishment of the domin
ation of the Roman ^rapire, a progressive pauperization estab
lished itself.
In fact, not -only the Palestinian State (the
Temple) canalized a part of the surplus;
the didrachm for
the Temple, the tithe for the clergy, the expenditures made
by the families and individuals for th’e holidays in Jerusalem,
but the Roman colonizer as well superimposed its absorption
of the surplus.
Moreover, the large properties, of which production in
Galilee was wheat or stock raising and in Judea olives, fruits
sheep and goat farming, were managed indirectly by the large
land owners, who generally lived in town where they had ties
with the urban economy and with the large international
merchants.
These landed properties subsisted within the
monetary economic circuit and even the agricultural workers
were at least partially paid in .money.
b)
The urban milieu,
He can distinguish three sectors of economic activity in
the urban milieus
production, circulation and consumption.
At the level of production, the draftsmen worked in textiles,
food production, construction, perfume, jewellery etc, A
certain number of these sectors were very important for the
pilgrims who came to Jerusalem each year. There were then the
workers, who worked essentially in the construction
sector.
It should not be forgotten that the Temple was
constructed between 20 E. C. and 52 A.D. and that kings and
local aristocrats as well as Roman officials had palaces
constructed.
It is estimated that in the year 60, there were
about 13,000 workers, merely in Jerusalem.
At the level of goods circulation, there were on the one hand,
the big merchants, who possessed slaves and who dealt in raw
materials and agricultural products. They were part of the
commercial routes passing through these regions and connecting
the great Empires,
On ‘the other hand the small merchants
were often craftsmen themselves or belonged to the same
social group.
Finally, at the level of consumption, one can say that the
Temple was the center of this economic function. In fact,
onethe one hand, a part of the gifts of the Jews in the dias
pora, the taxes, the revenues from the commerce of the vict
ims for the sacrifices (monopolized by one of the four
families from which the high priest was recruited) and the
revenues from the landed properties flowed focmtit Moreover,
the Temple was also the pole of the economic circulation,
•given that it possessed the Treasury. As a matter of fact the
Temple had at the same time the function of what one might
call today the National Bank, the Commercial Stock Exchange
and the State in its fiscal functions.
2.
THE SOCIAL SYSTEM,
The social system of Palestine was rather complex, because it
did not correspond solely to a class society, divided by
economic factors, but was also crossed by other forms of
social stratification, inherited from previous situations and
notably from clannish societies.
The economic system of which we have spoken enabled a distin
ction to be made between the rural society and the urban
society and this is illustrated in the plan of the social
system, that is to say, in the position that the social groups
occupied in the social relations of production as well as
in the status scale.
On the rural side there were the
following groups:
the large landowners (generally absent)
the small, landowners, the craftsmen, the agricultural workers
and the slaves.
On the urban side, one can denote a triple classification
within the upper middle class:
the sacerdotal aristocracy,
composed of the four families in which the Roman Procurater
chose the high priest5 the big merchants and the high offic ials. These two latter categories formed the laic aristo
cracy, There was then a "petite bourgeoisie", composed of
draftsmen, of small merchants, of middle level officials,
la'ics or priests or levites.
Last there were some workers,
generally attached to the Temple and a certain number of
slaves.
Finally, one must mention a marginal proletariat,
not integrated into the economic circuit and often composed
of people excluded from the organic social grouping for non
economic reasons.
And it is here that we must touch upon two other aspects of
the social stratification.
The first was an ethnic factor.
There were some pure and unpure Jews, the character of
legitimacy being notably assured by the ethnic gfouping. Thus
three categories existed? the legimates, those marked by
slight illegitimacy and those marked by gx-eat illegitimacy.
The latter were excluded.from any social participation.
It
must be said that the number of illegitimate Jews was greater
in Galilee, which was at the origin of the bad reputation of
this province.
In another connection there were, also some taboos of a
religious origin.
Those who had in one way or another
transgressed the law were considered sinners?
this designat
ion was generally temporary, but illustrated a sanction of a
legalist, religious nature.
Then people having certain
illnesses, notably mental illnesses (considered as possessed
by the Devil) and the lepers were considered unpure. This
is the reason why these people lived on the fringe of Palest
inian social and cultural life.
3.
THE ’.OLITIC/fL SYSTEM.
Cnee again, we are going to distinguish between the rural
society and the urban society.
In the rural society, the authority was tied to the "house” or
to lineage. Thus the head of the family was the oldest male
representative of the lineage and the latter was part of the
council of the elders of the village, collectively exercising
authority within the rural micro-society.
However, in order
to be part of the council of the elders, one had to be a pure
Jew. There was also a priest in each council. There was
consequently no division of classes, but a hierarchy of status,
very like the society of a clannish nature.
At the urban level, the society was evidently more complex.
There were first of all in most towns, some councils of
elders, to which only the aristocratic families, the large
landowners, etc,, belonged. These councils monopolised
the political and economic power and therefore already illus
trated tne establishment of a class society (even if the
concept of class does not entirely apply to this type of
stratification). At the level of the State, that is to say
Jerusalem, the situation of the political system was even more
complex.
The State was composed of two principal organs; the Sanhedrin
and the high priest.
The Sanhedrin had different functions in Judea, Galilee and
the Diaspora.
In Judea, it constituted the supreme and over
riding political power.
On the other hand, in Galilee, King
Herod governed under Roman control and the Jews of the Diaspora
belonged to diverse States.
In the last two cases, the
Sanhedrin played the role of the Supreme Court and of the
ideological power.
As a result, the superstructure represented
by the State was located in the. Temple. The Sanhedrin was
composed of 71 members, essentially belonging to two parties,
that of the Sadducee (the families of the high priest and
the elders of the aristocratic families) and the group of the
"petite bourgeoisie” composed of scribes, I-harispes, priests.
The high priest replaced the King after the Babylonian exile.
The office was hereditary, but ever since the establishment of
the Roman colonization, the titular was appointed by the
Roman procurator, While the Sanhedrin represented an author
ity, whinhioodasionally exercised itself, the High driest
represented the permanent supreme authority, exercised at the
outset of the Temple, at the political, administrative as
well as economic level.
Around the Temple was the sacredotal community, which was
responsible for the organisation of the worship and of the
police, carrying out this latter function through the
intermediary of the levites.
It was a priest who was the
treasurer and who exercised the financial office. There were
then a scries of officials, priests, levites and laics.
Cne cannot speak of the political system without referring
to the political stratification of the groups. Here is a
nomenclature which however, only takes the political aspect
into account.
It is evident that we will find these groups
again in the religious system,, for we cannot forget that the
latter is dominant in the Palestinian society.
The sadducees constituted the Jewish aristocracy and they were
linked through their economic interests to the colonial power.
The pharisees were members of the urban lower middle class;
craftsmen, small merchants, scribes, etc...Their political
power increased visibly after the Maccabees.
The zealots were a group which opted for a guerrilla solution
against the Romans, but also against the exactions of certain
large land owners. Their group seems to have had diverse
sources of inspiration;
Judas, the Galilean and one Saddoq,
a pharisee, but also some currents of hellenist origin.
The
ideology which guided it was quite typical of that cf the
pharisees, because it envisaged the- restoration of the Jewish
State in its theocratic dimension, in the line of a Davidic
messianism.
The recruitment of fighting men seems however to have taken
place in the small peasant class, which precisely suffered
in particular from the double colonial and local exaction.
Already prior to the time of Jesus, Roman repression against
similar movements was particularly brutal.
Thus it was
that Varius, the Roman legate of Syria, had 2,000 people
crucified. The zealots, animated by the political religious
ideology described above, arrived in power in the year 68,
after having killed the practising high priest. They estab
lished a new high priest, whom they chose in one of the trad
itional families and when the Romans! intervened against their
taking of p’ower, in 70, they defended the Temple, as a seat
of all the religious symbolic, tc the last man. This was what
caused the fall of Jerusalem.
The zealots movement, which
is sometimes presented as a guerrilla movement destined to
establish a society in which class divisions would be abolish.'
ed, therefore hardly had this character.
The small peasants
dragged into the ormed struggle were present owing to their
desperate situation, but not as a result of an ideology
representing their, objective interests.
Finally it is necessary to add tliat the political ties with
the colonising Roman Empire were established through means of
the existing jsolitical hierarchy.
Thus the high priest was
named by the Roman procurator, the members of the high Roman
Administration wero recruited in the aristocracy or in
Galilee among the Herodicians, and the publicans of Jewish
origin, were responsible for the collection of taxes.
The
whole of this network therefore made a connection permissable between the two models of production, that of the Roman
Empire and that of the Palestinian society.
4.
THE IDEOLOGICAL AND RELIGIOUS SYSTEM.
We will treat the ideological and religious system as one
because in the societies of the kind we are acquainted with
in Palestine, there was hardly any difference between the
two.
In fact, the ideology that we define as the explanat
ion and the justification of the social and political relat
ionships, was essentially religious.
We have seen that the
religious acts and the religious symbolic that the Temple
represented played a very important role at the economic,
social and political level.
The justification and the
mediation of this activity is found at the ideological level.
Obviously, it is difficult in several lines to describe the
crux of the socio—religious ideology of Israel during the
first century.
In short, one can say that the belief in a unique God, that
is to say the monotheism of the people of Israel, itself the
fruit of a long evolution, was at the base of the entire
ideological system.
God guided his people and Israel, had
to be faithful to him. This was part of a very fundamental
development of thought, which placed the origin cf the wcrld
and of man, in God, and illustrated the relationship between
■I
-•the two, notably through the myth of the fall and the intro
duction of evil into the world.
Combined with this as well
was an interpretation of the origin of the people of Israel,
tied to its ancestors Abraham, Isaac and Jacob.
The history
of Israel appeared as the formation of a people, which was
that of Yahveh the God become unique.
The conquest 6f Canaan was interpreted as the accomplishment
and the continuation of the benediction of God of his people
for the future, provided they obey the law.
From tribal societies one passed to the monarchy, which in
the prophetical literature became one of the symbols of
evil, of exploitation, and of what one could call in modern
language the appearance of a class society. Whence the re
action of the prophets, exhibiting a messianic hope, the idea
of a new alliance between God and his people, that of a new
Jerusalem, including a collective destiny of the people, but
inside of history.
What is interesting to bring into relief is the relationship
which existed between the religious ideology and the different
groups of which we have already spoken. Thus, the sadduccees,
representing the most conservative group, leaned mainly on
the Torah, the original law of Israel and opposed the
eschatological and apocalyptical currents, as well as the idea
of tlie resurrection of the dead.
On the other hand, the pharisees formed the center of the
eschatological c.nd apocalyptical religious production. Certain
of them developed a particular pessimistic idea of man,
leading to the importance of the other world, which ought to
be attained through a 'strict observance of the law. Their
ideology was quite typical of an urban class, which centered
its religious conviction on individual salvation.
Being the specialists of the religious legislation and of the
penal code the scribes had’practically the monopoly on the
knowledge of hebrew and as a result they disposed of a
rather important ideological control over the masses; They
were often the ones who were active in the synagogues the day
of the sabbath.' They shared a great extent as well, the
eschatological current and as a result they opposed themselves
to the group of priests.
The priests, part of an ethnic /group, the 24 lineages of the
tribe of Aaron, were divided into high clergy and low clergy
and had the monopoly on the ritual language, that is to Say
the worship.
They were aided, as has already been said, by
the levites, also belonging to a tribe.
The essenes formed a group of a monachal type, which resol
ved the problem through a life of recluse from th® world and
a retreat from society.
The zealots, lastly, formed an essentially political group,■
engaging in guerrilla activities, but ideologically centered
upon the restoration of the Davidic messianism.
As one sees it, these traits which ought to be studied thorough
ly, show that the diverse social groups adapted themselves in
a different manner to the religious ideology.
It is necessary to finally recall that God resided in the
Temple, making of the latter the sign and thevreality of the
divine guarantee given to the whole of the society of Israel.
IV.
SOME CONCLUSIONS.
This rapid analysis of the Palestinian society enables one to
8
realize that in a society such as that of Palestine of this
epoch, the function of the religious obviously went beyond
what we today call religious reality. In fact, the super
natural was present- everywheretand the Temple, symbol and
place of the divine presence, was equally the center of
political power and of economic power. As a Jesuit, it is
necessary to plo.ce oneself again in this position in order
to understand the events, of the time. We cannot judge the
Palestinian society, and the social and religious actors
who played a role in it, without keeping that in mind.
It
is not possible to act at the religious level, without also
acting at other levels. The distinctions with which we are
acquainted with between temporal and spiritual levels, between
the political and the religious, between specialized instit
utions in the various areas of human activity, did not exist
in the same way in societies of a pre-capitalist type.
To
interpret the activity of an actor, such as Jesus, in relation
to a purely religious reference, in the sense that we under
stand i-6 today, would consequently be wrong.
This is not to say that it is necessary in the words and acts
of Jesus to seek immediate justifications for an activity of
a political nature in contemporary societies.
But that means
that the interpretation of the Evangile can only take place
in taking into account anthropological and sociological
knowledge of the society in which the actor Jesus lived and
the type of domination which existed during this epoch and
against which he committed himself.
Thus for example, when he took a position in favour of the
poor, it is necessary tc know who were the poor in Palestine
at the time. A purely spiritual interpretation of their
position would be very dangero.us. The opposition to the
group of sadducees and pharisees, had more than a purely
religious meaning. The choice of the Apostles was equally
significant symbolically, in relation to the society of
the time.
The act of announcing a messianism, which was not that of
the restoration of the era of David, was evidently full of
social significance. The radical condemnation of the
religious power also had political and economic dimensions.
The subversion of the symbolic and ideological system was
also important.
It was notably a question of overturning
fundamental ideological codes of the pure and unpure, of
the rich and of the poor, of the crowd and of the powerful.
All that when put back in its place within a traditional
society of a pre-capitalist nature, has a very precise
■social and political dimension.
The act of reading the
religious imperatives from the bottom rather than from the
top of the socio-religious scale, as was the case in the
attitude of Jesus with regard to the Sabbath, the fast,
the new wine that one could not put into the old skins,
ought also to be placed within its general context.
The idea expressed of the destruction of the Temple, its
significance as a fundamental symbol of all the society and
not only as a religious symbol, can not be passed over in
silence.
±t is evident that Christ situated himself basically with
in the religious field, but this religious field within the
Palestinian society had a reverberation very different from
that of the religious field in our contemporary societies.
-
9
-
It is necessary finally to note that the death of Jesus was
the result of a coalition, between the forces of the Roman
Empire, the Jewish social elite (high priest, sadduccees),
the pharisees and even the crowd that chose Barrabas.
It
therefore seem that the message of Jesus went beyond all
of the projects that these different social groups could
have had and that the subversion of the social order that
his message and his practise signified, well understood
by the different groups which put him to death, went muchfurther, not only as a reference to some religious beliefs,
but even as a reorganization of the existing order.
Could
one not say that in regard to this subject the fundamental
project of Christ went in the direction of a utopia, which
might be represented, in modern language, through the creat
ion of a classless society?
THEOLOGY ANT
CHRISTIAN REFLECTION
For private ciruclation only
JUSTICE_,EEVBLOPMENT_,_LIBERAIION_ANL_THE_SPIkITUAL_EXERCISES
By Fr. Philip Land, S.J.
PART I = First Principle and Foundation
We reproduce here serially an article by Fr. Philip Land,S.J.
on the Ignatian Spiritual Exercises. In this article the
author makes an attempt at integrating into the Exercises
of St. Ignatius the new insights gained from Vatican II, the
Synod statement on "Justice in the World", the Jesuit
52nd General Congregation and the theology of Liberation.
Fr. Philip Land was professor of economics and social
sciences at the Gregorian University in Pome before under
taking responsibilities as senior staff researcher for
the Pontifical Commission Justice and Peace at the Vatican.
He also was a leading figure in Sodepax, the joint
Vatican-World Council of Churches'committee on society,
development ano peace (in Geneva). He has become staff
associate at Centre of Concern in Washington.
SOME ASPECTS OF THE FlhST bRINCIFLE AN! FOUNDATION
.
"God created man to praise, love and serve Him and by this means to
save his soul". The limitations of this formula have often been pointed
out. God cannot receive from humanity and surely does not needpraise, love or service. Praise, love and service are, however, appro
priate attitudes -and acts of human beings once God decided to create
them.
The tcmpxtation is to conceive this praise, love and service as
interiorized with God in a prayer closet. That is the kind of "service"
that provoked Metz to dub it '-'Privatized" — wholly without refe
rence to the world beyond the prayer closet, the world where people
— the other other — are and live and act. In short, it is a service
divorced from the public sphere, scene of political processes and
action.
Rather, these attitudes of praise, love end service ought to be
i expressed most fundamentally first in boinm what God intended people
to be, to be fully men and women. The pi-eatar praise of God is a
person fully alive, fully human.
Secondly praise and service ourht to bo through responsible enragemen
in the life of society. The mcasuremontof this is in largo degree ful
filment of the Creator's command to subdue the earth and bringforth
its fruits. Adam, because the world was his to organise and administer,
assumed the task of giving the animals their names. He cultivated the
Garden of Edon.
To organise, to administer, to exorcise governance and providence
under God, to give the cosmos a shape and the world moaning — all
this is humanity's task. Through it wo praise, love and serve our
Maker.
THE TEMPORAL ENGAGEMENT IN VA11CAN II
One may quarrel with those Christians who opt for witness to
eschatological waiting, but it is beyond dispute that the Church
from Vatican II until tho present strongly urges on Christian the option
(Contnd
page ...2
2
TEMPORAL ENGAGEMENT IN VATICAN II
of witnessing to the final kingdom through their work of constructing
its materiality here and now. To create a better world is to make an
agreeable offering to God under the sign of the kingdom. N9, the church
does not today thank those who continue to insist on opposing world
and church. It acknowledges their interpenetration from the opening
chapter of the Pastoral Constitution of Vatican II. That it also learns
from the world is its explicit admission in that same Council '. " The Chur
Church knows how richly it has profited by the history and development
of mankind" (GS ^4), and from the world "It understands better the
structures of its own life." ( Ibid. 3)
The Council had its own word on the kind of spirituality this
option of witnessing through engagement woul'd require. Firs of all,
"no one may be content with a merely individualistic morality", but
on the contrary, must "promote and assist the public and private
institutions dedicated to bettering the conditions of human life"
(Ibid.30). Still more to the point, there are "in our times special
obligations.... to make ourselves.the neighbor of absolutely every
person....", ( Ibid).27)
The Council’s next' ^>oint is that the fulfilment of such demanding
obligations will.require a spiritual formation that cultivates " the
moral and social virtues and -promotes them in society". People so
formed with the help of grace will prove "truly new and artisans of a newg
humanity will be forthcoming " (Ibid.30 ). Later in another context, we si
shall see how the 1971 Synod in its document Justice in the World re
inforces this point,.as does also the Synod of 197^.
THE EXEHCISES TOO INDIVIDUALISTIC?
It has rightly been charged that the Exercises, as given, have
often failed to do this, but rather have produced an inversion, a nar
cissism, a turning inward and away from mission as we have defined it.
What. Pedro Aruppe, S.J., has warned about Jesuit education is an
equally relevant warning on the way ±k the Exercises are at times
presented 1 " The cuurch is engaged in a massive effort to ... re-educate
... so that we may all ’lead bur lives in their entirety... in accord
with the evangelical principles of personal and social morality...' to
form porsons-for-others J who cannot conceive a love of God that does
not include love for our least neighbor and that doos not issue in
justice " ( Men for Others).
Elsewhere, again speaking of Jesuit education, but equally appli
cable to the Exercises, Fr. Arupne adds ’ "This education must not
be confined to person-to-norson service, but must also include that most
fundamental and,today, most necessary service to contemporary society,
namely contributing to changing’ those structures and actual conditions
which arc oppressive and-unjust. Therefore wo have to form, as it were,
agents of change and liberation in modern society. This means a creative
education, forming from our students mon and women able to anticipate
the new order of human existence and capable of collaborating in resha
ping the now society which is already emerging from the debris of our
times."
For their part; the Jesuits have responded to the leadership of
their General — and to the. Council (.as well as to the Synod of 1971
and 197^) -.- airi their Thifty-Second General.Congregation, which
finished in February. 1975- An introductory statement on " Jesuits Today"
maintain that to be a Jesuit today requires engagement under the Cross
in the crucial struggles of our times, the struggle for faith and the
struggle for justice which the first includes^. Still more, this must
be the main focusx of Jesuit activity. ’" Jesuits choose participation
in this struggle as a focus that identifies in our times what Jesuits
are and do". Further on, this emphasis is reasserted
"Service ’of the
faith and Justice is not one ministry among others, but the integrating
factor of all our work and also of our inner life..." It should be added
that the Jesuits are not alone in focussing mission on Justice. Many
othei- religious congregations have -in t icierted the Jesuits in arriving
at that conviction.
ENGAGEMENT CONSTITUTIVE TO HAMANITY
" Man was created". Our reflection on the Ignatian Principle and
Foundation evokess another consideration i engagement in this world
is a constitutive dimension of humanity. Humanity was created in time
and space. The world is the stage
there is no other. It is the funda
mental Jjorizaen of reflective life. It is there that thought begins.
Without that world we should have no art, and to that world and cos
mos we are inseparably joined, spirits linked through bodies into
an organum of space and time which is neither alien nor hostile terri
tory but our natural ambience. Our link is even ad Jesus is so linked now
and forever through His body.
The world is our stage and we cannot leave it to play out our life
roles elsewhere. Moreover, the Ignatian meditation suggests the additio
nal reflection that as creation is the continuous work of God so is the
making of a better world our ongoing task as co-creators. We are neverendingly responsible for our part in creation. We must be engaged in
our world as God was and is, revealing Himself in the events that make
up the succeeding epochs of humanity's history. In moments of the Jews'
actihg, doing, suffering, God came to them and gave them His name.
In that series of events (to take’ the first, the liberation from the
bondage of Egypt) God brought salvation and made an alliance- with His
people. His naming of Himself was in temrs of a power joined to their
struggle to free themselves.
But we are created inaordor of grace, and the Council both in Lumen
Gentium as well as in Gaudium and Spos underscores the significance of
Christian.action for humanity. This is the sign-value of our lives. For the
the church as occlesial community is a sigh to the world. The people
of God are the sign — a sign, as said above, of community among people
and, by design, in Christ J sign of God's action in the world for its
humanization, for justice, a sign of that action which is almost exer
cised' through a grace not directly under the hierarchical church's ad
ministration, but which flows in other fashion through Christ's huma
nity as revelation of grace, as guarantor of the ultimate meaning of
human existence.
But the point I want to make is that the church cannot be this
sign if it is not. in the world, if its views itself rather as a s.uperstr
structure above and outside of the life' of men and women. Christians
working in and for-the.world, in daily options of moral value are signs
of salvation. They show that eschatological faith has .meaning for here
and now, for those seeking to build an earthly future. Christian spi
rituality may hot abandon people to their works in order to live “separately
tely a life of prayer. The oucharist, celebrativo of the oschaton, must
in the broad that human hands bring to it, seal the osepthon as operative
also in human history.
All this co-croativity of man is summed up succinctly by the
Council I " When people develop the earth by the work of their hands
... in order that it might boar fruit and become.a dwelling worthy of
the whole human family and when they consciously take part in the life
- of aosical groups, tncy carry out the design of God manifested at the
beginning of time.... that they should subdue the earth, perfect creation
and develop themselves" ( GS 57).
INSTITUTIONAL CREATION
The human race co-droates even'itself, for through civilization
and culture it becomes a second nature. It also recreates the original
resources of the earth, by renewing them, prolonging them, substituting
for them when they disappear. But humanity's creative energies and the
exercise of the creation mandate extend beyond the dosmos and.nature
to the creation of the city, the-polis. Humanity is political J and the
creation of the good city is another road of praise and service of the
Creator, for the Maker cannot but want all that is essential to the
fulness of the human race in this life.
Feeding into that fulness is the network of interpersonal relation
ships that extends the person outward in openness to the other, in
roundness through exchange of personal gifts, in extension of indivi
dual potential through communal life, in self-expression through par
ticipation.
Through such creative exchanges, crude nature takes on cultivated
forms, work becomes organized, common possessions are born, the po
litical community takes on structure. Gaudium et Spes devotes several
chapters to those cultural -achievements, and finds orientation for
them in Christ, the New Man.
In separate chapters, the Pastoral Constitution dwells on two
essential aspects.
First, the cornerstone of that polis must be a free people. God
created humans free, to glorify God in the exercise of that freedom.
As they multiplied and differentiated into diverse races and peoples,
their understanding of the good city would have its legitimate dif-r
ferences and their options would be distinct. But this freedom, expressed
in a variety of political choices, God saw as good, as humans becoming
more human, us imaging forth more the Maker.
Secondly, the human city must also be a place where people dwell in
community, in justice, in peace and in love.
Community is demanded, for even the life of God is relational with
the Father related to Son in Fatherhood, and the Son reciprocally re
lated to the Father in Sonship, while the Holy Spirit draws origin from
the mutual love of Father and Son and lives a life of reciprocation.
df.God's own life is relational, sharing, communal — and so a life
of union — we who are God's image must have a oike life.It is to this
likeness that Vatican II calls our attention * " Indeed the Lord Jesus,
when Ho prayed to the Father, 'that all may bo one .... as we are one'
• (Jn 17’ 21-22), opened up vistas, closed to human reason. For He
implied a certain likeness between the union of divine persons and the
unity of God's children in turth and charity" ( Gaudium and Spes 2^)
Chapter two of Gaudium ct Spes on " the community of mankind"
spells out in some detail the obligations this unity entails. "The
progress of the human, person and the advance of society itself hinge
on one another ... " 5 Gaudium et Spes 25)
.
*
The paragraphs that follow
employ the language of "social ties", " rediprocal ties" , "sociali
zation". The document next affirsm the tightening of human interde
pendence in a "social life which greatly aids the person in responding to
to his destiny oven in its religious dimensions ... ( Ibid).
SUMMING UP THE COUNCIL'S ANTHROPOLOGY
What Vatican II had to say on Christian anthropology and cosmology
can be summed up in four propositions
z
1)' The transformation of this world is the autonomous task of humanity.
2) It ( the transformation) is salvific
5) It prepares for the coming of Christ
4) It is a sign of ultimate transformation.
It is autonomous I " Human activity takes its significance from .its
relationship to humans. Just as its proceeds from humans, so it is order''ordered to.humans. And if by the autonomy of earthly affairs we mean
that created thinp-s and societies themselves enjoy their own-lwas and vale.
values ... then it is entirely right to demand that autonomy" ( Gau
dium et Spes, 35,36)
It is salvific ’. " They can justly consider that by their labor they
arc unfolding the Creator's work ..." ( Gaudium et Spes 3
0
*
It prepares for Christ's coming ‘ " All temporal activity continues
the earthly task of the Savior .... and anticipates ... the victory
of the resurrection.When we work to overcome sin, disease, famine,
pollution ... all this contributes to the growth of t"he Body of
Christ on earth ... to the. church " ( Gaudium et Spes )
Rightly autonomous, these activities as aiding people to become
more fully human, are also religious for the reasons discussed above.
Paul VI was explicit on this in his address for the Mission Sunday
of 1970 I " These activities can become one with evangelical activity
when, raised on the level of charity they become ends, as it were,
in themselves." This means that the efforts to advance science for
5
human purposes, to spread technological control over the discov.qry
and management of the resources of nature, the efforts at social
liberation — all efforts to bring about a more human life..— are
salvific, are evangelization. They will be recapitulated .in the
Headship of Jesus. Indeed, in some mysterious fashion, as.we.have learned
from the council, people, thus, though unaware of it, approach Jesus.
Transformation of this world is a sign. " Sincere efforts prepare in
some way and anticipate 'in signo' the transfiguration of nature and
the perfect communion that will be achieved at the end of time "
( Gaudium at spes)
LINKING BACK TO THE EXERCISES
These reflections may seem distant from the initial Ignatian con
templation on the First Principle and Foundation. To me, they are not.
They are the theological heart of the act of creation, which was (and is )
is) carried out through the redemptive Word of God's Son. They are
implicit anthropology and cosmology for understanding the mandate to
"fill the earth and subdue it j and have dominion..." These, I submit,
are reflections that could set the exercitant off on a new course, or
confirm his present concern for evangelizing this world.
There is one further link to the First Principle and Foundation to
which I have already alluded J i.c., the fact that work to humanize and
transform this life is that "praise, love, service" that Ignatius places
as cornerstone. To make people more human is to show reverence for the
Creator and His work. To do justice is to love God, for without justice
to our neighbour, wo do not — as I show in a later section — love God.
We praise God by establishing on earth conditions of decency for alii
adequacy of food, clothing, shelter, health, education, security together
with freedom, and peace for all people, everywhere. This sums up what
Paul VI calls humanity's right to development", understood as integral
ly human and rooted in human dignity. Yes, this humanization of life
is praise of God, but it has never been and never will be easy. And one
can surmise that even in the absence of sin, it would have its problems,
as billions filled the earth. It is then a task that requires the social
and public exercise of intelligence, prudence and fortitute j of the
sparing and loving care of nature, of all that may be summed up as stew
ardship.
TOO WORLDLY A THEOLOGY ?
One encounters frequently enough those who cry scandal.at a theo
logy that so inexorably leads to commitment to this world. The objections
take different forms though virtually playing variations on the same
theme.
One argues that this is too secularist a theology. But secularis
secularism is quite different etihing from the secularity this theology
supports. Secularism in principle is opposed to religion , secularity
simply states the rightful autonomy of created things in their order.
it affirms that they have value in themselves — a value, of course, g
given them by God their Creator.
But, the contenders return to object,this loaves the world too
independent of the sanctification that should be imposed on it.
The answer first recognizes that the world should indeed be sancti
fied, but that sanctification must leave thin^ in their proper "profane"
secular nature. The Christian makes use of this secularity for God
and according to- God's design. The secular thcus enters into real, if
mysterious relation to the oscathological order. What sanctification
may not mean is a "consecration" that intends to sacralize the temporal
order or to place the world under the church which as sacred institution
places its seal upon all that is outside it — the secular order.
The objectors have still another arrow in their kit. This emphasis
(they say) on humanity's role in making its own history takes away
from Christ's role as Lord of secular as well as sacred history. God
is both Creator and Savior, Lord of the one and other history. His
over-arching design embraces creation — and He creates at every
moment, so our history is His — and covenant. The Only consequence
that can properly' be drawn from this admittedly correct premise is
that made abundantly above. Th restate it briefly,, the humanization
of life is related eschatologically to the religious mission of the
covenant God makes with His people. We work this field of mother
earth for the Lord and the fruits of our work are charity. The making
of our history does not remove all this from its constituted state of
being created, but God does not sec this activity as in opposition.
Vatican II assures us that God is not jealous Z "Thus, far from thinking
that works produced by humanity's own talent and energy are in
opposition to God's power, and that the rational creature exists as a kind
kind of rival to the Creator, Christians are convinced that the triumphs
of the human race arc a sign of God's grace and flowering of his own
mysterious design. For the greater one's power becomes, the father
Jiis individual and community responsibility extends. Hence it is clear
that people are not deterred by the Christian message from building up
the world, or impelled to neglcdt the-welfare of their fellows. They
are, rather, more stringently-bound to do these very things"
(Gaudium et Spes)?4)
Congar has recently pointed out that the clement of the sacred in
divinization ( in the sense just described) is better named "expe
rience of the transcendent". He makes the further point that where in
other times subordination of ends was assured by subordination of
temporal (political) power to priestly power, the Second Vatican Council
rightly established that guarantee, not in subordination of politi
cal power to ecclesial, but in the temporal's order's escathological
relationship. The temporal — total dynamic of humanity's work
in and on the cosmos — is not under the church. The church -- but
mainly through the community of the People of God — assures
subordination of ends and spiritualization of temporal activity by
its evangelical message which enlightens values and strenghtens their
exercise through the sacraments, grace, the presence of the Holy
Spirit. The Christian is a ferment, an animator.
It is thus that the church is Sacramentym Mundi, sign of union
of all people among themselves and with God j for the church commu
nion shows that human solidarity must have its source in a union of
hearts, just as the union of the Christian people is rooted'in common
belief and love.
The church as sign brings me to add to what I earlier said on
the eociolcgical side of the "signs of the times" — a word
W
about their value as indicators that we can discover God in the events
and aspirations which make up life and history. Gaudium eid spes 11
sees in them the possibility of being "authentic signs of God's
presence ... purpose ... and values", insofar as they stem from cnuowscr.t
endowments conferred by God on humanity. Pope John in his inauguration
of the Council, reviewing some of the'-'signs of the times"', argued
that " in the present order of things' Divine Providence is leading
us to a new order of human relations".. That new order was for him
fulfillment of God's design as it was also a sign of eschatological
community.
But as Gaudium et Spes indicates, the signs are bearers of God's
presence in a second sense, that of revealing Christian values and
meaning. In His creation, God's definitive Word is the Word incarnated
in Jeans , but God permitted our humanity itself to be a partial
revelation. Durwell has written with great intuition of what Mary in hers
herself' tells us about God. Jesus Himself, as ho gro.ws in the unfolding
of His humanity reveals the potentiality the Creator placed in the
Humanum -- even as lived by people other than the Son of the Carpen
ter. We should not therefore be astonished that the aspirations of
men and women and other developments wa have been reflecting on are
signs in the sense that they reveal something of God/'s truth imprinted
in-humanity.
Source -
Studies in the International Apostolate of Jesuits, June 1976
JUSTICE, DEVELOPMENT,-LIBERATION AND THE SPIRITUAL EXERCISES
PART II = THE TWO STANDARDS
The following is a contiruation of Part I, "First
Principle and Foundation", in the series "Theology
and Christian reflection".
INTRODUCTION
Ignatius, as a preliminary to his meditation and examination on
personal sin and reform of life, bids us reflect on the Standard or
platform of thp two opposed camps in the battlefield for men and
women — that Satan and that of Christ. One could lump under this
title all the examinations to follow, those on reformation of
values and those on transformation of sinful structures of injus
tices. But there is a logic that justifies separating the two and
taking here — under the platform or programme of Christ and
Satan — the first task, that of reforming values.-
THE CAMP OF SATAN
Here stand those >who have opted to follow the banner of the devil
Satan proposes to them success in t'his world if they are prepared to
set aside religion,the ennemy of human progress by its affirmation of
the future hope Jif thev will onlv accord to the temporal order an
autonomy that frees it from all dependence on a Lord God Creator( if
they will only look exclusively to scientific reasonning for the
meaning of the human race and its cosmos, and affirm humanity as sole
artisan of history in a practical repudiation of God (Caudium et
Spes, 19-21)
This is the great temp tationof the people of our times and exercitants ought on occasion reflect on their reponsibilities of mission here.
(The Thirty-second General Congregation of the Jesuits has reconfirmed
the mission to fight atheism asked of its preceding Congregation by
Pope Paul ). In our post-Christian Western World, but especially in
Asia, the world of evangelical effort will be to understand these
forms of atheism, reflect on our possible responsibility for any of
them (Gaudium and Spes, 19 ), and learn — learn because we do not yet
possess answers that can open the goodness to the Word of Christ.
Satan's call is also to a practical atheism — one that Christians can
be guilty of. It is a call to serve self, to turn away from the Crea
tor to creatures. Satan is a false god, and those who follow under that
banner set up their own fals gods I self, greed, pride, prestige, money,
power, wordly success. Because of these, they are led to use-other
people to serve their own egoistic ends. In consequence, they are led
to abuse the rights of others, to subiugate them, to deny them
opportunities for work, for Pay.., housing, education, security, oppor
tunity of advancement, aid rightful participation in society.
All this constitutes that practical atheism which is the alienation of
men and women from God in a world of false values,, in a social order
of oppression and.violence.
Clearly , the theoretical and practical atheism of Stan's camp is
a challenge to the tetreatant not just to cease his or personal
abuse of creatures-, thus turning back to the Creator "to save his or her
soul" but even more, it is to ask what is the retreatant's mission
Contnd .... following page .
2
in this battlefield
of atheism.
This requires that the exercitant be induced to reflect also on the
extent to which he or she and all other people arc caught up in the
determinism of the established mores, the social conscience of society
— a conscience that supports established interests and is propagated in
$n turn by those same interests'.
Agere contra must embrace working to upset and transform the network
of values, norms and behavior patterns that are embedded in the social
structures which constitute the context of the exercitant's election.
To choose for Christ will mean choosing against uncritical acceptance
of the day's accepted values. It. will mean examining whether the
exercitant in effect supports and perpetuates a social system that
has godless elements, that is unjust. The call of Christ mut be seen
as a call to do battle also on this field.
THE CAMP OF CHRIST
To do battle is the challenge, and under the banner ov Christ. In
contrast to the. strategy of the evil one, that of Christ is the program
of the beatitudes.
It is the strategy of the eschatological prophet announced by Isaiah
(42 C 1 - 4- ) , called to bring the Good News to the poor, to proclaim
liberation to captives, to bring justice among humans (lk 4)
This, according to Fr. Juan Alfaro, S.J.. .(Theology of Justice in the
World, p. 24) is the context in which the beatitudes proclaimed by the
eschatological prophet must be understood I "How happy are you who are
poor I yours is the Kinddm of God. Happy you who are hungry now I you
shall be satisfied " ( Lk 6
20-21)
Modern exegesis recognizes that this text of Luke offers the ori
ginal version, whereas the rendering by Mathew ( "the poor in spirit",
"those who hunger and thirst for what is right") includes a later
addition. It is also recognised that the Lukan text clearly alludes to
Isaiah 61 I 1 - 2 . The poor are those dominated by the powerful. They
are the hungry, the afflicted.
They are proclaimed.happy because they are to be the beneficiaries
of the liberating intervention of God, because God is about to inau
gurate His kingdom, in whidh they will be the privileged. Jesus is the
messenger of the reign. He who brings the news of the liberation of
the afflicted. "The poor and the hungry must not be thought of as other
than the words indicate -- unfortunate people. The explanation of their
privilege lies, not in themselves, but in God and in the way God wishes
toe exercise His sovereignty in favour of the weak and the destitute".
According to Alfaro I " The presupposition of the Beatitutes lies
in the concept of the Kingdom of God and of his justice in Deutero
Isaiah and in the whole of biblical revelation ... God would not be
the ideal King were he not the defender and protector of the oppressed
... His justice is at stake."'The poor, the hungry, the oppressed are
those who suffer actual poverty,, hunger, oppression^ "they are
'blessed' because, through Jesus, God intervenes in their favour as
their liberator".
This brings Alfaro to the inescapable conclusion J " In the Sermon
on the Mount Jesus makes his own t£e Old Testament's vision of God
as defender of tne poor and of the oppressed. He presents the Kingdom
of God, about tbobe realized in His own person, as the fulfillment of
God's justice for the helpless. Ho is the Messiah, through whom God will
free the oppressed".
One could add to the Sermon on the Mount rich reflections from
Luke's writings I renunciation of the riches to join the blessed J
salvation to those (Zacchacus) prepared to part with their goods ,’
the sharing in common (Acts) J the rich man called to judgment at the
moment of filling his barns J the juegment of Dives.
But the most richly interpretative of the mystery of poverty is
Mary's magnificat. Her gGodd feeds the hungry. He lifts up the humble
even as He throws down the rich in the pride of their hearts. The God
of Mary turns humanity's values upside down. He blesses the humble
3
class of people who, free of riches, can be poor in spirit and open
to God — the poor in spirit represented by the Lord's humble handmaid.
THE MYSTERY OF POVERTY
Poverty is a mystery, not in the sense that it is un-understandable,
but rather in that there are layers within layers of meaning to be
discovered for Christian life. The mystery is highlighted, to begin with,
in Christ'.s deliberate choice to be poor (relative poverty,' for His
father was an artisan), to identify with the poor, to preach His Gospel
to the poor, to associate in His ministry with the poor, the foolish,
the rejected of this world.
The mystery, then, is one of voluntary poverty — of the self
emptying of the Son of God in His taking upon Himself the poverty of
our flesh. Voluntary poverty is a sign to a world that believes only
in riches, comfort, material things and the power of moony. It is a
sign that fallen humanity can achieve that liberation from these attach
ments which purifies and prepares for lovo of God and our neighbor. It
is a sign that people must be free of that attachment to the good life
that makes it intolerable for them to contemplate sharing with the poor
of the world, or the sharing of rich lands with poor lands. It is a sign
that poverty forced on some people must be ended by the voluntary assump
tion of poverty by others.
JESUIT 3 2ND CONGREGATION AND 'POVERTY
To return once again to the Jesuits' Thrity-second General Congre
gation, they together with so many other congregations, have sensed how
the mystery of poverty has in different epochs renewed the Church, and
now must renew Jesuit spirit; Hence their call to "new experiential
knowledge of poverty" ,’ hence, too, their repetition that "the charism
of the Society is to serve Christ poor and humble" and to find in that
imitation of Christ's poor, not only ascetic moral perfection but also
and even more evangelical motive force .
This leads the General Congregation to propose questions for exami
nation that any religious could well reflect on (they can be adapted for
lay persons) I
-hjn a^worl^oi^’mass' starva?iofi'"&6'1 'perhaps too lightly call myself
poor ?
- Is my standard of living much above that of " family of slender■
means whose providers must work hard for its support" ( exa
mining therefore my use of food, drink, lodging, clothing, tra
vel, recreation, vocation, independence in use of money )?
Do our ministries identify us too much with the rich and powerful?
- Are they too much based on security of possession, power ? Can
we witness to Christ who frees if we are excessively attached to
our institutions ?
- Do I resolve the tension between apostolic efficiency and
apostolic poverty generally in favor of the former ?
The apostolic emphasis which religious congregations are giving their
understanding of poverty is squarely within the main thrust of this
paper. Equally, as this paper, they stres that the poor ourhgt to be
viewed not just as individuals but as a class of people. The political
implications drawn are that the evangelizer must take his or her place
on their under-privileged side. He or she {joins the struggle to over
throw structures, laws, values that may bo the cause of their poverty.
Such commitment in the eyes of the poor is sign of the grcatxsttruth
of the mystery of Christ the poor man.
True, it can never be said enough that to fight for the cause of
Christ requires an interior person, a person of the interior freedom which
is the indifference of the Exercises, a person of agore contra , a con
templative. But the temptation is to believe that such formation necessa
rily transforms the world and brings about justice, that spiritual people
necessarily stamp their cultures and change social symptoms. Experience
does not generally support this latter view. True, without change of
4
heart or metanoia, there will be no true justice or humanization of
life. It is ture that contemplation can be subversive in the sense
that it prepares hearts and minds for the radical upheaval that may
be called for. Still everyone knows men and women of intensely inte
rior life who, if they do not altogether dismiss contact with the- reality of change and its political implications, can never bring
themselves to enter into effective engagement in the fight for justice
and freedom, justifying their aversion on the grounds that such action i?
is horizontalism, neo-pclagianism, or inimical to the Spirit.
Source ="Studies in the International Apostolate of Jesuits"
June 1976
THEOLOGY AND
CHRISTIAN REFLECTION
JUSTICE,
LIBERATION AND THE SPIRITUAL EXERCISES
By Philip Land, S.J.
PART III = SIN IN,.THE EXERCISES
DEVELOPMENT?,
PVE
PERSONAL AND SOCIAL ASPECTS OF SIN
The Two Standards meditation proposes two cities born of two cities
opposed loves. Love of self leads from idolatry of creatures to the
rejection of God J love of God, to self-forgetfulness. The Exercises
here propose a’ reflection on sin to bring conversion to God. This begins
with the "Triple Sin ", "the groat corruption of the whole human race".
Here, the aim will be to ask for a new,fuller understanding of this
corruption that touches humanity. There is original sin, of course, but
there is the personal sin as well on the part of individuals and of
groups and the acquiescence in sin of even larger collectivities
even the totality of a society. What were the human options, motivations,
ideals that imbedded sin in structures, value systems, ideologies,
mass behavior ?
Sin is and must be of a person, i.e., personal. Evil is from the
heart (see Mt. 15) • It can be only in one capable of loving, for it
is false love, rejection of "right-ordered", love, abandonment of
freedom for slavery.
3ut sin cannot be separated from its relation to the other.. First
of all, sin is against people, against humanity's good, and therefore
against God Himself. It distorts relations between people, between
people and nature, between humanity and the cosmos, its total environ
ment — and so between humanity and God. Thus, conversion to God must in
some sense mean conversion to people — to the good of the people.
That is what Aquinas meant when he said that Adultery is not evil
because God forbids it. God commands not to ,do it because it is against
humanity's good. Sin is not a conversion to creatures and to the world,
as is often said. If it turns from God, it equally and antecedently
turns away from people — people as created by God in His image. It
repeats implicitly God's covenant with people by putting up false
gods — those we contemplated in the preceding session ? false values,
possessions, power. It thus sins against the righteousness that is (on
our side ) faithfulness to the covenant.
Every time people or nations turn ‘the resources of the earth
away from the service of the human community to the satisfaction of
their'egoism, individual or•collective, they sin in the radical sense
of injuring the human community, and so turn from God. It is on this
same score that advertizing which narrows a person to a consumer,
technology that threatens survival, urban planning and housing that
is indifferent to the human habitat, politics that is self-serving
against community good, use of power to gain privileges (e.g., by
turning the law or its administration to one's advantage), refusing
one's fair share of community burdens (tax or other) — it. is on this
score that all those are sin, social sin in their consequence.
SIN IN SINFUL STRUCTURES
The Sybod of 1971 says in Justice in the World that "society is
marked by grave sins of injustice" j that " sin (has) individual and s
social manifestations"J that " Unjust structures place obstacles in
the way of conversion of the heart" ", that " the practice of ponande
(must) emphasize the social dimension of sin".
That view is reflected in’ the -carefully ’thought out statement
2
Sift 1ft slfti'bL bTxtOG'rijKh.S ( Contnd )
of the Jesuits' 32nd General Conprcgation * "In the li^ht of the Gospel
men scc that- injustice springs from sin personal and collective, and made
all-thc„.more oppressive by being built into •economic, .so.c.ial.-, political
and cultural institutions of world-wide scope and overwhelming power ",
Here the decree refers’ tn■ Guadiurc et.jSpes, Populorum Progrossio (Pl-55)
and Octogesima £.dveniens(^5) •
True, to repeat, there is no sin that is not of a person. So sinful
structures are the result of.personal sin j '"hoy arc the crystallization
of someone 's evil. An institution doos not formally sin, but it can
represent mass collectivization of responsibii ity.'"Structures can and do
nerpotvato sin, rive it a"stain of permanency.
Nevertheless, the gvnod gives full recognition' to a social reality
■ of sin, as exemplified'ifi institutionalized violence j war ano strife
for egoistic ends J apd cultural', economic'political 'domination either
of? one people, by another or of one's own people by the .powerful few.
These sinful structures are, as the Synod declared, obstacles to t. the
moral life. On this Vatican II agreed '
"But if by this social life the human person is greatly aided in res
ponding to his destiny, even in its religious dimension, it cannot b«
denied that people ares often diverted from doing good and spurred
toward evil by the social circw. stances in which they live and are
. immersed ... To-be sure',-the. disturbances which so froouc-ritly occur
in the social order result in part from the-natural-tensions .of economic
political and social life. But at -a-deeper level they flow from
humanity's pride and selfishness, which Ponturinate even the social
sphererc When the structure of affairs is flawed by the consequences
of sin, people, already .born with a bent toward evil, find there rev;
inducements to sin ... ". ( Ga.udiur'pt Bros h5)
ft
In another passage the Pastoral Constitution with. sli<ht variation makes
the same point 2 ■
"Now a person can scarcely arrive at the needed sense of responsibility
unless his living conditions allow him to become conscious'of his
dignity ... .But .human freedom .is .often crippled v-’hen a person falls
into extreme poverty, -iust as it withers' when he indulges in too many
of life's comforts and imprisons, himself in ... splendid isolation"
(Gaudium et Spes 31)
It is tru^ that,-though conditioned, the 'b- man- will is not absolutely
determined by social structures, as Marxists contend. Still, in our thinkirg
' loving and living we are affected by our moral environment, by the value
system we live in. Thus, freedom can be limited, i'he humanization and
liberation of life can.be limpeddd, the world's encounter with its God
halted. Injustices and strife can.force us to excessive preoccupation
with the temporal, thus depriving us.of contemplation. Those , therefore,
who-believe in maximizing the interior life, should be the first to be
concerned in combatting injustice,
Insofar as we fail to do nanything to chage. those- evil social situation,
we share complicity — .at least tothe extent of serious sins of omission.
Vie do still worse insofar as we use those structures, for in so doing we
are using pur -sisters and brother's. Nor can we. easily extricate our
selves from, responsibility by assuring'ourselves that, we move within
these exploitative power structures more- unconsciously than less. '
At this noint, the challenge to the way in which the Exercises are
’often mad
*
xs that thoxr refleetxjbn on'inordxriate affections is too
narrow. Excluded arc our obstinate clinging to our society's values,
myths, ideologies, structures^ power organizations.and .positions of
privilege Jincluding .those of an ecclesiastical nature ). Instead of
challenging only our intivjcual personal manifestations of. attachment
to riches ane honor’s, 1 et us question Ourselves on all those other
social forms of die»rd«red affections.
Source = "Studies in the International ftnostolote of Jesuits", June «7f>
THEOLOGY AjNL
'ION
JUSTICE-, EEVELC'PfeNT , LIBERATION' AND TEE SPIRITUAL EXERCISES
by Philip__l:;ndi_S4J.
PAST IV = LIBERATION IK TTI.-; EXERCISES
INTRODUCTION
It is this context of social sin that provides the basis for theo
logy of liberation, in whatevef. form it . he presented. No cotter where
they r>ay end up or what route the'- may take.to pet there, all the various
typos of this theology pronose as their objective the creation of the
conditions of interior freedom so that people may become more fully
hu^an even to final consummation in transcendental corarunion with the
Triune God. Their goal is interior freedom — a heart freed from all
egoism and sin and open both to Christ, the guarantor of freedom, and
to the creative forces of His Spirit and His Lordship active in
society.
But this salvation ano liberation, this newness of life and the unfol
ding of humanity in Christ ( Col 2 .’ 9) must be' integral — humanity as
body and spirit, as individual and collective, within its cosmos and
history first and then beyond time.
On a second point all liberation theology agrees. If liberation
begins with the hoar>t of hu-'ankind, it also includes liberation from
sinful and un.ivst structures. Still more, if at its ultimate root libe
ration is the work of Christ on the interior of a person.', this does not
preclude Cod's (and our) direct attack on sinful structures exterior to
people. God the Father through Christ,, according to the Fagnificot, scat
tered the proud in the conceit of their hearts, put down the ^i-hty,
exalted the lowly, sent the rich awav empty. Go even now the same Father,
through Christ, liberates also the' social order by the movement of His
Spirit dwelling in that order and bv ITis Eucharistic presence as a social
force against the powers and principalities.
CCUrTEB-REVCLUTIiN / THE STrUCGLL FOR JUSTICE
Idols false values, undisclosed controlling ideologies, structures
of injustice — do these have names for us?iArbhthey represented by
capitalism, the affluent society, consurorism, domination offthe poor
nations of the Third lor Id ?
In the mind of liberation theologians, there is no doubt about it I
here is the enemy. Hence, justice demands a Christian to enlist on the
side of the oppressed in tno class strurrle — first in the poor lands
dominated by Western capitalism, abetted by the privileged class within
the poors notions themselves. But it is a class strug. le that must
extend to the victims of capitalism within the capitalist countries
themselves and to their masses, of poor, their popprossed, even their
classes ju.-t above the absolute poverty line which receive enough of
a trickle-down of the good life to trick them into the belief that the
future holds more and thus reduces them to subyir,~ive acceptance of the
sytero.
To enter very dcerly into this discussion would extend this paper
unduly. But it i.o not necessary to establish the Latin A-"o pica-and.
Marxist thesis in all its starkness in order to be able to recognize that
in our socio-economic system. —call it capitalism or what you will —
there is plenty of in-Justice, plenty of domination, -lenty of the
inhuman, plenty of the uromol:ion of un-Crbs? tian values. "'c can not be
THE STRUGGLE FOR JUSTICE ( Contnd)
defenders of the status ouo; for in any absolute sdnse it is alto
gether indefensible.
Neither can we be passive in acceptance of the situation, shrugging
our shoulders, and dismissing our responsibilities. In the confession
of theEucharist we ask to be pardonnod also for our sins of omission,
and objectively speaking, these can be grave anoug.
In some degre or other , at some point or other — idols, ideology,
dehumanizing aspects of our system, the shocking persistence of the
thidk layer of poverty, the harrowing question of the degree to which
massibe wealth is at the expense of the poor — at some point, I must
accept challenge. I must become part of a counter-cultural revolution
in the name of Christianity and join the dispossessed in their struggle
for justice.
Obvious cautions have to be raised at this point for freedom-fighters.
First of all, not everything that appears to be unjust is so. One needs only read Myrdal's Asian Drama to see how such a-balanced supporter of
the Thrid World's cause ( Gunner Myrdal is a principal architect of
Sweden's socialism) place large responsibility for Asian poverty on
the unwillingness of leaders and privileged classes in the Thrid World
to make the changes in mentality and structures reeuired for develop
ment. Myrdal, needless to say, raises even more powerful-challenges to
the persistent domination by the rich nations.
Secondly, objectively unjust situations in cases go unchanged mainly
because economists arc hopelessly, if honestly, divided.on how to
remedy them. This is true on a dozen measures before the world commu
nity in the so-called New International Economic Order — to cite a few Z
linking development aid to special drawing rights, price stabilization
schemes, cost-benefit analysis or buffer stocks. Unhappily, the state
of human knowledge is often palinly not up to the complexity of the
problems we are trying to solve.
In this same line there is still a thrid caution. I have heard this
third labelled "the tragic side of life". In addition to the inadequacy
of science, there are failures of nature Z disastrous changes in weather
patterns, and ocean currents, the scarcity of resources in the face
of rapid population increase in the poorest regions, the staggering ca
pital costs of desired urban renewal in the hopless and dangerously
explosive mega-city growth of a Lima or Calcutta.
PRAXIS OF LIBERATION
|
Not all that is labelled injustice is such, and not all that is ob
jectively unjust is due to subjective injustice. This was the theme of
the last paragraphs. But there is still a world of injustices that do
have names and authors, that must bo attacked, that call for a praxis
of liberation. Ruling over xxEk all such praxis must bo two theologi
cal principles soon earlier at length — change of structures must
begin with change of heart ,’ change of heart and ultimately the " now ord?
order", is tho work of Christ.
With those general considerations, wo can draw up a list of some
more concrete principles of praxis Z
Wo must beware of the Pelagian temptation to believe that wo produce
justice or to believe that once certain evil structures have been
removed we shall have ushered in tho kingdom. No, even then, all
the ingredients remain for new forms of exploitation or the rise of
new exploiters, and even for exploitation by the victorious former
victims of exploitation. No political process guarantee Christ's
liberation.
Change for a more just wo rid today requires more than traditional
social action. In Octagesima Adveniens Paul VI insists on the need
for
Christian
communities to go beyond social action to
political engagement for justice. Hence , political is not one
PRAXIS OF LIBERATION (Contnd)
possible field of life engagement. It is a dimension of most of life,
one that conditions all the rest. Therefore such engagement is an
obligation for all Christians whatever may be the particular form of
political action appropriate to their state of life.
- Patience is a necessity against the disordered, if wholly understan
dable ,"affection" (Ignatian terminology) of demanding instant
results. The cross must be part of an activist's hope — as it is in
any case the only hope for those who will never see the desired changes
in their lifetime.
-Nevertheless, there are victims of injustice J there is a struggle
going on. We cannot be neutral. We cannot not choose sides, except
whore — as said above — the facts, the analysis, the solutions
are open to doubt.
One will have to choose as Christ chose, for He chose to be on the side
of the poor. He sent the rich away. He put down the powerful. I too
must opt for those who struggle for justice. That puts me on one side
and against the oppressing class. To the cstent that the powerful are
the enemies of the poor and powerless, they are in some sense my enemies
as well. This should not scandalize, For Christ told us to love our
enemies. How can I lave enemies if I have non ? But to whatever extent
oppressors of the weak are my enemies, this does not preclude extending
to them the love of Christ * for when did the Lord ever refuse His love
to sinners ?
STRUGGLE FOR JUSTICE
IN JESUIT 3 2ND GENERAL CONGREGATION
The pertinence of this Congregation to our liberation theme forces me
to return once more to it, for the central decree on Our Mission Today
is virtually a cultural counter-revolution. At the outset, Jesuits
place their mission "in service of the faith for v/hich the promotion
of justice is absolutely required since reconciliation among men deman
ded by reconciliation with God must bo based
on justice". Their mission
is to be exercised in a world where gxxtiEK injustice is "institutiona
lized in economic, social, political structures."Against this situation
their call is to be free of egoism, to respect the poor and the power
less, to exemplify openness to the neighbor in need. Theirs is a cul
tural counter-revolution against "erosion of values", against a secu
larist world, against "an unacceptable social order". Unjust structures
must be attacked. If Ignatius were here what would he counsel ? He
always insisted that Jesuits "go where most needed, where the most univer
sal good lies". Where then ? "Structures of our society are among
the principal formative influences..." So " to work to transform these
according to the Gospel is to work for the spiritual as well as
material liberation of men, and so to evangelize..."
As in its decree on poverty so here again the Congregation insists
that "the promotion of Justice is not just one ministry among others.
It is the concern of the whole of our lives". It recognizes that "to p;
.
promote justice, proclaim the faith, J cad men to personal encounter with
Christ are three inseparable elements"... of our apostolate. In this
promotion of justice and of liberation from false values and sinful
structures, the Congregation — as the last-montiohncd text already
indicates — did not fail to give spiritual formation its proper place.
Elsewhere the decree insists on prayers as preparation. It asserts that
God alone can effect ultimate liberation, that reconciliation is the
fruit of the Spirit and that human beings hunger also for the bread
of life. For this reason we must preach the gospel and help men and
women seek God in thier lives J It is a question or "religious revival".
There is call for"conversion , a conversion that calls for love of men
and the doing of justice". But in this context, the decree returns
to insist that "there can bo no love without justice. Justice is the
acid test of our preaching". That said, the decree warns that this
work begins with change of heart and is in view of ultimate destination.
Source = "Studies in the International Anostolate of Jesuits"
(June'76)
THEOLOGY AND
CHRISTIAN REFLECTION
JUSTICE, DEVELOPMENT, LIBERATION AND THE
PART V =
IGNAT IAN ELECTION
SPIRITUAL EXERCISES
' By-
Land t
SOME CONSIDERATIONS*
123
In the spiritual exercises, the election holds centrality. The
meditation and examination of conscience that precod prepare the
ground for it. They build the theological foundations for a choice
that for Ignatius ought to be fundamental enough to stamp one's life.
They detach the heart from any "inordinate attachment" which thwarts
that "indifference" or liberty of spirit which opens us fully to God's
mandate and mission, which encourages us to seek only the greater good
of God's Kingdom. The contemplations that follow shore up the decision
with supporting motivation from contemplation of the life of Christ and
His paschal mysteries. The considerations which I have elaborated
up to the present and which follow change nothing suaf the logi< and
psychology of the Ignatian election. They only provide it with a new
sense of mandate and mission, a new reading of the context of decision,
and in light of those two a new set of options to be faced.
We need not review our theology of mission or our reading of context.
We can go directly to the new set of options. Here I feel wo need, to do
mo more than to pass schematically over Questions broached at a half
dozen points in these pages.
Take first the mandate oto openness to the Lord's call. Jesuits will
put this in terms of the greater glory of God.
1. Indifference or apostolic openness will suggest that the Lord is
not bound by my own or by my institute's accepted formulation of work.
That may indeed give God glory. But what about his greater glory ? There is
is the challenge. Christian hope — precisely because it is a hope
beyond hope —is openness to the pull of God forward, coupled with a free
freedom of spirit that precludes a security-motivated clinging to what
we are presently doing. This is not to sanctify change for the sake of
change, but it is to have the freedom of Abraham to abandon, at God's
call, the home ofcnes's parents.
2. In the case that one is moved to make one's election turn on
the mission to justice, he or she will not misunderstand the guidelines
suggested in these pages Z he or she will not read them as invitation
to abandon the interior life. The Christian lives a covenant which
lifts him to sonship and communion with God, but it is this God who ai
missions us to commitment to this world. Prayer and contemplation must
strongly be affirmed J hence, commitment to action may never be per
mitted to end in exhaustion of spiritual forces and the sterility and
discouragement that follow1 a reliance on one's own efforts. Such reliance
virtually dismisses the Lord from a place in His own kingdom. Contemplationif it is also a force for social understanding and engagement
indeed it can even be subversive — best achieves its social efficacy
when it is what Ignatius so exemplifies — contemplation in action.
Hence , I must ask Z Do I allov; my professional concern for the
transcendent to cause me to fly from the engagement for justice ? Or worse, d
worse, does my interior life conceal a desire for security, for a
comfortable life, serene and untainted by contamination with the
world of brutality, injustice, ambiguity ?
3. How do I use God's gifts ? Do I ropect them ? Do I work with them
as a good steward ? Do I show my respect forthem by returning them to the
Lord through my effort to build on and improve them ? Do I use them
to serve others ?
2
SOME CONSIDERATIONS ( Continued)
Do I respect those other gifts of God — nature and environment —
using them in respectful partnership ? Or am I destructive of what
should be the common inheritance of the human family ?
On the other hand, am I prepared in my commitment to the huma
nization of life to work, not at personally transforming the entire
world, but my little corner of it in doing what I can, where I am,
and in accepting my responsibility to act here and now, without waiting
for others or for ideal conditions of action ?
4. Turning from the adventure of God's mission to transform
this world, the Excrcitant might look at society's idols, its sinful
social structures and his or her own involvement in them .
ATTITUDE MOTIVATION
All participants but pc haps especially laypeople, will ask themselves
whether they measure success by material acquisition, whether their
standard of living precludes others from having enough to live in
decendy — especially those in poor countries. They can question
whether they fail to bear their faro share of public expenses by avoi
ding: fair tax burdens. Lay members of religious congregations, and
clergy shouod scrutinize their investments as to their social mora
lity, e.g. investment in corporation implicated in exploitation of
weak nations.
STRUCTURES OF ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL POLICY
All should ask themselves whether their government's programs of
aid, trade, debt, are fair to the developing nations J And if they
are against justice, what one's personal responsibility is to change
them, to denounces injustices, to investigate situations, to join
organised efforts, and pressure-groups. They must ask whether they are
willing to pay a price for their
morning coffee that permits a
Colombian field worker to bring up his or her children in decency J
whether their clothing comes to them cheap only because the material
is unfairly priced against cotton growers etc. Similar questions
can be asked from those living in developing countries where forms
of exploitation are many.
Those possessing the power that supports privilege could ask what choir
their attitude is to the powerless, the exposed, the poor (poverty is
so widely an index of powerlessness).
QUESTIONS ESPECIALLY FOR RELIGIOUS AND CLERGY
Most of the preceding examination questions have their application
to religious and clergy, but there are also motivational questions
that touch these in a special way because of their Consecration to
service. What are one's real motives ? Are they cs selfless as one
supposes ? Or do they conceal pursuit of a career, success in the x
eyes of others,the mere satisfaction of accomplishment ? Does one
stick to where one is or what one does out of security-mindedncss ?
The same questioning must bo raised by a community about the
community's work. What is it that motivates what we are doing ? Are
out institutions tied to structures of injustice, to power, to the
privileged classe of society, to the "right people" ? Christ's
option was for the poor, the powerless. But we must bo careful..
It is not easy to say that I identify with the poor when what I really
moan is only that I have a vague general sense of sympathy with them
coupled with a willingness to do
something for them . I can express
sympathy without any desire to bo with them in thoir weakness and
insecurity, to work with them, or better — lo pot thom work with
mo. Whatever degree of identification wo work out — and those can be
different in different situations — lot us beware of hypocrisy.
Source = "Studies in the International Apostolate of Jesuits", Juno '76
!
THEOLOGY AND
CHRISTIAN REFLECTION
JUSTICE, DEVELOPMENT, LIBERATION AND THE SPIRITUAL EXERCISES
PART
VI = SECOND WEEK, LIFE OF CHRIST
By Philip Land. S.J.
---------------------
KENOSIS AND JUSTICE
The theological reality here is that the Trinity decided to work
the redemption of mankind and sent the Word into this world. It
was He who took upon Himself our nature and was born of the virgin
Mary. Traditional meditation hero fixes on the kenosis, the emptying
out of self to Him who became the Suffering Servant.That is offered
as a motive and model of imitation, and so the life of Jesus is unfolded
for loving imitation.
Herein lies profound moaning for the struggle for justice.First, Jeus
Jesus took our fjurnan nature and lived it integrally some thrity years,
sin alone excepted. In that union with human nature, He worked our s
salvation and in that nature, we are recreated through grace; Yet
that human nature remains, however graced, what God gave us in creation
and what He assumed. Here,too , is hope that wo are destined by God
to bring forth the good fruits of interior change of heart, liberation,
humanization of life, justice and love. Here is the hope that our
nature, our intelligence, imagination, creativity — all chared and
lived by Christ — are instruments designed by God to bring good into
this world. Jobss living o.utr nature is a sign of the purposefulness of
the Father's original act of creating.
The second consideration is that Jesus Himself announces His coming
as having meaning also for this world, in this time. Jesus makes His
own the Lordship of the Jubilee Year, which according to Leviticus
would bring a new justice to the people of Israel. " The Spirit of the
Lord is upon me, because He has annointed me to preach the Good
News to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim the release of captives
and the recovery of sight to the blind, to set at liberty, the oppres
sed, to proclaim the acceptable Year of the Lord " ( Lk 4 I 18-19).
The 1971 Synod's Justice in the world draws for'itself the
consequences I " Listening to the cry of those who suffer violence
and are oppressed by unjust systems and structures ... we have shared our
our awareness of the Church's vocation to be present in the heart
of the World by proclaiming the Good News to the poor, freedom to the orpr
oppressed, and joy to the afflicted".
In that moment of revealing Himself to the congregation of a
Galilean synagogue as Lord of the Jubilee Year, Jesus,"after clsing
the scroll" added C Today this scripture is being fulfilled in your
hearing" ( Lk 4112). Jesus lived His roesssagc . He went about doing
good. Ho healed J he fed the hungry ,* He identified with His least
brothers ( Mt 25 I 20). In His resuroction He came to His disciples in
their sense of abandonment, doubt, fear. He made the test of fitness
for entry into the kingdom of His Father the giving of a cup of cold
water in His name.
HE WENT AROUND DOING GOOD
Occasionally, a theologian maintains that Jesus r>nr formed miracles
only to show His power or to manifest His divinity. But are we to
deny the man Jesus the love and service Vatican II' proclaims the
duty of all ? Are we to suppose that Jesus in His humanity is
indifferent to this human effort and to our human hopes for something
of justice and transformation of life to bo realized here and now ?
Are we to suppose that He is satisfied to put off to the end of
time all conquest of peace on earth ? Is Jesus indifferent to
HE WENT hROUND DOING GOOD (Contnd)
millions dying of starvation ? Arc wo to say that when Josus made the
blind to see and the lame to walk He was only malting a symbolic ges
ture and not doing it because it was also a good thing to do in itself?
Would- that not be a condemned spiritualism and misreading of the
parousia ?
In a letter to the Federation of Asian Bishops Conferences, Paul VI
spells out the meaning of this for our times I "It is our earnest and
constant prayer that the increasing pace of evangelization may help
to preserve your peoples from the dangers of materialism. Let it do
so, not by ignoring material needs, but by responding to the hunger
for bread, for responsibility, for freedom and for justice. Let evan
gelization respond to these needs by demonstrating that practical and
all-embracing borthcrly solidarity with one another under the common
fatherhood of God will typifies our Christian Religion ."
One other social aspect of the life of Christ can bo fitted into
our reflection. This is the consideration that the communitarian
character of human life is developed and consumated in the work of Jesus.
Here is how the Pastoral Constitution of Vatican II (Gaudiaum et Spes)
puts it Z
"For the very Word made flesh willed to share in the human fellowship. He was present at the wedding of Cana, visited the house
of Zacchaeus, ate with publicans and sinners. He revealed the
love of the Father and the sublime vocation of humanity in terms
of the most common of social realities and by making use of
the speech and the imagery of plain everyday life. Willingly
obeying the laws of His country, He sanctified those human ties,
especially family ones from which social relationships arise.
He chose to lead the life, proper to an artisan of His time and
place.
I
"In his preaching He clearly taught the children of God to treat one
another as brothers and sisters.In His prayers He pleaded all His
disciples might be "one". Indeed, as the Redeemer of all, Ho offer
ed Himself for all even to the point of death. 'Greater love than
this no One has, that one lay down his life for his friends' ( John
15 • 13). He commanded His apostles to preach to all peoples the
Gospel message so that the Human race might become the family of
z
God, in which the fulness of the law would be love.
"As the first-born of many brethren and through the gift of His
Spirit, He founded after His death and resurrection a new brotherly
community composed of all those who receive Him in faith and
love. This He did through His Body, which is the Church./There
everyone, as members one of the other, woudl render mutual
service according to the different gifts bestowed on each.
"This solidarity- must be constantly increased until that day on
which it will be brought to perfection. Then, saved by grace, huma
nity will offer flawless glory to God as a family beloved of God
and of Christ-their brother" ( Gaudium et Spes, J2)
JESUS EVANGELIZES THROUGH HIS OWN HUMANIZATION
Christ Jesus saves through His passion, death and resurrection. But
He also saves and evangelizes through what He is. This we have seen in the
the precedingx sections, but it is worthwhile also to draw out the
implications of the fact that Jesus grew in grace, wisdom and strength.
Josus became more follu man, and His evanp-olization became more effec
tive as He grew. This has obvious a"'iication for our own work of
evangelizers. We say that ceriain spiritualities dehumanize, nan ow ,
confine. People soured on life, timid, out of touch cannot effectively
proclaim or witness to the Good Nows.On the contrary, the great
ovangolizers are people who are mature, integrated porconc, open to
other men and women, deep in understanding and empathy, joyful in
service.
3
JESUS EVANGELIZES THROUGH HIS OWN HUMANIZATION (Contnd)
But that is Jesus. We know that the Word became flesh. We know that
that person grew in wisdom, grace and strength. What docs not general
ly occur to us is that this growth was a continuous incarnation, a
gathering up of fulness in the human life of Jesus, a progressive
humanization.
Secondly,it also usually escapes us that Jesus as evangolizers
proclaims His Good Nows most directly by communication of Himself,
of His Kingdom, of His Goodness by his love working for humanity.
It is a goodness, kindness ahd love that gre as He gre more fully human
through understanding, suffering, occasional deprivation, loss of
friends in death, disappointment over His disciples, realization of
a widow's aloneness, dying to self, openness to the call of the
Father and abandonment. We must not think bfaJesus'growth as a person as
something that happened to Him from outside, as it were not through
conscious effort, intcriorization, erowth, and auestionning of Himself
as to what God asked of Him and indeed what His neighbors had a right
to expect of Him. We must not think that the only crisis or doubt came
in the garden of Gethsemane.
Jesus was and revealed Himself as a person among people. By His
incarnation He evangelized. His contemporaries did not see the eternal
Word but the person Joshs. They did not hear the interior Word but
the word spoken by this Jesus as He tramped the roads from Jerusalem
to Galilee and back, as he ate at the table of the carpenter, wept
over a friend or thundered hunger against hypocrites and the unjust.
Even though He could xsx. banquet with the rich, He stood at the sj.de
of the poor and gave joy through wino replenished. It was not God
that was visibly and immediately communicated but the goodness and love
the effective love of the person before them.It was the sort of goodness
that straightened up the bent back of an old woman who had lived most
of her life in bondage of a face turned to the earth and away from
skies. Jesus evangelized by- goodness and love J by the preaching of
justice ( Luke ) Jby ministoring to human needs J by acting as the
loving servant J by bringing comfort, understanding, food, the joy
of wino at a wedding , challenge (rich young man ) and friendship —
wherever dwellest thou.
Source
Studios in the International Apostolato of Jesuits'
June 197b
THEOLOGY AND
CHRISTIAN'S. REELECTION
JUSTICE, DEVELOPMENT, LIBERATION AND THE SPIRITUAL EXERCISES
By
Philip Land, S.J.
PART VII = THIRD WEEK OF THE EXERCISES
REMARK
Some paragraphs back, I noted that the election is the peak-point
of the exercises. What precedes prepares
what follows provides motiva
tion. The third week draws motivation from the Passion.
LIBERATION OF GOD-'S PEOPLE
The theological core of the Passion of Jesus is the liberation of
God's people as fulfillment of the Lord's covenant. Since this theme
has larcady been explored, we can be brief here. All through the Old
Testament, prophets and psalmists remind the Israelites that the God
who drew their ancestors out of the bondage of Egyptian slavery and
made a covenant with them is faithful to that promise. Yahweh reveals
Himself as God in the very act of liberating an oppressed people .
" I have seen the misery of my people in_ Egypt... that day Yahweh
rescued Israel... and the people venerated God ..." ( Ex. J Z 7 j 141JO-31)
"Yahweh gives justice to those denied it, gives food to the hungry,
liberty to prisonners" ( Ps 146 1 7) . "And men will know that I am
Yaweh when I break their yokes and release them from their captors"
(Ezek 34 I 27).
The 1971 Synod sums up the evidence 1 "In the Old' Testament God reveals
Himself to us as the liberator of the oppressed and the defender.of the
poor, demanding from us faith in Him and justice toward our neighbor.
It is only in the observance of the duties of justice that God is
truly recognized as the liberator of the oppressed".
In His covenant, God promises the freedom that ultimately worked in
. Christ's p’aschal mysteries, but frrm His people He demands xh a return
of trust in His promises and the doing of justice to the neighbor.
"I have seen the misery of my people..." But once freed from slavery
they must themselves observe justice . "For Yahweh your God ... sees jus
tice done for the widow and orphan, and loves the stranger....Love
the stranger, tehn, for you were strangers in the land of Egypt"
(Deut 10 1 17-19)
The literature of Liberation theology (Gustavo Gutierrez, Theology
of liberation, chapter 9, "Liberation and Salvation", is representative)
at this point notes that the covenant and Israel's hope will find
fulfillment only in the Messiah who is announced. He is prefigured as bringing a kingdom of Justice I "On him the spirit of Yahweh rests...
he judges the wretched with integrity , and with equity gives verdict
for the poor of the land" ( Is, 11 I 2-4). "The Spirit of the Lord
has beeii given to me ... he has sent me to bring good news to the
poor ... to proclaim liberty to the captives ..." ( Is 61 I 1 ) .
To sum up this first reflection we not that because the justice of the
Messiah is covenant justice, we may not couriuu Justice as realized in
Christ's coming to an interior
i i fi c.nti on. Christ's
is, as
t’ae covenant .justice or which it is the fulfillment, not only
2
LIBERATION OF GOD'S PEOPLE (Contind)
liation with the Father
among people.
but also reconciliation, peace and justice
LIBERATION THROUGH THE CROSS
A second though for our theme originates in the theology of the
cross. The death of Jesus is not a liturgy performed on an artist's
canvas, in abstract space J rather the cross is planted in history.
It was erected because Jesus jad come into the. conflict with the
judges of His- people and ultimately with the power of the eagles of
Rome.
That suggests two reflections. First, the cross.was according to all
accounts the most shameful punishment which the society Jesus lived in
could inflict.In their sight, the person hanging there was obliterated in
shame and dishonor. Yet that cross has subverted and turned upside down
the world's values. Dishonor becomes honor.Christ on His cross is a
loving contestation of systems that victimize the innocent, the poor,
the powerless.
The soldiers who raised the cross represented power and priesthood that
believed only in a God of power. JesUs presents us a God who bows his head in
in death at the word ot the powerful.
Our second consideration is that from the cross Sxxns, as Jesus there
works our salvation, so He bee-ins our liberation. (Some would prefer
to use the worS liberation to designate salvation as well and thus
refuse to find any distinction between these two eschatological stages.) •
Jesus inaugurated our liberation from false idols by His radical love for
men and women, by His demonstration of what the Father's love means, and
of the radicalness of the love He calls us to show others.
CONSEQUENCES FOR LIBERATION PRAXIS.
There are also consequences for liberation praxis that flow from the
cross and death of Christ, ^ere are a few !
The details of the passion invite tender and compassionate mediation
for sinful people. All this my Savior suffers for me, sinful and unworthy
as I am, but we should not let this loving contemplation keep us from
also meditating on the fulness of Christ's liberation.
Similarly, while the passion properly invites toe asceticism and to
live the cross ( I die daily with Him, with Him who emptied Himself
and became obedient even to the cross ), our moral reflections must
also dwell on the implications of redemption/liberation. These consist
in my freeing myself from the egoism that is at the root of my injus
tice toward other people, and my joining the Lord in His work of libe
ration and justice.
The Thind week demands that in imitation of Christ we become "fools
for Christ's sake." Traditionally, this meani "accepting the meanest
things in the house" and that was reduced to mean wearing old clothes
that made one shemefuaed . It would have been something else if its
motive had been that the poor have to wear hand-me-downs. We were
taught that "fools for Christ" eagerly chose to wash toilet bowls ,‘
never that it meant looking foolish by admitting my mistakes and
limitations, by being prepared to. rethink my confidently possessed
positions, much less by looking foolish and being seen standing in the
ranks of the few taking an unpopular stand in the name of justice.
To die with Christ may mean dying, as He did, at the hands of the
Establishment — ecclesiastical as well as civil---- because one
denounces sins of injustice.
The helplcsness and powerlessness of the crucified Christ can be
a call to me to renounce power as a solution to world justice, to
stand with the powerlessness, to share in their powerlessness, to be
prepared to work tiwhin it and find in it the salvific power it
demonstrated on Calvary.
*
”
CONSEQUENCES FOR LIBERATION PRAXIS
The cross is an eschatological message. The Christ who died to
rise again liberates. Christ frcosJ But when? How ? Redemption was won
for us at no cheap price. Accordingly we must not live on a cheap hope
of restoring peace and justice to the world without patient suffering^
we must be crucified for justice. The social activist's temptation is
to want easy, quick victories and to become discouraged when results
come slowly. In such moments, let that person turn to the Christ
abandoned on the cross by God and humankind.
After the revolution, sin will remain. Nev; structures will replace
the old and we are capable of corrupting these too. Thus Christ's
work of liberation will never end. There will be no moment when the
triumph of justice will be fully accomplished, no moment in which
we who struggle for justice will not have to live the cross.
Many will never see Justice in their lifetimes. For those, the cross
is their only hope,with its promise ^"This day thou shalt be with
me " ( Lk 2? : 43)
<
*
Source = "Studies in the International Apostolate of Jesuits",June 1976
THEOLOGY AND
CHRISTIAN REFLECTION
JUSTICE, DEVELOPMENT, LIBERATION AND THE SPIRITUAL EXERCISES
By Philip Land,S.J.
PART VIII = IGNATIAN FOURTH WEEK
REMARK
Here I set aside the typical contemplations reserved for the resur
rection and- ascension. Thuse we shall not consider "Christ's great glory
and happiness", or the Lord at His work as consoler, or such tender
scenes as Jesus preparing breakfast for the fishermen, tired and
discouraged after a fruitless night of fishin. We go straight to the
heart of the resumection . Ho is risen as He said He would J the
promise if sulfillod j salvation is achieved.
LORD OF HISTORY
Now wo want to grasp the fulness of Christ's entry into our history.
First wo reflect on our new dimension of received sonship, of grace
shared in Christ, the head of a graced people. But there remain
fruitful considerations of a human ..history for tha making. Hopefully
it will be a history of transformation of nature and cosmos to serve
people better, of the ever fuller humanization of life, of liberation
from all forms of injustice, of peace for all.
'The heart of our theme is that the risen Chhist is Lord. The main
lino of New Testament thought on this runs in terms of the Lord who is
in His second coming will reveal that He is indeed Savior of a redeemed
people, head of a body joined to Him in the parousia. Other Paulino
texts on Lordship, uninteresting to a millenarist epoch, had to await
another theological day for adequate exploration. That came in the
years immediately before, during, and after the Second Vatican Council.
Thus, the Fathers of the Council dwelt long on the impications
of Colossians 1 I 13-20 . That text is too central to bo treated
in mere citation, for it shows Christ entering decisively into the
whole of our history *'
"He has delivered us from the dominion of darkness and transferred
us to the kingdom of His beloved Son,in whom we have redemption,
the forgiveness of sins. He is the imago of the invisible God,
the first-bron of all creation J for in Him all things were created,
in heaven and on earth, visible and invisible, whether thrones
or dominions or principalities or authorities — all things were
created through Him and for Him. He is before all things, and
in Him all things are hold together. He is the head of the body,
the church J Ho is the beginning, the first-born from the dead,
that in everything He might be pre-eminent. For in Him all fulness
of God was pleased to dwell, and through Him to reconcile to
Himself all things, whether on earth or in heaven, maing peace
by the blood of His cross."
This first born
of all creation, who is before all things head
of the body, in everything pre-eminent, reconciler of all things
is clearly Lord of kingdom which cannot bo identified exclusively
with the glorification of His church. It includes the whole creation .
His Kinfdom is not the success of snatching souls from hell-fire J
It is the crowning achievement of the whole of creation as it receives
fulfillment in Christ — the teilhurdinu vision.
2
CONSEQUENCES FOR OUS HISTORY
In its pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World ,
Vatican II explores the consequences of Collossians (as well as
Ephesians 1 ! 10-22) for the' meaning and consequences of Christ's
Lordship.
1. Lordship
For God's Word, by whom all thing's were made, was Himself made flesh
so that as perfect human He might save all people and sum up all things
in Himself. The Lord is the goal of human history, the focal point of
the longings of history and civilization, the center of the human race,
the joy of every heart and the answer to all its yearnings. He it is
whom the Father raised from the dead, lifted on high and stationed at k
His right hand, making Him judge on the living and the dead. Enliv ■>ed
and united in His Spirit , we journey toward the consummation of human
history, one which fully accords with the summation of human history,
one which fully accords with the counsel of God's love * "To restablish
all things in Christ, both those in the heavens and those on the
earth ( See Gaudium et Spes j8).
'
2. Consequences of Christ's Lordship for the Human Enterprise
The Two passages of the Council have already been cited.but they are
so central to an understanding of the resurection that we must repeat
them (
"They can justly consider■that by their labor they are unfolding
the Creator's work, consulting the advantages Of their brother
men, and contributing by their personal industry to the realization
of the divine plan" (Gaudium et Spes 3^ b) . " When man develops
the earth by the work of his hand or with the aid of technology
in order that it might bear fruit and become snsxkky a dwelling
worthy of the whole family and when he. consciously takes part in the
the life of social groups, he carries out the design of God manifested
at the beginning of time, that he should subdue the earth,
perfect creation and develops himself. At the same time he obeys
the commandment of Christ that he. place himself at the service of
his brethren" ( Gaudium et Spes 57t>)
HOPE OF THIS TIME
What else can one say at this point about the Lordship of the
risen Christ ? He is Lord of human history as well as of salvation
history. In terms of Him all things —all.' created things , all that
we create or co-create — receive their definition, their ultimate
meaning.In Christ, highest" expression of humanity in its search for
God and at the same time total c.ommunic‘ation in His humanity
of God for humanity, is the point of encounter — to express it
in Teilhardian language. This what "recapitulation in Christ" means,
the summing up in one head, the cosmos and history arrived at omega
point.
Mediator of all creation in this sense of historical process, and
cosmic events, Christ achieves this mediation through people.
Effectively, we become His mediators, or co-mediators.
There should be no surprise for us in the strong affirmation
of the consequences of Christ's Lordship if we reflect on Christ's
earthly life before and even after the resurrection. Treating the
life of Christ in the Second Week I made some points worth recalling
here C Jesus-as person was not and could not be indifferent to human
hopes and efforts for some justice, some humanization of life hero and
now J a person loving His nature and those sharing it, He could not bo
satisfied to put off to the end of time all conquest of peace on
earth j He could not watch with indifference as millions die of hunger J
His miracles were not merely symbolic testimonials and not performed
also because giving sight was good for humanity itself.
HOPE OF THIS TIME (Contnd)
It is perfectly true that, while the doing of justice is consti
tutive of the Gospel, the Gospel provides no guarantee that Justice
■ will be done on this earth at any time or ever. This wo must not claim.
Though we are permitted utopian dreams, we c.annot dream of building an
earthly paradise, nor do we propose an earthly messianism. Failure can
be written at the end of the book of human history, but it need not be
so. We are not doomed to failure in this life due to the simple fact that
we have a Savior who can right all injustice in the end. If perfect
communion among people can be had only in the accomplished final union
with God One land Three, some communion can still be established here.
We can anticipate 'in signo' at le'ast in some measure, that perfect
communion to come but already.existing in Christ.
Though wo fail to achieve the fulness pf justice on earth together
with peace and a harmonious eauilibrium between earth's resources anu
the needs of all people, this docs not mean that the attempt to achieve
this is riot worth the candle or doomed from the outset. Nor is it
un-Christian to seek and hope for success in the human project.
Those who shrug off concern for this world remind us at this point
that the face and figure of this world passes away, that God prepares
a new dwelling place, a new earth J the only true hope is in the escathon
achieved J only there can humanity possess the world without being
contaminated by it.
I have already said that ‘Christian hope rdlativezes hopes for trans
formation of this world. I have adduced the witness of Vatican II that
what will remain of our effort will be "the fruit of our charity". But
to say that " what is mortal becomes immortal" ,that "our peace will be
transfigured into the final.peace of the kingdom realized" is not to
negate vhat the Council equally insists on *, nataely, that our efforts
at justice and peace "in degree that they contribute to a better orga
nization of the human community" ( Gaudium ct-Spes 39), are traces of the
anticipated image of the final kingdom —in signo. The kingdom is present
in mystery (ibid,/) in all those human efforts.
Where is the power for potential accomplishment ? Its ultimate root
is in Christ's resurrection. Ab He said He would, He rose by His own
power. The risen Lord brings victory over sin, evil, death. In that
resurrection is power — and the promise of the Spirit- Herein the
risen Lord is our transcendent hope of final victory over sin and death.
But grounded'in that transcendent hope is found the Christian hope
for this time, too, for a new earth, for liberation, humanization, deve
lopment, peace, justice, love sharing, and communion among all people.
All this is based on the final hope and in view of and oriented to that
final hope.
It is finally and implicitly in that hope that humanity mandated by the
Creator and in imitation of the Lord in His humanity, can use intelli
gence, creativity, technology, science to better this world in £he his
torical future. Yet we remain sinful people under the judgment i hence,
we turn always in our hope to the abiding presence of the Spirit , to
His grace and to the Lord's Eucharistic presence.
UTOPIAN VISION
The last line of Justice in the World concludes 1 " ... to build
a world which will reach the fulness of creation only when it becomes
the work of man for man."
In this vision of hope as operative toward a world of justice now,
only the language differs from that of Paul VI in "Octogesima Adveniens"
whUrUpheld by hope the Christian involves himself in the building of
the human city..." ( § 3?) j and similarly ' " The expectation of a
new earth must not weaken but rather stimulate our concern for
cultivating this one ..." ( Ibid. Quoted from GS 39)
Our reflection at this point inevitably evokes
that intriguing
passage of Octagesima Advenions, where utopias arc favorably contrasted
with ideologies. The latter, once affirmed in concrete systems, are
seen to bo fraught with ambiguities. The rebirth of utopias is today's
challenge to ideologies. While recognizing that projection of the future
can be "an
alibi for rejecting immediate responsibilities, " Paul VI
4
UTOPIAN VISION ( Contnd)
still recognizes approvingly that this kind of social criticism "often
provokes the forward-looking imagination both to perceive in the
present the disregarded possibilities hidden within it,and to direct
itself toward a fresh future " ( § 37)
What is pertinent to our reflection on hope is that two visions
here reach out to each othef’, two worlds, meet in the one and the
otehr document, Gaudiaum ct Spcs and Octogesima Adveniens. On the one
side there is the "new earth" of the utopian imagination j on the other,
the "new earth" of evangelical inspiration, of the Lord's kingdom.
What must encourage dreamers of a better world to exercise their
creative social imagination is that as long as their vision "refuses
no overtures" it will carry " beyond every system and every ideology
to the heart of the world where (is) the mystery of man discovering
himself to be God's son ..." ( § 37)
It is at this point , where the mystery of humanity can be finally
seized only in the new world of the kingdom, where there-will be
temptation to reject all hamanly-made projects that Octagesima Adveniens^
warns precisely against such tcmpxtation ‘ "Christians, while fixing
9
their vision on that new earth, must not allow that blinding sight to
blot out the new earth of utopian imagination as it reaches for ins
piration down into, the mystery of human life. No, for the utopian can provi
provide the body of a new human family, a body which even now is able
to give some foreshadowing of the new age to come." ( Ibid.).
It is to the achievement of this that the Synod for its part issues
its parallel call — the call t® hope , for every person and all peoples
of the human race.
Source - "Studies in the International Apostolate of Jesuits", June 1976
‘Man.Religion & Society1
for private circulation
CHRISTIAN FAITH AND MARXISM
Shortly after June 20,1976 Italian elections,
during which large numbers of Christians voted
for Independent Marxist supported candidates,
the Bishop of Ivrea, Monsignor Luigi Bettazzi.
Secretary of the Communist Party of Italy(PCI)
Berlinger answered on October 7,1977 with a
long letter touching on questions of princi
ple and more concrete problems of relations
between communists and catholics. We reproduce
here • large extracts dealing mainly with
questions of principle.
MARXIST IDEOLOGY AS A MATERIALISTIC AND ATHEISTIC PHILOSOPHY ?
I would ask whether it is quite accurate to say that the Italian
Communist Party as such , that is to say as a Party, as a political orga
nisation, profess explicitoly the Marxist ideology, as a materialistic
and atheistic philosophy. I would answer no.
In saying this, I do not mean to imply that the political elaboration
of ou? Party - that is to say its research, the determination of the ob
jectives to aim for and the forces to move, in each historical situation,
in order to achieve the progressive transformation of ou?society - has been
or is based on nora empiricism, on an unprincipled " psacticism ",without
a scientific analysis of society and historical development and devoid
of any cultural elevation.
In reality this analysis and this elaboration, and the practical
political conduct that has accompanied them, with the characteristic
features that mark the life and struggles of Italian Communists, could not
have developed outside the great and living lesson ( which is not the
same thing as an "ideological creed") left to us by
the masters of
cont.. .p.2
2
revolutionary political thinking, by the founders of the Communist movement.
The discoveries and inventions of these masters constitute an invaluable
patrimony, upon which not only our Party, but the working-class and revolu
tionary movement in all parts of the world, has drawn and continues to draw:
a patrimony which has given life to a multiplicity of liberation movements
and to a great variety of experiences in the construction of anti-capitalist
societies moving along the road to socialism. Without this patrimony,indeed,
without a Marxist analysis - that is to say, without a Marxism understood
and used critically as a lesson, not accepted and read dogmatically as an
unchangeable text - the positions the P.C.I. holds today, and even the
growth of its organizational and electoral strength, would be completely
unexplainable.
Now, is the conception that springs from this great patrimony of
ideas and culture that of a political party that professes a philosophy and,
in particular, a materialistic metaphysic and an atheistic doctrine ? Is it
the conception of a party that seeks to impose, or even to privilege, one
particular ideology and atheism in the political, /sphere and in the State ?
Again, I would answer no, definitely not.
The proof, for that matter, lies in the results we have recently
obtained on the political and programmatic level, on the basis of conviction
that is similarly derived from the doctrine that inspires us: the conviction
that while the real historical and social process in undoubtedly influenced
by ideas (and also by ideologies), in the course of this process, ideas and
ideologies are in turn conditioned by the real movements, to the point that
they undergo modification and through an organic development, take on new
meanings and new forms.
The proof, in other words, lies in the support that our initiatives
and our concrete actions in internal and international policy receive, in
the esteem that surrounds the P.C.I. both here and abroad and among all .
strata of our people, something you yourself, albeit with some reservations
acknowledge. How would such results have been possible had the Communist
Party not sought and received the consensus and convinced participation of
great masses of citizens vrho are certainly not atheists, but believers,
Christians and Catholics ?
At the same time, it must be observed that the results obtained by
the P.C.I. are the product not only of its general, rigorously secular and
consistently unity-oriented, policy, but also, within the framework of this
policy and given the peculiarities of Italian society, of the specific and
very particular importance that, from Gramsci onwards, we have attributed
to the question of relations with the Catholic world.
Around this question we have never ceased to develop and perfect
positions and initiatives, with the aim of uniting all the working people,
all the major popular currents and all the democratic forces of our country,
and, therefore, especially, with an openness towards the Catholic world.
SOCIALISM AND RELIGIOUS PAITH
■
And,in fact, despite the campaign of unrestrained anti-communism
launched from 1 947 onwards by the leadership of the party that describes
itself as being inspired by Christian principles, and also by organizations
and authorities in the Catholic world, the P.C.I. remained true to its
policy of understanding and collaboration with the popular Cahtolic masses
and with their organizations and institutions. Over twenty years ago, in
1954, in the midst of the Cold War, Togliatti appealed for an understanding
with the Catholic world to save mankind from the terrible threat of
nuclear war.
Eight years afterwards, in December 1 962, our 10th Congress
took an important step as concerns the P.C.I.'s position with regard to
believers, approving a "thesis" proposed by' Togliatti himself:
- 5 "Today, the problem is no', longer simply one of overcoming
the prejudices and sectarian attitudes that impede collabo
ration between socialist and Catholic forces, in order to
obtain immediate economic and plitical results. The problem
is to grasp that the aspiration to a socialist society not
only nay grow in men who profess a religious faith,but that
this aspiration may even find stimulation in a deeply-felt
religious conscience, faced with the dramatic problems of
the contemporary world. Therefore, as well as confirming
respect for religious rights, which is a matter of principle
in a socialist society, the workers' movement must come to
see the problem of relations with the Catholic masses and
their organizations in a new way".
Here we find a really new concept: that the possession of a faith
and the inspiration of a religious conscience, far from being considered
fact in itself
incompatible with the aspiration to socialism, are actually
seen as something that can stimulate the believer to join in the pursuit of
a renewal of society in the socialist direction.
To me, it is therefore quite understandable that citizens of Chris
tian faith, practicing Catholics, publicly committed to remaining so, as you
point out, should have accepted our invitation to run as independents in our
electoral lists and to be elected by Communists. In extending this invita
tion, we were not motivated by tacticism or electoralism, -and, I am sure
I can say, neither were they in accepting it. Indeed, short-term motives of
opportunity and tactics might well have counselled against such a decision.
With this gesture, the P.C’. I intended not only th confirm explicitly its
respect for the religious faith of these friends (as it has already done in
the past towards the many Christians who for years have been P.C.I. members)
but also and above all, to enhance the contribution that they can make, with
their religiously-based human and civil experience, to the oornmon work for
renewal, at the same time underlining the seculai’ nature of politics and
political commitment. I need not point out that this secularity does not
in any way imply that we abandon our respective ideas and traditions or the
impoverishment and relegation of these ideas and traditions to the exclu
sively private sphere; on the contrary, .it encourages us all to give them
their proper place and to seek mutual enrichment, at a time when the country^
forces must unite in solidarity to overhaul society and the State and to
give Italy a nevi political leadership.
These considerations lead me to recall, as you yourself do, that
excellent passage from John XXIII's Encyclical, PACEM IM TERRIS, where a
clear distinction is made between philosophical doctrines and the real his
torical movements that have grown out of them, and where, to some extent,
the judgement on the latter takes priority over the judgement on the
original philosophies, considered fallacious. This is a particularly
important passage, revealing understanding of the fundamental positivity of
history and thus, if I may so express it, truly non-manichean. But permit
me in turn to recall another passage from that same Encyclical, where it is
written: "Points of meeting and agreement in the various sectors of the
temporal order between believers and non-believers or those who do not
believe adequately because they’subscribe to errors, can be occasions for
discovering the truth and paying it homage".
At this point, I think, the positions the P.C.I. has adopted and
its conduct over the course of some decades should be sufficient to con
vince you that taken together they form a valid guarantee that the Italian
Communist Party is not only determined to build here in Italy a Party
that is secular and democratic and, as such, neither theist, nor atheist,
nor anti-theist, but also, as a direct consequence, desires a secular,
democratic STATE which is likewise vneither theist, nor atheist, nor
anti-theist.
In other places, such as in Eastern Europe, in countries where
Socialism is being built, States have been created in which under the in
fluence of certain theoretical traditions and also for particular histo
rical reasons and conditions, discriminatory practices based on ideological
criteria, even of a serious nature, have developed. This situation is be
ginning to change, although slowly, with difficulty and contradictions,
since in sone countries in Eastern Europe there are still manifestations of
ideological intolerance on the part of the State.
CAPITALISM AND THE CHURCH
At the same time, it must be recognized that in Western Europe, where
capitalism - the modern discriminatory system par excellence on the economic,
social and political level - still exists, there are countries which enact
legislation openly based on ideological discrimination (such as the Federal
Republic of Germany). And it must be recognized that, for example, in Italy,
the' Concordate of 1929 which regulates relations between Church and State and
which still awaits a necessary thorough-going revision, considers the
Catholic religion as the State religion. I shall not dwell on how much
"constantinism" and "temporalism" can still be seen in certain political and
ecclesiastical attitudes in some European countries and in our own; nor will
I remind you how tenaciously certain old integralist trends and attitudes are
maintained in Italy, in the Christian Democrat Party and in some parts of the
Church hierarchy, despite the Second Vatican Council, the papacy of Angelo
Roncalli and the Encyclicals ECCLESIAM SUAM and POPULORUM PROGRESSIO of the
present Pope, which raised great hopes for renewal in the conscience of
Catholics in Italy and in. the world.
Our State, to whose construction we Communists gave so much through
the Resistance and the Constitution, is a democratic State, above all, by
reason of the unprecedent breadth of the social forces that took part in its
founding. Our State was horn as a result of the entrance into national
political life cf the working-class, peasant and popular masses of Communist,
Socialist and Catholic orientation. It was born out of the coming-together
and solid participation cf these masses and their parties, which, while
preserving the best from the traditions of Cavour and the Liberals, worked
together r'or c. democratic renewal of our institutions and society and its
organization. If this State of ours is to survive and develop in harmony with
these social and political features and ideas that stamped it at its birth,
it must of necessity be secular, in other words, non-ideological: only in
this way, only through full secularity, can it really fulfill, in all its
wealth, the democratic nature of its origins. These are the principles that
inspire our conception of relations between the Italian Republic and the
Catholic Church, between the State and
citizens of Catholic faith, and, in
general, between the State and believers.
MUTUAL COMPREHENSION, MUTUAL RECOGNITION OF VALUES
Speaking in Bergamo in 1963, Togliatti renewed his'appeal for mutual
understanding between the Catholic and Communist worlds, and urged us to
recognize the need to "consider the Catholic wofld as a complex of real for
ces
States, governments, organizations, individual consciences, movements
of various nature - and study if and to what extent, in the face of the
revolutions of the present time and the prospects for the future, it is
possible to achieve a mutual comprehension, a mutual recognition of values
and, therefore, an understanding and even an agreement to reach ends that
are common, because they are necessary, indispensable for all mankind....
From all points of view - Togliatti added - tho problem of relations between
the Catholic and Communist words is central. It must be solved in a positive
manner, and we are working to see that it is. Even when faced with the most
outrageous nnti-Communist attacks - Togliatti concluded - we shall reply with
the necessary vigor, but we repeat at the .same time that we do not want a
brawl between Catholics and Communists, because this would harm everyone,
and above all, it would harm the cause.for which we are fighting, which is the
cause of peace, of the salvation of our civilization, the rise to pwer of the
working people and the construction of a new society".
Source - IDOC,
New Series, Bulletin No. 4,
April 1978, pages 3-7.
II.
LIBERATION, LEADERSHIP AND THE CULTURAL
AND RELIGIOUS BACKGROUND OP THE PEOPLE
(ACTS 14, 8 - 18)
1. The present interest to read this text; Today's Bible study deals with the healing
of a man who has been tied down and powerless throughout h..s life. It deals with the
reaction of the masses to this act of healing, their enthusiastic response, their
eagerness to treat tneir leaders as gods. And it deals with Paul's and Barnabas' effort
to witness to the living God in a cultural and religious environment which has not been
shaped by any biblical tradition.
To me this text of Acts 14, 8 - 18 is particularly striking because in a way the
same story has happened and is happening in a somewhat modernised version in Indian '
villages, and I'm sure it happens in other countries in Asia and Africa. There is
this problem of entering a village where one has never been before. One has to gain
the confidence of the people. One may be rejected. But someone does something which
is experienced as a tremendous step towards liberation er even salvation. And at once
the problem of leadership arises. If the people are unprepared, they are eager to
say: You be our leader. You have our loyalty. Do whatever you want, take from us
whatever wo can offer you. God has sent you. To us you are God. India as you may
know, is a land full of godmen, a land in which miracles are performed, a nation in
which politicians like Gandhi who had the halo of saintliness, could command the
loyalty of the masses like nobody else. There is the problem of how to renounce this
offer of leadership. And there is the problem of how to get a message across, how to
convey something to people taking their own cultural and religious background seriously,
Respecting it, even integrating into it and yet to try to say something which is Radically new.
In India we have droughts every few years. Friends of ours were working in
drought relief. Ans as it happens, they were not only able to organise the labourers
at the relief site, but after a while it started raining and incidentally the rains
seemed to move with these friends, they fell wherever they happened to be. And the
people started to believe that these friends could command rain. Last summer when the
monsoon seemed to falter and fail, the government ordered all the religious communities
to hold prayer meetings and when tne P.M. came to visit the Soutn, she happened to
bring rains with her and the people were awed. Whoever tninks that this is a problem
of countries with a low literacy rate and a high dose of religiosity, is kindly re
quested to remember tnat the times when the highly literate and rather secular people
of Germany ascribed absolute and nearly divine powers to a leader, who was all too
willing to play the divine role, are only forty years age.
2. The Text and its parallels; Let me simply go through the text verse by verse.
In the beginning of the chapter, we hear of Paul and Barnabas travelling and teaching
and trying to encourage the people to organize themselves in parishes, to appoint
.elders, to live a new life of sharing and to spread the message of the promised new
life. They had been preaching in Asia Minor in Iconium and had tried to convert the
Jews there, but the Jews and Gentiles together mobilised their local leaders in order
to get rid of them. And the local leaders hired goonaas to use violence against then,
.end they threw stones on Paul and Bernabas and so Paul and Bernabas had to flee to
Lycaonia, entering the cities of Lystra and Derbe.
The first thing which we hear of Lystra is that there is a man sitting who was lame
from birth and had never been able to walk. There is a similar event told taking
place in Jerusalem and there Peter and John are involved in the process of healing
(Chapter j). So many commentaries tend to say these are just parallel stories about
miracle healing and the reaction of the people is certainly exaggerated and the story
of the people trying to worship Paul and Barnabas as Gods is only an exaggeration,
trying to introduce and to prepare for tne short piece of preaching to the Gentiles
which the author of tne text had to put somewhere. This preaching again is seen as
parallel to another preaching of Paul to the Gentiles namely his preaching of the
Areopague in Athens which is described in Chapter 17, v. 16-JI. While there is no
doubt that these parallels do exist, I would like to emphasise my oonvic tion that our
text here in chapter 1J has a special message to convey which really comes out of
this ’connection between healing and preaching, no matter whether the story has
literally happened in this way. The events which are described here have happened a
hundred times and are happening even now, they are happening to many of us if we
start to be involved with people and therefore it is more fruitful to try to find
out what tne author tries to convey to us in this story than to ask which pieces of a
prefabricated tradition he may have used.
contd. 2/
-2J. Healing and wholeness of Life; The man in Lystra is crippled, lame, he is p>werless (adwatos) with respect to his feet, he has no command over them since his birth.
So he nas never experienced walking, he has never experienced the first exploring
steps of a child, the sense of discovery, the capacity to satisfy one's curiosity, the
ability to go somewhere wnere one longs.to go. He has been dependent and tied down
throughout his life, relying on the mercy of others for his livelihood and for his
barest phsical n eds. He was sitting in a public place where Paul was speaking. It
is not reported what Paul was saying. But since this was a "Gentile city" a city
witn Greek traditions, we car. assume from other talks of Paul wnich have come upon
us taat he may have witnessed of the one God wno has given life and breath to people
and also wants them to live a full, a fulfilled life. And when Paul looks up, he
sees this cripple and there is something in this attitude of listening of this man
wnich commands Paul's attention so that he looks at him in a concentrated way and
can see tnat this man believes tnat ne can be saved. The text here uses a rather
stron6 word
wnich nas tne same root as the word 'saviour
. It
means tnat this man believes that he can be nealed from his handicap but it also
means that this healing has a much more comprehensive connotation of wholeness also.
So Paul says to this mans "Rise up, on your feet, upright" and he sprang up and
walked. Again, strong words are used. "Rise up". The same verb '
'
is used with respect to Christ's resurrection in Acts. 1?,5« This scene described
here is a prototype of an experience of liberation. The rise up and to walk upright, this has been used as an image by the Marxist philosopher of Hope and Utopia, Ernst
Bloch and it has been taken up by Helmut Gollwitzer in his book Krummes Holz,
.
anfreenter Gang, an untranslatable title which means that people grow like a crippled ’
tree under oppression but that they are meant to walk upright.
4- The difference between Godmen and the Incarnation; Of course one can argue that
this has nothing to do with liberation but is just an ordinary miracle. It is quite
normal and human to argue like this, because tnis is obviously how the people under
stood the event when thej witnessed it. But tne whole, preaching as well in Chapter 3
as here in Chapter lj precisely discourages this understanding. In Chapter 3, the
whole point is that people should change tneir life and accept Christ whom they had
formerly rejected, and in Chapter 14 the witness is to the living God who has not
left nemself without a witness among the Gentiles.
The masses, the crowds (
• ) seeing what Paul and Barnabas nad done, cried
oui; "The gods nave come down to us in the likeness of men". So they gave them tne
names of their gods, Zeus and Hermes, mobilised tne priest, brought oxen and garlands
and wanted to offer sacrifice. This is the sorr of event in which godmen'are born.
Something exciting nappens, the people offer worship, the god-man accepts; I think
this also gives us an important key to the understanding of the incarnation. In a
religion like the Greek or like Hindus it is not particularly difficult to think of A
gods being present among people. It is frequent that men and women become Gods to
people. God becoming man even to the point of dying as a criminal is something
different.
*5
Tne Vanity of Personality Cult; Barnabas and Paul do not succumb to the tempt
ation of becoming godmen. They tear their garments as a sign of distress and cry out
against tne people's devotion; "Men why are you doing this? We are men of the same
nature like you. We bring you good news so that you may turn away from these vain
things."
It is interesting to look at this word
which means idle, empiy,
fruitless. If we look where it is used in the Septuaginta, tne Greek version of the
O.T. we get the fuller meaning of this word, comparing it with the Heberroots for
which it is used.
The most frequent root for which it is used has the meaning evil, wickedness,
destruction, falsenood, lie, emptiness, .vanity, nothingness, spoken of that which
deceives hopes. The second rooc for whicn it frequently stands
indicates
breatn, vanity, transient, frail, vain, empty, worthless. So obviously Paul and
Barnabas say; Leave this empty nonsense wnich will only deceive hope. Of course
many people nave tried to read tnis as a reference to gentile religion in general.
But tne further text shows clearly that this is not the Cv.se. The vanity which
deceives hopes is the personality cult which leads to the worship of leaders and
makes people dependent. I would like to illustrate this point. Three years ago I
did a survey among tne landless labourers, untouchables in East Thanjavoor.
contd. 3/
-5-
These people have their own village religion, mainly a village goddess who can be
good or evil and they were according to modern enlightened standards quite supersti
tious. Yet, as it nappens, they were politically organised and in the course of many
years, they had learned to fight for their own rights, not to be dependent, to walk
uprignt. In another village, there were other untouchable landless labourers and
as it happens, they were Christians and Had a parish priest who had a strong hold on
them, and besides was hobnobbing with the big wigs of the village. So the people
are not organised, they could not fight for their rights, they were depending on the
religious and secular leaders who were exploiting them. So obviously Christianity
in this case was more oppressive to them than the popular village religion. And I
think that this teaches us if we deal witn religion, inter-religious dialogue and
culture, not only to deal with theologies and the content of creeds and rituals but
also with the more fundamental questions What does religion do to people. Does it
deceive their hopes or does it help them to walk upright?
6. God1s witness in the People1s ileligion; It is important to look at the witness
which Paul and Barnabas give, referring to the cultural background of the people.
Paul first talks of the living god who lias made heaven and earth and sea and all that
is in them. The same sort of reference is made in Chapter 17,24
*
God's presence in
the cosmos makes the shrines obsolete, it is said there. This is a thought very
true to the O.T, but also found in other religions. He did not leave himself without
a witness, it is said, for he did good and gave you from heaven rains and fruitful
seasons, satisfying your hearts with food and gladness. This is to say that nature
|is meant to be at man£s disposal as a source of plenty and as a source of joy. The
people of Tamil Nadu have just celebrated their harvest festival, Pongal. And all
this festival wants to express is this joy of plenty in which, as the text says, God
is present. And if nature is meant to be a source of plenty and of joy, then this
also gives us a critical understanding of man-made scarcities of droughts which could
have been prevented, had the forests not been eroded or had the irrigation on dams
been built in time. It gives us a critical understanding of manmade floods which
could nave been prevented had canals been built or had the waters not been released
without warning the people who were going to be submerged as it recently happened in
Madras. It also gives us a critical understanding of a technology and a technocracy
wnich is about to destroy nature and man by its unlimited greed for growth. God
allowed the nations to wqlk their own ways it is said in V.16. And yet he did not
leave himself without a witness. In Acts 17, it is said (V.26f) that he made every
nation allotting specific boundaries to them to live in and allotting their own periods
of time to tnem so that they may seek God in the hope that they may feel after him and
find him. God wishes to be found among the nations whom he has allowed to go their
own way. How he is found, is also up to us to discover and we have not taken too many
pains so far to discover him among the nations.
7. People's organisation and Dialogue: Perhaps one of the reasons why we are not very
good at discovering him among the people is the fact that often all our inter-religious
dialogue has an obsession witn theology and philosophy and no real concern for people.
We negotiate dogmas and we tend to forget that the religious theories, be they
Christian or whatever religion, are often made by an elite which has an interest to
domesticate and contain the masses. If common people of different background get
involved in liberating action, there is a mutual discovery of god which has a different
dimension than mere theologizing.
Our story of Acts 14 ends in an unspectacular way. Paul and Barnabas scarcely
succeed to convince tne people not to worship tnem. In the meantime, the goondas
from Antioch and Iconium arrive and stone Paul and drag him out .of the city thinking
ne's dead. But the disciples, the faithful people gather around him and he can enter
tne city again. They go on to work in Iconium and Lystra, in Antioch and Derbe
and tne work grows and consolidates despite tribulations.
3
several and different ways, seek to make an active contrib
ution in this regard.
And it is bearing all that in mind
that I repeat my welcome to you all and my personal pleasure
th^t it has been possible for this meeting to take place,
(Applause)
The Rev, SAM REID (President of the Council of Churches of
Jamaica) - Honourable Prime Minister, brothers and sisters?
I was going to begin with an apology for the late start.
The Honourable Prime Minister, Mr Manley, has already
explained the reason for the false start that, inasmuch as
there have been one or two speculations previous to this
false start, I think it would be appropriate to say that
it was not the beginning of another apparent boycott,
(Laughter)
In the first place there seemed to have been some belief that
because the president of the Council of Churches in his
capacity was not present at the welcoming party on Sunday,
then there was no welcome from the Church.
I would like
to say that the Christian community is pleased to welcome
so distinguished a guest as President Castro, and that as
a guest in our house, in humble Jamaica, it is our desire
that you should, be not just welcome but at home, and in a
Christian country as we like to call ourselves, we
would like to feel that you yourself felt something of the
warmth of the welcome of a Christian people here in Jamaica,
(Applause)
I would like to compliment you, Mr, President, on proving
this morning what a powerful man you are.
Because I don't
think any of us would have been able to bring together
this .morning as wide a cross-section of the Christian
community (laughter and applause) as you have been able to
do, and maybe in one single stroke you have done the whole
Christian community a favour, (laughter)
Jamaicans, Mr President, have a way when they leave their
country of distorting the picture that they present of
Jamaica.
For example, in the 19503^ many of our countrymen
left Jamaica, and they went to Britain.
And it is an
interesting fact that they managed many of them, to marry
some very attractive, wide-eyed English girls who were
convinced that they were taking the vows of marriaage
beside some wonderful African princes (laughter) and
whose fathers held broad acres either in Jamaica or some
other undefined country of Africa.
On the other hand, I am told that recently there are many
Jamaicans in Miami who are describing themselves as
refugees from Jamaica.
Between the false picture of the African prince and the
false picture of the refugee from oppression in Jamaica,
one might be tempted to say that we are not very good at
describing what our country is like.
I am not going to question all those things, but I would
like you to know that in Jamaica we do have yet a free
and open society; (Applause) a society that is so free
and open that we are yet able to criticize even as powerful
a leader as the Honourable Michael Manley.' And your
humble servant, who has shown such temerity from time to
time, has still survived to sit on his left hand today,
(Laughter)
Dr FIDEL CASTRO - And me on his right,
(Laughter)
- 4
-
Church in. Jamaica accepts social resT?cnsibility
Rev. SAM REID - We are satisfied, Mr President, that whatever
might be our inability to convey the right picture about
Jamaica, you yourself, as the distinguished leader and
ruler of Cuba, are the best person to talk to us about your
great country, and we here do appreciate the. opportunity
that has been provided.
Indeed I ought to say that it has
been volunteered to us to discuss with you your country
and in particular the state and status of the religious
community and the freedoms in general in Cuba.
It is our
understanding that you are not about to attempt to
proselytize among this group, and we are assuring you that
at this point we are not about to attempt to baptize
you, sir.
(Laughter)
Dr CASTRO - You can't.
I've already been baptized.
(Laughter
Rev. SAM REID - In that event then, I think that we are
well on the way, and before this meeting ends I am sure
what we did not do at the beginning, we may do at the end; a
prayer for a blessing would be in order.
Just a last thing, sir.
The Honourable Prime Minister in
his opening statement did correctly place before you what
'
is not only his view but ours of the role of the Church;
we accept our total responsibility.
The Church in Jamaica
today, our responsibilities which, if I may say so, wexdo
conceive as being somewhat more than the responsibility of
our temporary rulers inasmuch as we accept a spiritual
responsibility for the development and care of persons and
we also accept a physical responsibility, understanding that
man is a whole unit and that it is not possible to speak of
his spiritual welfare without accepting responsibility for
his physical welfare.
Therefore, sir, we are at oue with our prime minister, and
we would like you to know that we do support and encourage
all efforts in all parts of the world by well-meaning
leaders and rulers to provide for their people a better life,
circumstances in which they may develop and discover them
selves fully as human beings under God.
I am sure, sir, that in the discussions that will ensue when
I cease speaking you will be able to enlighten us about your
oto country and the state of the Church there and we, perhaps
in the process of discussion, might discover ways in- which
we will be able to cooperate in the service of the Christian
community and the Caribbean community; that is for us to see.
For the moment, sir, on our behalf, welcome and thank you
for the opportunity... (Applause)
Cuban revolution not antirrreligious
Mr MANLEY - Would you like to say a few words, sir?
Dr CASTRO - Este.med Comrade Manley, esteemed Friend Reid I was about to say comrade, but he told me he didn't want
any proselytizing here; (Laughter) esteemed representatives
of the Jamaican churches:
I listened with great attention to the profound and wise
words spoken by Comrade Manley and also to the warm and
*^spectful words spoken by friend Reid... (turning to the
mtQl,pre^erJ ^ou said comrade.
(Laughter)
Interpreter
He says there's no problem.
5
Dr CASTRO - And I’m grateful to you, really, for your interest
in holding this converstion with us,
It was.stated here that I'd give a general outline of relat
ions between the Church and the state in Cuba'.
It seems to
me it woulu be convenient if I were brief in my opening
remarks.
I:d like to start by saying the following;
in our
country a very profound revolution took place which brought
about a radical change in the relations of production and in
social relations.
History shows that whenever such revolutionary events have
taken place all sorts of conflicts have arisen, including
conflicts'between the Church and the state.
This happened
during the French Revolution, as you know; it happened
during the Mexican Revolution, many problems of tjiat nature
arose; an' it also happened during the Russian Revolution,
■Well, also in our case, in Cuba, some conflicts arose in
the beginning.
Actually, in my opinion, this was due on many
occasions to the leadership body of a given religious
congregation or to the social group most closely connected
with such a religious congregation.
I can indeed assure you that at no time was the Cuban
Revolution moved by anti-religious feelings.
We were
deeply convinced that contradictions didn't have to exist bet
ween the social revolution and the religious beliefs of the
population.
Even during our struggle,' there was broad
participation in it by all the people, and believers parti
cipated as well.
Some priests, for instance, joined our guerrilla forces in
the mountains; we met several persons in the Sierra Maestra I couldn't say many, but some persons - who,lived up there
who professed non-Cathclic re?pions.
I do not remember, I
couldn't say now which one they belonged to, I think it was
many.
For instance, some persons were banned from eating
animal fat„ pig's fat, and I admired how they would abide
rigorously by their standards.
When in the midst of the
blockade levelled throughout the zone of operations no
vegetable oil could be obtained, they would refrain from
eating animal fat.
They were friendly, respectful people.
I'd say they were our friends. I keep remembering them as
very kind people with noble spirits,
There never arose the
slightest conflict with them.
Actually, during the war, we
would say that they cooperated with us.
Urban elitist church
Some problems arose mainly with the Catholic Church.
And I
must be sincere here as I am anywhere else. There's nothing
to be gained by our gathering here to create an idyllic
image of the world and things.
I will not try to fool you,
just as I know you will not try to fool us either.
Problems actually arose with the Catholic Church when the
nature of the Revolution was revealed, as a profound social
change, when the first revolutionary laws - the Agrarian
Reform Law, the Urban Reform Law, and several other laws
which affected the interests of the rich in Cuba - were
enacted.
The Church was served in Cuba by a clergy of foreign origin,
most of the clergymen r-r.-irg
Spain, it being the Church
of the rich people.
That wasn't the same as in Latin
America.
In Latin America, in many countries, the Catholic
Church exerts a broad influence on popular sectors.
In
Cuba, the Catholic Church. relied mainly on the religious
schools to oxort its influence.
In Cuba, unlike in France,
for example, we had no pn.ests who worked with the industrial
6
workers or who went
them. That was not
Suffice to say that
church in the whole
mainly in the large
out into the fields and became one of
the situation that prevailed in Cuba,
in Cuba there wasn’t a single Catholic
of the countryside.
The churches were
cities,
In the cities, religious education was given at private
schools.
Generally, they were expensive schools only within
the reach of the moneyed classes.
I myself was born into
a family of landowners, and I was sent to a private school
right from the first grade, although I learned to read
ina public school when I was ver'y little. That’s why I said
I was already baptized, (Laughter) although I wasn’t baptized
at the school.
Cuba was generally considered to be a Catholic country, but
I don’t agree with that, because there appears to be some
confusion.
The Catholic Church had baptized many people.
Generally speaking, whenever a priest went out into the
countryside he did so to baptize people without previous
instruction of any kind being imparted.
I believe religion is not a question of imposition.
I can
only conceive of it as a question of awareness, as a person's
own decision.
It was customary in our country to baptize a
three or four-month old baby.
They'd simply baptize him,
have his name.entered in the church register and thereafter
no concern was shown for that child, for that youngster,
during the rest of his life.
Rural population neglected
I was born in the countryside, and I can say that, although
nearly everyone had been baptized, a Catholic religious
feeling was lacking there.
On the other hand, the immense
majority of the people in the countryside were believers.
Yet what did they believe in? Well, I think it was a kind
of cocktail with all beliefs thrown in. (Laughter)
For instance, I recall this very well because my family
were also believers - when St Lazarus Day came around, a
whole series of activities would be held in the countryside
in his honour.
I had by then a certain notion of the
Catholic religion and was aware that St Lazarus, depicted
as a sick man covered by festering sores, was not a saint
recognized by the Church, and that truly such adoration of
St Lazurus amounted to what could have officially been
termed as superstitions
an incorrect practice from the
Catholic standpoint, so to speak.
Yet everybody lighted a
candle to St Lazarus, prayed to him, offered him sacrifices
and so on.
Other times it was the festivities in honour of the Virgin of
Charity, whom the Church officially recognized.
Many
people believed in her, confided in her, made promises to
her and so forth.
But really our countryside was characterized, generally
speaking, by people living there believing in everything.
Some also professed forms of animism, many believed in
spirits.
In short, there was a definitive atmosphere of
that sort, yet no given religion was systematically,
officially professed.
The other, non-Ca.tholic religions did not have much influence
in our country.
However, I for one could see that the
persons who claimed that they belonged to such other evange
lical religions were generally more disciplined and engaged
in systematic observance of their standards and beliefs.
That much 1 Could see.
-
In the capital and in the larger cities the main Catholic
churches were located in residential areas where the rich
people lived.
They went to mass, of course, on Sundays 3 that
was compulsory.
But there was no religious practice.
That was the situation in our country.
It might be hard for you to understand that because your
customs are different, your experiences are different.
v
Conflict between revolution and a social class
In the United States, I noticed how a Catholic was a
Catholic -and how he consistently observed his beliefs.
In Cuba it wasn't like that.
Many people called themselves
Catholics. Those rich people went to church but they did
not abide in the least by the Church's standards and princples.
They led a dissolute, luxurious, carefree existence, and
I'd say that they broke all the commandments and committed
g.11 the capital sins, (Laughter)
Then a conflict did wise but not between the Revolution
and religious beliefs 3
the conflict was between the
Revolution and a social class that tried to use the Church
as a weapon to oppose the Revolution.
That's what happened.
Notwithstanding my having mentioned the conflicts between
revolutions and the Church throughout history, I think
that in Cuba such conflicts were reduced to the minisiuns.
And this was due to the fact that before the world!, before
our people, before other peoples, we took special care in
never making the Cuban Revolution seen to be the enemy of
religion, because if that had happened wo would have really
been doing a service to the reactionaries, to the exploit
ers, not only in Cuba but above all in Latin America.
That’s why we acted like that, not only because of the
principle involved - and I say this in all frankness,
because to us respect for religious beliefs is a principle but also for strategic reasons:
for reasons of political
strategy and tactics because we could not allow... above
all in Latin America; I'm not talking about Cuba, since in
our country religion did not constitute a political force.
I'm talking about Mexico or Colombia or Chile or Argentina
or other countries where religion is a'political force.
We were not thinking of Cuba; we were thinking above all
of Latin America.
For we asked ourselves, why do the
ideas of social justice have to collide with religious
beliefs? Why do they have to collide with Christianity?
Why? I know quite a lot about Christian principles and
the teachings of Christ.
In my opinion, Christ was a
great revolutionary.
That's my opinion!
(Applause) He
was g man whose whole doctrine was in favour of the
humble, the poor and aimed at preventing abuse, injustice,
the humiliation of the human being.
I'd say: that there's
a lot in common between the spirit of essence of his
teachings and' socialism.
Only Foreign Priests Sent Home
Besides, I've said on occasion that He oondemned th© rloh,
the merchants and the pharisees with very strong words.
He
washed the feet of his disciples.
What worthier example
can one find?
I've even said that the miracle of the
fish and the bread and turning water to wine is what we
socialists also wish to do.
(Laughter and Applause)
I
say this very seriously, I say it very seriously because
this is what I believe, think and feel.
We've all read the history of the first years of Christendom
and we know what it meant to be a Catholic, a Christian
better said, to be a Christian in Rome and in many other
places.
To be a Christian ill the era of the emperors was
worse than being a Communist in Pinochet's Chile (Laughter)
worse than being a Communist in Brazil or Argentina.
Of course, just as Communists have been much persecuted
during the last decades - thousands of Communists were shot
during the Paris Commune uprising, Hitler had Communists
shot and they were shot in Spain, they were murdered and
bombed in Vietnams everywhere in the world, from the time of
the Chicago Martyrs, workers have been murdered and tortured
for allegedly being Communists - so was that the history of
’Christians for many centuries.
Why? Because the ruling
classes, the slave owners, the ones who ordered the
gladiators to kill each other in the circus, the ones who
enjoyed all the social privileges, all were the sworn
enemies of the Christians because the Christians opposed
all that.
Who were the first Christians? The poor, the poorest people',
the humblest people, the slaves were the first Christians.
And they were persecuted for centuries until at last one
emperor became a Christian himself.
That's the truth.
Christianity's whole first, stage reminds me of this stage the
fighters for social justice are going through.
In effect, such conflicts did arise in our country but we
abided by the principles and ideas I mentioned before. One
step we had to take, T guess the strongest step, was when
we had to ask the Spanish priests to return to Spain,
Yet no church was ever closed down, nobody was persecuted
on account of his religious beliefs. x Nobody!
There's something mores
there were priests who plotted and
acted against, the Revolution to the extent that, when the
CIA-organized mercenary invasion at Playa Giron was launced
from Central America - which cost many Cubans their lives several priests came with the invaders.
And no severe
punishment was ever inflicted upon a priest, never was a
priest
or any other citizen for that matter - physically
mistreated in our country.
To us the principle of not
laying a finger on a man or subjecting prisoners to mistreat
ment is a sacred principle that we haven't broken even once.
We have a number of severe penalties, including the death
sentence for certain crimes, but never was such punishment
meted out to a priest.
I'm going to tell you something more.
When it became
necessary to send some priests to jail for serious counter
revolutionary crimes, they were always set free after a short
period of time. We did that deliberately.
Such was the attitude adopted by the Revolutionary Govern
ment during the initial period of conflict.
The situation improved gradually and progressively as a
different spirit began to unfold in the top echelons of the
Catholic Church.
And I'd say that the papel nuncio then
appointed - Monsignor Zacchi, a very intelligent man, very
capable, who really worked very intelligently- contributed
a lot.to.that. He really worked to improve relations between
the Church and the state and he also tried to guide the
Catholic Church into doing its religious duty instead of
engaging in counter-revolutionary activities, because that
was not an intelligent thing to do.
(Laughter)
Majority supported the revolution
I'll tell you why.
The immense majority of the people
supported the Revolution:
the peasants, the yorkers, the
poor,
The people opposed to the Revolution, very rich
propio, left for the United States,
Nobody threw them out
of Cuba;
they left voluntarily.
The Revolution carried out extraordinary social changes.
I
will not detail here how millions of persons benefited
from the measures adopted by the.Revolution- from wiping out
illiteracy, eradicating many diseases to bringing about
full employment throughout the country; but, above all,
the Revolution brought man dignity.
Millions of people had
felt as if they were inferior beings for'they were
humiliated, exploited and despised; blacks were merciless
ly discriminated against; women were forced to prostitute
themselves since no other employment was available to
them;
a lot of people pinned their hopes on gambling, a
deceitful hope that left them open to exploitation.
In
addition, drugs were available anywhere in the country.
It was at this juncture that the Revolution wiped out rac
ial discrimination, opened up the doors of society and of
life to all the citizens of the country:
no more aristo
cratic clubs where blacks coundn't go, hotels blacks countax
stay in, beaches blacks countn't swim at, schools black
children were barred from.
Who can tell me anything new
about all that, after I myself attended schools black
children were barred from for many years? I used to ask, in
all innocence - so to speak- at that age, why are there no
black children in the school? Mind you, it was a religious
school.
The answer I got in the religious school was:
“No, no black children can come here because they're very
few and they Would feel awful," That's the philosophical
answer I got to explain why .no black children could attend
the school.
The Revolution wiped ail that away.
The Revolution, eradi
cated prostitution, and it did so in a humane way:
it
trained, fed, clothed and sheltered those women while help
ing them adapt to another type of activity and anotlier
type of work,
.There used to be 100,000 prostitutes in Cuba out of a
population of six and a half million.
I mean straight
prostitution, since indirectly prostitution reached even
greater figures.
Take the case of a man with plenty of
money who perhaps used to go to mass every Sunday but kept
five or six women in five or six different homes and all
that sort of thing,
The Revolution wiped out prostitution, gambling, drug
addiction, all those things.
So millions of people were
in agreement with those measures,
"We must work together" for change
To oppose the Revolution was to earn the hatred of the people,
and that's a fact.
Both the nuncio and the Church understood
that.
But not only that, some changes ware introduced by the
Catholic Church itself, new guidelines were issued by the
Church, specifically by John XXIII. Also, stemming from
Latin America's Catholic Church, there emerged progressive
currents that accounted for a change which allowed for
harmonious relations to develop between the Church and the
Cuban• s td t e 0
T
10
I can assure you that no revolutionary process as radical
and profound as the Cuban Revolution has had less conflicts,
so to.speak, with religion than our Revolution.
At present,
relations are normal.
We hardly ever hear of conflict with
■the Church at.present.
X’m not denying that there are indeed
some conflicts of another type. In the beginning we had
conflicts not only with the Catholic Church.
We also had
them with Jehovah's witnesses, this being areligious group
very much influenced by the United States - it gets all
softs of support and aid from the United States - and it had
a militant attitude against•the Revolution.
Except for this,
I can say that at present relations between the Revolution,
between the Cuban state and the churches are really excellent
In our recently enacted Constitution, freedom of ■worship,
freedom of religious belief is expressly and very specially
guaranteed.
Let me say something else.
When I was in Chile in 1972, I
had an extensive meeting with Church representatives.
It
wasn't like this meetings
in 19 years of revolution this
is the first time I have had a meeting like this one.
(Applause)
I met with progressive Church representatives,
a broad movement in Chile at that time, and I took advantage
of that occasion to set forth our opinions on how relationsbetween religion and the revolution should be conducted,
because, to me it isn’t enough to respect each other, we
must cooperate with each other in order to change the world.
(Applause)
We must cooperate to change the world, ie must
work 'together,
I maintain that the basis for this cooperation must be estab
lished before the revolution takes place.
Why? Because I
believe that revolutions will happen anyway, I believe that
socialism will finally succeed in the world not because I
want^-it sb, or because Manley wants it so, or many of you
want it so.
It's not because of that or because Marx and
Engels said so or because Lenin said so.
By now it's not
only a question of doctrine, it's not only a question of
political theory but a necessity which can be mathematically
proved.
For how else can the world solve its present and future
problems? How can the world solve them!
We're now 4,000
million, later we'll be 7j000 million, still later 15»000
million.
I don't see how the world's problems can be
solved unless everybody behaires like a single family and
unless the effort, the talent and the energy of mankind are
truly dedicated to solving the world's problems.
We can't go on being selfish as nations, we can't go on being
selfish as human beings.
We must give up individualism,
that makes people want to have everything for themselves whil
others starve.
I even think that, unless we have economic
development planning on a worldwide scale, we're going to
deplete- all natural resources and poison the environment, and
human beings will end up eating each other.
I'm not merely
thinking about this very minute or about 30 years from now,
but I'm not thinking about three centuries from now either.
Twenty-three years from now there'll be 7,000 million people
in the world.
I ask myself, what will man live on?
Observing Jamaica by helicopter or by plane, I’ve seek rocky
arid, trouble-some mountains and I've seen a lot of people
scattered all over.the country. There are two million
Jamaicans, and 23 years from now there'll be 3.5 million.
I
ask, can a single country live by itself? Can Jamaica?
Can Cuba? There are other countries, on the other hand, that
have enormous natural resources and don't know what to do
with all their money.
In actual fact, a day will come when mankind shall live like
a single family, making use of all available natural
resources.
I think that the only solution is socialism on
a worldwide scale.
(Applause)
A strategic alliance desirable
Since I believe that these changes must take place, I told
the Chilean Church representatives that we had to work to
gether so that when the political idea triumphed the
religious idea would not be far removed, appearing like an
enemy of change. There are no-contradictions between the
aims of religion and the aims of socialism.
There aren't any
I told the Chileans that we should make an alliance, but
not a tactical alliance.
I was asked whether it was tacti
cal or strategic, and I said a strategic alliance between
religion and socialism, between religion and the revolut
ion.
I said it in all honesty.
When we look to history
we see evolution.
There whs a time when the Christian
religion, which used to be the religion of the slaves, bec
ame the religion of emperors, of the court, the religion of
patricians.
As we go further into history, we see how man
have ma.de serious mistakes in the name of religion.
I'm
not going to talk to you about how man made even worse mis
takes in their role as politicians.
It was on the basis of
such realities that I said we had to fight together to
achieve these aims, for I ask where do the contradictions
between Christian teachings, and .socialist teachings lie?
Where? We both wish to struggle on behalf of man, for the
welfare of man, for the happiness of man.
I could give, in addition, an example of our Revolution's
spirit as regards religion.
As you know, non!Christian bel
iefs predominate in many African countries
they are very
widespread.
But has, for instance, the fact that AfricansAngolans, to give an example - have religious beliefs
that differ from ours, the fact that they worship living
things, animals, objects, etc., been an obstacle for our
shedding our blood side by side with the Angolans? I
mean, why must religion be an obstacle for achieving the
aims of socialism? It Can't be.
This is my deepest con
viction, which I state here in all frankness.
Thank you
very much.
(Applause)
No formal ban on dissemination of religion
Rev. SAM REID - Mr President, I would like to thank you
so much for.that very full and moving explanation of not
only your own thinking and your own appreciation of
religion and its place but your own description of the
struggle in your own country and the mistakes on all sides.
We are not here at this moment about to defend religion or
any religious group, but we would like to explore a
little further the details so that we can understand the
way in which the tolerations in religion worked in fact.
We would like to know, for example, does the freedom of
cult worship bring with it access to the media, radio,
television, the press?
Dr CASTRO - In fact, freedom of worship... I woundn't say
there's a lot of propaganda spread through the media. This
problem did not arise since people must undorstand the
followings
We've been facing the United States in a
life-or-death struggle on all fronts. Now, the United
States isn't just any country;
its a very powerful
12
country which did everything possible to destroy us econo
mically and militarily.
It organized acts of sabotage and
crimes of every nature and attempted assassinations. And
we have given the media over to a political struggle. That’s
the way it has been.
We've been dedicated to. shaping polit
ical awareness 5 we've been dedicated to nothing else.
I believe that it would be perfectly in line with our Con
stitution for religion to make use of the media. Yet in
actual practice it has not been so, quite honestly it hasn't
been so.
I think when a peaceful climate prevails in our
country, when this imperialist war against us is stopped,
then these questions can be looked upon with different crit
eria. As a matter of fact, we have few newspapers and use
very little newsprint. You use up more newsprint per capita
than wo do in all of our newspapers put together. (Laughter)
We use a lot of paper to print books and other things. We
only have two dailies, one is the P£rty paper and the other,
the Communist Youth paper.
I wouldn't think they're
appropriate vehicles for religious teachings. We also have
magazines and other things.
At any rate, there's no formal
ban established on religious dissemination.
Upon analyzing the wording and the spirit of our Constitution
both presuppose the right to propagate religious beliefs.
Rev. SAM REID - In effect you are saying that, because you are
still to some degree on a war footing, the media is pre
empted by the government, the state?
At this point, sir, I think it would be fair to say to you
that the Church in the Caribbean countries has been aware of
the injustice and the dangers inherent in this isolation of
Cuba and the war, ss you'call it, against her and that in
this room there are many Church leaders who in Trinidad in
'71 did move a resolution calling upon Caribbean Governments
to begin to break the isolation of Cuba, and we are very
pleased that the heads of government of the Carribbean
countries did take the decision to open diplomatic relations
with Cuba, one result of which is your presence here today.
(Applause)
Dr CASTRO- Both in Jamaica and in the congregation.(Laughter)
Bibles welcome
1
Rev. SAM REID - We would like to know that one result of the
loosening up of the relationships generally would be the
possibility for the churches, including the churches in
Jamaica, to be able to relate to our Christian friends in
Cuba, the Church, and that perhaps material for worship and
fof study, which might be in short supply, we might be able
to share.
For example, I think that if we were to be told
that it was acceptable to you.y then the churches meeting here
represented here, would like to make available as many coioies,
say, of the Bible in Spanish as we could put together, make
them available to churches in Cuba, because we know that the
feeding of. the spiritual life of people depends a lot upon
their being able to have available reading matter and certa
inly the Bible, which is the foundation of all.
Dr CASTRO- Well, he raised two questions.
The first one
concerns relations between the Cuban churches and the
Caribbean and Jamaican churches.
Rev. SAM REID - Well, we are really speaking for Jamaica.
The mention of Caribbean churches was...
- 13
Dr CASTRO - Lock, I can sr.y offhand that there! s no object
ion on our part, we'd even be happy.
I can add that the
Catholics recently asked us to hold some kind of religious
event in Cuba — I don’t recall what sort of event it was but
it was an important one - with representatives from all over
Latin America attending.
We agreed and authorized them to
hold that event.
As to the Bibles, ,1 recall that when I visited Chile they
took me . to a meeting with the cardinal.
I hadn’t requested
the meeting, really, (Laughter) but Allende wanted me to
hold that meeting anyway, so I went to have a chat with the
Cardinal.
And he said to me, "Well, you asked for a meeting.
What’s the purpose of this interview?"
I replied, "Well,
I don't know because they arranged for an interview to be
included on my schedule, but I' suppose we could find a few '
things to talk about,"
I didn’t like that very much.
I mean it sincerely.
There
was no reason for me to object to having a meeting.with the
cardinal, nor did I feel I had to explain to the rest of my
revolutionary comrades why I had met with; the cardinal.
Yet the cardinal needed to inform the reactionaries there that
I had requested the meeting.
(Laughter)
Anyway, we talked.
He raised the question of Bibles, whether
he could send 10,000 Bibles to Cuba.
I told him "Yes,
send the 10,000 Bibles, for the Bible is a fine book.
I
hope those Bibles go to the libraries.
I like the Bible.
It is a sign of culture to read it, and it’s one of the best
books ever written." Thus, we did agree, and a boat arrived
home loaded with Bibles.(. Laughter)
How could we ever object
to your sending Bibles to the Cubans? Not at all. (Laughter)
Counter-revolutionaries punished
QUERf - I would like to ask a question.
I will try to speak in
Spanish. My question concerns human rights.
I, as a Christian, believe in the sanctity of life in the
human being, in the same way that I believe you also believe
in it. And therefore it is impossible for me to feel satis
fied knowing that at this moment in Cuba, as in other countr
ies, there are brothers who are imprisoned because of their
politics, and I know that you, Mr President,.being a kind man,
I would like to ask pu what will be the fate ,of these brothers
who are still in jail,, and I ask this question not because
of political reasons, but because I honestly feel something
toward these human beings who are still in prison.
Dr CASTRO - Very good, very good.
When you talk about brothers
do you mean religious brothers or political brothers? . What
do you moan?
Could you explain?
I believe that among those imprisoned, there are some
who are believers.
Dr CASTRO - Why should they get special treatment because they
are believers?
My question ...
Dr CASTRO - ^es, go on, explain your question and I will
answer with pleasure.
I will answer everything. Ask what
ever you want, ask fqr details, ask whatever you want.
The question is that the Revolution....
Dr CASTRO - You are trying to say that we have some prisoners
in Cuba, is that it? And you aro concerned about their
situatien?
- 14
________ Yes.
Dr CASTRO - Fine.
Now, I will1tell you this.
First, I dis
agree with what you said.
Nobody is in jail because of his
political views. That's the first thing, that's point one.
Point two; we make a distinction between political prisoners
and counter-revolutionary prisoners. According to our concept
of penal law, a political prisoner is. one who is arrested and
sentenced for trying to improve society for struggling for the
good of man and for progress in sociefrjf, We don't view in
the same light those who struggle to make society regress, and
we call them counter-revolutionary prisoners.
However, they
go to jail concretely for having committed serious crimes.
What were we expected to do vith someone who took, up arms in
the Escambray Mountains at the instigation of the United States?
This doesn't happen anymore, but it is one of the reasons why
there were prisoners.
They killed workers, peasants, teachers,
people who were teaching others to read and write and, committ
ed all kinds of other crimes.
Were we supposed to let them
go free to do such things?
What were we expected to do with people who organized acts of
sabotage or with the spies of the CIA or. with people who
tried to organize the assassination of leaders of. the Revolut
ion? What were we expected to do with those who invaded our
country, vith those who infiltrated weapons and explosives
in our country and Who actively worked at the service of the
United States to overthrow the Revolution in what constituted
flagrant treason punished by all the penal codes in the world?
We had no choice but to punish them by sending them to jail.
We had to do this.
Those are the reasons why such people are
in jail.
There were quite a few of them, quite a few.
At
one time there were 15,000.
Don't think that there were only
a few, because there weren't.
Of course, what.was also happening at that time was that those
people, the reactionaries, thought that the United States would
destroy the Revolution and that they would leave jail as
heroes.
Going to jail sometimes served to further a political
careers
there are many people in Cuba who did this. There
fore, being a prisoner was frequently a merit.
Well, we did put those people in prison, and who solved their
broblem? It wasnlt the United States, it was us.
I don't know if you read the report by the US Senate commission
which investigated the plans to assassinate leaders of other
states. No? I think it would.be good if you did. (Laughter)
It isn't very difficult reading.
In it, the commission acklowledged the large number of attempts on the lives of
leaders of the Cuban Revolution organized by the US Govern
ment,
And not all the attempts are listed therein.
I want
you to know, I want to tell you that they organized attempts
on my life and on those of several others.
I had a pretty
good record;
I think there were about 80 plots to kill me.
But did you know that many of the people who planned those
attacks are now free and walking around the streets of Hayana?
Who got them out of jail? The CIA and the U S Government? No,
it was the Revolution.
Revolution needs to defend itself
We do not consider punishment as an act of revenge. We
woundn't be-Marxists if we. viewed punishment as en act of
revenge.
That's not our conception of penal law. That's not
my conception.
For man is the product of a certain environ
ment, and his ideology is moulded by a given class society.
15
Thus, to a large extent', he is a product of the society in which
he lives.
We dream of changing that society.
Punishment is
simply something the Revolution must do to defend itself.
For
if some man is capable of carrying out an act of sabotage at a
factory and kills 100 workers as a result, we have the right
to defend those workers. • I remember something that happened
soon after the triumph of the Revolution and that people can't
seem to forget.
It involved a-'woman who was dear to many
people.
When the counter-revolutionaries set fire to a large
department store with several floors, she was .trapped inside
and was burned alive,
I want you to know that there are things
like this which the masses don't forget easily.
I also want
you to know that the head of that counter-revolutionary
organization has been released.
Sometimes it isn't easy for
the people to understand this kind of thing.
I'm not saying that all have shared the same fate. (Laughter).
There have been extremely serious crimes which we have punish
ed in the severest way possible, never as an act of revenge, ‘
however, but as a result of the need of the Revolution to def
end itself. We ourselves worked out the plans and the
programmes by virtue of which those people could be released.
We set up work programmes which they could work in and out of
jail. There is something else:
I think ours is the only
such case in the world.
Did you know that prisoners who work
have the same rights and earn the same salaries as factory
workers?
So, counter-revolutionary and common prisoners in
Cuba can work, earn a salary and support their families.
(Applause) Thanks to those programmes, 80 per cent of the
people who were in prison for counter-revolutionary crimes are
now free. Those who are left - and, of course, there could be
some new cases, I don't deny, it - will be released by virtue
of this programme, and, in some cases, they will be released
when they serve their sentences in full,
We have always resisted foreign pressure in regard to this
matter. The United States wanted us to release their people. We
did so for other reasons, because of our desire to solve the
problem, and we really have solved it.
Since We have done so
under the worst conditions of US hostility, including the
blockade, we could be even more lenient in solving the problem
in a climate of peace,
'Still, let me twll you something, it is hpraane and. even Christ
ian to be concerned about -others.
Regardless of their religion,
we must be concerned about all human beings,
I don't know if there were any believers among the judges who
sentenced the war criminals at Nuremberg - there may well have
been, and the fact is that they sentenced many of those people
to death by hanging and others to life sentences.
Some of the
war criminals are still in jail, and the trial was 32 years ago or at least 30 years ago - and they are still in jail serving
life terms.
The Cuban Revolution is younger.
It triumphed less than 20 years
ago.
I want you to know that there were individuals in Cuba
who murdered dozens and even hundreds of people, and they tortured
them just like they do in Chile today.
What is our view?
Should those criminals go scot free? Should they? If those who
murdered Jews, democrats and Communists in Germany were hung by
the western powers at Nuremberg and others were given life terms,
why is it that those who murdered or murder Cubans and committed
crimes and toytured people can't be punished.
Why?
It was just over a year ago that a Cuban plane exploded carrying
the junior fencing team - all of whose members were under 20 and
16 who had won all the medals - plus workers: fishermen, of those
who work together with the countries of the Caribbean; air
crew members, who were greatly admired in our country and who
transported Cuban soldiers to Angola to fight against the
South African racists. A bomb was planted on board, and it
exploded when the plane was in flight. The plane went up in
flames, and there isn't even some way of knowing whether or not
those on board were burned alive before the plane plunged into
the sea.
Suppose you go somewhere.
Just imagine a bomb under the seat
of a plane, imagine the plane in flames.
Just think what a
terrible crime this was.
I don't know if such crimes exist in
hell, if such ter.rible things happen there, (laughter) but I
can't imagine anything more terrible,
The death of those people fills me with grief. I feel profound
solidarity with the mothers who lost their children, with the
children who lost their parents, with the wives who lost their
husbands and with the husbands -who lost their wives.
I feel
pain for them,
I admit that I think more about them than the
people who are in jail in Cuba for having committed the crimes
I mentioned before, (/applause)
Willing to build churches
"
QUERY - I was in Cuba for about two weeks, and I was deeply
fascinated, you know, by the whole movement there.
I went to
some of the big housing estates like Alamar. There was some
thing noticeable, Dr, Castro, in the areas I visited.’ In those
new housing settlements far away from the inner city where
people used to live, there are no new churches; so, as the
population moves away .from the traditional places' of worship into
these new areas of habitation, they move away from their area
of worship too.
But the schools are there, other facilities
are there.
I am wondering if there is any particular reason
why this development takes place?
Dr CASTRO - Let me make myself clear by telling’you'the follow ing.
Churches are hot included in our construction programmes.
We include schools, hospitals and everything else.
However, I
can assure you that, if a given community were to ask the
Revolutionary Government to build a church because the community |
felt there was a need for one, if they asked us to build it,
we'd build it.
I want to digress for a moment.
Forgive me, but I want to tell
the president that the comrades have told me something.
I
didn't know when I answered his questiin.
It "is that a ship
ment of 2,500 Bibles and 2,500 New Testaments arrived in Cuba
two weeks ago sent by the Jamaica Bible Society to the Council
of Churches in Cuba.
(Applause)
QUERY - 1 would like to ask a question.
Now, we in Jamaica,
over the last year,
lot of parallel is being drawn between
the genesis of the Jamaican Revolution and the' genesis of the
Cuban Revolution,
And one of the things being said was that
the Jamaican Revolution was following the pattern' of the Cuban
Revolution and consequently would end up in the Soviet bloc.
Now, one of the questions I have always- asked about you and the
Cuban Revolution is whether, at the beginning of the Revolution,
it was your country's intention to lead Cuba into that block
or whether it came in the process?
Marxist - Leninist doctrine the starting point
Dr CASTRO - Is that a political or a religious question? (Laughter)
17
I can assure you that ws haven’t joined the Greek Orthodox
Church, you hear?
•I will explain the following to you.
I don' think. . . I think
that this business of saying that Cuba is a model for Jamaica
and that you're going to do things just like they're done in
Cuba is part of the. propaganda against Jamaica and against
Manley's government.
All *
th at is simply a ploy, a political
device to create confusion.
I think that no two processes are
exactly alike anywhere,
(Applause) There have been many
revolutions and many changes in the world lately, and not a
single one has been exactly the same as another.
I don!t
think Manley is interested in looking to Cuba as a model nor
••are we interested in having Manley look to us as a model,
(Laughter)
TJe may have experience in technical, scientific and agricult
ural matters and in construction, sports and other areas of
use to you, and some of your experience may be of value to us,
If Manley sends us a certain kind of grass -which is very good
for cattle, wo won't say, this is capitalist grass, so it
must not be planted here.
(Laughter)
I'll tell you that this grass was developed in the United
States.
What's more, our best layers - and ve have a largescale programme I might add: the state firms produce 1,750
million eggs every year - come from Canada and the United
States.
Oh, of course, the United States wouldn't sell them
to us, but it is easier to get an egg out of the United States
than a locomotive.
(Laughter)
There are many ways in which we can help each other and co
operate.
Our feeling, which we have expressed publicly is
that the Jamaicans should act the way they feel they ought to,
.They will always enjoy our full respect and greatest consid
eration.
This is our view and our duty of reciprocity
toward Jamaica.
Other countries did not act as Jamaica did. .They .wanted to
overthrow the Revolutionary Government and boycotted it.
If
a country respects us wo respect it 5
if a government doesn't
respect us^we don't respect it either.
Regarding our membership in what you call the., Soviet bloc, I
think that is a question of semantics.
Would you say that China
belongs to, the Soviet bloc or not? Is Albania a member of the
Soviet bloc? The idea of a bloc is a-very relative concept.
We belong to several blocs, if you want to put it that way, or to
none.
It is my feeling that, at the UN, we belong to the bloc
of Latin-American countries;
in the international arena, we
belong to the bloc, if you will, of the nonaligned countries;
in the international organizations, we belong to the bloc of
the 77, that is, the bloc of the underdeveloped countries; and
in the political sphere, we belong to the community of social
ist countries because we have' similar political principles and
large-scale economic and technical cooperation, etc.
Finally,
we belong to the bloc of Caribbean countries (Applause) and to
the Jamaica-Cuba bloc.
(Laughter and Applause) I can assure
you that none of this was deliberate;
it was the result of
history and life.
(Applause)
QU3RY - I would like to ask a question. First of all, you
mentioned about the cooperation between State and Church, which
I think is an important one, and I can see that your own concept
helped you very much to come to this understanding. (Laughter)
The problem is this:
in your 1976 Constitution that state is
18
that state is responsible for the educationof the youngsters,
and it would seen to me that you might have difficulty in
this cooperation between Church and state when one would
realize the orientation that you actually have in mind for
the children. Maybe it is one that has its foundation in
Marxism-Leninism, in Article 38 of -the Constitution.
Now, you mentioned before that there should be no imposition
from the outside, whether it is religion or education.
Now,
I think you have in the whole world a text used for ten-yearolds in public schools, and I quote, "About 2,000 years ago,
rumours began to spread about the existence of Christ, who
was supposed to be the son.; of God.
But science has proved
that Christ never existed."
And the text is used as part of
the history of Cuba.
Now I can see that in this cooperation between Church and State
you have the orientation that ends with the "dignification" of
man and is aimed at economic and social development, whereas
the Church, because of its orientation, has not only dignifi
cation but also civilization apart.
If you have two orientat
ions, and problems will come up in this cooperation and if this
kind of teaching is given to students now, eventually there will
be an attrition of religious sentiments and orientation of a
people.
Could you comment, please?
.
Dr CASTRO - Well, it's true that we take Marxist-Leninist doct
rine as a starting point, but we stress the social aspects
really.
I think that the fact that at times political processes have
stressed the religious aspect has historically been due to the
political disputes which developed between the Church and the
revolutionary state.
I feel that a union, so to speak, a
drawing together or an alliance, as I said before, would force
both sides to take this into account.
I think that a state cRn have textbooks with a non-religious
orientation or even an orientation that, opposes the religious
view in the fields .of philosophy or history. At the same time,
the child can go to church where he's taught something else.
The child should be able to decide fre_-ly whether or not he
accepts religion, and he might or might not be persuaded by
a certain view.
In my time, this problem didn't exist really?
I was baptized,
they found a godfather for me and so forth.
I remember when
I was about five years old and still hadn't been baptized I
felt very bad, because people said thatlwas a Jew.
I didn't
know what being a Jew was, but I imagined it was something
bad.
They called me a Jew to insult me, and I didn't even
know there was a people called the Jewish people.
Religion was not really taught to me but rather imposed upon
me;
I didn't have an option, an opportunity to get information
that would allow me freedom of choice as to whether or not to
have a religion.
I even disagreed with many of the things
which they taught me, I really did.
Wh y?
Because I like
to be taught to reason things out, to thirik and to understand
things.
I don't like dogma.
That's one thing.
Secondly,
they made me pray for hours on ond without knowing what I was
praying about since I prated in Latin and Greek, and I didn't
know what it all meant.
That's what happened to me in life.' Since I told you I was
going to be honest with you, I will say that I disagree with
that kind of religious education,
I's saying it now, because
I's complaining that I was subjected to that for a long time
when I was a child and a teenager.
19
I believe that the human being should haveinformution and
freedom to choose what he wants to do as far as religion is
concerned.
I think this principle is a reasonable one, and on this basis
there's no need for a conflict to exist between religion and
revolution.
I don't mean the states
I'm talking about
relations between socialism and religion, between the Revolution
and religion, rather than between the state and religion.
My thinking is as follows?
if socialism stands for the greatest
freedom of man, why should it exclude from society the freedom.
to have religious convictions? We ' re' imposing socialism on
no one nor are we imposing Marxist-Leninist ideas on anyone.
For I ask, what kind of revolutionary is the person who must
have an idea imposed on him?
In truth, I was never a good believer because belief was imposed
on me.
It wasn't due to persuasion nor was it a consequence of
my own reasoning.
I think that by imposing religion upon
people you get bad believers, and by imposing Marxism-Leninism
as a dogma you get bad Communists,
So now we're going through a new experience.
I realize that
the point he raised is an interesting one.
We must think about
these questions, and about how we are going to learn to live
with these contradictions.
QUERY - I would like to ask that, flowing from the freedom of
expression in Cuba and freedom of the area as Christians, if a
Christian denomination were to apply for permission to establish
a broadcasting station specifically for the dissemination of
Christian doctrine and to propagate the Christian idea pf life,
would that broadcasting station be permitted?
Dr CASTRO - I sincerely believe that, under the present cir
cumstances, the answer is no.
That's reality and I must be
frank with you about it.
I can't commit myself on the question
of the station;
the Bible is different as we already have a
policy on "that.
(Laughter)
I don't know whether true religious
education can really be taught over the radio.
I don't believe
so, I's not sure.
Actually, this is the first time this question has been raised
in that way.
It coundn't be done now, really, not now.
Were
I to suggest it to my comrades in the Party and in the govern
ment, I fear they would think you had succeeded in converting
me to religion herein Jamaica.
(Laughter)
That's all right.
(Applause)
Rev. SAM REID - Mr President, I wish to tell you that this has .
been a most interesting two hours, and I believe there's nothing
further to ask you.
I would just like to say, on behalf of this gathering of Church
representatives that we are extremely grateful to the President
for the free and frank discussion which we have had and
that it has been very illuminating to us in many ways.
And I
am sure that it will provide the groundwork for greater under
standing of the problems of the government and people of Cuba
and, I hope, greater opportunities for cooperation with the
coming of understanding.
Let us pray.
FIDEL CASTRO ON CHURCH-STATE RELATIONS IN CUBA
Introductory Note
This document is the record of a meeting between Dr Fidel
Castro, President of Cuba', with representatives of churches
in Jamaica on October 20, 1977 at Kingston, Jamaica,
presided over by Mr Michael Manley, Prime Minister of that
West Indian state.
Dr Castro describes church-state
relations in Cuba since the socialist Revolution in 1959,
explains his government's policy in regard to religion and
church, and answers a few questions on these subjects, thus
providing a view of the situation in Cuba from the govern
ment’s side.
When Dr Philip Potter, general secretary of
the World Council of Churches, met him on a recent visit to
Cuba, Dr Castro commended the statement for widespread
use and gave Dr Potter a copy of the record of the meeting,
published in the Cuban newspaper C-ramna, dated November 20,
1977.
He claims that no revolutionary process as radical and pro
found as the Cuban revolution has had as few conflicts with
religion as that experienced in Cuba.
Ho declares that there
are no "contradictions” between the Revolution and Christian
beliefs as he feels there is much in common between the
essence of Christ’s teachings and socialism.
So, in his view,
the Church and the socialist state ought to "work together
to change the world",
Tn issue No. 2 of May 1977 this documentation service publish
ed the deQ^Jaration of faith of the Presbyterian-Reformed
Church in^Cuba which sets out certain articles of faith
coming out of the experience of a church living in Cuban
socialist society and revolution.
The church believes that
"the new Socialist Constitution of Cuba is shaping the
establishment of a more just society when it declares that
’the primary law of our Republic should be the homage of
Cubans to the full dignity of man'".
The Church commends
responsible participation of its members in activities in all
spheres of public life for the building of the new society.
Recent visitors to Cuba have noted that socialism in terms
of people's participation is a reality from the smallest
unit of society onwards.
FIDEL CASTRO ON CHURCH-STATE RELATIONS IN CUBA
The Honorable Mr MICHAEL MANLEY, Prime Minister of JamaicaMr. President, the President of the Council of Churches, my
brothers and sisters and friends;
I am very happy to welcome you all this morning, it is not
quite this morning and yet, not yet firmly established as this
afternoon.
But you are very welcome nonetheless to what I
am sure is going to prove to be a meeting of very great
interest to everyone. '
Now, I would like to take the opportunity of beginning the
meeting with a simple reminder of the complete consistency
with which the Jamaican Government has always observed in the
most complete sense the principle of freedom of worship,
and it is not only that we observe it now, that we have
observed it in the past, that other governments have observ
ed it in the past, but also that we are completely committed
to it as a principle for the future.
Human rights belong together - Jamaican View
We feel that the concept of freedom of religious worship is
a very critical and integral, part of the totality of those
rights which we describe as human rights, and we accord it
an especial.place within the framework of those rights.
2
We also feel very strongly that human rights only take on a
complete meaning when they sit firmly and cqjfeletely in the
framework of economic and social fights,
W^^o not believe
that you can separate any one kind of.right from all kinds of
rights, and therefore, it is an equally profound commitment
of this government to work ceaselessly to. try to create those
conditions in society that ■ ca". provide the f;und^tion for
economic and social rights f?r all human beings.
It is equally a fundamental commitment of'this government
that the human rights of one people as described in this wider
sense are incomplete unless they are associated with an
equally complete framework of human rights for all people
everywhere in the world.
And it is for this reason also that this government is pro
foundly committed to internationalism and to the belief that
our responsibilities are not only defined in terms of a brother
hood and sisterhood within the Jamaican nation but equally in
terms of a brotherhood and sisterhood throughout the world, and
equally that that wider concern does not either begin or end
with human rights narrowly defined but must operate in terms
of human rights in its widest definition, that includes
|
economic and social rights.
In spite of these objectives, v?e are very aware of tho in
adequacy of our accomplishments in these regards, We have no
sense of false pride or false achievement, and I only state
this- so that the moral framework within which this meeting
takes place is set out as clearly as I can from the point of
view of the Jamaican Government,
In the course of this., two things strike me as interesting.
Firstly, it has been our experience that the Cuban Government
has made an outstanding contribution to the struggle for human
rights in this wide and complete definition in the world at
large.
Their owi internationalism and the tremendous efforts
that they have made to help struggling people in other parts
of the Third World are already a part of the fabric of modern
history, And it is for that reason that we have a very special
pride in inviting to be with us in Jamaica the person who is
more than any ether single person the leader and the inspirat- I
ion of that process, namely, Mr President Fidel Castro.(Applause
I can say of my own experience how very interested we have
been and how moved we have been in recent years by the quality
of friendship and solidarity „nd support and cooperation
which have always been extended by the Cuban government to the
Jamaican people in the present struggle to build a country of
self-reliance, independence and of genuine freedom for our
people,
My last comment would seek to establish the second reason why
I think this meeting is so significant and it is because we
feel very profoundly that the Church has an active responsib
ility to play a positive part in the struggle for economic
and social justice.
We understand that it must bo the first responsibility of the
Church to concern itself with both the state and the fate of
man's eternal soul - perhaps the first having a profound bear
ing on the second.
But we fsel also that
there has to be
the positive acceptance of a iemptral responsibility to work
actively with those forces, factors and institutions in
the state w’hich are striving fcr economic and social justice.
And I must say, Comrade preiid .mt, that there are leaders of
the Church in this roir. who
Lc my certain knowledge, do
accept this responsibility vary seriously and do, in their
PRIVATE circulation only
LATIN AMERICA _BISHOPS_MEET_AT_PUEBLA
(
Issues
at stake )
The meeting of Bihsops of the Latin America Church
at Puebla is if importance to the entire Church
because of the basic issues that are being raised.
The article which we reproduce here highlights
the fundamental issues.lt is taken from "Cross Currents"
Vol. XXVIII, No 1 .
CELAM III
= TWO MUTUALLY INCOMPATIBLE ECCLESIOLOGIES LOCKED IN STRUGGLE
Celam III, the thrid meeting of the Bishops of Latin Aomrica, to be
held at Puebla, Mexico, must make decisions that will have crucial
transcendental importance for the Church in Latin Am-jrica and beyond.
Two mutually incompatible ecclesiologies are locked in struggle. What
the Bishops decide may not resolve the issues, it will, however, have
a major bearing on the survival of the institutional church, either
facilitating or complicating the struggle of the people of Latin America
to free themselves from the oppression under which they long have
groaned.
The ecclesiologios are basical3y those that agitated Vatican
Council II. Should the church continue on its traditional course and
in its traditional forms! structurally , a pyramid of power, stressing
religious practices, seeing itself•as an international institution, the
universal instrument of salvation ? Or should it continue on the new linos
already significantly.developed in Places (particularly Brazil)
with
horizontal structures created by grass-roots groups, stressing ?
lay ministries, concerned about ethical practices, seeing itself as
a community rather than a society, as a network of communications, and
as a sign of universal salvation ?
►
The political implications in the Latin American context are obvious.
To return to the old ways, cosmetically modernized, would be supportive
of the status quo economically and politically, favoring the objective
interests of the oligarchs, the middle sectors dependent on them, and
the transnational corporations that are the main beneficiaries of the
present order without justice. To change would benefit economically and
politically, as well as spiritually, the 80 percent of Latin Americans
living in extreme poverty and powerlessness in the countryside and the
mushrooming city slums.
CELAM II (MEDELLIN'
OF OPPRESSION.
- 1968)=OPTED FCR THE POOR AND IDENTIFIED THE SOURCE
CELAM II ( Medellin, Colombia, 1968 ) was long thought to have re
solved the issue, as many thought in 19&5 that Vatican II had resolved
the same problem at the level of the universla Church. Celam II opted
positively for the poor, the voiceless, the oppressed. It identified
the source of oppression as institutionalized violence, the noocoloniaix
lism of the national oligarchies, and the external neocolonialism of
"the international monopolies and the international imperioalism of
money"a situation calling for "global daring, urgent and basically
renewing change". The commitment to radical transformation was unambigu
ous ! " a thirst for complete emancipation, liberation from every
subjection, pers'onal growth and social solidarity."
2
THE BETRaIAL OF CaLAJ-1 II ?
As happened after Vatican II, however, some bishops minimized the
concept of basic change when they went home. Others who started werious
implementation had second thoughts when they found priests and people
wanted to run faster and f farther than they judged prudent. Yet others
buckeld under the pressures of the national oligarchies and their
international overlords who correctly identified the church envisaged
by Medellin as a greater threat than the previous whipping boy, the
communist conspiracy.
All the distortions described by Medellin have everywhere grown
exponentially in ten years. Capital-intensive production techniques
mean less work and more hunger in the cities. Expansion of luxury
crops (such as strawberries), nonfood crons (orchids), and beef - all
for U.S. market - has transferred the best land to the transnational
corporations, leaving less and poorer land for bears, corn, and rice.
To hold wages down and maintain this order without justice forced a
massive expansion of structures of oppression 1 new techniques of con
trol ranging from brainwashing in the controlled mass media through
psychological torture to sophisticated weapons and computerized sur
veillance.
Those who would back away from Medellin, whether from conviction,
prudence, or fear, are forced by the logic of their stand k to
commit the future of the church to the support of this unjust status quo.
Some of them, in attempted justification, point to the centuries-long
interpenetration of the churchxi and civil society in Latin America.
Whether such interpenetration was ever good for the church is ques
tionable. What is not questionable is that its continuation or revival
today would be s disastrous.
MAKING GOD THE PROTECTOR AND AUTHOR OF THE PRESENT SOCIAL SYSTEM
The reason for this has been well expressed by the theological-pasto
ral team of the Bishops of Brazil's Northeast in a reflection on the
upcoming Pueblam meeting. "With respect to God, the testimony of the
People of God accuses and denounces the blasphemous discourses in which
the systems of oppression of the poor, using his name and invoking his
authority, try to hide and justify their injustice and persecutions.
There are many who use the name of God and make God in their own image
and likeness, attributing to him the responsibility for the type of
society in which we presently live. They make God the protector and even
the author of the present social system, which guarantees to them their
property, the established order which roouires obedience, submission and
resignation to the injustices and disgraces that afflict Latin America
because of decisions made by men. The People of God denounce the abuse
committed in the name of the Father and the scandals that come from
those abuses, provoking atheism in many people by presenting God as
the ennemy of the poor and the oppressed.
Such a society is a travesty of Christianity , even if its consti
tutions invoke God, its military dictators are installed in cathedral
services, and its church dignitaries loaded with medals and honors,
in return for papal decorations for captains of industry and generals
of the armed forces. The Christian cannot accept its basic premise —
one dear to the world propaganda of the United States — that the
oppressors and oppressed can coexist in love and constitute one
community ( in this instance, the community of the Church), that the
institutionalized violence of the oppressor and the survival counter
violence of the oppressed are of the same nature, equally condemnable,
and equally to blame for the fialuro of society to prosper.
That assumption effectively castrates the church, rendering it
impotent to take side with the victim against the violator . This
society's god is not the Lord and Father of Jesus Christ, the God
of justice who does not nlace good and evil on a level of equality but
always takes a firm stand on the side of the oppressed.
3
SINCE MEDELLIN, THE ESTABLISHED STRUCTURES HAVE PROVED THEIR ABILITY TO
RESIST CHANGE.
It is an illusion to imagine that the chruch will benefit from re
turning to a theology that is antiquated and repudiated. There is no
possibility of a new Christendom ( that is, a church dominated society),
nor would it be desirable. Secularization is not only a reality but
a positive one. The function of the church, as Vatican II made clear,
is to ve a servant of humanity, a leaven in the world, a sacramental
sign of Christ's presence, the support of the spirit in the common
effort to bring the world to the perfection God intended for it.
A loit motif in the massive documentation distributed by the conserve.' "
tives who seek to withdraw from Medellin is the poisonnous suggestion
that Protestantism is a root cause of Latin America's malaise. It is
significant that neofascist doctrine of National Security developed
by the new military dictatorships under the aegis of the Pentagon
places major stress on the importance of sowing dissenssion?
both within and between the churches. This activity is particularly
shameful in Latin Aomrica where for at least a century up to thirty
years ago Protestantism was singled out by Catholic chruch leaders as
the cause of all the church's problems. Happily, Vatican II purged us
of that error and opened our eyes to the deep spiritual and Christian
values our fellow Christians have to share with us. It is shameful
but it is also unrealistic, to try to resurrect the prejudice of
yesteryear. Like Christendom, anti-Protestantism lies dead in its
unmarked, unmourned grave.
What is most clear is that since Medellin the established structures
have demonstrated their ability to resist the changes required for
truly human developent. But it si pricisely because liberation today
seems so much more remote and huamnly doubtful that the church must be
seen clearly to be on the side of the poor and oppressed.
SOURCE = CROSS CURRENTS, Vol XXVIII,No 1
See next page =
Issues at stake
(P.T.O. )
Next page = Issues at stake
PUEBLA
/ihe following is an attempt to present the issues
at Puebla in a schematic way. Admittedly it over
simplifies. For want of better terms we call the ’’
two groups Liberal (e.g. Holder Camara) and
Consevative (e.g. Alfonso Lope%. Trujillo, the
general secretary of CELAM )
CONSERVATIVES
” LIBERALS
Poverty/ Injustice
Biggest Problem
Secularism
Biggest fear
Communism
An irrelevant Church
Primo target of
Church work
The elite/ the
educated
The poor
Concept of the
Church
Emphasize "institu
tional" aspect Church is the
universal means
of salvation
Emphasize "People of
God" aspect - Church
is the sign of
salvation.
Army
Often a necessa
ry partner in
nation building
An oppressor
Technology
Hopeful
To be critically assessed
Basic
Communities
Suspicious
Positive
Protestants
Very 'critical
Friendly
Medellin
Critical
Positive
Society
Church should do
minate - the
concent of
Christendom
Church is only one
element - civil society
is autonomous.
Attitude to
SOurce
DOCUMENTATION CENTRE
C/o ISI Training Centre
24,Benson Road
Bangalore 5^0 046
INFO - December 1978
( Office for Human Development of the
FABC).
Catechetical Movement in India series no. 15
FORMATION OF CONSCIENCE
As an Integral Part of
Religious and Moral Education of College Youth
*
Fr. Paul Leon
Education is a dynamic process by which man acquires the
true form of his being as man. Man is the only being who
is capable of such formation, because his mind enables him
to confront all reality and let himself be challenged. Other
living beings can only evolve, and possibly be trained; but
man besides evolving can consciously develop his own chara
cter and abilities. Man’s world includes his basic relations—
with extra-human nature, with the human community, with
society and its history, and finally with God and divine reve
lation. The growth and development of these relations presuppose^ man’s fundamental capacity to perceive moral values,
relate them to his “existential ends” and thus form his moral
conscience.
The formation of conscience is a continual process which
knows no age limits. However, the highly impressionable age
of youth should be given particular importance in the forma
tion of conscience.
“It seems apparent that the ultimate problem confront
ing youth today—a continually un-resolved problem—
is one of moral decision, and this in the context of
youth’s rejection of traditional, authoritarian moral judge
ment. Young people are determined to reach their own
moral decisions on the problems which confront mankind. ,
* This brochure is a lecture given at the NBCLC Seminar for
College Lecturers on Religious and Moral Education of Youth.
Ultimately, therefore, the problem of youth today is
one of conscience”-1
The college campus has become more and more the place
■where students make, and will be making, their moral
decisions with respect to their life and the great issues which
confront our society.
Educators can greatly contribute to “moral clarity” in
students’ thinking only if they are prepared to deal openly and
honestly with the questions youth ask about themselves.
Religious education, which also includes moral aspects, f ■
must prepare men for faith, provide it with the chance of grow
ing and taking deeper roots. It must make the Lord clearly
known, and make the encounter with him possible, while God
is the real agent and the only educator. The message of salva
tion must be offered in such a way that it can be known, as
similated and put in practice at each stage of life.
In a sense, then, the basic aim of moral and religious edu
cation is the formation of conscience which enables man to
assume consciously his personal responsibility towards world,
men and God.
The Experience of Conscience
I.
It is the experience and conviction of all mankind that
in his heart man can hearken to the good and to the “voice of
God”. In conscience man has a direct experience in the depths
of his personality of the moral quality of a concrete personal
decision or act as a call of duty on him, through his awareness A
of its significance for the ultimate fulfilment of his personal "
being. In conscience man has the lived experience of values,
through which the binding force of religious-moral duties are
known in the concrete situation. “The human person has an
inbuilt capacity to react to the morality of the situations in
which he is involved. He has some direct moral awareness.
It is permissible to speak of his moral consciousness or aware1.
2
p.h. rotterman,
“Conscience and Student Protest”, in:
Conscience—Its Freedom and Limitations, ed, by W.C.
Bier, Fordham University Press, New York, 1970, p. 241.
, J HtALTM Cc . ,
326, V Main, I Block
Korambngala
Bangalore-JC 70S 4
ness, his awareness of tfc$ii&oral dimension of his situation and
so of his moral experience”.23
Feelings of guilt, remorse, well-being or fulfilment often
accompany a person’s activities. Anxiety, fear, a sense of obliga
tion, an awareness of the ethical dimension of past, present,
or proposed conduct: all these,.enter as part and parcel of
ordinary human experience.
■
The religious and moral experience contained in the Old
Testament presupposes that, if God has spoken to man asking
for man’s lino wing and free response, then man must be capable of recognizing this personally and responding to it of his
J own. This response-ability was experienced in the heart of
man and was guided by wisdom and prudence.^
The New Testament considers conscience as a personal
reality, proper to each individual, so that it merits different
qualifiers: good, bad, weak and strong consciences are men
tioned (Cf. 1 Cor. 8:7-12; Rom. 2:12-16). The unique and
decisive intervention of God in Christ implies that conscience is
not only a natural judgement, but receives enlightenment from
faith. In conjunction with faith, attention must be given to the
operation of the Holy Spirit whose inner guidance works and
bears witness in our conscience (Rom. 8:22).4
II.
Moral Conscience and its dimensions
Moral conscience is founded upon the radical reality of
man’s self-consciousness or self-awareness. If animal conscious
ness is submerged in nature, human consciousness emerges
from nature, in order to know it and change it. The prime
0) reality of consciousness is at the root of man’s spontaneous,
non-reflexive and pre-conceptual moral sense and knowledge.
Man is constitutionally oriented towards God and, there
fore, with his conscience as original faculty and power he
E. mcdonagh, Gift and Call. Towards a Christian
Theology of Morality, Dublin, 1975, p. 5
Cf. Ph. delhaye, The Christian Conscience, New York,
1968, pp. 51-56.
4. Ct. r. schnackenburg, The Moral Teaching of the
New Testament,New York, 1971, pp. 287-296.
2.
3.
3
stands in a mysterious relation to God, for every created good
is founded on the original Good. In the human conscience,
therefore, man’s totality is reflected.
Besides, conscience is also practical moral judgment
which judges whether our actions are good or evil, which
reproaches us when we have done wrong, and gives us a
sense of contentment or peace when we have done well. Th.is,
obviously is not a mere intellectual event. The whole person,
emotional as well as intellectual, loving, or committed as well
as knowing, is involved in assessment of moral realities involv
ing a general pattern for life and particular activities. It is
not enough to make an intellectual judgment; it must be a
personal one.
The understanding of conscience must be in the full
sense Christian and theological as well as personal, taking
cognizance of the insights of psychology, sociology and ethno
logy. An intensive study of the Bible is essential, as well as
a thorough appreciation of the role of conscience in the entire
Christian life, especially in its significance to the spiritual life
and the circumstances of the individual Christian.
The moral conscience is a complex reality. “It obliges,
yet it does not interfere with human self-determination; it
is an autonomous faculty which acts on its own inner sources,
yet it knows itself to be highly dependent on other influences;
it presents itself as sacred and absolute, yet it is subject to
constant changes; it directs itself towards an individual action,
yet it encompasses the whole human being”.5
A.
The three levels of Conscience
,
Louis Monden in his ‘Sin, Liberty and Law’6 discusses in
turn (1) the instinctive
(2) the moral, and
(3) the Christian-religious levels of conduct.
4
5.
C. J. VAN DBR POBL, The Search for Human
New York, 1971, pp. 105-106.
6.
Cf. L. monden, Sin, Liberty and Law, New York, 1965
Ch. I.
Values,
This analysis permits insights into a more accurate under
standing of moral conscience.
(1) The twinge of guilty conscience which men sometimes
experience from supposedly sinful conduct actually stems
at times from a pre-human level of instinct. This sort
of guilt, sin, contrition, or conscience does not have its
basis in a personal and free decision, but rather constitutes
an instinctive anxiety reflex. If Christian conscience
were identified with this level of ediical conduct, man
would justifiably five in apprehension about his destiny.
0 (2) Man attains his free and conscious self-realization on
the moral level of his existence. This authentically hu
man manner of ethical conduct occurs mainly by the
development of one’s personality in an adult, loving
self-giving relation to others. Man experiences himself
as a free and autonomous individual in a process of con
tinual growth and self-development from within. On
this level, conscience is a power of discrimination in
choosing between what will promote or hinder man’s
self-realization. Ideally, the instinctive feelings of duty,
guilt, or sinfulness arising from one’s unconscious past
should harmonize with the consciously recognized duty,
sin, or guilt.
(3) The properly Christian-religious dimension of ethical con
duct integrates and elevates the instinctive and moral
levels of existence into a partnership of love with God,
in the service of men.
But these three levels are not to be understood as clearly
defined compartments in the functioning of conscience; they
inter-penetrate.
The biological theory of conscience of the evolutionists
sees in conscience no more than the vital pragmatic adjust
ment to environment. The sociological theory sees in con
science a mere manifestation of adjustment to society, the
vitally necessary balance between egoism and social interest.
Hence conscience is viewed as a culturally determined and
institutionally transmitted mechanism that produces volun
tary conformity on the part of the members. The psychologi
cal theory identifies moral conscience with “super-ego”; it
5
1
is a repositary of “do’s” and “don’ts”—both conscious and
unconscious, not only of current rules and regulations but
also prohibitions and restrictions of the distant past.
We appreciate the contribution of the above theories
for the understanding of moral conscience. In fact, the phy
sical, psychological and sociological determinisms which in
fluence the human action also influence its moral value. How
ever, these determinisms cannot be simply identified with
the moral conscience. As Ignace Lepp says, “there is always
an important difference between Christian morality and psy
chological morality: the former is interested only in the barmony that exists between behaviour and conscience, whereas
the latter stresses primarily the unconscious motivations of be
haviour”.7 Hence we also uphold the autonomy of moral con
science which cannot be reduced to a phenomenon entirely
conditioned by biological, social or psychological realities.
Objective Morality and Personal Fulfilment
B.
Conscience does not involve a detached “objective”
kind of knowledge such as the scientist’s or the mathemati
cian’s; it is an “interested” judgment of what is good and
evil for me. In weighing the morality of any proposed action,
therefore, a person actually makes a two-fold judgment. One
concerns the inner moral value of what he proposes to do;
the other concerns his own personal fulfilment to be realized
through actually accomplishing or doing the proposed action.8
(1) The judgment about the objective morality: This re
fers to the inner morality of the proposed action as it re
lates to the moral order willed bv God, prescinding
from the internal emotional and affective states of the
person (e.g. his motives, passions). It is possible that
conscience errs. But the judgment about the morality of
an action requires moral certainty.
i. lepp, The Depths of the Soul, New York, 1965, pp.
247.Cf. also J.w. glaser, “Conscience and Superego: A
Key Distinction”, in: Theological Studies 32(1971), pp.
30-47
8. Cf. x. colavecchio, “Conscience: A Personalist Pers
pective” in: Continuum 5 (1967), pp. 203-210.
7.
6
A
Yk
'H
(2) The judgment about personal fulfilment: Every moral
decision involves at least implicitly a practical judgment
about the effect of the proposed action on one’s own
personal existence: fulfilling or hindering one’s self
realization. The chief criterion for discerning the pre
sence of such an upright intention is a personal love of
God and one’s neighbour, the constant sign of the pre
sence and inner movement of the Holy Spirit. Hence it
seems preferable to reserve terms such as immoral, sin
ful and guilty to the area of personal involvement where
free and conscious decision-making comes into play.
However, subjectively guiltless actions frequently cause
immense havoc in society and harm others.
C.
Conscience and Personal Commitment
An honest conscience judgment demands openness to
the full truth of the situation. Openness to the full truth of
the situation is a matter of decision, not something already
given, so that presupposed in every conscience judgment is a
decision or commitment.
The personal commitment to the truth which is presup
posed in a property formed conscience judgment is affected
by the person’s temperament, his emotional condition both
long-term and immediate.
The interplay between intellect, will and emotion has
enormous influence on the final judgment of conscience and
needs to be property understood if that judgment is to be
as true to reality as possible.
n
How commitment to the truth, presupposed in the con
science judgment takes concrete shape, differs from person
to person, of course. For the Christian it takes on a parti
cular form as it were, of the incarnation. He sees as the
ultimate truth, God who has given himself in the person of
his Son, who therefore asks for our response as sons of
the Father and brothers of one another.9
9.
Cf. f. bowckle, Fundamental Concepts of Moral Theo
logy, New Jersey, I968, pp. 67-78.
7
Moral development in any particular area is the actua
lizing from within, of the capacity to respond to God and
neighbour. The formula “you must not lie”, or even posi
tively, “you must tell the truth in all circumstances” is a
legal one which is extrinsic and does not involve understand
ing the internal relationship which binds one to God and the
neighbour and which calls for this particular response. We
must understand then the situation in which we are and how
verbal communication expresses our relationship with God
and neighbour.
The same applies to sexual communication, to respect for
life, to the handling and control of material goods.
D.
y\
Gmscience and Life-direction
Man’s moral life should not be understood as a series
of isolated actions which he chooses freely and consciously
with great ;frequency. Rather greater stress should be given
to the life-direction, life-tendency, or life-orientation, which
the person chooses. This tendency stems from the inmost
core of the person and becomes manifest in the various con
crete choices he makes. The object of moral knowledge can
never be completely isolated from the involvement of the
subject of the moral action. “The subject’s basic orientation
is the fruit of his historical responses, his responses over a
time which together have been predominantly in one direc
tion in such a way and to such a degree that the subject has
acquired this kind of settled disposition”.10
Another dimension of moral conscience is its ''personal" yy
and "personalizing" character. Authentic personhood emerges '
only in man’s free acceptance of himself in his vital relation
ships to other persons and ultimately to God. Morality is not
related to a world of “things” but to a world of persons in
their relationships. Fundamental to all the person’s relation
ships as a Christian is his relation to Christ and the people
of God gathered in Christ. This approach permits insight into
such practical moral failings as lying, stealing or sexual mis-
10.
8
F. mcdonagh, Gift and Call, op. cit., p. 64.
conduct: instead of making these choices “things”, it views
them as violations of personal values and, ultimately,'of the
inherent dignity of the other.
III.
The Educator’s role in the Formation of Conscience
The educator’s role consists in helping persons grasp
moral values “contextually” or “existentially” in a lived ex
perience. Conscience is the “Voice of God”, but in the sense
that we must contribute something of our own to the formation of the decision of our consci^e^^hj-ds jrigfityip CELL
U) God’s sight.
~
b
A.
326, V Main. I Glock
Koramsngala
The Development of Conscience Bangalore-500034
Conscience is most intimately connected with the whole
of personality. It develops normally under the influence of
the morally significant impressions gained in human experi
ence from birth onward. The judgments, standards and values
of loved ones as parents, or educators, become incorporated
internally with the gradual development of the child’s per
sonality. “The moral development of the child also requires
that his emotions be educated. It is extremely important that
he be helped to develop hope—an attitude based on the be
lief that things which are hard but worthwhile can be accom
plished. This can be done by encouraging the child to under
take tasks which are difficult but possible”.11
The authoritarian and legal strictures of the youthful
conscience should progress in time from being an external
C") disciplinary agent to an independent position of free response
to personal appreciation of moral values.
Defects in normal psychological development could re
sult in distorted malfunctionings which interfere or inhibit an
authentic moral sense: fixation, regression to earlier stages
of development, unhealthy guilt feelings, transference of guilt,
compulsive-obsessive anxiety.11
11.
G. grisez—R. SHAW, Beyond the New Morality—The
Responsibilities of Freedom, Notre Dame, 1974, p 165.
9
B.
Various Steps in the Formation of Conscience
If the decision of conscience is the moral judgment about
the whole human self-realization, then it is necessary that the
development and formation of conscience be on par with
the development and formation of the personality.
However, a distinction must be drawn between the
formation of conscience as a faculty or power and the for
mation of particular decisions or judgments of conscience.
Zeal for truth and diligent cultivation of knowledge of norms
and values are indispensable conditions for any training of
conscience. To cultivate moral knowledge as such demands
in every concrete situation zeal and vigilance in the attempt
to reach the right verdict of conscience. Moreover, there
must be a readiness on the part of man, limited as he is,
to accept instruction and counsel. Even more important is
the correct attitude toward the Church’s teaching and govern
ing magisterium and ultimately, docility to the Holy Spirit.
The developing and sharpening of conscience should con
cern every person called in Christ. Christian moral life
consists in responsiveness to conscience in a free and con
scious fashion. How can the person accurately respond, if he
does not accurately hear God’s call in the depths of his own
being? Sufficient knowledge mixed with a mature sense of
Christian freedom should be the goal of the morally aware
Christian.
Attention should be given not just to negative obliga
tions (how to avoid sins), but to positive moral values (how
to develop the open-ended character of Christian love).
.V)
The proper development of conscience depends greatly
on moral instruction, especially through formal and informal re
ligious education, both at home and at school.
Children first acquire their moral awareness largely from
social adaptation through example, praise and punishment.
The aim of moral education touches not only the extent o£
moral knowledge at one’s command, but also the freedom,
the independence and due autonomy the person brings to
bear in his moral judgments and choices, together with their
depth, intensity and vitality.
10
The example of an authentic Christian life in the family
and a gentle step-by-step guidance in response to a loving
Lrod (not the Supreme Lawmaker) will permit children to
see and love freely moral values. Such values will not be
coercively imposed from without but seen rather as the ful
ness of being-a-man.
Correction and punishment should be accompanied by
explanations of the intrinsic nature of the wrong doing, and
God should not be depicted as the judge in fiery wrath or the
tyrant who hates little children. “It is wrong because I told
you so” as the typical parental explanation will hardly con
vey the dignity of a son’s response to God’s loving call to
love him and one’s neighbour.
The Christian formation of conscience should inculcate
a certain opportunity of adopting a personal point of view
and an independence free from the undue interference of
other persons or the over-riding influence of irrational psycho
logical forces.
The adult Christian conscience does not depend on the
mass movements of the moment, which may verge at times on
mass hysteria, or an externally imposed code-morality. Self
conviction, not the following of the herd, is the ultimate goal
of moral education. God calls each man by his own name
and not by another’s. Each person should be encouraged to
experience the joy of genuine Christian freedom.
In brief, one must grow out of an “authoritarian con
science” into a “humanistic conscience”.12
C.
Obstacles in the Formation of Conscience
As studies in normal and abnormal psychology have
shown, much of human behaviour is motivated by man’s un
conscious tendencies. A clear insight into these tendencies
may reveal the presence of obstacles in the formation of an
12. Clr. b. FROMM, Man for Himself—An Enquiry into the
Psychology of Ethics, New York, 1964
individual’s moral conscience. Conscience formation is a kind
of challenge on the part of the objective power to love direct
ed to the subjective readiness to love. If the readiness or
willingness to love fails constantly, then eventually the ob
jective power to love is progressively hampered and crippled.
Habitual refusal to love engenders hardness of heart and
impossibility of loving. It is evil when conscience errs in judg
ment. But incomparably more tragic is the blunting and crip
pling of moral conscience itself. This is a hardening of heart
which assume a variety of basic types.
Unity and harmony of personality and with it the dyna
mics of conscience are particularly jeopardized in the case of
a man who quite admires the- good abstractly and in theory,
though he holds himself aloof from the practice of it. In this
connection we should note the importance of cultivating a
well-ordered emotional life, since the emotions in some way
or other are essential for the sparking of intellect with the
drive of the will.
IV.
Moral Norms and Conscience
Truth and value represent objective norms of action
but it does not always happen that they impose their neces
sary clarity on the conscience judgment. The human spirit,
in fact, in order to be true to itself cannot be totally passive
before truth and value and totally determined by its object.
Conscience brings to mind the objective moral norm in
its relation to the concrete decision to be made in the present
situation. Since the role of conscience is thus an intermediary
one, it does not see the moral norm itself in an autonomous
sense; it is, however, not passive.
When morality is presented in the legal form it comes
as it were from outside; we attempt then to understand the
law and follow it. This creates a false dilemma which is to
be solved, according to the suggestion of some by interiorization of the law. This seems quite the reverse of what ought
to happen. What we are looking for in formulations, and for
mulations we need, is not something we can interiorize; what
12
we are looking for is an exterior expression of the interna!
reality that is there.
This is not to say that the individual is the creator of
his own morality. He is not the creator, but he must be the
‘knower’, he must understand himself, what is demanded of
him. This understanding, of course, is not something that
comes to him by way of divine inspiration or by his own
efforts alone: none of us understands anything as individuals.
We can only understand and learn in community.
The moral norms formulated through the experience of
! past and present Christian reflection on the implications of
Jesus’ Word provide an abundant source for concrete moral
judgments. They state in universal terms what God asks of man
in situations which have the same morally relevant features,
e.g that it is always forbidden to commit infanticide or to calu
mniate another person. Conscience draws on these norms as
expressions of the moral life to which we are called in Christ.
These norms articulate the deepest urgings of man’s personal
being, if they are correctly formulated. By personally appro
priating these formulations handed down in Christian ex
perience, the individual Christian can avoid mere caprice in
moral judgments and an overly arbitrary' approach to concrete
decisions.
External authorities can never replace one’s personal
conscience. Though Vatican II says: “Let the layman not
imagine that bis pastors are always such experts, that to
every problem which arises, however complicated, they can
readily give him a concrete solution, or even that such is
' their mission”!3 many Catholics fail to assume the authentic
personal responsibility which is their Christian heritage.
The truly authoritative teaching office of the Church
nevertheless occupies a central role in the formation of Chris
tian conscience. The guidance of the Holy Spirit assists in a
special way the entire Christian community to gain progres
sive insight into the implications of the Gospel announced13
*
13.
Pastoral Constitution on The Church in the Modern
World, (GS) No. 43
13
in Christ. Aware of this divine assistance, the believing Ca
tholic will listen openly and attentively to the Pope and the
college of Bishops when they proclaim the community’s faith.
Such openness and docility should not be construed as a
servile abandonment of personal responsibility, but rather as
a due acknowledgement of Christ’s presence in his ecclesial
body. “In the formation of their consciences, the Christian
faithful ought carefully to attend to the sacred and certain
doctrine of the Church.”14
V.
Formation of Social Consciousness
A
One of the urgent needs of moral and religious educa
tion is the formation of social awareness of conscientization.
It refers to learning to perceive social, political and economic
contradictions and take action against the oppressive elements
of reality.
Paolo Freire, the Brazilian-born educator, who has
dedicated a life-time to the cause of adult education, offers
some valid insights into the formation of social awareness.15
He distinguishes two types of education:
—“banking education”
—“problem-posing education”.
Banking education has inherent tendencies to be control
ling and determining rather than ‘educating’. It “anaesthetizes
and inhibits creative power”; it “attempts to maintain the
submersion of consciousness.” Problem-posing education,
on the contrary, “involves a constant unveiling of reality”;
it “strives for the emergence of consciousness or critical intervention in reality.”1617
Man is a being in the process of becoming. He is an un
finished reality and his transformational character necessitates
that education be an on-going activity.1?
14
15.
Declaration on Religious Freedom (DH) No. 14.
Cf p. freiri-, Pedagogy of the Oppressed, Penguin Books,
16. Ibid., p. 54,
17. Cf ibid., pp. 56-57.
14
>
Basic requirement of problem-posing education and
conscientization is dialogue. Dialogue is a listening relationship where people respect each other as much as they question
each other, and vice versa. It is founded on human and
Christian values. “Dialogue cannot exist...in the absence of
a profound love for the world and for men...Love is at the
same time the foundation of dialogue and dialogue itself.”18
Freire lists the following as hall-marks of dialogue:
—Word, with its two dimensions of reflection and
action.
—Love
—Humility
—Faith in man
—Trust
—Critical thinking
This humanistic vision of Freire contains valid elements
which could be made use of in the Christian formation of
conscience and of social awareness. In fact, the process we
use in our task as Christian educators must itself be a huma
nizing and liberating one.
Thomas H. Groom has successfully applied these in
sights in a genuinely Christian context. He calls his experience
“Christian education by shared praxis.”19 It is a “process
of critical reflection in the light of the Christian Story and
Vision on present action (which embodies one’s own story
and vision) that is shared in dialogue .”
The five steps of this education process are:
— Present Action
— Individual Story and Vision
— Christian Community Story
Vision
18.
19.
and
Ibid., p. 62
t.h. groom, "The Crossroads: A Story of Christian
Educati-n by Shared Praxis", in: Lumen Vitae 32
(1977), No 1, pp. 45-70.
15
— Dialectic between Community and
Individual Stories
— A Decision for Future Action
“The ideal of social justice is a permanent horizon which
we may never reach. Yet we need such horizons if only to
show us where we want to go, to give significance to our
journey, and to release the inner energy needed to reach
the next bend in the road. Social justice is a necessary ideal
for people who want to be fully human, and to be true to
themselves.
Christian hope will want to go further. Faith in Jesus v
Christ gives birth to the conviction that he has a continuing
purpose for the world. If Christ is risen and alive, then the
future is always open to hope, whatever the appearances may
be. Alongside his concern for the eternal destiny of each in
dividual, the God of righteousness works out his purpose for
societies and their history.”20
VI.
Formation of Conscience=Formation to Freedom
Each of the epochs of human history has had its own
particular concern. Looking at the evidence of our time one
of the primary interests seems to be the quest for human free
dom. It expresses itself in various ways and struggles and is
surely pervasive enough to be called a general movement of
our humanity.
The word “freedom” could have many different mean
ings. It may refer simply to the lack of physical constraint,
the absence of external social pressures and demands, or
signify that state in which an individual is able to create his
own life—and, in a real sense, his own self—through his
choice.
Freedom is the power to do good. The power to do
good, however, is derived from the likeness of man to God,
from the created participation in the divine freedom. ' As
Bernard Haering says, “Moral liberty, which consists in the
power and in the capacity to choose the good is essential in
any discussion of religious liberty. When one affirms that
20.
16
b.a. wren, Education for Justice, London, 1977, p. 117,
liberty consists in the power of choosing indifferently good
or evil, he is on a dangerous path. The liberty of God does
not include the power to choose evil, but only the power
to do good.”21
The power of freedom is granted to us only in germ.
Its seeds implanted in us must grow from within through
the development of the person into personality.
Freedom can also attain the stage in which man surren
ders entirely to the guidance of the Spirit. “Now the Lord is
the Spirit; and where the Spirit of the Lord is, there is free• dom” (2 Cor. 3:17).
s* co <->
Man cannot exercise his freedom without motives. The; “ g
more profound the motivation, the more potent is th^ o’ 5 <
freedom.
? °
Freedom unfolds its capacity as it exercises itself in ©
obedience, but it must be obedience to the Spirit. And this is g
impossible without the true spirit of independence and self- ■&
*
mastery.
A.
Follow one’s conscience?
Everyone must ultimately follow his conscience; this
means he must do right as he sees the right with sincere desire
and effort to find and do what is good. But there are certain
moral principles which no one can fail to recognize.
Conscience is always “autonomous” as it is rooted in
the consciousness of man. But the autonomy of conscience
can never be an autonomy from God since the very possibility
of conscience as confrontation with the calling of God pre
supposes the Absolute.
Hence, what is "freedom of conscience”? The various
“freedoms” guaranteed by the society are ultimately founded
upon the fact that in man there is a fundamental reality which
cannot be subjected. But this does not mean that man is
free from all moral imperatives; for conscience presupposes
21. B. HAERING, Liberty of the Children of God, New York,
1966, pp. 118-119. '
17
3 <
~
o
a calling. If freedom of conscience is understood as “I do
as it pleases me”, it is no more freedom of conscience but
freedom from conscience that leads to alienation and uncri
tical acceptance of the brute reality, hence the inauthenti
city” of existence. But if the expression “freedom of cons
cience” signifies the freedom to judge and to choose without
having to follow passively acts of command coming from
outside, then it indicates that there is a possibility of judg
ment which is not arbitrary, but being ultimate and in
teriorly imperative. In this sense Paul speaks of pagans
who have become law unto themselves or rather have discovered the moral law, and of the Christians who should
not confront themselves with the judgment of men but of
God. (Rom. 14:10-12).
Man fulfils himself by following his personal conscience.
Without doubt, the free formation and following of con
science constitute fundamental human rights. To harm these
rights injures the person gravely, for it attacks the deepest
level of his self.22
Interference with the proper formation of conscience
cannot be condemned too strongly.23
Proper respect and reverence should always be paid to
a person who follows his conscience, even if he unknowingly
errs.24
B.
Unlimited Freedom?
But does a person have an unlimited right to follow his
personal conscience in the carrying out of all his external
actions? For instance, can a person who professes to act in
good conscience or from religious motives murder, steal,
take his own life or perform bodily harm to another? Some
Christian-human moral principles may be of guidance in
this area:
22. Cf. Declaration on Religious Freedom <DH) No. 3
23. Cf. Declaration on Christian Education \GE), No 2.
24 . Cf. GS, No. 16. As regards religious freedom, cf. DH,
No. 2.
18
V)
First, a person who follows his erroneous conscience
without injuring others -should not be prevented from act
ing, unless he objects unreasonably against his own welfare,
as in the prevention of suicide or grave self-mutilation or
injury to one’s health.
Second, a person who follows his erroneous conscience
and injures others should be prevented from performing his
external deed, though his internal conscience is to be re
spected. The civil authorities may justifiably decide, on the
other hand, that toleration of certain abuses (pornography,
prostitution...) may at times be better than the attempt to
eradicate them completely.
Third, one may not morally coerce or persuade another
to act against his conscience. This does not exclude attempts
to persuade another to change his attitude by offering him
new arguments.
C.
Types of Conscience and Interior Freedom
The conscience of man may not always enjoy proper
freedom of decision and action. The following are a few
major “types” which may be permanent or temporary in a
given individual.
—A scrupulous conscience is characterized by an unheal
thy and morbid kind of meticulousness which hampers a
person’s religious adjustment. Scruple means fear and in
security which tends to make an individual see evil where
there is no evil, serious sin where there is no serious sin, and
obligation where there is no obligation. In a scrupulous per
son the infantile, irrational super-ego is seen as dominating
tire individual’s activities.
There may be a causal relation between religious instruc
tion and guidance and the manifestations of scrupulosity. It
can be a critical stage in the religious growth. Anxiety neuro
sis may be due to the presentation of a refigion of fear: God’s
claim on us is viewed as a threat affecting our actual re
sponse to (God. Anxiety neurosis may also be centred around
orie area (e.g. truthfulness, chastity). There may be also
compulsive neurotic scrupulosity.
19
The solution is to inculcate a sane sense of responsi
bility. To be responsible means above all to participate in
the dialogue of love with God and one’s neighbour. One
of the principal causes of scrupulosity is the fact that some
men never come to a living contact of love for God or
neighbour or have lost it. Instead they fancy that they have
to face a God of threat (anxiety neurosis) or a thousand
stark legalities (compulsive neurosis).
—Conscience itself as faculty or power cannot be errone
ous, but its decisions may be in error. Conscience as vital
power can be dulled, but it cannot err. An inculpable errone
ous dictate of conscience obliges the same as a correct consci
ence, just as a servant feels obliged to carry out the order of
his master as he has understood it if he listened attentively
even though the command was actually different. One sins
in following a culpably erroneous dictate of conscience and
also in acting contrary to it. But it is entirely within his
power to correct the verdict of conscience by means of a
purging of the source of error in their very depths.
—The disturbed or perplexed conscience is a particular
type of erroneous conscience which arises from a transitory
but violent disturbance of the capacity to form a judgment.
Faced with the necessity of making a decision, there is no
apparent choice that is free from sin. In such instances, if
the decision can be delayed one must postpone the solution
of the difficulty in order to deliberate upon it. But if the deci
sion cannot be postponed the conscientious person will
choose what he thinks the “lesser evil (sin)” and thus mani
fest his morally correct attitude. In fact, there is no question
of sin in this matter; for sin is not merely a matter of intel
lectual judgment, but also of freedom of will, which here
is lacking.
—Lax conscience means permanent moral dullness, gradual
hardening of conscience. It does not face up to its grave
moral obligations. The antithesis to lax conscience is the
tender conscience, the delicate conscience. One with tender
conscience preserves oneself intact with clear and vigilant
discernment of the good.
Published by National Biblical Catechetical & Liturgical
Centre (NBCLC), P. Bag No. 577, Bangalore-560005, India.
And Printed at St. Paul’s Press Mariagiri, Nagasandra P.O.
Bangalore-5jjp,Q73.|jIndia.H? .\LTH C£.U~
326, V Main, I Block
Korambngala
Bangalore-560034 -
-9-
>rMow it is time to move fromyrny spiritual' experiences to my
experiences in investigating the'interrelationship:between health
care and religion in a predominantly‘Hindu- country. T had.wondered
(
if a person who believes in'reincarnation experiences illness,
especially life threatening illness, differently than does a Christian.
I also wondered if religion affects the. ..health-.care delivery system
in a nation such as India.
■ To help me with this project I contacted.an Indian physician, '.
Dr. Ravi Narayan, who is on.the. faculty of St.- John’s Medical College
in Bangalore in the Department of Rural. Health. Services. I am deeply
appreciative to him for arranging contacts with various professional
people. Dr. Narayan is a nephew of Lalltlia Krishnan, Margaret Laulor’
Indian companion. He gave us a brief, description of how the Indian
health delivery system ifoi’ks and ah introduction to various doctors.
Setty a .
? y attended most of these interviews with me, so we had.
a basis for dialogue after these, meetings.
Rather than-objectively reporting, the .findings . I would like to.'
identify the source sof the ■ raw data and present the 'findings in a .
subjective framd'Wprk. My intention is to give a-'lay person explana
tion of,how the Indian health.care system functions to an uninformed
but' interested audience.
The information, sources I would like .to ‘thank are:
Professional people:
Dr. A. V. Masurkar, .the;principal of thP Government College
of Indian Medicine, Bangalore, which teaches’both ayurvedic
and unani.'medicine.
.
Dr. R. V. Nair, professor of "Panchakalnia at-the above college.
Dr. Mohan- Isaac,..-a psychiatrist in- the. Department of Community
Psychiatry ..at the National. institute . of,. Mental Health and'
Neurolog!cal Science s,„Bangalore.
Father Harry Byjvolt, Chaplain, St. 'John’s Medical".College.and Ho spi tai..
Major General 3. Mahadevan, PV.SM, AVSMy- FAMS,. the director of
Rural Health Services, and Training Programmes at St. 'John
*
s
Medical. College. He also -furnished us with two papers: "Health
Care Policy ano. pellvery methods," by Gen. Mahadevan, and a
draft of the "National Health Policy" stating the position of
the Government of, India, Ministry of Health apd Family Welfare,
New Delhi.
Dr. George P, Moda.gel, an orthopaedic surgeon; .practicing in
■Bangalore, -who•took his residency in Ramakrishna Mission
Hospital in Lucknow.
Lay people:
Mrs. Sheila Subblah, Dr. Narayan’s cousin.
Mr. and Mrs. Siasp T. Kothavala (wife Zerene), owners and
operators of Bamboo Banks Guest Home, Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary.
Mr. Anil Gopta, a tax advocate and. tax advi sor. to the Modi
Enterprises, New Delhi,.
t~Nb’>r it is time to move from,, my spiritual' experiences to my
expediences in investigating the interrelationship. between health
care and religion in a predominantly‘.Hindu--country. i'had . wondered
/
if a person who believes in.'reincarnation experiences . Illness,
especially life threatening illness, differently than does a Christian.
I also wondered if religion affects the. .health care delivery system
in a nation such as India.
' To help me with this project I contacted, an Indian physician,
Dr.,-Ravi Narayan, who is on.the. faculty of St. John’s Medical College
in Bangalore in the Department of .Rural. Health.Services. I am deeply. '
.appreciative to him for arranging contacts with various professional
people. Dr. Narayan is a nephew of Lalitha Krishnan, Margaret Lawlor's
Indian companion. He gave us a brief description of ho’w the Indian
health delivery system works and an introduction to various doctors.
Betty and leggy attended mo,st. of these interviews with me, so we .had
a basis for dialogue-after these meetings.
Rathe? than^objectively reporting the..findings.I would like.',to.
identify the sources of .the raw data, and, present the findings in a
subjective framework. My intention is to give a-’lay person explana
tion of .how the Indian health .care system■functions to--’an uninformed
but interested audjience. ■
The information sources I would like to'.thank are: .
Professional people: '.
Dr. A. V. Masurkar, .the;principal of the Government College
of Indian Medicine, Bangalore, which teaches." both ayurvedic
and unani 'medicine.
Dr. R.. V. Nair, professor of Panchakalnia at-the above college.
Dr. Mohan. -Issac,.;a psychiatrist:.in the? Department of Community
psychiatry .at the. National, Institute of. Mental Health and "
Neurological-.. Sciences,,.Bangalore.
Father Harry Byjvolt, Chaplain, ,'St. ’John's Medical College
and Hospital. ■ ' .
Major General B. Mahadevan, PVSM, AVSM:, -FAMS, . the director of
Rural Health Service's .and Training Programmes at St. John's
Medical College.. . He,.also..furni shed us with twp papers: "Health
Care Policy 'ana uelfvei.-y methods,"by Gen. Mahadevan, and a
draft of the "National Health Policy" stating the position of
the Government of- India, Ministry of Health and. Family Welfare, ■
New Delhi.
•Dr. George P. Modagel,.an orthopaedic surgeon, practicing in'
Bangalore, who took his residency in- Ramakrishna Mission
Hospital in Lucknbw.
Lay people:
Mrs. Sheila Subbiah, Dr. Narayan’s cousin.
Mr. and Mrs. Siasp T. Kothavala (wife Zerene), owners and
operators of Bamboo Banks Guest Home, Mudumalai '.Midlife Sanctuary.
Mr. Anil Gopta, a tax advocate and, tax advisor to the Modi
■Enterprises, Nev; Delhi.
-10-
’.•■>. B.-L.' Bha'sin,.'sales manager of ..Imperial Motor Store's
of Bombay.
Mr. Ashok K. Nath,, owner of Delhi’ a Ivory Palace and proponet
of India
.s
*
cottage industry concept.
Essential to understanding how the health care delivery system
works is some knowledge of the Indian person and family. The great
mass of people are relatively uneducated and poor; they-live in rural villages in extended family groups; they.have a 3 level language
system, are Hindu, vegetarian, and believe in reincarnation, are
cynical- because of centuries of' suppression under a caste system'
and foreign rule; and while, nominally thought of as a male dominated
society actually have a. female dominated socio-economic society through
their influence in the close knit, family . circle. " I realize, this '
appears to be judgemental but these traits Mere all pointed out to
me by Indian people. <
To elaborate’s little,. 80^ of the population, of 650,000,000--,
live in rural areas. The 1978 per capita Income was Rs. 1400 or
less than U.S. §200-. Sixty percent of the total .population live •
below a poverty line .where, they lack the purchasing power to secure
health services.
■ The family unit, i s much' clo.ser in India" than in: the. Ui/S., : out
of economic-necessity. Whereas this closeness limits privacy it.
leads to much more dialogue within the family group.. This situation.
leads to the establishment of a • dominant female'in the family'who is
very influential in-making, mo st family. decision's, whether, it concerns
health care of her daughter's new baby or the type-of fertilizer--.
used on the vegetables.
;
.'.■'
Because. 8 5?o of the ■■‘population is Hindu, and a, majority of Hindus
are -vegetarian, there 1 s a significant religious factor ip nutritional
needs of .a large Segment-- of -’the population.
Communication- between' the-.educated urbap'dwellers and. the un
educated rural residents al so'-presents formi-d.i bl e problems.' In
the Indian communication, system-at least 3 languages are involved.;
Although. English is.disliked as a. remnant of colonialism, it. is the,
accepted language of business ,and education. .Hindi is the official
■language that the federal government is.attempting to put. into
universal use., but the native1'stupe, tongue' remains the primary and:
only language; of many o f -the. rural '■Uneducated people/
In examining. the ..way 'that , the Indian, health- care ...system functions, one finds, that it' is divided, into a 5 level system. . Each level seems
to be competing for the federal as well as the private dollar, and
each -type of doctor pijjoy§ a';different sMlo-ecbhomf^>'?position. ;
The. system .can be.' outlined' as;
1. We-spem style, allopathic, or crises intervention medicine.
2.
Ayurvedic and unarii' medicine.
3.
German medicine, called.homeopathy. ■
4.
Village or oommunity- hdalth.workers. . ..
-11-
5’,’.Village priests, faith healers, shamans-, etc,.
■Western style medicine/i-S; practiced in 2 different forms. ' '
The urban practice is similar to, but less sophisticated than
what is seen in the Western countries. The rural practice is
more like public health hr .military medicine,- heavily dependent
on decentralized, facilities.-and the uses of auxiliaries, who may • ■
or may not be supervised by.a, physician.
The rural practice follows; the' basic principles of primary
health care as published-by the World. .Health Organization. Briefly.■
stated they are that essential'health .care is made universally ■
available to individuals and''.■familie s in a community by means accept
able -to them,, through their full .participation,' and at a cost that’
the community and country: can/afford.
Primary Health; .Centers (PHO) have .the responsibility for rural
health care. Tach center; is to provide., basic ’health'’care for
75,000 to 125,000 rural people’. Vh’ch ha’s a staff of two or 3 doctors,
about 30 auxiliaries’, and a 6 bed infirmary. Tach PHC has sub
centers .for every 10,000 population, which .ere staffed only,,with a i
male and a female .multi-purpo s6-; worker’. 5’These 2 people serve as -a
link between the PHC and. the community health Workers who live in
the .surrounding villages. There, is an attempt to provide one:
community, health worker '(CHW) for each 1000. people-. They are quite;
autonomous,, responsible to guide lines .but to. no person, and .
initially see. nearly all of the-ill. These CHW' s are also ■responsi
ble for motivating■the village people, into, accepting basic sanitation,
preventive, medical, and nutrition concepts... These village workers
make up level' 4 of . the -delivery; system.
Dr. Narayan explained how the system, worked.and. also pointed ■’
out some problems in its operation. The doctors sent to these
PHC's are new graduates and unfamiliar, with;rural life. "The villagers
do not trust these doctors who treat them/with.unfamiliar techniques. .
The doctors do hot have.the sophisticated diagnostic equipment and
laboratories.they depended upon while in. medical school and during
their hospital internships. Additionally, these young M.D.'s may<
not know the local■language and have to depend on interpreters for
communicating with patients. Neither have they experience in',
managing.a staff. ’ Th.ch PHC has 2’0 or 30 auxiliaries plus .all of
the community -health workers in the’small villages.. To: compound’ :
•the problem the. auxiliaries usually are middle aged, seasoned workers,
and from rural areas. So. the’new young doctor goes into a town, where.
he/she: doesn't know the ropes and doesn't have experience in managing
a staff or in treating patients outside of a .hospital environment.
One mission of Dr. Narayan's department- is to-try to prepare
the medical student for this phase of his/her career, and to offer
a support system during this 3 year required rural practice residency.
Another mission is uo show the doctors and. staff how to work with
local healers so’ as to keep healing, practices close, to home, to
provide the type of care that the rural people will accept, and to
explain mb re sophisticated Western treatment to village people. Ari
example of this is to treat a. person for tape worms’, then show him
the worm as evidence that the evil spirit making him ill. has been
driven from his body.
■The staff of the Primary Heal th Centers also cooperate with
-12-
Dr. Kohan Issac of the National Institute?©# 'Cental* Hdalth'-'.In
developing'a cor-mu.iity -rent-?! health program. Dry Is sac said there
are only 2500 psychiatrists' and,; trained psychiatric nurses in India- '
to care for the mental healtti ;nee<jlB'of -the-'650 million .people. He-".'’*
contrasted this to the United-States .having nearly 10,0.00 psychia- ■
trists to treat 250 million/people, ’ Nearly all of the.Indian
psychiatrists pract’ce in the 4 urban center's of Soiphay, Calcutta, '
Madras-, and New,.Delhi.
'
<
'The main thrust of his work'in'community mental health is to
work with the staff of the PiiO’s .to enable -them to 'identify epileptic
and deeply psychotic ■patients, and refer them to the Bangalore hospital
for treatment. These-.two conditions make i.ip< About 10 percent of the1'-.|
community meds. The other 90;/ are encouraged to seek treatment from
traditional healers. His (departmental budget is less-than one rupeeDr. Issac al so ■ works with the. traditional local healers,- holding
5 day. courses which will help them .'identify . epileptic-and psychotic
patients which, will be helped, more .With psycho chemi cal, treatment-at;/f the National Institute Hospital', HeAaho.ws them that these are. the /!
patients that give the traditional healers mo st of the trouble in
their "practice's"' because they- do no £'■ respond to - traditional methods
I asked him if he observed any difference in the incidence of
mental disease, between Hindu patients As compared to Moslem, or
Christian patients. ■ He had not observed any differences, -knew of .. .
no studies in this area,. and assumed that.religious beliefs 'would -’
not be a. factor in the incidence of mental 'disease. I also found..
out that ’there are-no reliable records kept 0 f. the .incidence of
mental- disease' so one could not run ,a' valid, study comparing, the'.inci
dence of mental health problems, among,''Ind
with, the
incidence among; people in-, the U. S. He ■'-thought ••••the. incidence would'
appear to-be statistically lower in 'India■ because the'.'family assumes- .
the responsibility for dea 1 in^jlwith a child or adult with mental
problems and probably would not seek help in treating theafflicted
person. In these cases there would -..be. no record., of the’■■•person, having
a mental illness and because it is so -common it would significantly
alter the statistics. '
Because ..of this lack''of - a -system.’ for reporting mental or
physical diseases,in India,'I wbuld-be very hesitant about accepting
any statistical, comparisons between 'population groups in a Western ■ 'country and an Asian country. ?ven among pro-e-^Sj-onally trained
•
people a term like 111 or infirm Has’a different- meaning to ahEastern researcher than to’a Western researcher;
The urban practice -of Western medicine is on a fee-for-service
basis, .The affluent-who-can.afford it make up-a’very small portion
of the total population. ■ There, seems to■ be considerable critic!sm -,
of ’Western style medicine based usually on-the high charges of the
doctors. The doctors and the, fees charged, are the -butt of jokes in.
newspapers and the-objects .Of sensational stories in expos£ type
magazines like IMPACT. A cartoon I' saw- was■ of a doctor 'talking to
his nurse. He said "How many times do I have.to tell you - x-ray
the wallet first. How' can I diagnose his case if I don't know how.'
much money, fye has?"- An-example of the expose was a 20 to 25 page
article-in IMPACT on corruption in hospitals stating that.extensive
bribes are needed for- better beds., food,' nursing and even doctor -ca.re
The. second/;level, called Indian (ayurvedic) or Arabic (unani)
medicine appears to be the most commonly .available health care.
The wor d ayurvedic means.:life-science. This system does not use'
Western .style drugs but;.uses "Eastern style medicines prepared from
herbs,, minerals, bones, and-.oil, Also used.are steam or hot -water'
baths and massage therapy.
It takes. 5-b years -of training to ..graduate from the College of
Indian Medicine, a federally funded school:in Bangalore. About 60%
of the students are women. -Mo st of the training-deals with the In
different operations u sed in patient - treatment. Addi tionally.much
time is spent in learning the .technique of medicine preparation. ' The
herbs-or minerals are placed, in a tightly sealed, clay container which
is placed in a very hot oven long’’enough, to reduce the contents .to
an ash. This ash is mixed, with ghee (clarified butter) to make the
medicine/ which -can be used.externally with‘massaging or taken internally.
"The philosophy behind treatment, -Dr. Nair explained, is to remove
phlegm' from the.patients body through pancha (5) kalnia (operation). ■
Thi.s allows the 'body and mind to return to a normal healthy state.
The panchakalhia consists of:
1. V^.sthi - an. oil, water, 'and herbal enema-..
... 2/ Virechama - an oral purgative.
3. "Vai-vana - an emetic to. induce-.vomiting.
4. Nasya -a powder-to induce sneezing.
(5. Haktha Noksha - blood letting through’use of a
The ayurvedic hospital we•visited-is a teaching hospital associated
with-, the College ;o.f Indian Medicine. -It has-340, beds and is divided
into'wards by sex and medical condition,.. A bed Is.'a cot with a thin
rubber mattress usually; covered by a thread-bare sheet. The hospital
was: considered ., clean-by local standards, but incredibly , dirty by
Western standards.. t There- were common Indian .style- toilets.and showers.
7/ith a,one .-rupee a day-bribe one could get a bed wfith'a mosquito net
and for 2. rupee.g one- could'get- into .a. -semi-private, room.
r'l found’ that patifehts have a
lot
*
of’/cop'fidpnde in this system", . i
and that it does take..them from a -state of illness and return them
to.a well ' state,. These doctors are proud of their profession. They.
were pleased -to,.have, me yisit their hospital so that patients could
tell me' of their progress' toward, recovery.,
.. The third, level of. care is called German medicine and is what
we refer to as homeopathy,Jt 'is' a system, of medicine that was
developed in Germany ’during the 18th century’. In this philosophy
the .cure of . a disease; is accomplished by. giving a minute dose of a
drug that is capable of ',producing .in a healthy person symptoms similar
to the disease to be treated. ’
■I-was not able to interview a German.doctor. This explanation
was'given .to me, by i)r. Narayan. ' Western medicine feels- the drugsgiven by homeopathic doctors cannot "hurt" ^he'patient and do help
many patients through the . "placebo effect."A drawback to German medicine is the necessity of the doctor to
spend considerable time with a patient getting to know him, because
the nature of the patient controls the drug as much as, the nature of
the illness. -The doctor, needs rather lengthy appointments to talk
about a patient's lifestyle, working conditions, family life, etc.
-14-
The fourth level of care is performed, by community or village
health workers. They are men and women from rural areas who are
given a j month training program. This prepares, them■to carry out
a limited number of specific curative,' preventive, and health pro
motional activities.with 'the aid o f . only a,n-emergency.-kit and elemen-'- '
tary local resources. "There•are no educational background requirements
for these workers.. They are usually recruited in the villages because
they have expressed a desire ..to serve and are: usually already engaged
in providing care, such as being a midwife or naturepath.
. They help the rural family-.understand basic health measures,
give them nutrition information,-help with; infant care such as
diarrhea, control and treatment, give -aid in'family planning, and
give information concerning environmental sanitation such as waste
disposal and water chlorination. ;; .’They encourage' people-to seek
treatment for thein illnesses from traditional sources-and are
trained to recognize. • conditions which should be sent to the Primary
Health Centers :for treatment.
St. John’s Medical College has a training program for the
development of these. Community Health Workers. Governmental expec
tations for raising the general level of he-1th in rural India rests
primarily in' the . development of thi s program. Adequate funding for
training these workers is a major problem.. There is a great amount
of red tape .bureaucracy and. most of the. economic resources .are drained
off before they, get down to the CHW. This places community health
doctors like Dr. Narayan in conflict with the rest of the Indian
medical establishment for federal funding. .
The fifth or lowest level of care, but the one that probably
treats most patients, are traditional village healers. Instead of
having;a medical orientation they have a religious or mystical
orientation. They may ,be priests or shamans, faith healers, witch
doctors, herb; doctors, midwives,, etc. Their knowledge is .usually
handed down to them.by a similar type healer. They treat by isolating
the patient, performing, certain rites,., giving certain medicines, and
by evoking supernatural spirits to come to the patient's aid. . They
cure by driving out the-deambns, devils or evil spirits which cause
the illness. Once these are.removed from the patient's body he/she
will recover and will soon be able, to rejoin village life.
I was not able to meet any traditional healers but learned . ■
about, them from Dr’s. Narayan and. Issac. Both of these Westernoriented doctors had a high degree of respect for the traditional
healers. They know many of them and give programs which enable the
traditional healers to learn, by dialogue with peers.and Western
doctors, what types of illnesses do not respond to traditional
healing methods and should, be referred to PHC's. They also put on
programs for M.D.'s to tell them of illnesses that, respond better
to traditional healers than to Western allopathic medicine. There
fore the M.D. should refer these patients to the traditional healers.
As the California saying goes "This really blew my mind."
SUMMARY
To summarize my experiences in the health care field I found
that from a personal point of view a Hindu's response to illness
and impending death is quite similar to a Christian's response.
Just because one expects to reincarnate'does-not make her/him look
foreward, to, or to be less apprehensive concerning death.. The
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personal’ response to death is not much different in India than
in the United States. /
The answer to my question concerning religion and health care'
from a cultural basis rather than a personal basis seems much more
difficult to ascertain,-' Superficially."it seems-impossible to evaluate
the situation, because of the wide economic and tech-nologftal differ
ences between Inula and .'the''U. S. Yet individually the people of
both countries are concerned about their health ana they are religious
people, ■
In synthesizing the many bits and pieces of information about
health care and’religion in India, my not-very-dramatic conclusion
is that individual health care in both countries must, be a joint
concern and responsibility of the individual, family andcommunity.
In the U.S. the family group has .-disintegrated to a great extent
and mobility has removed most of our sense of community.
I would: like to postulate that because the individual in "the
United States does not have a concerned family or community she/he
has turned, to the health. .care'industry as a . surrogate family. How
ever the health care industry is an institution operating under
economic principles and cannot function as a loving or caring family.
There are two - other institutions who might have substituted.
for the family and community but generally bo th institutional educa- '
tion'an®! the institutional church have - negated responsibility towardhealth cfere of individuals.
Because Inula has. a much greater. cohesiveness of family-and.
sense of ■ ' community ^---se'e ? economic support for grass-roots community
health programs andbpersonal care as their main need. ’’
■ In the U. S.'/I . b.elieve \we have to develop' a. surrogate -family .
which with similar families' will form a functional -community. Onepossibility for'developing this substitute family is' in a church
setting. I believe-.,that,'churches in'thewU. S.- need to become moresensitive to the. health needs,'--of their members; By functioning-as
an- extended family,' expressing the' type of love and concern that
exists.in families, -'-.individuals •could thus'become less dependent
upon the health care industry.
-;
My conclusion is that in the. -United States, ah autonomous,
independent, democrat! callyborgahized." church-,-’ functioning as an
extended .family, and. with other churches forming the basis of a.--community, is one.possible answer for our grass .roots- spiritual
and health needs. . We will-alway s have .need. for dur fine, high
technological medical care industry, but ..the responsibility for
the whole and unfragmented individual's physical, mental.and
spiritual health will be returned to that individual, the family,
and the community.
Christian Entrepreneur Netwodi
Changing World
- Changing Geo-Political structures
No more Berlin wall. No more Soviet Union.
Rise of Islamic Fundamentalism.
- Changing Socio-Economic Structures
-Rise of Pan-Islamic Economic Empire? Rise Asian economic powers.
-Decline of Western economic power. Globalization of economy. Business without
borders (North American Trade Agreement; European Economic Community).
- Changing Socio-Demographic Structures
- Global village.
Urbanization.
Multi-ethnic/religious communities. Polarization.
- Changing paradigms
-Made in Japan. The stone rejected by the builders becomes the corner stone.
-Mission concepts, methods and operational modules.
Economic Pie in India
Ccecurty
- Hindus
- Sikhs/Jains
- Muslims:
- Christians:
-
75%
14%
10%
ai%
P&pi/Lx-filW
y^712 73^
$-97-
J
Education and Employment of Christians in India
Upward Bound
After a brief slowdown, China’s economy has taken
off again. Over seven years, it has averaged a hefty
8.4% growth annually, the government says.
Rea! economic growth rates for China
Source: State Statistical Bureau
H ■
worn
1900
1970
1985
g
g
§
figure J. Growth in the number of Christians throughout the world, 1900-2000.
FIGURE 1. Comparative growth of world religions, 1920-2000.
2000
A Historical Survey of the Bible and the Church
History
Date
Events
Observations
Economic event. Through slavery
God declared His Glory among the
nations.
Punitive in nature but has laid a
strong foundation for future
economic activities.
2000 B. C.
Egyptian captivity
500 B.C.
Babylonian Exile
400 B.C.
Intertestamentperiod
Expansion of economic activity
during the Greco-Roman periods.
Jews were found in every key cities
of the Roman Empire. Synagogues
were always been the part of Jewish
community.
30 A.D
Birth and expansion
of the Church/Paul's
Missionary methods.
Church's expansion was primarily
through channels of diaspora Jews.
Most of them were expert business
people.
1600 A.D.
Colonial Period.
1900 A.D.
Post Colonial period.
Colonial expansion was primarily a
commercial expansion of the west.
But God used it to further His
Kingdom.
Church was an arm of
the temporal powers.
Church is dependent, anemic and an
alien entity.
Looked upon with
favor and disfavor.
Strong indigenous, independent and
inter-related church.
Must have
international relationship without
being seen as a Western puppet
Must have strong economic base
inorder to make the ecclesiastical
base strong.
2000 A.D. Post Christian period.
Potentials of Indian Economy
1.
Indian Economy shooting for the sky?
-1989 Fortune/Wall Street Journal
-Why U.S. Business still likes India? (Fortune, Feb.8,1993)
2.
Depleted Foreign Reserve:
-Lower Credit rating.
China is the fastest growing economy today.
-Lack offoreign investment Indonesia has 10 times more Foreign
investments than India. Red tape/lack incentives/political instability.
- 40 million diaspora Indians, very wealthy and investing other places.
3.
Indian Economic Policy:
-More incentive/security for NRI's (No response from Indians yet).
-More trade/tax incentives for Multinational corporations.
-More investments on infrastructures.
-Relaxed government policies.
4.
India's Internal Civil conflicts:
-Hindu/Muslim
-Sikh independent movement
-Linguistic warfare
-Conflicts with neighboring countries.
-Loss of leadership role.
5.
Growth of Education/Emerging Middle Class
-1947
-1990
-2000
6.
5% Middle class
25% Middle Class
35% Middle Class (Approx. 225 million).
India's Internal Economy:
-Vibrant and growing strong.
-Small business growing faster than big businesses.
-Still needs tax incentives and favorable policies to help small business.
Current Status of the Church
West:
Secular Humanism/Universal brotherhood/ Increasing antagonism
to Christianity.
East:
-Church is a minority.
-Church is an alien religion.
-Church is poor.
-Church is divided.
-Church is dependent.
-80% Protestant churches depend upon overseas support
-75% people within the church are poor.
-95% pastors and Christian workers are underpaid.
Causes for poverty within the church:
Old paradigm: Mission agencies were similar to
colonial structures of the past
L
Dependence:
2.
Lack of Economic
base:
Wrong/Mis-guided theology offinance.
Lack of trained
business people:
Education was primarily focused on jobs.
3.
4.
Lack of capital:
Most Christians in the cities are middle or lower
middle class economically.
Future Plans
Establish Christian Entrepreneur Network.
Chapters in main cities.
Objectives:
-Mutual encouragement/Spiritual/Social/Psychological
-Mutual exchange of ideas
-Mutual exchange of goods/services
-Mutual expansion of market
-Motivate, mobilize, and recruit/train new entrepreneur.
-Establish funds for inventions and Franchise expansion.
Establish contact with other cities and other countries.
-Expand the market (Export and Import)
-Produce products for overseas market
Establish a school for starting small business.
-Basic knowledge of small business
Manufacturing, marketing, retailing, accounting, taxes,
employee/employer relationship etc.
-Biblical theology of doing business
-Biblical theology of business ethics
-Biblical theology of community development
Establish franchises to help start new businesses.
-Coffee house for evangelism
-Small industries (manufacturing household goods).
-Small retailing stores
-Small service businesses
-Hair stylists/American Style/Bombay style
-Ladies beauty saloons/nail/health clubs etc.
-Building maintenance./Domestic cleaning/catering services.
ttsu
/PERMANENT ACCOUNT NUMBER
AAXPG3522E
HTH /NAME
SUSANTA KUMAR GHOSH
to tin HTH /FATHER'S NAME
ARABINDA GHOSH
vFR to /DATE OF BIRTH
09-01-1957
/SIGNATURE
Tps? strict 3Tfjtt,
xjg Tto
Chief Commissioner of Income-tax, Karnataka & Goa
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