WORKSHOP ON HUMAN RESOURCE
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- Title
- WORKSHOP ON HUMAN RESOURCE
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RF_M_1_SUDHA
V1
IN-HOUSE PROGRAI.'IS
it
ON
"MANAGEMENT OP HUMAN RESOURCES
PPR
CATHOLIC HOSPITALS ASSOCIATION OP INDIA
SECUNDERABAD
-
f— --L nr- fl
—■ l.tfF—
SBPTEKBSR 27-29, 1990
MOTIVATION TO WORK
PROFESSIONAL MANAGEMENT AND ENGINEERING CONSULTANTS
9-1-48/1/A, 1st FLOOR 38, ABOVE GARDEN RESTAURANT
SAROJINI DEVI ROAD, SECUNDERABAD-500 003
MOTIVATION TO V/QBK
I.
INTRODUCTION
Thsse days everyone is worried, about human motivation.
Parents are unhappy about the behaviour of their-children;
teachers complain about the lack of interest among students;
statesmen are dissatisfied with the apathy of citizens; and
employers are bitter about the lack of commitment among their
employees. It seems that all of a sudden tha traditional math
of ffloti-verting htnaen boingoy even within established institutions
have become ineffective. Although we shall deal here only with
motivation to work, the discussion should be relevant to the
question of motivation in other spheres of life as well. The
emphasis will be on employee motivation within a formal organi
sation, whether in the private sector or public, manufacturing
or service. Also, tha conclusions should be applicable to
employees at all levels, whether blue-collar operators or while
collar clerks, supervisors in a business organization or
officials in a Government office, and so on.
Y/hen highly-paid employees of an organisation go on ,a
strike or indulge in go-slow, the typical reaction of the
management and of administration is that of shock and dismay.
The assumption here is that when an eKroloyee is paid relatively
high wages he is supposed to be motivated. When such employees
form unions and behave like low-paid industrial workers, their
actions become incredible to the employers. The industries like
banking, insurance and airlines have all experienced such
situations in recent years. The main factor behind this cre
dibility gap is the inadequacy of tha theory of motivation
subscribed to by t..e management circles. Let us, therefore,
briefly review the various theories of human motivation
developed during tha last sixty ye ays.
II.
TIE NATURS OF VORK MOTIVATION
Motivation is a psychological process which is viewed
as one of the important determinants of human behaviour at
work.There are, ofcourse, other factors that also influence
behaviour at work. However, among the various factors, motivation
plays a fairly important part and, therefore, it should never be
under-rated. Although motivation is related to behaviour, one
cannot be equated with the other for atleast two reasons. First,
behaviour is determined by not orjly motivation of a person but
also by certain other processes. Second, motivation is an
» hypothetical congtrut/t whereas behaviour can be seen
cna observed. V/e can, of courst, infer a motive from the
xiaving made a distinction between motivation and behaviour, let
us now define what is motivation, Berelson and Steiner define
•motivation-7 as_ an inr ^r s t af< th at AneT.gi.z o s, activates, or
io understand motivafiohy fl^eYoVe*,* wri need Vo unTerstand
tne meanmg^of and relationship among needs, drives and goals
Constitute three interacting and inter-dependent elements
ox tnc process.
j.
Several attempts have been made to classify human
elves.According to one of these attempts, motives have been
xn^° 'three broad categories; primary, general and
condary. The primary; motives are unlearned and physiologically
i' ! i
- 2 based and include hunger, ttdrst, sleep,
\g0?SS°1;o\?h:^-aS-^"ncK"’ Sh
^ewotsnoe, Sority,
gically ba-aa
_n 1 • \;-f +i, „ e+c
Finally, the secondary
manipulation, activity.- ^fe21t2S+n be most relevant ^*o W study
motives are power, achievement, affiliation, security,
in the area of work motivation, we talk of a
J^g
Hra..
of motivation. Besides behavioural indicators, certain atui
aLp? indicators are also used to determine whether or not a
person is motivated. The latter include job satisf a0^0^’ 2?°rg®»
lid commitment to work. Although these two m®^ures of motivation
should not be considered as one and the same thing, both should
be considered a^bne and the same thing, both should be taken mu
account in dealing with the question of work motivation.
THE SIGNIFIC.^CB. OF_WOffl{ MOT I VAT I ON
The motivated employee is undoubtedly an asset to the
organisation he works in. Such an employee c°ntribuues tobetter
output in terms of both cuantity as well as quality. C1V.'”
*employees, the organisation needs lesser degree of supervision
as the employees are likely to act with a sense of responsibility.
Last but not least, the organisation having motivated employee.^
has much greater scope for adaptation, innovation and change.
Besides the organisational interest, the individual too stands
to benefit from motivation. The motivated worker is usually the
satisfied worker and does not suffer from alienation. He is more
involved with and committed to his job as a result of which he is
able to avail of learning and growth opportunities.
The key to work motivation, therefore, lies in the.creation
of a climate in which the employee is inspired to give ms best
to the organisation and is, moreover, satisfied with his.occupa
tional experience. Only when the interests of the organisation
and the employee are simultaneously served do we have a. situation
of motivated behaviour. Such behaviour is self-regulaving and
reauires little supervision and controls If we look at the
Indian industrial relations scene today, we find ample evidence
not of motivated behaviour but of tensions, conflict and strifbetween employers and employees. Under these conditions, both
organisation and the individual stand to lose.
III.
THE FOUNDATipiy- 3.P NQRK MOTIVATION
If motivation is viewed as an inner state that moves a
person and that channels his behavio’ur“tovvards goals, then it
follows that we must try to understand what work means to a
person. Put another way, it is necessary to know why man works
in order to understand the process of work motivation. The general
answer to this question is that nan works in order to satisfy
some of his needs. If he is able to satisfy his felt needs in a
work organisation, he is motivated. If, on the other hand,.he
is unable to satisfy those needs, he shows lack of motivation.
Although each person has his own set of needs.and his own set of
pri.ori'tiGH in order "to satisfy ■tlieia, hunian beings are also supposed
to have certain cornnion needs which all of them want to satisfy•
Men come to share some common needs by virtue of their similar
socio-cultural background as well as by the fact of a common
o c c up at i on al experience.
IV.
- 3 V.
SEL3CTSD THEORIES OF WORK MOTIVATION
The question why people work has interested and continue
to interest many social scientists as well as practicing
managers. Although there are several theories of work moti
vation, these are either mutually conflicting or their validity
is yet to be proved.
shall describe next some of the most
popular theories that are frequently talked about in the world
of management education. Neither the choice of theories nor
the treatment thereof is claimed to be exhaustive. The reader
is advised to treat the following write-up as only and intro
duction to the vast body of literature on the subject.
A» THE TRADITIONAL APPROACH: The traditional approach
for managing work motivation emphasized authority and economic
rewards, that is, people were made to work by threats of dis
missal or of cuts in their economic rewards. This style of man
management is based on the belief that ‘’people work only to earn
money:: and that -people work only if they are driven to it by
fear of losing their jobs”. According to J. Douglas Brown, one
of the oldest drives to action is fear of adversity- imminent
or distant. It ranges from the use of whip in building the
pyramids to reprimand or discharge in a modern factory. Though
effective in the short-run,, both are said to be crude stimuli
as they,seek motivation through emotions rather than through
self-initiated, rational determination. Also, to make people
work through fear demands that the required dose of fear must
be maintained, if not increased periodically.
The style of man-management based on the traditional
approach just described has been conceptualised by Douglas
McGregor as Theory X. This style of management is inherent
in some of the less sophisticated versions of scientific
management. It is based on the assumption that human beings
are driven by the fear of hunger and search for profit and
that they can be motivated for peak performance through mate
rial rewards and economic inducements. Taylor applied this
philosophy to the world of work by advocating piecn—rated
systems of wages wherein rewards are closely linked with output.
Guided by these and other considerations, top executives in
modern organisations continue to specialise, rationalise and
mechanise jobs on the one hand and to use money as the prin
cipal (if ngt the only) motivational device on the other.
B. THE HUMAN RELATIONS APPROACH (MAYO): With the
introduction of labour legislation, growth of unions, rising
standards of living, increase in the levels of education, and
the changing patterns of discipline at home and in schools,
the- traditional approach to menacing work motivation is
becoming increasingly less effective. Partly as a reaction
to sone of the exc^xes of the traditional approach, anew
philosophy of man-management was developed in the thirties,
which came to bo known as the human relations approach. The
main feature of this approach was to treat people as human
beings instead of machines in the productive process end to
acknowledge their need to belong and to feel important.
Elton Mayo, the father of human relations approach,
suggested as early as 1931 that the amount of work done by a
worker i^hot a function of his physical capacity but is
F
I
-
r
I
)
i
I
- 4 determined by his social capacity* Mayo and his associates
have argued that (i) Non-economic rewards play an important role
in determining the motivation of the worker, (ii) specialisation
is/by no moans the most efficient form of productions and
(iii) employees do not react to management and its policies as
individuals but as members of groups, it was shown, for example,
tiiat informal groups 5_n production shops were capable of exer—
strong control over the work behaviour of their members
anu that wa^e incciijive systems could be rendered, ineffectual
by group pressure for controlled output.
C-JJ *FOiiY X /;TD THEORY Y (Me GffiSGOR): One of the
outcomes ox the Hawthorne experiments (which gave birth to the
human relations approach) was to highlight the influence of
T°? ^P10^3® behaviour. This theme was subsequently
ua.i.n up oy 1.1c Gregor for more intensive study. McGregor has
?S0SGa Tneory Y in Contrast to Theory X already mentioned.
terrnq"0? ^esc:fibod the role of Theory Y style of management in
n'bf+ n?f craatinS oijportunities, releasing potential, removin'bievv^?^ Qncouraging growth, and providing guidance. Golemof
^1GW °£. aVE?ilab^ evidence reveal! that the modes
°h
Ration, planning, control and leadership based on
•^beory Y have positive consequences both in terms of hum™
resPonse and organisational effectiveness. The philosonhv nf
lElv't? \and supportive approach underlying Th-orv Y is
Th= basic
arc sJlSsad “i0«r
<Us‘lnS“lsh
X from Theory Y
TH30RY
X
f r, M
t1' oFwnr^1'^63 human being has an inherent dislike
ox work and will avoid it if he can.
(2) wishfr?^?1^311 bGitl£ P^f®^ to be directed,
1°, ^?ld responsibility, has relatively
-itvie amoition and, above all, wants security.
(3) hlv^'ta
these human characteristics, most peonle
"ffor?'
miis^T"°
a’ achievement of organisational
x^froncd
objectives'
7
I
*.•
y
(1) The expenditure- of physical and. mental
effort is as
natural an res;- or play.
nlav.
(2) The
namaa being learns, under nron^r
roioSibiii^y? °nly t0 ““pt tat t0
(3) Commitment to objectives i
is a function of the
re;vards associated with cheir
achievement.
(4) The capacity to exercise
of inaiination;
organisational problems is widely not
narrowly, distributed in the population
’
(j) ^tcrnal.control 1 threat of punishment’are
not only nia an □
effort towards organisational objccviveo. man will exercise self-direction iand' self-control
*’
in tne service of objectives to which he is committed.’
....5.
- 5 I). SOCIO-TECIINICAL SYSTEM: The importance of group
in influencing employee behaviour is also indicated in the
studios carried out by the staff of Tavistock Institute in
Through their studios of British Collieries, Trist
found that extreme division of labour, accompanied by
a central coordinating authority was not the most efficient
form of work organ.:.. >Atioru Instead, the organisations whors
workers were organised into groups (with the entire group
□cmg responsible for the performance of particular tasks)
were more healthy and effective than those characterised bv
extreme division.of labour* A.K. Rice’s experiment in one
of the textile mills in Ahmcdabad supports the general con
clusions of the Tavistock studies as well as those of Mayo*
j
SYSTEM 4. (LIKERT): Both the human relations annroach
and Theory Y made significant additions to our'SderSSdSg
«lv
,",rk motivation- Howovor, oaoh iJ iS cm
ay appears to give an exaggerated importance to superior
subordinate relations and advocates a particulS st?le
for oSOatinE th0 ,JesiMa motivational oiinatof
dlffoSn? J?0?’ EG5S1S Linkont too cor.-,pared ana contrasted
Uifferent styles of management. On the basis of several studies
System 1 : Exploitative *- Authoritative*
System 2: Benevolent V Authoritiva#
System 3; Consultative.
System 4: Participative.
systems
Jna-: a?ft+?hcsis ia that Particular management
performance over time ^SiSciSi^n
°ar\ain Patterns of
r3SCiat;d
“O- SLcSS^mpe4rSScSetOan^
Likert also claims that*2^1 With 1C3S offectivc performance,
lower to a higher nSnL
& “anaSenient system shifts from a
improves Ind th2+ a^bGr» performance of the organisation
bloc precede ch^gls^Fthe11
casY^1 3116 intervening variarLikcrt usld a S-fold
Although
of management in contrast^to the ^s\>hG+Cribing different systems
democratic and narticinat-i
the dichotomous typology used by/*
Of nanaerwcnTi^i“tPS SooJv Y
?e Styl"
xnter-pcrsonal relatinn^ ana 2Xy f and System 4 emphasizes
Z«l:ogregor, both have advocated ba^tiSy^e3^
'•-'ork motiJSticn33 the:
511 the theories on
the most comprohensi-’^
ras?IwCh by Abraham Maslow is perhaps
needs are arranged iAh^lowuhaVuggest°d that man’s basic
logical axHSoty Seis
Potency - from-physio
needs, to self-fuhilmelt needl a?
S°Cial and cg0
are more urgent and insistent thin +£
Tho ProPotent needs
deprivation; aid^mtt? til 1 thfn 2he °thers under equal
cf’^rs dn nnt
^til the prepotent ones are satisfied the
According to\hil tLI?vC°oSiStCnJ “?tivators, of behaviour,
needs -vin bn n
thoo^» a man who is unsatisfied in nn his
nv.de. iacn tu“CiT^tiLtednl? th?/ir3t - PlVdoJogo?
higher needs.
postulates;
Maslow’I
h 4 £° £2r hi6hor
still
laQSJ-0W 3 theory is based on tho following
••••6*
.4
t
/
- 6 i) No need can ever be completely aatisfiod; hnnee only
partial fulfilment is required before another* need appears.
ii) Needs arc constantly changing within an individual and
tiic individual may* of- ii ay-not •be aware of it.
The needs are interdependent and overlapping.
Accordingly to Maslow, man continually seems to gratify
some nends. At the lowest level, but most important when these
are thwarted, are the physiological needs which include food,
water, rest, exercise and proTec'tion against the elements. Once
physiological needs are gratified, other higher order needs
emerge and.dominate the organism. And when in turn, those needs
arc satisfied, new and still higher needs emerge. The second
level of needs include the safety needs which include protection
dtjcLinGy danger, threat and deprivation# When a personas phy
siological needs are satisfied and when he is no longer fearful
abou.nis physical welfare, his social needs become a new centre
or attention. When this happens, man will hunger for affectio
nate relations with people and will want to win acceptance in
tnc groups he considers important#
/
All people have a need or desire for a stable, firmly
positive evaluation of themselves for self-esteem and
xor the esteem of others. Esteem or ego needs become increarPky2iological, safety and social needs
«clf-esteam loads to feelings of self-confidence,
adequacy^and the capability of being useful
and necessary in the ’world.
J’ -’j 1Unlike the lower order needs,
esteem needs arc rarely satisfied,
■“i "j Once those have become
important to the individual, they provide an almost indefinite
basis for motivaticnal drive.
At the top of the need hierarchy is the need for self
actualisation:
•__ detirc
„
actual
ization: the
to become every thing that one" xs'
capable. - bT,,
’becoming.
Maslow did not regard these five sots of
needs
— mo m
xu all-or-nonc
dxx-or-nonc relationship
resationsiiip to one another. Ins'
Instead, he
sar:,
saw, .poirt
.poert persons exhibiting decreasing percentages of satis
faction upon the hierarciical ladder. Maslow asserts that the
person who feels thwartce in any one of his basic needs is as
surely ’sick* as the one who has been deprived of necnasaty
vitamins and minerals. Reaction to deprivation, however, may
taL:e many forms ranging frim aggressive hostility to apathy.
G. . THB TWO-FACTOR TE3ORY (HERZBERG): Most of the
psychological theories -snd researches on work motivation derive
their inspiration in varying degrees from Maslow’s theory of
the need hierarchy. One noteworthy attempt in this direction
is the. two-factor theory developed by Herzberg and his associates
•..no suggest that there are two dimensions in job satisfaction.
According to this theory, the primary determinants of job
satisfaction are intrinsic aspects of the job, whereas the
primary determinants of job dissatisfaction are extrinsic
Their, reaearches revealed that employees who reported
. ingxhappy with their jobs usually described the following
t^C1'OjS': achiGvcmcnt, recognition, responsibility, work
Itself, advancement and growth. On the other hand, when
1??,
unhappincss were reported, they were not associated
witji the factors just mentioned but with external conditions
•jucn as supervision, company policy and administration, working
conuxtions, inter-personal relationships, status, salary, job
security and factors in personal life.
’
....7.
- 7 Harsberg cjt al. call the factors external to the job as
hygiene or uaintenance, which operate to establish a healthy
environment, but no more. All the motivators recognition,
achievement, advancement, responsibility”"ancCwork itself - lead
to positive job attitudes because they fulfil esteem and selfactualization needs. Herzberg et al- further point out that the
fewer the opportunities for the'lnotxvators to appear, the greater
must be the hygiene offered in order to make tolerable. Likewise,
a man who finds his job challenging may tolerate bad hygiene. But
good hygiene alone cennot bo expected to pay motivational dividend.
According to the two-factor theory, hygiene factors help
only to avoid unpleasantness whereas motivators make people
happy with their jobs by satisfying their needs for psychological
growth. For Herzberg £t al. therefore, the key to work motivation
is. job enrichment since* only the intrinsic aspects of work can
elicit a committed and enthusiastic performance. If many people
do not seem willing to put forth more -than minimum effort,
Herzberg would explain it as a natural human response to the
impact of work that is impoverished of producing feelings of
achievement and responsibility.
,. , , I*1 a*1 interesting comparative analysis, Keith Davis has
linked Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene theory with Maslow’s concent
or, the need hierarchy. Davis concludes that work itself,
cognition, responsibility, and advancement all
contribute to satisfying noeds for self-realisation and for
statu3’ On thc other hand, says Davis, pay, working
rnT^i-10113’ company policies, supervision, and inter-personal
relations contribute to meeting Social, safety, and physiolof
bcl'h,I?®elow
Herzberg provide us with
.. comprehensive liox: of different meanings that work has for man.
CONCEPT 0? ALIENATION (SEEMAN, BLAUNER): .
^tion is a psychological process which makes a person
ano'ther°na^nn
dctach^ f?Oin Somc ^cct. The object may be
at-in.
° ’ a gro??’ thG
311 organization, some
° ’ °r Goc?-Gty itself, .in alienated person is an
or,*??®1™'} person whose behaviour is marked by disinterest,
MelvS
la0K
cc^itment to the object. According to
f-^ ve di
n^+,^^’ianjat^ori
n°t a unitary phenomenon but has
* dimensions. These are; isolation, powerlessness,
Bl^”?hnriGSSi .n°rSal“lcschoss and sclf-astrangemcnt. Robert
oc-SSA+i^-i^110? oCaE3an*s classification to analyse the
SntS^n^ cxPGricnce of the modern industrial worker. Blauner
c^^-a/2a’ W°S thft
autonomy, responsibility,social
^li^actualisation furthers the dignity of the
the d-v’SnmnntrCr W°rk 11ackinS in thcSG charactSistics limits
• ??ra?‘?t of Personal potential and is negatively valued
ayfu JiS of'SS- +W°rk °f thQ lattcr kind is ^d tZloS to
ct lu-xing of alienation,
tnl-nn
APPROACH:
The behaviourists have
in Mshlighttng th. role of money In
of Umfe -nploycao. They bellovo that behaviour is a function
■r.prirnLJ^rd‘,tTanti 1I10n-y 1? F1
03Pt plcment in the reward
Lackage. How rowarus determine behaviour is expresseu oy
the following value and success propositions of behavioural
psychology.
I
- 8 -
(i) Men are more likely to perform an activity, the
more valuable they perceive the reward of that
activity to bo*
(ii) Kan arc more likely to perform an activity the more
successful they perceive the activity is likely to be
in getting that rewards
According to the above reasoning, formal organisational
rewards such as money arc important for they not only satisfy
certain specified needs but may also symbolise success. The
task of management, according to the VoKavTburists, is to create
links between rewards and performance, to foster expectations
that efforts will result in performance and that performance will
result in rewards. Says Lawler, “rewards must be perceived to
bo important and obtainable as a result of good job performance.
Pay, argues Lawler, cannot motivate performance unless it is
perceived as important and contingent upon performance. Be
Oldland too feels that management has an opportunity to reshape
the control systems to make an organisational climate which will
reinforce and reward achievement - oriented behaviour. As
Stringer has put it, “high achievers derive most of their satis
faction out of doing a good job, not out of receiving the external
rewards associated with success.
According to Vroom, a person’s choice of a particular
pattern of behaviour (eg., high, medium or low performance at
work) depends on two factors: (i) the strength of his desire
for a future goal (v_gJ-_anca) and (ii) the perceived probability
that high performance would in fact load to the achievement of
the desired goal (Instrumentality). The implication of Vroom’s
approach to the question of work motivation is that an organisa,tion*s reward system must be viewed by its employees as instru
mental to the satisfaction of their felt needs and goals, both
immediate as well as distant. Thus, an organisation must try
to understand the aspirations, needs and goals of its employees
and then design a reward system that is not only clear to each
employee but it also administered in an objective, fair and
just manner.
4
Interestingly, some behaviourists (e.g. Lawler) do make
use of Maslow’s need hierarchy theory and suggest that pay
derives its particular importance through its capacity to
satisfy not only physiological needs but also esteem and
recognition needs. Herzberg e^t
too had found, in their
classic 1959 study, that money Van a source of satisfaction nearly
as often as it was a source of dis-satisfaction. To some extent
^rzbarg ct al. and to a largest extent their .followers, seem
to have under-played the role of monetary rewards in promotine:
work motivation.
VI.
CiOIWLUSICgi?
?
number of studies have been conducted
v»-.th samples of blue-collar industrial workers,j There are
very few studios indeed of work motivation of the white-collar
r
F
■
I
4
’• -
t
- 9 =”Ploy««3 ana ovan tewor or the
«=nothat employees in India, whotlr r blue eol
or managerial, do resnond
7°
fchiio-oollar
experience when they ar?
occupational
to satisfy their high^o^de?
that cnablG them
reason for this may^m that atl ^t"inythr10S1Ca^ n°ads* OnQ
the Indian Employ^'- Iovjo^^a'
* 5
organised sector
conditions, jS secant?
3alary’ workinS
less satisfied whcraSYn±^CiSZS^^P°.^ more or
ughc^Moi
KtivaWonhot
^o^vops*xrisfaotion of rtr
J°.
ation in work
Which is Shaped bv th
organisational climate
management on the onel^d
Policies and practices of the
other. Bv and 1
hand» 311(1 stylos of supervision, on the
guided by the tradition^^111''1111 ^poras in India a_\_
arc still
on, among oth-r thinJ°
h Pr°t0 managcmcnt which
—i ______
relies
rewards to motivate Shores3” ?r
monetary
for introducing '2 . ■ -ts of r’nfn nnih +
con^dorablc scopi
fair-play and iustic-“-in +Lrationality, professionalism,
of organisational polici —'
implementation
need to be more democratic’organisational cultures
conditions, employees in India
Uri(1or such
to their organisational goSl- -S
t0 rcaP°nd favourably
enable than to oatigy^tK o»“ St’S* Oli=:atc ««“
F
i
IN-HOUSE PROGRAMME
ON
’’MANAGEMENT OF HUMAN RESOURCES" “FOR
CATHOLIC HOSPITALS ASSOCIATION OF INDIA
“
SECUNDERABAD
SEPTEMBER 27-29t 1990
MAN POVEB PLANNING
■PPGERSSTONAL MAN AG El-ENT AND ENGINEERING CONSULTANTS
q^Ss/l/A, 1st floor 38, ABOVE GARDEN RESTAURANT
9
SWOT DBVI BOADi SBC0NM1U34D-500 003
MAN POWER PLANNING
—F'-i
--------- —
—<■
MT •
wr.«^B tv
1 •
The review of the activity of Man Power Planning
it sei f i • e
what can and what cannot be done by means '
of it when and where it is most useful, how may it be adaptable to the particular circumstances of each organisation
would be focussed.
Above' al 1 it is not a panacea it i s not a package
wnich can be applied to solve the problems of all
Organi sat ions.
In many organisations it will prove to be
worthwhile on-go;.ng activity, in other continuous man-power
planning may be of very little practical value,
and in both
kinds of organisations contingencies may arise which can make
man-power planning crucial activity over a
period of time.
particul ar
It is therefore important to examine
the situation of an organisation before studying all man-power
planning activities*
involves
It will be clear that man-power planning
greately a speculation in many different areas
explained
below:1.
Speculation about market trends.
2.
Technological changes.
3.
Trends in internal relations.
4.
Economic trends.
5.
Demographical trends.
6.
Changes in training and educational practices.
7.
Movements and growth of different industries.
In some industries and for some organisations
these peculations may be made quite accura tely.
But
for some others the uncertainity i s so great as to make
continuous man power planning i s so great as to make the
monitoring of man-power planning almost impossible.
If on the other hand we consider a large automated
THIS READING MATERIAL IS PROPERTY
OF THE PROFESSIONAL MAhi/iGEMENT ft
ENGINEERING CONSULTANTS. MOTTO SE
REPRObUCfO IN ANY FORM, WITHOUT
PRIOR PERMISSION.
:
2 :
factory in a predictable environment where 5 year
7
plans for company’s development can feasible/ then man
9
power planning of a much more elaborate and long term
nature are likely to prove advantageous.
7
Whether future circumstances can be predicted with
4
reasonable accuracy or only with the snail probability of
?
d
J
$
3
A
*
?
8
3
accura cy it is wise to lock at a No.of alternative future
ci rcum st ances •
These may ari se as a result of decision taken
within the organisation or from alternate directions of
changes in the environment.
The man-power planning should
consist of a range - of alternatives/
each derived from
discarded or elaborated further as time passes and the
relevant decision and trends takes shap^.
t
2
This kind of planning will be most useful in
a
situations where the probable alternative futures are not
6
7
drastically dis-similar or where there is usually a long
a
n
lead time between first hint of the direction of change and
its actual implementation.
But for organisations which.
for
2
3
4
one reason or another oscillate violently in their short
6
7
*5
9
be more difficult to ke<^) up-to-date.
planning and a scheme for up-dating it might be something of
1
an unnecessary luxary for such a firm.
and long terms plans this kind of man-power planning would
An eloborate man-power
7
3
Other m aj or poi nt whi ch i s
4
6
-that there
are particular circumstances which may arise which call for
y
8
9
n
2
3
4
6
man-power planning
in almost any organisation.
Some
important aspects are listed below:
(1)
When a new section or Dept. or site is opened.
(2)
When the organisation expands generally.
(3)
Whena section or Dept. or a site is to be closed.
....3...
9
1
7
J
•4
: 3 :
(4)
When the organisation or a particular
levels in it contract
(5)
When a large section of the staff or labour force
will be approaching retirement age together.
(6)
When the technology of production methods is changing
or expected to change.
(7)
When large number of jobs are to be redesigned.
(8)
When departments or sections are to be re-organised.
(9)
When different sites/site to be merged or amalgamated.
(10)
When a particular type of scarce employee is needed
in large numbers.
And there will be other situations in which man power
planning becomes an important activity.
In the past when this kind of situation has arisen some
kind of planes have been drawn up for the recruitment or
training or redundancy employees.
But very often these
planes have ommited some of the important factors and in
extreme cases have been no better than the inspired guesses.
Many employers can no longer afford to be inaccurate in
their forecasting of man-power needs.
Where man-power is
one of the most expensive resources used by an organisation
procedures such as those outlined wi’l
enable these
expensive resources to be metbd out economically.
It would like to be noted th .t the stress on the
significant part which the employee h mself may play in the
implementation of the man-power planning.
It is one thing
to plan an organisation with a view to maximise efficiency
and quite another to try to impose this plan against
the wishes of employees who wish to make their jobs secure
wherever possible and wienever employees attitudes are
relevant to the im lamentation of the man-power plans.
The industrial relations consequences and the economic rami
fication of costs of alternative plans should be
...4...
: 4 :
Considered and compared^
This will vary from one organisation
to the another and from one period of time to another.
They
add other dimension of complexity to the task of getting
man-power plans up-dated*
II •
Carg^r development, and. manrPPJ^X.PlJ^-Q?-jng.>
When man-power planning is applied to managerial and
technical and professional staff there are more complex
problems to be considered than supply and demand.
In a No.
of large organisations these problems are thought to be
an important area of man—power planning/ particularly in those
organisations which employ large No. of salaried staff.
And yec very little attention has b-en paid in the Literature
to the links between man-power planning and career developments
and the implications of the latter for the former.
When an employer recruits a man to a salaried post
he very often expects more, than just 8 hrs. work a day from
him if not less.
He may recruit the men both for the conti-
butyon he will make in the job he is given and also for the
as a man who may in future be promoted to
higher position in the organisation.
With this in view
he is often given further training and attention is paid
to his career development.
Potential Managing Directors
are recruited and trained in organisation in addition
to those who are promoted to that position.
And thi s is
very true of very many of the senior positions to which
the junior staff aspire*
This suggests that many organisations have d greater
reservoir of skills and expertise among their staff than
they can or do make use.
Frank Heller/
an expert in this line
i n a paper suggested that this was wasteful because the job
skills which people were learning were not used in the
organ! sat ion •
He over-looked the fact that many of these
job skills are taught in preparation for promotion.
The p ri ncipl o behind this kind of training aopears
...5*.
: 5 :
that it is benefitial to the organisation to have
a No.of
potentially promotabl e staff whoso motivation is increased
by the protspect of promotion and also
with it is advisable
to train men before promoting them
to positions in which they
will use their t rai ning. This
course of action enables the
employer t ■ see how well the
man performs before promoting
him as well as
ensure that the organisation has a stand-by
of successors to replace the ke^T
men.
However, there may be reporcusions for
such a poli cy
i f 1 arg e Ho • of
men are thwarded in their aspirations and
become dis-ill usioned and t ot al 1 y di scou rag ed >
Man-power planning at this level of organisation
therefore involves assessing qualities, the- attributes,
training and experience needed by the men who must replace
exi sti ng managers and staff and fill the posts
created by
the expansion of the organ! sat ion.
Much that the been said :
is relevant to the o robl en s
of predicting how many jobs
must be filled in the future.
Senior positions in an organisation are often filled
by juniors who h-ve-been ■performing other useful jobs, somet i m • s.
x^nd
essential and having roles prior to their promotions,
one task in the man power planning is t
between the adequate performance of th*
strike a balance
junior and intermediate
roles and the provision of a suitable man t..
replace more
senior people who may retire, guit or taemself promoted
or
for natural death. When this problem i
s clearly stated,
a No.of commom practices are
seen to be guestionabl e.
The first of these is th
practice of promoting the
best man in a job gr?de te fill a gap in a
higher grade
In many situations thp b.°st man in a
junior grade is indeed
the b-st man to cop^ with
a job in the next grade. But there
are situations where promotion to
the next grade!nvolves major
c i a ng os in the work to be- carri ed out.
In these cases the
m o st comp at ent
mon in the lower gr^de might not bo the best
man to cope vzlth more seni or j ob .
...6...
:
a
6 :
But most organisations used promotion as a means of
regard!ng. their best performers.
This practice has given
rise to the fundamental Phenomenon frequently tabbed "The
Peter Principle” where men are promoted to the level at
which they are incompetent and there they stay.
Fortu-
nately it is something of an exageration since although we
may all believe that we know examples of its applications,
many people when promoted are at least as competent in their
new job as they were in their last prior to premotion which
is their 1 a st •
Promotion in many cases depends on aspects of
performance in the junior post which are relevant to the
successful performance in th? more senior post,
Promotion of
the most competent still poses the problem of finding suitable
repl acene nt and there may be some situations where the inter
mediate post have the greater impact of the effective—
ness of the organisation.
If all the best men are promoted
out of these posts then overall effectiveness may become
absolutely low.
In such situations it may be possible for
the planner to look critically at the No.of grades in the
organisation above those levels having the greatest impact,
and also the preservation of skills.
A closely related problem is that of how to motivate
st af f v;ho ar e not p r om ot <■ d •
If excessive emphasis is placed
on promotion as a criterion of success in an organisation then
those for whom a promotion does not materialise may become
di s-illu si oned and perform tneir work less competently.
On the
other hand the sal ary and fringe benefit system may be
designed so as to allow competence at any level in the
organisation to be highly regarded.
This kind of reward
system, whould in many cases encourage staff in junior and
intermediate posts to take an interest in t-.eir work irres
pective of their promotion prospects.
t 7 •
The rate at which an organisation is expanding has
a significant effect on the opportunities for promotion
which it can offer#
Too much emphasis on career development
at a time when expansion is slowing down or has even changed
to a reduction in numbers of staff employed will ^product
discontent amongst those very employees for whom the career
development programme was designed#
These are some of the main points which the maipower
planner needs to consider when planning for managerial/
technical and professional staff#
III .
Assess!ng Future Rgqui rament s #
i
In order to assess the future requirements for labour
there are number of factors which a manager must remember.
First of all there are the expansion plans of the firm and
implications of these plans for the size and make up of
the labour force.
Taking an example of a large industrial organisation
supposing in about 6 months time/
50% more capacity to be
added/ then the top management must consider how many
Engineers/ Technical staff and the supporting work force
are required alongwith the infrastructural facilities and
the balancing equipment including the plant and machinery.
The top management must also consider how rapidly it expects
the market demand to absorb the additional capacity#
Will
the demand begin with a trickle and increase or is it that the
demand has to be created or it is already there and it has to
be explored within few months.
If the management is likely to
experience difficulty in recruiting the staff required for
• the new addition/
should it also build up the critical staff
prior to the launching of the extended capacity or should
the additional capacity be ventured with short—staff and
run it at part capacity until it had built up the full
complement of staff#
If
the management takes the former
. .8 • #
: 8 :
course it will increase the cost by carrying the staff who
are under-utilised prior to the ccrnmencement of the eperations
By temporarily deploying these staff in other sections/
management may also reduce their morale and give both than
and the staff in the affected section a false expectation
of future work-loads and staffing levels.
On the other hand
if the managonent takes the second course of action and
opens a section short-handed it will be under-utilising
may far out-weight the cost of "Carry!ng” staff prior to
the launching of operations.
The management may also
find there are very high wastages of new recruits which
is short-staffed producing both high cost and high ineffici ancy •
Of course these 3 factors are not independent of one
another.
Changes in demand can lead to changes in a
product or to plants for expansion etc.
Akl these three
factors are influenced by the market demand for the product.
The fourth factor affecting future managing requirements arises from methods changes.
And this depends
very much on the state of the technology in the industry.
Introduction of automated machinery in an Engg.factory
or the installation of the computer are changes that
alter the methods used for the job and may result in
a requironent for more labour or more usually/ f arl ess
labour and also far different skills.
In some industries
methods of working change very slowly; and except where
a major product change was involved/
changes in the
working method would be unlikely to have affect on
future man—power needs.
The Last factor affecting the future requirements is
a change in productivity within the unit either by producti-
vity bargaining foreg., ever restrictive practices or the
applications of techniques which are available as management
t ools.
«
IN-HOUSE PROGRAMS
ON
"MAIUGEMENT OF HUMAN RESOURCE S'1
FOR
CATHOLIC HOSPITALS ASSOCIATION OF INDIA
'
SECUNDERABAD
SEPTBLIBER 27-291 1990
AUDITING OF HUMAN RESOURCES
PROFESSIONAL MANAGEMENT AID ENGINEERING CONSULTANTS
9-1-48/1/A, 1st FLOOR 38, ABOVE GARDEN RESTAURANT
SAROJINI DEVI ROAD, SECUNDERABAD-500 003
AUDITING OP HUIW RESOURCES
The Accountants belonging to different sohools of
thought and coning from various backgrounds have been
sharing increasing concern in the recent years for sone sort
of ’valuation’ of hunan resources in a n industrial unit.
Fron the beginning of sixties a nunbar of ;f appro aches’’n have b
put forward and a number of ’’valuation nodels” have been
developed by social scientists representing diverse dis
ciplines. The nodels so far developed range fron the
simple historical cost-based one to a, mathomaticolly sophis
ticated one like the Value Analysis Model. Protagonists
of Hunan Resources Accounting (HRA) have been stressing on
the importance of hgria resources cost and human*
sources
value.
Human resource is the most vital component of any
social system and Organisation.
’’Plants, Offices, Computers^ automated equipment
and all else tho.t a modern firm uses arc unpro
ductive except for huma\ effort and direction”
- R Likert
The effectiveness of the entire system of any Orga
nisation is unquestionably based on the state of health of
its Huma.ii Resources System (HRS). HRS operates measuring
the process of transsformation of human inputs into hunan
outputs - measurable in terms of ’’value added” to the ope rar
tional efficiency. Human Resources Inputs (HRI) arc values
of energ^r, competence, skills ahd talonts etc. of individuals
groups and total human Organisation. Huma. Resources Output
(HRO) are physical or mental, creative, or raechanicai, routine
contd*••2<•
THIS READING MATERIAL IS PROPERTY
OF THE PROFESSIONAL. MANAGEMENT ft
ENGINEERING CONSULTANTS, NOT TO BE
REPRftBUCEfc IN ANY FORM, WITHOUT
PRIOR PERMISSION.
: 2 :
services rendered, and commitment of the individuals and
groups to the Organisation as a whole. The transformation
procco^ of human resources inputs into desired human rcsour*
cG3 outputs oan be identified as acquiring, training,utili
sing. evaluating, compensating, a d effectively developing
skills on a continuous basis of all human force in the
Organisation. The effectiveness of the transformation
process of huma resources inputs into desired human rcsour
ces outputs demands a sound Human Resources System (HRS) integrat ng among other things Hunan Resources Inventory (HRI)
Hunan Res.-urces Forecasting (HRF) Carrcr Planning System, an''
Succession System.
Traditional accounting has developed certain quaivtitative data relating to its nan—power as under:
-Number of Employees
— Average Capital employed per Enployeoj
- Average monthly emoluments per Employee;
- Value of production per man-month
V^lue. added per man—month
- Average monthly sales per Employee;
- Percentage of nan-power cost to cost of production
The top-level decision makers of today would certain*1 •
bo happier if the Organisation’s accounting information sys
tem can generate relcva nt information relating to—
- Investment on human resources
- Vol-uc of human resources
- Contribution of human resources towards
g o al an hi c v e m ent;
ReLikert has observed: "ERA is the process of
recognising, measuring and communicating useful information
concerning human resources to the policy makers and to
other interested parties”
Contd*..3.•
: 3 :
In one of the Conpanics in USA outlay cost approach
to mesurc investments in human resources was developed
and 7 functional capital accounts ware opened besides one
account for each Manager. The 7 functional accounts were—
— Recruiting outlay costs
- Acquisition costs
— Formal training and familiarisation costs
- Informal training costs
— Familiarisation costs
- Experience — Building Investment costs
— Development Costs
Human asset account balances were amortised on
the basis of expected length of service of individuals.
There are two b ic approaches for building models
for valuation of human resources. They are A. Cost Appro aches
B. Present Value Approaches
A. Models based on Cost Approaches arc earlier
models developed in the field. The throe most important
cost approach models are —
i) Historical costs;
ii) Repla.ccmcnt Costs;
Opportunity Costs
i) Historical Costs Model; All costs that are
associated with making a Member of the Organisation ready
for providing services arc capitqlisod. Recruitment, hiring
and graining costs receive major attention. Under this
model cost can be used as a measure of value and the amount
of investments in human resources can ba easily determined
for purposes of exhibition of human resources cost in Balance
Sheet.
Connd
• •
f
: 4 :
+ . 11}
SS^laccmoinjosWJo^.
cnpioyca,a valuc iQ
as mated cost that an Orga isation would incur, if it were
o roplnoo the present en*loye0 with n person of equal
Xl"°the oOn°idOr= nOt 0,117
on individual
ithin the Organoation but also hie "perfornru:oe».
iii) OEBortuM^LCost Model:
under thin nodal any
roeouree hnn value only when there in an alternative uno
for that resource. Extending the idea to a hunan organisntinn
those onployocs that the Oxidation han aitarnative ulon
tor, at present should hevc value
should have value. The higl e-t bib f
“
“‘’“‘•rco
woulri hr, > •
nigiiCot bib for an individual used
resource -TthT0
■ value °off the 0rS;anisational
resource at that point of time, would be the sun of the
> would be the
values of the individuals.
thG
B-
Thc bas.c
as3linption
under this
approach is that the value of an enployee to an
Orga isation refer to the services the Organisation will
get froa hia in future,
The economic value concept suggests
discounting on employee’s
earnings for future services to
arrive at the present value of the
cuployeo to the Organisation.
There arc four important
raodals under present Value
•Approach cis under:
I) Present vaHn of Future Earnings Model
112 Stochastic Rewards Valuation Model
in) Economic Value Model on Group Basis
iv) Adjusted Present Value Model
i) £££££nt Value of Future
■Ssaiia&Ljtodci: In future
services of an employee can be
assessed and the period for
which the employee will
continue with the Organisation is
known with cxaectitudo,
■then the value to the Organisation of
contd,,...5. .
: 5 :
an CDplown.o, of a certain ago, is the present value of his
future earnings from the Organisation. The possibility
of death occurring before retirement can also be considered
by using mortality tables.
ii)
Jto™.a£ds. Valuation Model; The ultimate
ncasurc of an individual’s value to an Organisation is his
expected, realisable value ie., the present worth of future
services expected to bo rendered during his expected, period.
of association with the Organisation, the assumption being
tha.t an individual’s value to an Organisation depends upon
the positions to bo occupied by him in the Organisation.
iii) ^cononic yaluc Model on Group Basis: in this
model group basis for valuation of human resources has been
suggested* The group here refers to a homogeneous group of
employees who may be working in different departments/
dividions* It is possible to predict at any time, with
greater
accuracy the carrer movements of the employees within.
iv) Idjjurtod Presented Value Model; Human resources
must bo reported as assets in financial statements and
offered a model with a view to quantifying the value of human
capital in an Organisation. According to this model present
value of future wage payments for 5 years should be determined
and a ratio, known as "Efficiency Ratio" based on the
Organisation’s return and the economy’s return should bo
applied for the purpose of adjusting such payment value to
obtain the value of human or operational assets as distinct
fron legally assessed C-Gscts of th.- Organic at i on < TrGa.tr.icnt
of human resources an assets is basically a;., attempt to
extend the familiar fotock’ conccj-t to huLian rccourccs^
Contd...6..
: 6 :
in contrast to the ’flow’ concept which has been in appli
cation so far.
i
Whatever ncthod is adopted to Capital Hunan Resour
ces in the accounts, a workable basis of auditing the data
should bo developed so that auditing the data and reporting
to Managonont on a continuous bo.sis could be evolved,
V7hor*ever deficiencies occur Audit should suggest renadial
neasuros to over cone such defects/ deficiencies. The Alidit
Wing of an Orga isation should be given ths ’criteria' on
which hunan resources systen hose been assortised. Haded
on the criteria the Internal Auditor can Work out guidelines
for his Managers/ Supervisors/ Staff to fornualto check-lists
for auditing and valuing the Huno; Resources in the Orgonisation.
I
IN-HOUSE PNOGBAmg.
OH
'•MANAGEMENT op human resources,
------------------- FOR
CATHOLIC HOSPITALS JiSSOCIAT101£OP—INU.I_A
---- - ------ —
SECUNDERAB.AD
SKPTg.SBH 27-29 > 1990.
HUM AN 5E SOU ROS JDgTOLOPLBNT — AN ^APPROA^H
PSOFBSSIONAL MAJTAfiBI.BNT A1O ENGIKBBBING ^NSULT^To
o9 1 AR/I
/A 1stBBVI
FLOOH
38, S30UHD3BA3AB-500
ABOVIS
JUSTAJHANi
i^WINI
BOiB,
003
= resource
I.
1NJJIOBILCJ1ON
The Managers of enterprises today have an important
responsibility of optimising the use of resources, starting
from the human resource, plant & machinery, materials and
capital. The traditional approach of a few executives
steeped deep into the routines of work and always shoulde
ring concentrated burdens of the company management is
similar to that perpetuating fire fighting and being
extremely pre-occupied day-in-Land-day-out on the routines
of work at times resulting in indispensable qu j tjest
Executives and members of management hardly find any time
to cope up with the responsibilities.
The new approach gives emphasis on a scientific
approach towards identifying the needs, the problems, and
the preventive steps required in order not only to ensure
smooth flow of operations but also visualise the future
growth. The HRD approa-ch goes beyond mere prevention
in that sense that the management
and the managers
attempt
_
__ x_ j
to develop the total work force including the subordinates
so that they do have a sense of commitment towards the job.
One of the innovative ideas in the HRD approach is
that of job re—design. In our traditional approach, we
expect an employee to adjust to his job. In job re
design we expect to bring about changes in the job so
that the employees are able to derive more satisfaction
out of their work. In the job re-design the following
basic principles have to be made use of The five principles are -
1. Skill variety
2. Task identity
3* Autonomy
4. Opportunities for social interaction
5* Knowledge of results
If the Manager is able to implement his ideas,
his subordinates are likely to be more involved in their
work and the functioning of the Department can improve
substantially.
The other idea emerging out of the HRD approach
is to have a better coordination between the different
functions and therefore between the executives. Can we
persuaue the maintenance crew for instance to work with
the operatives so that they can jointly take care of the
life of assets.
HRD approach is very much needed when technological
changes are taking place rapidly in every organisation and
in every function, including that of the environment
itself, in such a situation we have to pursuade people
to accept the changes and work enthusiastically under the
fast changing situations.
THIS REARING MATERIAL IS PROPERTY
•F THE PROFESSIONAL MANAGEMENT >
ENGINEERING CONSULTANTS NOT TO BE
REPRORUCIB IN ANY F©RM, WITHOUT
PRIOR PERMISSION.
- 2
II.
AJ^Lmiiension jpoj^wagement
sages t^gii? a Sew porspfeiiva
manaSQinont« It enviemployees. This approach ^gX^
rGgardi^ their
be regarded as important resfu?™!
mJ cmPloyccs should
precious and therefore would need tn hnGSG rcs?urccs aifc
maintained, developed and not
2Properly
.....
nally managers hav? neve? thouKht°?fUSC* t Tahitioresources. They were rnp-a-rHnAght °f thcir employees as
At the beginning of indufSitl
°f Production.
were ruthlessly exploited
S revolution, human beings
hands symbolises this approach. StateaQnt ■fc° hirc a pair of
nanag0Bcn^ haj^gogun
Jg”3 °S
5O*-6O years of professional
to realise the importance
< " .'Wloyapa
“soS bOiggS “ th0 °^^a?ion^
SP.01'tan°t! of
1 t There is enough
k,
1 employees are given
S
c
S
U
n?
+
^
tGrmS
Of productivity do
show an improvement,
between a r“ —
successfully managed
by f
out to -Ployeas
<— ”
Ho. of ideas which'
can be implemented by practising managers
and executives.
tVMi°-at0 that if
^-eSSfuily managGd :rsa?fo^rannoc: so
In this new — —
show consideration
foI^nh^Z^' a+manaScr is expected to
consideration
approach an employeefor
L eSoc^^- In
traditional
the ohgngos
Changes iTtg
in th? 3jog
job 3 ?n the mn Cons;Ldcr bringing about
expected to conside? bkn-in- ibS aPProach the manager is
uxin&mb can
about
changes
in the
inh
designs so
SO tha+
that the employees
have
a'riclX
expeSenoe
while working,so tSt'th^^S i313? envisages, the development
of.employees s^
ntS and
can b°P
utilised to the fullest.
a mental reJolutiol in^lT^X^-iS cPGGted to bring about
vhoy arc mentally prepared +n
managers so that
precious resources.
Tn 4.b • °
tneir eniployees as
ideas at work. Every nannt,S/OtC WG Wil1 Present these
up-kCCp of the rcsou?ce^^ +1
responsible for the
His job can be
perspective and a broad perspective1
APts* A narrow
is the perspective of th? fi?? 1 Zpl A Wrow Perspective
steps to put out the fS mo??
?* A fire-fighter
a manager at times steps in onl?
tOUSly- si®ilarly
He will then find temporary
™
is a Problen.
this perspective he will n?t?think
SolLi’fcions‘ With
not think of a preventive approach.
Snfl-4nO^^C*°P^S^torGth?GvrSaSGr Wil1 raiso a
raise
comlicts that arise out of
yious Problems and
answers can. be many but one has'ufic’fcional working. The
hS„ri^t. The HRD pars^it J? G?00S0?hG answer th^t
tSrSf1’0 wllloh
=i’o eoSof?03
°^osf12‘!oraor
’?StO
hO c;T
- lboth
ofha
the
- ailns
- — they work
and v.lt,
.
,
<z j
this loader3
coop^S^
They
o°UhS„^k- take initiative
.3.
V
- 3 -
role of managers is becoming tou^h
oi + ^lo^giug because of rapid technological and
systems changes. Employees, usually finsecure in
CnanSinG technology because of specialisation
ring newei skil^
regarding maste+ lu
Progressively. Employees are usually
work"with -uchh^fg+b A managor today is expected to
onJv +n
t a employees and pursuade them not
aSu+
P>CCt thG Changc but ^o to be enthusiastic
c c lange and accept the new demands made on them.
TTI•
The. Hnp
roach
The HRD Approach attempts to accomplish the total
need of development. Now let us see what HRD approach
has to offer to the managers,
rC-dosimCthe iobsb3i?hndCaSiin the HiU)
HRB approach is to
employees
^enthusiastic al)out thol?
E!
_„l work.
principles to be used
in
----- -n the job rc-dosign. They arc 1) Skill variety
2) Task identity
3) Autonomy
4) Opportunities for social interaction
5) Knowledge of results
Let us consider thorn in different stages.
1.
This principle c„
suggests, that if an employee gets
opportunity for using a veriety of skills rather
than fewer skills, he is more
job as meaningful and p
s?ec3 ni\3®J
opposite of •the traditional concept This
of
t?^in^
To -niploment
implement this idea wo have to give
feS skiUs? .--InP ^G0S in r;iany Skills as opposed to
An employee who has mastered many skills
wiil be more enthusiastic about"
ii they arc necessary for newer inculcating more skills
is also more advantageous to the technology. This concept
management because if
one <
at)SG^t, others can easily look after
his work.
ch
2.
This^principle suggests that if the employee is
able to perform the
! job
ming a small segment
of completely, rather than porforhc gGts morc satisfying
work experience. \Th_o is because
the employee is able
to realise the
moaningfulness
of
his
efforts, i.e
his
efforts have
1
2
to
something
tangible
and
’
specific. In the situation, ho is able to relate his
- 4 oStiXSiS
Sc S ^Ctl0n1’ hls dGP^tmont and his
worl^ Heip
’ CE?? bG Justifiably proud of his
convev to
™%
g Can bc doriG b^ thG manager to
+• -p
GmPloyeo as to how his work is reln-t-nd
orgLisatioSh™1’1?5'003 ma h0" it 0°htributos to’tho’
nof“X’ ?!
““^-/ouporvisors do
3.
iho
AyisiissK
wc go down
Mo”LwO^1So£°S“; ifAs5 m
In fact in the
try. to reduce elements
of our we^
subo^atc^HoroXX^J
in tho
-j Here wc
we give more and mrsw-i
-p
n
an issue — Can
to raiding
their own work 9 more
ThG freedom
t^aditio^l
subordinatGS io do
The
traditional meager will definitely
say ’No* to this
He is not
He
■
prepared to trust his subordinates
out of■ Xb?
to
y Possible, but also
desirable to consido;
r
and more freedom for
- - ■r45n?X.^«“ or
4.
interaction become borinZ0!^)0• indi^i<iuals of social
that employees must not waste their^m m?llagGrs Relievo
with others around ibn™
wi
™Glr time m conversing
Work can »o 21^
S Irouo 5/'° “f5 tryinS t0 allot tho
single individuals’? E?o°Soh
f3'?10?' than to
work better in groups thnn^o
^indicated that people
reconsider the LlocatioA o^t^S^o^3;
a fflall4cr
can be given tasks rather than "in di viduSs.
5*
Sr°UPS
BL0.w.lpdgc of rgsultn
This pnneipic
■ 1
3uggcsts that if
ill(iividual
conveyed tho results
ns to how he ccan 1improve hhiSI>norf^£“1°° “?
ho ^SgnT
becomes
enthusiastic
about
=«orta on hle'
own.
0
efforts on his own.
Practiced in m---an employee got3° is
even this practice ■ at the time of manual appraisal and
o r g ani s at i on s.
improving their Performance if their managers conveyed
to them their performance and how
to improve it.
Those
mented by the®SagXsCLOthQir"ovmdd!iSn+Gan bc implcxn uneir ov/n departments. This can
certainly encourageb their
1 employees to improve their
performance.
wF?:
Another
idea ,-----lovolop^ont
of
V^°^ant of
Of a
a tu^^ffrit^oLShh™
tcan sPirit
a°S??yS- A Nooi problems can
<— ■*bo rolnl
- ’ibod "
-J themselves^
’*
n
biicx^ is a better coordination amongst
OJm£,c SO ththat
thsy
;t oKl
they nnot
thi^ °f traini*ig the
-rso are able to diagonise diff'r^t n’31£nt0 °PcratG but
one could be that quality ciSc conc?p£
W b°
---- j quality circle
5.
-5ho
thGra
nwny ncwcr Problems which should
bu looked at from preventive approach over a period of
train oFdfi^2
thG ?rOblcm
lcad to ^LT^eo£X proienS Pa0I’le S° that ln fl“Ura thc
In short HRD approach gives a new ncrsnoctivo +r>
go
HVG+0+iGd*
Thcy shol;ild aiso be given a wider perspective
SrkXthVha'Xr?1! ■ Th0<, Sh°U“ i0 abl“
o J£
CT‘SXr
-ch that of their colleagues in the Department '»nd
thoir lopartncnts work with that of other dopSSSto,
Such an approach is meaningfully benefit!al to overv
ohtnZin^Schnol1011-1'1107 W°rk in clian6inS situations,
tGchn?loS1QS attd changing values of the employees
The prime requirement of such a situation is prepSin°
SthuSasncIlH aCJhPt Ch3ngG
£aS° t0 WQ1C^“ iH
•fd Ivr3 ■'ioally, ihe management’s orientation to traininkG1°£E1Gnt of craployoos gives security.
The interest^
shown by the managers to his subordinate also has Ss
so thnt1™/^00*3* JhQrGforc> it is believed and rightly
rooSSdX ™Sy+sb™“ <><™l<l=r the various ideX
7
th,
r*°tc and try
implement them. Most of
the XgGr3 h^VG ^hG nGCGE3sci'y skills in taking care of
lobs qpu + GwhntS of tGC1'inology arxd the complexity of the
skSis
It S rGfly thGy
is the inter-personal^0
workwi+h^J i 0:rd?r to gGt bGttGi results they have to
their work CHumanP1°yGGf3
maka thGm Gnthusiastic about
them to achieve thil°resultS d^Gd?piaGnt approach can help
ifo? ti
^>4- 4-iXX
i
fhaf Id
we hnvn
-t-n
en/°,3O“2'OOS “ ifa cilso
t'--1means
resource
there^
tore the concern for productive working.
tnnv, ’'hatever may be the dose, depth and degree of
technology, what matters is the quality of -Hl 12 ^
‘eXn‘ S £Fl-t0
“Ploy-3 S^rolld1^!^4 th0
onmi-cmuit and the requirement of the jobs undertak-J
b‘tXnXOc?XtroHraXfet
hk to“ Uniate
and on the other tke total oXXeSrIXlpXX"
total organisational
IV.
PXW^^SPECTS
Personnel Function (PF)
1. PF is an independent
function
2. There.are several sub
functions under PF
Human Resource System (HRS)
!• HRS is a sub—system of a
larger system (organisation)
2. HRS is aii organic whole;J all
the parts r‘ ■ -- arc interlinked.
....6.
6
Personnel Function (PF)
Human Resource System (HRS)
3.
The main task of PF is to
respond effectively to
the demands (coping role)
3. The main task of HRS is to
develop enabling capabili
ties (proadting role)
4.
PF han the naan respon
sibility for personnel
malters
4® All managers where the res
ponsibility of human re
source management
5.
The main responsibilities
of PF relates to salary
and job administration,
and management of people
and their development
5a The responsibilities of HRS
relate to HRS, people,
systems, and the process
of the total organisation
6. The major altcntion of PF
6. The major attention of HRS
is on personnel administra
is on developing people
tion or management
and their competencies
7• Personnel system and
procedures should bo
designed to achieve
maximum officiency
7• HR Systems a nd procedures
should bo designed on the
basis of process values to
reduce human wantage
o. People in an organisa
tion are motivated mainly
by salary and rewards
8. People arc primarily
motivated by challenges
and opportunities for
development and ere activity.
1-5
IN-HOUSE PROGRAMME
ON
^MANAGEMENT OF HUMAN RESOURCES"
FOR
CATHOLIC HOSPITALS ASSOCIATION OF INDIA
”■
’
secunder’abad
SEPTEMBER 27-29, 1990
INTRODUCING A CHANGE
PROFESSIONAL MANAGEMENT AND ENGINEERING CONSULTANTS
9-l-48/l/A» 1st FLOOR 38, ABOVE GARDEN RESTAURANT
BAROJINI DEVI ROAD, SECUNDERABAD-500003
INTRODUCING A CHARGE.
I.
^UPmiSATJONj
A review of existing methods, systems, and tools it leads to:
i) Certain activities and therefore certain
position redundant is rendered surplus
ii) by regrouping it may increase the workload
iii) certain repetitive activity may lead to
mechanisation
iv) It is defined as any reform tending to
replace habitual antiquated practices
by means of methods based on systematic
reasoning
v) It leads to increase the efficiency,
avoid waste, improve quality and generally
produce the best
vi) Racirnalisaticn also can be defined
as •Reforming an organisation by elimina
ting waste in labour, • time and materials1.
In its application, it is a process
which brings together the advantages of
planned, reduction, pooling of research,
and know-how centralised regulation
of finance, modernisation of productive
process and sales and optimum utilisation
of manpower.
2.
OBJECTIVES OF RATIONALISATION:
1)
to secure maximum efficiency of labour
with minimum efforts
ii)to facilitate by reduction in the
variety of patterns
iii) to avoid wasted raw material and power
iu) tc simplify the distribution, unnecessary
transport burdensome financial changes and
ths useless imprsiticn of middlemen.
II.
MECHANISATION-
It iiss a process in which machines are used to replace
human labour particularly where:
i) Jobs are in repetitive nature
ii) Human errors are likely to come in
whereas accuracy is required
iii) Labour cose element is high.
:: 2 ::
in.
AUTOMATION:
Ic is a process wherein one machine is used to
guide and control the working of the machines,
further replacing human labour to the extent
of making it almost redundant.
IV.
PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT:
This includes of the activities starting from
wages, to the Factory Rules and Regulations.
i) Politico Economic A_ngle:,
a) Need for
ralIdnalisaticn mechanisatirn
b) New machines requires less number of
wo rkers
c) It enables competition in International
markets.
ii) g?nalisa tioP:
a) For same output less number of workers
or same number of workers give for more
ou tpu t.
b) Wise policy to introduce racionalisation.
iii) Worker Preduc tjLvtyx
a)
In our country worker productivity is
almost 3 to 10 times difference from
others and there are different reasons.
Productivity depends upon skills of the
workers and application of the skills
on the other hand.
The second part (application) makes
the real difference. Some times Unions
actively encourage lower productivity.
b) Concern for high labour costs.
c) One cannot maintain the inefficient
and lethargic force.
d) Cnee bad work habits are formed and
low work standards established, very
difficult to improve upon them.
e) Need for change in our outlook
towards workers obligations towards
the industry.
f) Obligations also are tc
Consumers and Society.
the Shareholders/
V
HUMAN RELATION ANGLE AT THE LEVEL OF THE ORGANISATION
ToWA~CHA NGE f
"
’
........................
a) The major causes for resistance to change are:
1) Economic factor
ii) Inconvenience
iii) Insecu ri ty
iv) Resentment against new controls
v) Violatirn of established/expected norms
Vi) Lack of prior consultations
vii) S tero type.
’ ? LR SONN EL
NAG EMEN T;
To define the objectives of the proposed changes in
orderi
1) - discern irrational hostility
11) - bring out at the same time the
human and-feoctal consequences
The Personnel Manager should not assume the role
of a sales m«n for managements policy. He should
be-very cautious.
The Personnel Manager should
persuade the management to make every effort to
involve ths workers and Trade Unions,
VII
DIFFERENT ANGLES TO. VI€W THE P ROBLEM OF TECHNOLOGICAL
C HA NG E Jn6 JAiT.TDMA TID N:____
i) - the legal angle
11) • polltical-economic angle and
111) - the human angle.
L eqal Anql
a. Notice cf change
b« Following the Industrial Disputes Act
c* Within twentyone days of giving such
notice
de Clearly examine all the aspects of
service rules
e. Implications of change on the functioning
of informal groups
f. Trade Union activities
VIII
HOW TC REDUCE RESISTANCE TO CHANGE:
If the cause is economic like production wages,
unemploymenc. examine the same.
1) Provide correct information on what is
to happen and why is co happen
i i) Lisle ring
iii) Group decision ri-'-cing.
..4..p /
:: Page 4 ::
IX.
EXTERNAL LEADERSHIP OF TRADE UNION:
1 "I—I i
!•
■ ■—*
um -ar-
. I —«r-« «
f ■ w - .j f mil *">•
Jt ■
While group decision making it should beconsidered
that no common man interests or when participation
is foreign to group’s experience, group decision
making is of little use in reducing resistance.
X.
BARGAINING:
Other techniques used co win acceptance:
a) Consultation
b) Induction
c) Ceremony
d) Avoiding change until acceptance is assumed
e) Building on the past
In summarising this it should be remembered that
a selective introduction and approach would be helpful.
Emphasising technological and financial aspects over
looking the human aspect is not desirable.
Resistance
to change has co be ccnsidered from the human angle on
one side and on the other technical, financial and legal.
Tt is also rememberxi that resistance to change is a
f^c t of 1ife.
0O0
t■ 6
IN-HOUSE PROGRAMME
ON
'
"MANAGEMENT OF HUMAN RESOURCES"
FOR
CATHOLIC HOSPITALS ASSOCIATION OF DIDIA
SECUNDERABAD
SEPTEMBER 27-29t 1990
tLAI{ AGEI.IEITT DEVELOPMENT AND TRAIN DIG NEED POLICY
PROFESSIONAL MANAGEMENT AND ENGINEERING CONSULTANTS
9-1-48/1/A, 1st floor 38, ABOVE GARDEN RESTAURANT
SAROJINI DEVI ROAD, SECUNDERABAD-500 003
- 3 (B)
Orient at ion jjro gramme for middle level managers);
recruitcTT^from Abro a? :
~
'
, Arising from a pin to ple.ee skilled managerial
personnel reenmited from abroad it middle levels it is
necessary to design a pro_ronmejto facilitate their
induction into the organisation. The programme normally
envisages the following -
1. : Inform the participants about the company’s objectives,
process technologies, organisation structure etc.
I
2.
Social aspects of project sites emphasising on gcoloon> living, recreational, educational and other
3»
To meet selected..Collea^ue managers.
(0) ; To asses the training needs covering both the
^Oi“d^iaSiagmmS0Sy‘!1°Pm0n!t aaa
dpecialsatlon
for
The cost implications w
will
iH iopend on company costs
; programme where applicable.
tain the country should be
be taken
taken into
into account.
account.
V.
BET/iILS OF SOHN SUGGT?STED TRAINING PL,1NS;
(a) :Ranking of reasons for Management Training:
Rank
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
(Knov^ledgc; self development
1
40
• Essential for job; performance
;
improvement
2
39
3
16
4
10 '
50
30
7
2
’Promotion; career within the
organisation
1
8
19
17
'Getting along with people;
inter—functional/group
coordination.
7
24
39
25
17
22
19
22
Other reasons
(b)
Jhse_d for training plans
<'4 years training plan is r siiggastad to suite to the i._
o
urgant
=Gaining oxiKIg-^
-J
the
rapid
growth
Plans before the company.
1.
MGQd foi1 ]--------
...4..
- 4 -
2.
While individual! manager’s needs have been taken
comp any '^view*
has to bG
to match the total
3«
As far as possible^! the scheduling has to be made in
such a way as to cause minimum No. of senior managers being
a way simultaneously from with site.
S
4.
Training plan should provide exposure for a large
!?an?gGrs 'fc0 management development programmes,
t0 nanagGE1Gn’fc, production end maintenance
5.
Senior managers exposures should include MBO, nan-power
-----planning, corporate strategy, investments planning etc."
6. . Care has to be taken to plan for a range of management
subjects to obtain a team of managers capable of imparting
internal training in future.
7*+ i^ny common course like management development
------------- j programmes,
iHTQiicctual aids to imanagement,
-------* mix of —
managers from differen
functions, sites in the
•he company has to be planned.
8.
T’
‘
“
■fchan 2 n£,riagGrs should be trained in individual
subjects to :improve the change of retaining such knowledge
within the co nip any.
(c)
Orientation programme content
1. Company information.
2. Company planning, growth and performance.
3. Functional aspects.
4» Hunan relations,
5. Technological aspects.
6. Social asiaccts.
V.
V/c have explained in this note some broad guidelines onf
coverage of the programme, The other details are given
below;
Tyje of training .required in industrial organisation
(A) Worker/Opcrator*s Training
1.
Special Training - Training in rcspectit® field
of work.
2.
Multi-disciplinary training - This is to create
multi—disciplinary skills in the selective areas
of working.
3.
Workers development programmes - Propogating the
roles and responsibilities of the workers.
4.
Better house—keeping prosrxraas - Maintain nodcl
shop - floor.
...5...
*
- 5 -
5.
Work related suggestion progranrae (link with quality)' ' '
circle prograrraas).
6.
Instilling battar drass sansa and personal
cleanliness.
7.
Aw craness about the coupany.
8.
Product knowledge.
9.
Participa.tivc nanagcracnt.
10.
Tool design and tooling.
11.
Curbing alcoholisra
12.
Pi Ira shows.
B.
types of trainin^
n-P 4.1 111 fQScy.of 3orjG oft’'lc cnployccs who arc members
of the staff but position-wise arc at the sane lovol as the
employees above, the following programmes arc suggested:
General secutiry training - Watch & Ward.
First Aid and Fire Fighting.
Advanced driving skills.
Operating, cyclostyling/stcncilling nachino
(concerned cadres).
5» Training for PAs/Typipts/Stonographers — This
would include general proficiency, documentations,
oiiicc n anagen ent, handling the phonos and
visitors of selective senior executives, ccononi*
sing the use of office stationery.
6. Proficiency in incorae tax aid excise tax
conjb-u tat ions.
/ 7* Vehicle naintcnancc/ropair training.
1.
2.
3.
4.
C.
Supervisors/Engineers/
1. Managing the superiors.
Inter-personnel skills.
3» Supervisor’s role in productivity.
4. Effective supervision;
5. Programs for attitudinal changes.
6. Programmes on quality circle.
7. Communication programme.
8. Report writing skills.
9. general awareness about labour laws, factory
acts and labour nanagcr.ient.
10. Loadership training.
11. Progratiine on financial raanagcraent.
12. Programme on value engineering.
13. Sonin ar on catting tools.
14. Training on. product knowledge.
15. Training on product knowledge.
16. Vendor development prqgrar.n.io»
• •»6« • •
¥
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22. ■
23.
24.
25.
26.
D*
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
- 6 ■ Visits to technical exhibitions and symposiums.
Inter-disciplinary technic ad training
.Computer application programmes.
Training in sales managenent, materials m an again on t
inventory control.
Training in operations rianagonont.
-training in maintenance nanagement.
Public speaking.
Effective connunication skills.
Supervisory dcvclopncnt progranne for
adninistrative supervisors.
"
Training in spare parts nanagement.
l§^^t°SL.Training Progrmes for Executives
Maiagerial effectiveness programme.
Advanced general management programme
Specific computer application programme
Cost reduction prograr-V-ie.
Subordinate development programme.
Management of change.
Project management.
Personnel Management & Industrial Pidations.
Team building.
Management of time.
Workshop on man-power audit.
Group dynamics.
Workshop on job effectiveness.
Human resources development - workshop.
Behavioural skills.
Special technical programcas
CAD/CAM programmes.
R & D Management.
I
IN-HOUSE PROGRAMME
ON
"MANAGEMENT OF HUMAN RESOURCES"
FOR
CATHOLIC HOSPITALTaSSOCIATION OF UwxA
—SECUNDERABAD
~
SSPTSMBER 27-29, 1990
MANAGING INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS
Bnn-ffpqqTfflJAT MANAGEMENT AND ENGINEERING CONSULTANTS
TSwf S
38. above
AB0V3 garden
GiUDBN restaurant
SBSTaraaiT
3AR0JINI D3V1 ROAD, SECUNDERABAD-500 003
1
MANAGING INDUS?i<LAL RELATIONS
The remification of a developing economy cannot be fully
understood unless its industrial relations system is cri
tically examined. The Industrial Relations system contri
butes very significantly to the progress of an economy by
providing a climate of harmony and peace. Over the past
several years, we have withessed in Indian Industries an
outburst of industrial strife, and their violent nature
which have resulted in throtling the pace of growth and
affected the basic fibre of labour management relationship
in the country. It is therefore bhared by many that, search
for peace in Industries, will account for major share of
time of the industrial executives, trade union leaders.
Government functionaries and academicians. It is in this
context, and also of the state of our economy that industrial
relations management offers a most challenging area of acti
vity in the management process.
One has also noticed a measure of convergence of
interest of several disciplines of knowledge in studying
the system and prospects of industrial relations management
in our country. The economists focussed their attention on
the wage system, added value concept, and their implications
on the relationship between the labour and management^ other
behavioural scientists (psychologists and sociologists)
have looked at it from the point of view of changing strati
fication of Indian society and the emergence of groups and
institutions, and the impact of industrial relations on our
culture; class struggle between the organised groups of
management and labour; the government functionaries have
looked upon it as a system of management with which the
Government is vitally concerned and therefore have concen
trated on the aspects of Government’s role in bringing
about peace and maintaining law and order; academicians
interest has been primarily in conducting emperical rese
arch on the vital labour management issues concerning mana
gement, labour. Government and society at lahge.
*
Thus, even in a theoretical sense, we have not
been able to developa unified frame of reference for the
expositions of industrial relations. Credit, however, must
be given to those mentioned above for presenting various
view points and throwing new light on multipronged approa
ches to industrial relations manangement.
On e ofthe chief intrinsic weaknesses of our
industrial relations system is the absence of goal congruence
amongst the principle actors in industrial relations manage
ment, namely— Government, Management, Trade Unions, Workers,
Academicians and the political parties who have somehow
..<2.
THIS READING MATERIAL IS PROPERTY
OF THE PROFESSIONAL MANAGEMENT ft
ENGINEERING CONSULTANTS, NOT TO BE
hEPR®BUCE© IN ANY FORM, WITHOUT
PRIOR PERMISSION.
2
developed a very dominant interest in the Trade Union MovementT Each one is serving its own vested interest which has re
sulted in the pulling of and pushing of industrial relations
wagon in different directions. This situation has obviously
effected the system and operational aspects of collective bar
gaining and strategies in negotiat3.ons. However, it will be
noted that col active bargaining does not take place in
isolation. Intemalities and externalities of the industry
and the society in which it is prached and practiced make
deep impact on collective bargaining.
Seen in the context ofthe present state of affairs,
the industrial relations manager is going to be lfTHE MAK IN
FOCUS11 during the 1970s. He will hold the key of peace and
prosperity not only in the organisations, but, in the country
at large. To be placed in such a dynamic and challenging
situation is a great opportunity, though at the same time,
it places very heavy demands on industrial relations manag
ers. Their success will be measured in terms of meeting
this challenge successfully with renewed zest and deep
understanding of the human problems which are at the root
of all the discontentment that we witness today.
An attempt therefore has been made in this paper
to present an overview of the problems and prospects in
industrial relations management and critically examining the
various issues connected with the identification of the
problems and seeking solution of these plagueing problems.
EXTERNALITIES
1'he external environment horizen in reference to
industrial relations in the country has undergone tremendous
changes. It has left its deep impact on the current philosoohy and practice of industrial relations management. In the
following presentation some of the important variables of the
ex external environment will be examined.
(a)
The socio-cultural setting in India presents a
very interesting dimension of Industrial Relations Mana
gement. Culture influences the attitudes, beliefs and
values ofthe people engaged in any activity and there
fore, to a large extent, conditions the relations at a
workplace also . The basic agrarian values of the Indians
continue to exercise a rather dominan.t influence on a
major section of the population in the country. The in
dustrial ethos which we find in the Western culture or
in the Japanese society is an important missing link in
our context. The values of looking upon the employer as
a parent and guardian, appreciation of mutual rights and
obligations, commitment and dedication to th? nation’s
prosperity and respect for basic human needs and values
have not been able to give a favourable tone and temper to
the relationship between the workers and employers.
...3..
*
(b)
For anindepth appreciation of our views regar
ding collective bargaining and our mutual interest in im
proving it, those values must be placed in the context of
rapid technological changes. The technological changes
and the traditional attitudes and concerns, result in
stresses and strains upon the workers and unions, They
have tremendous impact on the bargaining process, Sophistication in technology has in many ways resulted in
enlarging the scope of collective bargaining. In India,
the thrust of technological changes has been, to an extent,
throttled by the- perceptions and attitudes of the workers
and the unions. Complexities have been added in the old
issues and new problems have emer ed in the relati mship
of labour and management as a result of technological
advancement, particularly in the area of automation, com
puterisation, innovations, other technological improve
ments, etc. A large section of working class feels theratened about the security of their jobs, job potentiality
and chances of moving upwards in the hierarchical structure
of management.
(c)
A tremendous spurt in the aspi rati ns and
expectations of the workers have also been witnessed
throughout th. country. The establishment of democratic
set up in the country, better means of com unication and
speedy transference of global experience, and liberal edu
cation have resulted in jacking up on the aspirations in
a very significant manner. The working class looks ahead
and is being inspired by the privileges that their counter
parts share on differemt economies all over the world.
They which they are vitally concerned. It is in this con
text that the urge for consultative and participative s^yle
of management of our workers has to be closely examined.
(d)
A silent revolution is taking place in the
management cadre. The demands of technology now call
for the development of a professional cadre of management.
We notice an increasing induction of professional managers
in industries in India. They have different views, in
comparison to the owner managers, with regard to system and
style of management. The professsional manpower who is as much
an employee as an humble operator has domonstrated greater
understanding of the dissatisfaction prevailing amongst the
workers and the supervisory classes. They find that the tra
ditional system of management of the traditional entrepreneu
rial class is not in tune with time and therefore arreu eager
to bring about suitable changes in the system itself. They
are more cognizant, tolerant and respectful for the new as
pirations which have charged the working class in the coun
try.
(e)
For historical reasons, the trade union movement
in India was organised on political motivations and aspira
tions during the struggle for freedom. Trade Unions were
an ally of the political party which spearheaded the free
dom movement. This courtship between the political ideology
...4.J
- 4 and purpose and the trade union organisations has insatiably
grown and developed over the years. Particularly, after
the attainment of independence political parties have
evinced keener interest in the trade union movement. To
day we have as many mumber of Trade Union bodies, as are
the number of political parties. It may be said justifiably
that in the initial years of unionisation, the movement was
FQK THE WORKERS .and not BY THE WORKERS. The political
stalwarts not only continue to provide leadership to their^
respective parties, but have strong hold (one may even call
it strangle hold) on most of the trade unions in our country.
WORKER BASED AND WORK ORIENTED leadership is still a far
cry. This relationship between the political parties and
trade unions have very significantly influenced the strategi
es in collective bargaining and negotiations between the
labour and management.
(f)
Goverrunent! s Labour Policy
The interest of the government 9 in industrial rela
tions, is not a new phenomena. It was believed, that the
government of the country must oversee the relationship
between the labour and management and also give it a di re
ction so that the two work in harmony and make their useful
contribution for the forward march of the nation. Soon
after India became independent, the popular Government re
cognised the aspiration of the people including those of
the working class, and started (in a very enthusiastic
manner) creating conditions in which the ’’Oppressive Tactics
and Policies" of the management could no longer harm or
jeopardise the interest of the weaker section, namely, the
labourThis policy of the government to back the weaker
section has aroused many doubts and given rise to various
problems, in the effective management of conflicts. There
is a point of view that in its enthusiasm of supporting
weaker section (workers and unions), through various legis
lative measures, the government, has brought about a situa
tion where the management has become the weaker section in
stead of the workers and their unions. The prerogatives of
the management and their discretion in terms of various as
pects effecting the enterprise management have been severely
curtailed by the plethora of labour legislation that we have
in our country today. Taking the evaluationary perspective,
the following important stages of Government’s interest in
labour management relations can be listedsCi)
The earliest logislations were introduced as
HA MEASURE OF MAINTAINING ORDER” in the industrial establi
shments.
(2)
The second state of legislations were PROTECTIVE
in nature - to provide the necessary safeguards to the in
terest of labour.
..5..
5
(3)
Then came the third stage when the Government reali
sed that enacting of legislation alon<- is not going to yield
any results. They started taking active interest, ’ through
various
Government machineries,, in the labour nanagement
,
relations as a third party. This was th phase of tripartite structure of industrial relations.
(4)
Increased Government intervention or interest posed
m^ny complications in labour management
nr n ? gem ent relations in the
country. Both, the uni.on and the management, felt that
Government has no place in the s-ttlemcnt of issues which
squarely concerned me nagement and labour.
A point of view
emerged that management of industrial relations should be
strictly a bipartite “ffair “nd the Government must with
draw from the scene. In between same the "NANDA PHASE" when
niciny c-'des of conduct and disciplines we’re intiatrd by the
tripartite body, the Indian Labour Conference. However, the
codes.were more often violat-d th a nJ r. spretrd. Th' current’
thinking in the. country is that the sole duty of the GovcrnJ
ment is.to provide them with an environment where Collective
Bargaining will develop its own strengths and strategies.
However,, it could lay down broad guidelines' for
f or purposeful
pu rpo sc fu 1
neg tiations and offer help whenever it is sought and inter
fere only in the event of a crises developing in the industry.
'
ijjjgRNAL JENVIRaJMENT
Because of close interaction
:*
1_._ between external and
internal environment, far reaching change:
_^:s have taken place
in the monegemmt system. Perceptible changes have been
noticed in the very philosophy of incustrisl
relations
—— —
—.— ..3 man a—
gement. The prerogative centred approach of management has
given way to problem solving attitude- of menagement.
It is
increasingly realised th - t the legitimate aspirations of the
workers must be met within the fr^me work of the management
system and in. this context, radc unions h'-ve to be viewed as
an integral part of the msn.'-grmr-nt process.
The industrial
relations man-ger, in thsse changed circumstances has to
attune himself to th: current philosophy in incustrial reletions. They h've to Icok upon their function more as the
managerial function perse rather than as crisis management or
fj-re fighting. They have to extend their horizons of inter
est end become more -ctivoly cssociated with he line manage
ment. .ihe industrial relations manager is now focusing his
attention on the corporate objectives namely planned profit,
growth and opti al human resource d velopmr-nt. Following
tne lord pr^oviecd be systems ..pproach to management the
Industrial Relations i^nsgrr is concentrating on th' various
sub-systems operating width in the organic at ion, namely, sele
ction sub-system, compensation sub-system, appraisal sub
system, employ -e maintenance sub-system and employee relations
sub-system, with a vi
t- improve the labour management
relations.
6
6 -
Other important issues where the changes have made
considerable impact, the following deserves our attention:
STYLE OF MANAGElv'ENT
The autocratic and authoritarian style of management
has become an outdated concept in fact creates more problems
than it solves. In the traditional management system the
workers were considered more as manpower than men. Trade
unions found no favour with the management employee grievances
and frustrations were tackled in a manner that satisfied the
management more than the aggrieved. The management, under
these conditions, took a view that they have certain preroga
tives and would detect any impringement on them by the unions.
However, democratic principles enshrined in our constitution
created new hopes, aspirations and expectations in our people.
The workers union therefore started agitating for greater role
and share in the management of undertakings. They strongly de
tected the authoritarian or the Mai-Baap style of management
and wanted to be looked upon and hoard more as vital human re
source in the affairs of the corporate body.
The new thesis of workers participation in manage
ment is, perhaps, the symbolisation of their aspirations of
a new style of management. They want the decision making
machinery to be decentralised and become at least consul
tative if not participative. Moreover, according to the new
industrial policy, the Government itself became the single
largest employer in the country. They committed themselves
to the high ideals of model employers. The recent declaration
by the Government of India of inducting a worker representative
on the Board of Directors is a step in the same direction.
FUNCTIONAL ELEVATION
With the growing unrest in the industrial organisations
techno-economic compulsion and the hard realities of
business operations, industrial relations management has,
over the years, assumed corporate importance. Consequently
new demands have been placed on the capabilities of the in
dustrial relations managers resulting in greater degree
of professionalisation in its cadres. Another important
dimension of industrial relations management is that the
age old conflict between ’Line1 and ’staff* departments on
jurisdiction in issues connected with labour management re
lations is fast disappearing. It is now increasingly re
alized that there should be much closer co-operation between
the two and both should act as an integrated entity rather than
as parallel functionaries.
..7..
- 7
TRADE UNIONS
It is fully recognised that trade unions have now
come to stay as a viable force in the industrial sector of
our country.
Their strength is increasing overday and
they exercise tremendous influence in shaping the style of
industrial relations management. They have gained an un
matched power grip on our national economy both in quanti
tative, and qualitative terms. They have achieved this position
by their internal strength and also the support and patronage
they have received from the political parties.
Trade Unions today have a comparatively large member
ship and most of them are drawn from the first generation of
independent and industrialised India. They do not share the
traditional sentiments of their seniors who believed in pater
nalistic style of.management. They are deeply concerned with
Tk sTnndard of life, which to them is of a sub-human standard
lhey have witnessed, on the one hand concentration of economic
power in the few industrial houses, and on the other, found
that millions of workers are living at an abject rate of
poverty. This gap they feel cannot be bridged through tra
ditional and peaceful manners.
^heir identification with the employer’s interest
has already reached the lowest obb. In view of the above the
trade unions in India are becoming forth-right and violent
in the expression of their demands and collective bargaining
tactics. Instances of outright rejection and insubordination
seem to be the order of the day. The emergence of gheraos
was a very profound example of the youthful and violent trends
that labour protests might take in future.
With the increasing power in numbers and legislature
support the trade unions are becoming not only self reliant,
but also cosmic in their attitude. They are now demanding
much more say in the management of affairs in our organisations
and also questioning the logic of many privileges that executive
class enjoys today.
’
areasof interest have extended far
beyond^the fringe benefits like D.A gratuity
/, accident compensation etc. and are thus agitating focr broader social and commur
benefits.
LEADERSHIP OF TRADE UNIONS
—J
■■t.—i
.■»—
—in
■ i— n
-• -
—
-
—
—
The profiles of trade union leadership in India
is of the following three types:
i)
Politicians as Trade Union Leaders.
ii)
Trade Union Leaders as Politicians
Worker leaders with no political
affiliations.
.0.8.
8
first type of leadership tries to foist its
T)0^. lcel ideology on tr de unions and uses the workers to
achieve their political ends. Safeguarding the interests of
the- workers is merely coincidental.
The second type of leadership has a different and
interesting character. They started their careers as workers
and, over a period of time, became the leaders of the trade
unions, lhey exercised tremendous influence in the workina
class community and.were able to muster their support on what
ever issues they laid their hand on. They were however, in
course of time attracted by the glories and status'of a
politician and soon became victims of the aspirations of be
coming political leaders. To this kind of leadership the workei
interest for sometime continued to be primary but, didi not last
ong. Tnese unfortunately.resulted in mixing up political issue
with working class issues where the latter always was the first
CQSU'.,_LlLy .
Then there is the third 1.kind of leadership which
is worker based and
a work oriented,- This type of leadership
is still in a iperiod
* ' of- infancy
- and has not been able to
gather momentum. IUnfortunately, in comparison to the two
types5 mentioned earlier,
n int-y
they u±u
did nut
not have the same halo
effect on their following and therefore
-------e are not able to out
much ice.
However, one does not need a prophet to say as to
which kind of leadership will be able to deliver the goods be
tter^ Another important feature which may be noticed°in the
leadership of oui’ trade unions is that, where, s the rank and fi2
belongs to a younger age group, the leadership is still hold
by those Very persons who led the unions during 1940s. This
pattern of leadership has resulted in a GENERATION GAP; bet
ween the attitudes, aspirations and strategies of the follow
ing and themselves.
trogcmeirtatioii of brcidc unions hes been a chara—
ctenistic feature in India because of intra and inter-union
rijG^ries* -^Heir bargaining strength has been very greatly
by
in^<-rnal feuds. They have therefore realised
or’dcr’ to £ct their due from the management they
should put up a united front which will certainly give them
in negotiations with management. Be sides
his, a consolidated trade union set-up will also be a positive
step in the- development of labour leadership of status and
from amongst the union members with no apren strings
a ached to political parties. In view’' of the percentible gains
caat will accrue from such a consolidation, two national federaions of trade unions have come into existence during the last
couple- of months. These federations are led by two dominant
sections of the trade unions in India. However, because of
..9..
9
their being
—-o nuwl established, any projections about their
success or failure will be too premature at this juncture.
At
th. th
h.at^r
onc+^ould lik- to wish these two federations
th^ best of luch in the- service of the working class in the
In sum, l
it'_ may be stated that the trade unions in
India are on the threshold of :■ big leap forward inspite of
many
inherent vzeaknesscs such
.
------ as intcr and intra union rival
lc dership,
dershio lack of education of work
ries, lack
l..ck of
oi committed le'
ers, poor organisation and management of their own affairs and
scarcity of finance. We foundly hope that within the fore
seeable future the trade- unions will be able to set their house
in order and emerge as a constructive and potential force.
>■
. ^ncou^aged by their good record in organising the
WOr^ing class> tho Trade Unions are now campaign±n-5 for unionsing workers belonging to the unorganised and
agrxcuitural seGtor
In fact, the INTUC has already annount
^st^bllsh®ent
& wing for the agricultural labour.
More Trade Unions in the near future are likely to follow
his example. The Unions are also demanding the redefinition
ci a worker so as to cover all those employees who receive
wages and salaries upto Rs. 1000/-. Organisation of workers for
unions in educational institutions, hospitals and Governhas
dy been initiated on a massive scale.
onsiderade success by the Trade Unions has been achieved in
organising employees belonging to the Central and State
Governments, Banks, Railways, Post add Tele raphs, Life InTrI^1CHn?OrpOr'"tTOS1-etcabov<-J is h clear indication that
rc.de Unions m India, will have a much larger base of their
membership and will ^xc-rcise much more influence in the society
.
.
.
SiSCnR'jS_ ANL SUPERVISORY ASSOCIATION
The emergence of association of Officers and
Supervisors is a recent feature in Indian Industries.
This phenomena is due to the twin factors - (i) Continued
neglect by Top Management, of Supervisors, Middle Managers
and Junior Managers, and secondly, the perceptible gains
w-nicn accrued to thw working class by organising themselves
into unions. Officers and supervisors felt that if they did
nouassociate and organise themselves, the rate of erosion in
tneir authority and the privileges, will be tak ng place at
c. Veryfast rare.^ The managements were taken by surprise by
+ i1nr1qU1CT P+Ce of. emergence of supervisory and staff associa
tions. In tn_ initial years, they were resented b-' the manage
ments and for quite sometime, a cold war for getting due re-'
2°§n+iz1On ^or SLlcb asf3OCintions went on between the management
did the supervisors. Today, many supervisory and officers
associations h-...ve been granted recognition and have emerged as
powerful forums for ventilating the grievances as also for
ennancmg tne professional interests of their membership.
..10 ..
10 -
Inaustriai0fclottX1.torSalJing ha? become an Integral part of our
„
+1 Relations structure. As a way of industrial life and as
has
for?'rs °f democratic principles in Industry it
mini- S+ that th neSotlation of terms and conditions of employa^d mansSement can be effective. However
r^n+fnn f high degree of politicisation and distwbed industrial
relations situation in India, there are many who have serious
schfo! SToXle. ^CTh°f' Ts ^chinery/ The advocates°of this
thansitiSSST feelTat collectlve Bangaining is ttill in its
1 pha!?e ln Indla and needs necessar development and
KlSSt SfS+Ty imPfovement in this system would come about by
ioent efio.ts to achieve rationale synthesis of verying asoiraat°STC ^fincting claim of workers, management and the public
Bargaining
apoaitive philosophy of Collective
fuTi
f* + 1 S distinction should be made between bargaining
£°es °n ln a market place and that goes on in ourr
atd]rS+S sector* Collective Bargaining presumes that there are
di ffpTT • sI'oupa of intelligent people who, inspite of having
i ferent points of vnew, could reach a goal congruence and establ?ase miTS
r relationship.
The focal point,, though
in .most
— X- UUUU&H ±11
develoSS S’
nOt t0 Win a point
P°int and
3X1(3 make other capitulate
capitulate, but
the eonflfr+ corisensus on propriety of a decision that will remove t
,
I would like to state that collective
collective Bargaining
Bargaining should
should
be
accepted
It s^ouldenotSbt thpI''1± ?ay °f-p1He t1 labour management relations,
’refuse of the last order’ -to be practised only
in the event of a crisis?'' It iiss a v^ll
well tested technique of resolving
conflict
the
parties by
X1t^X
I1’L±±C" between
DG^ween+.^
1G two
two Parties
by bringing them to a common
platform, presenting their view points,
points arguing out their cases
yf?ygTla areas °y conflict and differences and arrivin| at
matally satisfying
solution, It will be a tragedy if collective
.
-------------Bargaining is reduced to the level of a technique that will relist
the thrust of either
n ,
xparty.
-. On the contrary, it should reflect a
solations of problems can be found by mutual
consultation.
T
•
I
.
.
.
■L
J
- .
In_tbe^words °-f Randle Wortman (Collectiva Bargaining,
?~PraCtlCes py'olished by
Houghton Mifflin
■1Q6M +ho~-p^iU*
uy nougriLon
I'limin Co.
Co., Boston
??
=1±“t;rlstlc?.of Collective Bargaining muat
be recognised for successful operation.
1. Con'tinumg nature oi Collective Bargaining.
2. Negotiation of the contract is the briefest and
most dramatic aspect of oargaining operations.
3. Interpretacion and and enforcement of the agreement
are integral .parts oi collective bargaining.
4. Establishment of efficient bargaining machinery
inis includes selection of appropriate representa
tives.
11
5. Creation of a system of industrial juris
prudence and
6. The observance of equitable rules to
bargaining conduct.
The vital characteristics of this m
machinery are
permanence, speed of action and assurance of
2 a reasonable
sect lament for every problem.
-i i
__^e1nave. ^earnt through hard experience that
collective bargaining
is ~
a good
g
Xu
principle" for settlement
of conflict. At the Sarnie time, we also realise that this
bec°ma the ^ost effective method of settlement
of disputes in India. factors like the following, have
jeopardise the strengthening of this technique:
1. The un-equal strength of the labour
via-a-vis management.
2. Political and Government interference in
the bargaining process.
3. Prerogative centered approach of the imana
gement.
4. Highly inadequate training of trade unions
in the bargaining process.
5. Time consuming feature of this process.
6. Poor financial positions of the unions.
7. Multiplicity and inter-union rivalries.
COALITION SET UP
Inspitc of the inherent weaknesses, an interest
ing development h: s taken place in Collective Bargaining in
India, i.e. coalition negotiations. Rival trade union
organisations have come to terms with each other and presen
ted a joint front before the employers for certain settle
ments. This unity amongst the union has been demonstrated
on large issues like wages, bonus etc. In the wake of such
desire on the part of the unions many negotiations in the
country have been conducted on a coalition basis. The wage
settlement in the Iron and St el, Jute and Cement Industry,
are important land marks in the collective bargaining process.
In these cases, the management have encountered a very strong
bargaining party. The industrial relations executives should
be prepared to face a paradox of inter union rivalries on
the one hand and inter union cooperation, through such coali
tion set up, on the other.
. .12..
*
12
Another important feature of collective bargain
ing is an all time increase in the long term agreements
between labour and management. Though the life span of these
agreements now does not go beyond a couple of year the fact
remains that this tendency is likely to catch up in the near
future and brings peace and harmony in the organisations at
least for the contractual period.. Though it is true, that
such agreements have been reached by paying a substantial
price and at the same have resulted in curbing the management
prerogatives after each settlement. Also the interpretation
of the clauses of agreements and their implementation have
taken a rather unreasonably long period of time. However,
one foundly hopes that as both parties attain maturity in the
process of collective bargaining many of the current problems
which emerge from these agreements would be solved.
CON CI LI ATI Chi’» ‘ARBITRATION AND ADJUDICATI0K
Other techniques of conflict resolution namely,
conciliation, arbitration and adjudication have a mixed bag
of success and failures. The trade unions are opposed to
compulsory adjudication of disputes on the ground that it
weakens the collective bargaining process, is legalistic,
time consuming and expensive.
Preference, has been shown by unions for volun
tary arbitration of disputes where the two parties have not
been able to reach a settlement. However, much can be said
about the non-availability of mature and experienced arbitra
tors. Perhaps it would be desirable that concentrated action
is taken to prepare a panel of good arbitrators who know their
jobs bettwr,are cognisant of the business realities and can
inspire confidence in both the parties for whose good they
are working. As far as the conciliation machinery is concer
ned, I would like to mention th.t they have not lived up to
the ideals for which they were basically constituted. The
job of a conciliator is that of FACILITATOR of agreements
rather than a person who will deliver a judgement. There
fore, he would need ex.ensive training so as to become effe
ctive in discharging his duties.
In the context of expeditious solutions of labour
management disputes, the National Commission on Labour has
made some very useful contribution. The suggestion of gett
ing up Industrial Relations Commissions is a step in the
right direction.
Recently, the Labour Minister of the
Government is considering this recommendation and introdu
cing a comprehensive labour legislation bill in the forth
coming session of the parliament to establish peace and
harmony in our industrial undertakings.
To sum pp I would like to state that the management
of industrial relations in the country, is in a state of fast
transition. All the three parties namely Management, Trade
13
Unions and the Government are now making a serious attempt
to improve the tone, temper and ethos of labour management
relations. However, it will be opportune if some pro
jections are restated about vital issues in the management
of industrial relations.
1.
Professionalism in the cadre of personnel and
industrial relations management.
2.
Participative or consultative management.
3.
Enlargement of bases of union membership.
4.
Continuing politicisation of unions.
5.
Consolidation of Trade Union movement on
larger issues.
6.
Emergence of supervisory and officers associa
tions .
7.
Renewed confidence in bipartite approach of
labour management relations.
8.
Creation of independent machinery (IRC) for
settlement of industrial disputes.
9.
Emergence of Line Managers as negotiators in
dispute settlement.
10.
Coalition negotiation
11.
Professionalism v/ithin the trade unions.
12.
Emphasis on effective grievance settlement.
13 .
Movement towards productivity based bargaining.
14.
Better management and union preparation in nego
tiation and strategy formulation.
15.
Increasing aggressive attitude of management and
labour during bargaining.
16.
Leng term agreements, and
17.
Diminishing use of adjudication machinery.
* * * *
IN-HOUSE PROGRAMME
MMBiW IIIHIIIII UI rft* 'XBp.'aB-
w
’’MMAGEMKNT OFTUMAJT RESOURCES*
FOR
CATHOLIC HOSPITALT’XSSOCIATION OF INDIA
SSCOTWRA.MD
—»■»—CWNltm llfrn nifi ■<wmff Wfl,gar*<!tofiQMr^.wdBr I .. ................. .
— « r ig» i ay
’r
SKPTWKg27-29 f I99O
OWE CHARACTERISTICS OF UNHEALTHY AND HEALTHY
iONS~ ~ ™ —
PROFESSIONAL MANAGEMENT AND ENGINEERING CONSULTANTS
9-1-48/1/A, 1st FLOOR 38, ABOVE GARDEN RESTAURANT
SAROJINI DEVI ROAD, SECUNDERABAD-500 003
3
*^SOME CHARAGTErilSIICS OF UNHEALTHY AND HEALTHY
ORGANIZATIONS
♦Healthy
Unhealthy
1, Little personal inve
stment in organisational
objectives except at top
levels.
2. People in the orga
nisation see things go
ing wrong and do nothing
about it. Nobody volun
teers. Mistakes and pro
blems are habitually
hidden or shelved.
People talk about office
troubles at home or in
the halls, not with
those involved.
1, Objectives are widely
shared by the members and
here is a strong and con
sistent flow of energy
towards those objectives,
2, People feel free to
signal their awareness of
difficulties because they .
expect the problems to be
dealt with and they are
optimistic that they can
be solved.
3. Extraneous factors
complicate problem-solv
ing. Status and boxes
on the organization chart
are more important than
solving the problem.
There is an excessive
concern with management
as a customer. People
treat each other in a
formal and polite manner
that masks issues - espe
cially with the boss. Non
conformity is frowned
upon.
3. Problem-solving is highly
pragmatic. In attacking
problems, people work infor
mally and are not preoccu
pied with status, territory,
or second-guessing ’’what
higher management will think".
The boss is frequently
challenged. A great deal
of non-conforming behaviour
is tolerated.
4. People at the top try
to control as many deci
sions as possible. They
become bottlenecks, and
make decisions with ina
dequate information and
advice. People complain
about managers’ irration
al decisions.
4. The points of decision
making are determined by such
factors as ability, sense
of responsibility, availa
bility of information, work
load, timing, and require
ments for professional and
management development.
Organizational Level as such
is not considered a factor.
♦The description of a healthy organization may appear
millennialist. It is perhaps more a statement of
direction than a state that has been achieved by
any known organization*
♦ ♦Extracted from "Managing with People", Jack W,Fordyce
& Raymond Weil addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass, 1971.
i
• ~5-y -•
. - • r,^. x
-TTC:-—t___ ;____
; ■
i 2 i
'
5. Managers feel alone in
trying to get things done.
Somehow orders, policies,
and procedures don’t get
e.arried out as Intended,
6, There is a noticeable
sense of team play in plann
ing, in performance, and in
discipline - inshort, a
sharing of responsibility,
S, The judgement of peop
le lower down in the
organisation is not
respected outside the
narrow limits of their
jobs,
6, The judgement of people
lower down in the organization
is respected.
7, Personal needs and
feelings ax’e side issues.
7. The range of problems
tackled includes personal
needs and human relation
ships.
8. People coE|}ete when
they need to collaborate.
They are very jealous of
their area of responsi
bility. Seeking or
accepting help is felt
to be a sign of weakness.
Offering help is unthought
of. They distrust each
other* s motives and speeds
poorly of one another;
the manager tolerates
this.
8. Collaboration is freely
entered into. People readily
request the help of others
and are willing to give in
turn. Ways of helping one
another are highly developed,
Individuals and groups
compete with one another,
but they do so fairly and in
the direction of a shared
goal.
9. Whwne there is a
crisis, people withdraw
or start blaming one
another.
9. When there is a ciisls, •
the people quickly bend
together in work Until the
ciisis departs.
10. Conflicts is mostly
covert and managed by
office politics and other
games, or there are
interminable and irreco
ncilable arguments.
10. Conflicts are considered
important to decision making and personal growth.
They are dealt with effect
ively, in the open. People
say what they want and
expect Others to do the same
t '
• •
3 M
Unhealthy
Healthy
11. Learning is difficult.
People don’t approach
their poors to learn
from them, but have to
learn their own mistakes;
they reject the experi
ence of others. They
get little feedback on
performance, and much
of that is not helpful.
11; There is a great deal
of on-the-job learning
based on a willingness to
give, seek, and use feed
back and advice. People
see themselves and others
as capable of significant
personal development
and growth.
12. Feedback is avoided.
12. Joint critique of
progress is routine.
13. Relationships are
contaminated by maskman
ship and image building.
People feel alone and
lack concern for one
another. There is an
undercurrent of fear.
13. Relationships are honest,
people do care about one
another and do not feel
alone.
14. People feel locked
into their jobs. They
feel stale and bored
but constrained by the
need for security.
Their behaviour, for
example in staff meeting,
is listless and docile.
It's not much fun. They
get their kicks else
where.
14. People are "turned on"
and highly involved by
choice. They are optimistic.
The work place is important
and fun (why not?)
15. The manager is a
prescribing father to
the organization.
15. Leadership is flexible,
shifting in s tyle and
person to suit the situa
tion.
16, The manager tightly
controls small expendi-r
tures and demands excessive
justification. He allows
little freedom for making
mistakes.
16. There is high degree
of trust among people and
a sense of freedom and
mutual responsibility.
People generally know
what is important to the
organisation and what
isn't.
17. Minimizing risk
has a. very high value
17. Risk is accepted as a
condition of growth and
change.
4 ::
Unhealthy,
Healthy,
18. nQne mistake and
you’re out”.
18. ’’What can we learn
from e ach mistake?11
19. poor performance is
glossed over or handled
arbitrarily.
19. Poor performance is
confronted, and a joint
resolution sought.
20. Organisation struc
ture, policies and proce
dures encumber the orga*
nization. People, take
refuge in policies and
procedures, and play
games with organisation
structure.
20. Organization structure,
procedures, and policies
are fashioned to help
people get the job and
done and to project the
long-term health of the
organization, not to
give each bureaucrat his
due. They are also
readily changed.
21. Tradition.
21. There is a sense of
order, and yet a high
rate of innovation. Old
methods are questioned
and often give way.
22. Innovation is not
widespread but in the
hands of a few.
22. The organization
itself adapts swiftly
to opportunities or
other changes in its
marketplace because every
pair of eyes is watching
and every head is antici
pating the future.
23.
23. People swallow their
frustrationsi ”1 can do
nothing. It’s their
responsibility to- save
the ship.”
23. Frustrations are the
call to getion. J’It’s
my/our responsibility
to save the ship.”
44*
1
*
IN-HOUSE PROGRAMME
ON
'HJANAGKffiNT OF HOT^AN RESOURCES"
- “
pop
CATHOLIC HOSPITALS"ASSOCIATION OF INDIA
SECUNDERABAD
SBPIEKBBB 27-29, 1990
COST FOT? MAINTAINING’ HUl'lAN^
----------- --A VIEW POINT
ffl- _A_GOMPANY__^_
COST FOR M/UN TAIN ING HUTiAN FORCE IN A COMPANY A'viEvr P'QiNT
I.
MQKWIJHJ- -
The cost of maintaining Personnel in an Industry is
very huge particularly in view of the fact that all
Captains of Industry and those who arc at the national
decision making level have come to realise that. "humans11
are the best assets an Industry can have and with an
organized human set up a Company can achieve commanding
heights of competitive position in the Industry. It has
been said that all "Excellent Companies" are well run
companies having good people to work with. A disgruntled
set of human beings in a Company are supposed to be the
costliest unit in the Company while a sot of happy people
arc supposed to bo the most economical group in the
Organisation.
A ~a "1
__ — -- -L. J
M Ln
ar« 4 zn *itf Ain ,1
r\
4"
4-ln O 4*
ol 1
In a developing economy like India non-monetary
incentives do not motivate all the members of the group in
the same fashion. As such most of the incentives that
are given to the Industrial workers are the monetary
incentives of one type or the other. From an analysis of
the various perquisites/incentives given to the workers it
will be seen that if Rs.100 is the Basic Pay, worker is
paid about Rs.176 towards all other perquisites.
II.
MONETARY INCENTIVES
Prom Appendix-I it will be seen th&t monetary incen
tives that are offered fall into three categories viz.,
A'1*^ Monthly5 B-Annual; C—Others. Apart from the emoluments/
perquisites/incentives indicated in Appendix-I some of the
Industrial workers are also entitled for some extraordinary
terminal benefits apart from PF, Gratuity, LIC, GIS etc.
These are described below;
III.
CLASSIFICATION OF TERMINAL BENEFITS
A._
IN CASE OF DEATH:
,*1
*■—
1 —
» —I ■■■■.
■ 1 ■ ■ -1
— ——
I^r
i) EDLIS:
Employees Deposit Linked Insurance Scheme^
Employee does not subscribe any amount for this Fund#
A sum of Rs»10,500 is is paid to the deceased
Employee’s surviving Spouse or Children on produc
tion of Death Certificate through Unit Officer,
Staff Members, Supervisors and Managers are entitled
to this benefit. In case of normal retirement
no benefit accrues.
-»■ iO
ii) SBT: Staff Benefit-cum-Thrift Fund. Staff Maraber/
Supervisor subscribes Rs.20/-p.m. Managers
subscribe Rs.40/-to this Fund. On death a sum of
Rs.20,000 in case of Staff Member/Supervisor and
Rs.40,000 in case of Managers is paid on production
of Death Certificate. If death occurs due to
"accident" to any Employee of the Corporation,
the beneficiaries are paid additional amount of
,
Rs.15,000/-. In case of retirement of any Employee
amount subscribed together with interest at 6%‘
p.a. is refunded.
THIS READING MATERIAL IS PROPERTY
OF THE FROFESS’pNAL
GEMTN7 fy
ENGirCERING COiioULTASnS NOT TO P;
REPRODUCED IN ANY FO3M, WITHCUi
PRIOR PERMISSION.
...2.
- 2 iii) SMBFj Staff Mutual Benefit Fund. Staff Members/
Supervisors subscribe Rs.5/-p.m. On death of any
of these two categories a sum of Rs.3,000 is paid
within two months on production of Death Certificate.
In GOvSe of retirement Rs.2,500 is paid within one
month of retirement. This Fund is managed by
Employees Union.
iv)
v)
MRDK: Members Retirement Deposit Fund is nano-ged by
a (Jo-operative Credit Society. Staff Members,
Supervisors & Managers subscribe
of their Basic
Pay j5er month to this Fund. Interest is credited
Q 10% pa compounded annually. This amount is refunded
to Members on retirement/dcath/resignation.
kOANS
ADVICES: Staff Members, Supervisors and
ffanagers" are enTitled for the following loans and
advances:
(a) Car/Scooter loans to Managers.
(b) Scooter/Moped loans to Staff Members and
Supervisors.
(c) House Building Advance to all Employees.
(d) Land procurement advance to all employees.
(e) Domestic Furniture Advance to all Mana-gers
(Rs. 10,000 to Rs.15,000)
In case of death (accident or otherwise) of any
Employee balance of loan & interest payable by
him/her is written off.
IV.
OTJjER BENEFITS:
MONETARY BENEFIT TO CHILDREN i) In case of prematura death of any Employee notional
emoluments are worked out from the date of death to the
date of normal superannuation (Rs.15,000 - 25,000).
This amount is deposited in Bank in the name of bene
ficiary and monthly interest on this is paid by Bank
directly to the beneficiary. This amount will be
refunded in full after the date of normal superannuation.
ii) APPOINTMENT TO CHILDREN/SPOUSE OF DECEASED Incase of premature death of an Employee his
Children’s qualifications as also his spouse’s
qualifications are ascertained and suitable job is
offered to one of the children or the spouse
depending upon the willingness of the spouse.
V.
CONCLUSION:
The concept of model employer has been advocated for
Public Sector Under talkings. 7Protagonists of this concept always
feel that compared to the rest of the world a model employer
will pay the maximum benefits to his employees. This is a" r cl ac
tive concept and ea,ch Company has its own sot of fringe benefits
which are given to its Employees depending upon the historical
background, the custom, the usage, and the factor of accepta
bility by the Unions in that particular part of the Country.
It will thus be seen that for every Rs. 100 invested, a
Company has to earmark Rs.176 towards all those perquisites
in addition to the other "Terminal Benefits" which have nbt
been included in this' percentage but arc dealt with above.
- 3 -
APPENDIX - I
PERSONNEL COST
51.
No.
Staff/Super—
visors
Particulars
nj3s. /EaHis)’
A.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
11)
12)
13)
MONTHLY:
*■ •
1•
1 ■
•
•
Basic Pay
D.A.
HRA/CCA
Probable Addl. DA
t
TA/Daily Allowance ..
Bearer Allowance
Overtime
Medicines
,,
Other^Welfare Expenditure
Training & Development
Interim Relief
Production (40 Performance
Incentives (550)^
Equalisation Allowance
Total of 'A’
B.
INNUAL
1)
2)
3)
Ex. gratia
Enc ashnent
Employer’s contribution
to P.F.
Gratuity
Unif orris
EDUS
4)
5)
6)
Total of »B*
Q
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Percen
tage
5206-00
3924-00
777-00
352-50
370-00
1005$ Base
75^37
14.93
6.77
7.11
210-00
54-50
95-00
30-00
6-00
4.03
1.05
1.82
0-58
0.11
590-00
145-00
11.33
2.79
11760-00
125.89
780-00
441-00
14.98
8.47
746-00
449-00
175-00
37-50
14.33
8.62
3.36
0.72
2628-50
50.48
C. OTHERS
Recreation &
Entertainment
School
Creche
Spectacles, Childrens’
School Fee
Children’s Collage Fee
1-50
5-00
Total of ’C
11-35
GRAND TOTAL (A + B +C)
3-00
1-50
0-35
14399-85
176-37
I
Y10
NT OF CONFLICTS Ik KOS: liu.LC :
V.HAi' lb CONFLICT :
t-DfiJbULTAwr -
/■/(?£ PlTrW, Zk)/4/AZ/7A*)77c
JAMES D PAGE :
ii
a psychological painful state of mind resulting
from frustration caused by unsuccesful attempts
directed towards a particular goal.2
ii
a psychological situation of clash between two
or more persons or the i.eas of one individual and
groups
f persons having contrary motives,interests
and ideas.*’
1. Conflict is perhaps the most anxiety arousing topics in
managffient•
Conflict will always appear in a progressive organisation it
cannot be totally removed.
Conflict is not necessarily bad. it can help an organisation.
it can be constructive. on the other hand it can be distruc-
tive also. depends upon hew the management handles ri
K
hriY CGKyLLCT ?
1)
Pers onality
Background &
People are different
Cha racter
2)
People have different: Motives
Motiveti ons
3/
i-eorle have difterent:
P Ox
CGLFLICT
eptions
-I
Theory of Conflict of Personality and Class
2.
Theory of Conflicting Ideas
3.
Theory of Competitions
L77 3EL <-•
L1C J
Potential Conflict Generati^ condition
1 . LA1ENT CONFLICT
exist
eq.
FACTORS REINFORC1LG CONFLICT
FAC TORS REINF0RC1NJ CO-OPERATTON
Scarce Resources
Sufficient Resources
Low Trust
High Trust
V< lues not
shared
Values shared
Unstable People
Stable People
Status hierarchy
Status hierarchy accepted
Steriotype perceptions
Non-sterio type perceptions
2 . PERCEIVED CONFLICT
- Misunderstanding of each other’s true position
Lack of communication
La tent conditions may persist without the participents
fesEXisg
£
perceiving it because the attention focus mechanism is
supressed.
- Ambiguity of roles.
3
FELT CONFLICT :
Personalisation fof Conflicts
The
* yension Model 1
- Inconsistent demands of inefficient organisation.
CCLFLICT
4 .
-»
a>
avoiding direct exo
Tnf r~ T ~
tn.
anger
r
person
c}
With ASS ER! 101’
Sta ti ng th-. perception of tne ’z-rotle.sta ting t?>e action proposed tdbe taken,
rson to choose his^
leaving the other
her response.
a) INTERPERSONAL or GOAL CONFLICT
: Organisational goals, prd>erities, policies, achievements
or net work.
. . .3. . .
b) PERSONAL CONFLICT
or
INDIVIDUAL CONFLICT
Emotional & Personal differences between
i ndividuals
ROLE AMBIGUITY :
1. Lack of clarity on the Role and Position of an individual
in the organisation/ hence
2. Role of the individual is
percieved differently by the
individual and his collegues
superior
3. Contradictory der.ands emanate
on t radio tor y demands emanate from different people
4.
5. Demands are ambigious
6. Communication pattern is unilateral.
c) PERSONALITY ATTRIBUTES :
Introvert persons e^emore rigid
pr^we to conflicts e^trcverts more'prire*
INTERPERSONAL ANTEG0N1SM : Depends ofi the personality make up
of the individual/ hence deep rooted/
Caused by xjixxeais^
- Unclear authority strucjur^
- Pocrly drafted Rules & Regulations
- Poor control of rewards & Punishments
Individual favouritism.
CONFLICT could be
q) Organised Conflict
-
,We/Sc^hey1
others'
b) Unorganised Conflict TO C0’!FLIC2 .••■.AKA.GEMSrT
veral ways
Several Options
- Lf
each has it’s own • price *
re- Cor.il
i •
2. 'Fiv^
of
1
those whoes goals are not inaccordence v/ith those
’top administration’
3. Individuals may resign i/JaUa
4 . Change the system in order to eleminate of reduce conflict
1 , -i 4- -J
- Compromise may.leave both parties dissatisfied.
K
. ..4 . .
- Compromise dilutes the organisational goals
Dominance
Coalation
Decision
- Hierachial
- Arbitration & Mediating
- Bargaining - collective bargaining
SOME SUJGalSTIOI.S
:
1. Conflict should not be suppressed - it should be resolved.
2. Administrator should froTic' xirfa ’ the different norms
and values of people before taKing decisions.
3. Institutional goals must be explicit stRRi ± rather than
implicit
4. Organisations should be open to change with time
5. Sound public relations systems.
6. Organisational charts should be made
widely circulated.
Dea-directional communication must be encouraged & frequent.
C
'
8o Win-LoseS situations should be avoided Oi groups in the
7o
organisation should not be put in com.petition with others.
9. Involve all levels in decision making process ,
10. Hospital Advisory boards could help*
I'H
*
^ELF_BEVBLOPMETJT PLANS FOR PROFESSIONAL BFFECTIVENBSS
AllETHOIW
•
I.
.The. mpst sejriO-US- trap_Sr_in jtjie jn?oj^ep^ional
J1Cnfaha^r
(a)
Complacence and superficiality*
(b)
Unawareness of the speed with which one can become
absolete in his knowledge, skills and attitudes.
(o)
Settling for easy and comfortable goals for below
ones real potential.
(d)
Being a good performer but a bad manager or
vice-versa.
(e)
Having unrealistically high prof essional aspirations,
without commensurate capabilities and are without the
will to strive persistently and to pay the price for
professional goals.
(f)
Waiting for some one else to protect him, guide him 2
develop him, bail him out rather than propelling
himself with courage and perseavarence to carve out
his professional and personal destiny*
(g)
Getting immersed in narrow professional specialisa
tions without supplementing his specialised knowledge
and skills by a broad understanding of his total
professional field and without a general awareness
of related professionally and technological disciplines.
(h)
Pathologically drowning himself in his work on the
job as an escape from the unpleasant realities of
professional life.
(i)
Losing contact with events and development that are
taking place in the scientific and socio-economic
environment around him.
(j)
Being a good performer but a bad human being i. e.,
unable to harness and integrate his total life and to
re-conserve the conflicting demand on his time and
energy*
(k)
Succumbing to the temptation to ;?cut corners”
to violate ethical values and humanism.
and
II*
While preparing his own plans for professional
effectiveness and growth each participant must carefully
consider Para I of this brief. The following structure
for self—development plans for professional effectiveness
are suggested :
(i) Strengths and deficiencies in discharging may
present foie’s and* resporisTbilitios as a profes
sion al/techni cal expert and as a departmental
head. The following roles and responsibilities
may be evaluated that influence approach talcing
into consideration the following aspects:
THIS WAOING MATERIAL IS PROPERTY
OF TMf PROFESSIONAL MANAGEMENT f
Engineering consultants, not to be
REPRODUCE© IN ANY FORM, WITHOUT
PRIOR PERMISSION.
. . . *2e
2 4
a*
^xjTc^TaHony. *
artmental targets and
~
^ *-**-**- —
k* Mo^ting^ crisis
.^gcp ^A1AA^8jlA9A1AgP.^Xs?>^
PA -ffiK JAkaA0"*
p---
taking into
‘ ^br e^f d^owri s"
•-- -
c • ^PAt^.Ag. .yP-^ApAA61- ■ .PA^ffiBAA P/. j-.f/.G PVXAAAr.f 00 G
AAAA^AeAiA6 Aa^ApAtBA^
^d" Af fXcjAvA
decisions, good time m’anagement/ ^el^^pyopulsion,
efficiency and methods in his own v/ork habits,
effective management of meetings, completed staff
work.
• |lgA^AAS, APAPPAAk- AASPAzLA -°X
k-G~i°Jl behaviour
including courtesy firmneWs'"’and basic value ’and?’
concern for subordinates etc.
e • PAiAAipg JinApph ajpaaAAjyAA11Aa.AAp. ApbaaA6 A
promoting a climate of nTutual co’h’s’ultatYorT^and
collective responsibility•
f. Developing effective work habits, work norms, work
climate and problem solving skills^
g. Encouraging suggestions and innovative ideas for
better performance.
h. Handling "dissent” and handling "mistakes.”
ie AAALA£^AAS^§AA0oinAAS^JAP^PAA5?.? Af fbin the
abA helping, handling "consi’stehtTy
.^PXAP^PXr^^“
-- ------------ --- ----^^AP^A^bpAP^^
systematic HRD
3L0A^sAAPA^AAPAgA AA JtXA. ^^ar^merTt A
k • Effectively and constructively dealing with
.AAASPAAAAIA~AAAAlcPArpersonal within
ibAA.AP.^AAlAAf •
1. Skills in communications (verbal and written)and
using the same for the department.
ni. Establishing effective relationship with your
superiors and colleagues.
n. Developing your own skills in "self critique".
(ii)
-AAAApAlA^acAAlAA^-A 1.8 both short term and long term
for building my professional strength and overcoming
deficiencies. This has to take into account the
fo^lAowirig :
“
"
*
— —-—.
a) Jib at jvouid_ jrpu dp^ AA AAAAAAtL A.°A Z°AE. AAoiGAsAon 31
effectiveness and growth. Indicate "your ^5Aio"fi-ti*e*s£°A..8AtAAAYGA)AniGnf and the time frame.
.•..3.
— D
b. Professional development area where you would need
personal help^ from your superiors. Indicate your
priorities.
c* Exposure to any formal training _or exposure to new
exp e r ienco^ Th at in your view would Teip* in your
professional-effectiveness and growth. Give specific
^ggestions.,about training programmes or other •
> dep artmont^T Txpo^sur e^
(iii) In the time • perspective of •. the n c x t ye ar * s r qqui r cm on t,
what skills, knowledge and attitudos expcri6nco would
you like to■ acquire or develop in order to equip
yourself with* highor rcsponsibiliTfcT ^in respect
o £7the f 6T1 owin g:
a.
What departmentai effort would you undertake' youSself to develop your potential and prospects for
shouldering higher responsibilities^ Indicate
your priorities and time frame.
be
What can you realistically expect from your
organ! s at ion" by way of dcvcToping„you to unfold
your,potential as a professional and as manager.
Spccify ^your expcctations clearly within a
practical time frame.
(iv)
Which of the 11 typos listed at Para III above arc
you prone to or most likely to fall a. prey and which
may obstruct your development of professional growth
and effectiveness. You. may also mention any other
typo of handicap tha,t in your opinion docs affect
your professional effectiveness. Your _frank .s.Q.1X*"
critiqu^c _on thiA JPoj-nA.
A*!
cited _and .would
only be used in helping your deyoJ.5)pircjrtAs._a PAQ^8*"
sional and as a person.
(v)
Any additional observations or comments you would
like to make taking into consideration the :’sclfdcvclopmcnt plan required for professional effective
ness as well as growth” of the person.
■t
IN-HOUSE PROGRAIG'E
Oil
"MANAGEMENT OF HUMAN RESOURCES"
FOR
CATHOLIC HOSPITALS ASSOCIATION OF INDIA
SECUNDERABAD
SSPTEMBBR 27-29» 1990
DBVBLOPKENT PLAN FOR SUBORDINATBS - A METHODOLOGY
PROFESSIONAL MANAGEMENT AND ENGINEERING CONSULTANTS
9-.1-48/1/A, 1st FLOOR 33, ABOVE GARDEN RESTAURANT
SAROJINI DEVI ROAD, SECUNDERABAD-500 003
I.
G-uidolines_ for
(i)
Identify two subordinates of your Dept./Section
JLQ.1 VI
ordiji atCf
1. High performer and
2, Low performer
to be covered in this exercise.
List their main rolos/responsibilities/function at
present and other possible roles and functions that they
could perform sometime in future. (Their transfer, job
rotation, promotion or newly created posts of assignment).
(ii) Your plan for the development of the ”High Performer”
should aim a,t fully unfolding his potential, enabling or
shouldering higher responsibilities (delegated by you, or
otherwise) giving him opportunities to specialise in
sophisticated and complex skills and roles:
Encouraging him to come up with innovative suggestions
and experimenting with new approaches/systems/tecliniques:
Improving his prospects for recognition/reward/
promotion:
Exposing him to new expertence/roles/learning
opportunities:
Helping him to constructively handle issues of rivalry
or jealousy that may emerge because of his talent and
brightness':
Helping him to develop his skills in inter—personal
relations,, communication and listening:
Giving him suitable leadership roles in task force
Committees or other relevant situations:
Helping him to handle his own brilliance with tact
and humility:
Enabling him to plan his career track carefully and
with realisms
Letting him realise his weaknesses and skill
deficiencies:
Helping him to broaden his mental horizons and range
of
skills so that he can identify himself with the total
of skills
organisation and not merely with his own department:
Helping him to a better performer and a bettor
human being.
(iii) Your plan for the development of the ”Low Performer”
should aim at:
Diagnosing the basic causes of his low performance.
Restoring the self-respect of the low performer by
giving him a success experience on the Job.
Paying personal attention to his problems and
difficulties to bring back his self-confidence.
THIS READING MATERIAL IS PROPERTY
OF THE PROFESSIONAL MANAGEMENT ft
ENGINEERING CONSULTANTS. NOT TO BE
REPROtUCEB IN ANY FORM, WITHOUT
2
Helping him to over-come his skill deficiencies.
Teaming him up with good performers so that he gets
some models to emulate.
Helping him to acquire skills related to work planning
time planning, good house keeping, efficient work
habits, providing him opportunities to improve his
performance and job involvement.
Putting him in jobs most appropriate to his skills
and interests.
Creating in him an inner urge to get out of the rut
and stigma of being perocivcd as a low-performer.
Helping him improve his professional qualifications and
administrative skills.
Helping him improv
administrative ski
is professional qualifications and
Helping him to develop habits of honest self-critique,
and facing up to his real short-comings rather than
hiding or defending them.
Progressively and realistically raising your expecta
tions of performance and behaviour from him.
(iv)
rSome possible elements that may be included in your
plans to develop high or low performersj are :
Formal education and professional or technical skills
and qualifications vis-a-vis his present job.
Knowledge and skills that may help in shouldering
higher responsibilities in the foreseeable future.
Skills in planning.
Communication skills (oral and written) including
writing and presenting reports.
Broadening one’s mental horizons, and awareness of
related areas of knowledge and technology (other
than those required by the present job).
I.Ianagerial/Administrative/Supervisory skills:
Organising, directing, controlling, coordinating and
getting others to attain optimal task-performance
besides doing one’s own job.
Interpersonal skills in relating with superiors,
subordinates and peers: developing behaviour patterns
based on colloboration, sharing, helping, trust and
open-mindedness.
Knowledge of relevant rules, regulations, procedures
and guidelines pertaining to one’s department,
one’s own job, and general practices in the
organisation.
- 3 Maintenance and safety consciousness (where relevant
to the job), cost-consciousness, time-consciousness,
and getting results.
Skills in dealing with different kinds of public
and public relations.
Any other specific skills or specializations consi
dered necessary for the department and/or the
individual employee.
Ethical values and practices expected of an upright
employee and a responsible citizen*
II.
Having analysed the respective HRD needs of the two
subordinates suggested by you, now prepare an ACT 1011 PLAN
after prioritising the above needs (separately foaT^each
subordinate) into:
High Priority
Medium Priority
Low priority
Your action plan may cover the High as well as lie di un}
priorities in the following framework:—
•
„
J
Time Frame ’
!
————————
Priority
Action
} Wi*-6Hn ’Iii-house *pVternaT”
J Depart- ’effort in ,help
!
--------------------- ’_______________________
SHORT-TERM
(a) High Priority
Needs
(b) Medium Priority
Needs.
(a) High Priority
Needs
LONG-TERM
(b) Me di um P ri o ri ty
Needs
h,1* .The format and processes described in the Guidelines
(ejection I above) for’Subordinate Development Plan;F are
purely suggestive in nature. Participants in the Workshop
should.feel free.to modify this format to suit the
realities of their own department, and the nature of the
two subordinates chosen by them for this Exercise.
\’I3
»
IN-HOUSE PROGRAlQlE
ON
"MANAGEKENT OF“HUKAN RESOURCES11
CATHOLIC HOSPITALS ASSOCIATION OPJOTDIA
------------------------ SECUlTD^RAiSAD
SSPTBKBSR 27-29, 1990
QUALITY CIRCLE -IMPACT ON PBOBUGTr^TTC'
PROFESSIONAL LIANAGEKENT AND ENGINEERING CONSULT^.
q_1243/1/A, 1st FLOOR 38, ABOVE GARDEN RESTAURANT
SAROJINI DEVI ROAD, SECUNDERABAD-500 003
i
4
QUALITY'CIRCLE -
QN PRODUCSiyiTY1
It augurs well for the country’s future that
- awareness is rapidly davmin^ on the minds of leaders of • different organisations re^ardin/; the need to improve
•
productivity', teie declaration of 1983 as the • Productivi y
Year1 has led to location of areas with the scope for
ii-iprovinf, productivity in different activities and^to
find out ways and means to pluf' the lacunae responsible
for unsatisfactory performance hithe^o.
.
If productivity is defined as the total of floods
and services turned out in a r,ivQn period of tine, it
implies that all activities of the organisations
irrespective of the area o’f work have to bo critically
examined. VThenevcr the subject of productivity is
discussed, our thoughts immediately ao to the efficiency
of workers in the manufacture areas alone, Xor^et’Dm^
that the totality of the problem has to ba -tackled.
c
Tailoring of work areas adopted fron the West and
which implies dircc Ivos and instructions
0J?\4from the top to the L.vton had, no doubt, brought about
economies in producrivi* oost and some improvement in
productivity, but the major consequence has hcon chc
enormous under-utilisation of our most valuable resource,
namely employees. For this reason, it may not be
for us to accept the i’act "that workers who have so far
been denied the ri^ht to exercise their mental abilities
for the betterment of the organisation, arc capable
of contributing to more effective utilisation of available
resources.
\
It
It was in the caily 60s in Japan, when they w2*'e
~OQe innovative techniques to involve tne
searching Iwu
for so?
directly
in inprovinr, organisational pcrfornancc
workers <
u^xvv
cmx
-I
1—1.j a decisive edr,e in quality
in totality and thereby derive
the
products
of
their
over 'w*.v ____ _ _____ _____ Western conpotitors, thac the
ail'v Circles
Gxa-vI^o took birth.
Lirth. -he success of
concept'’of’Quality
the Japanese industries cau.rht the inap>inBtion of totaer
with
the
Western countriesj who started experimenting
exioerinaiitinA^^
’ith^tne
oneept
progressively
a
decade
later.
Quality Circle y
It came i o be generally accepted that productivity
could be improve not only by using new equipment or
also- by tapping
'better technolofiy but
-- —
.. .. human brain power
land working as a\cohesive team. Since then
then, the.
immensely beneficial role of Quality Circles in improving
the product!vity'organisations is being recognised in
nruiy countries.
Ne^d Satisfied
\
r
\^Jts-<particiap\^™
--- Circle
.
- the 4 enyloyees
_
articiap\ion —
in Quality
by
at the grass—roots level, who know their own 'work—related
problems best, is purely voluntary
voluntary,9 the important
motivational need of self—act—utilisation or self—
fulfiLnent is satisfied. Til
fulfilment
This aspect
—--j- has
i--- ^roat^rclcvanCC
as the Yoot of productivity is motivation of the
individual. It1 should^bccone
should become a natter
matter oi
ox personci pride
-- to ^achieve a .xac-cird of excellence rather than a meaning*Iqss exertion for someone clsc’s gain.
....2
rVri
2
If the main objectives of the Quality Circle
novenent arc examined, ib can. be seen that every one of
then directly or indirectly has an impact on productivity
in different areas 1
(a) Self-development
(b) Mutuil development
Cc) Improvement in quality
(d) Improvement in communication and attitude.
(e) Waste rcdur"ion
Job satisfaction
Cost reduction
jh Improvement in productivity
Safety improvement
Problem-solving opportunities
spirit
(k Team
__
(1) Linking
levels of manar»cmcnt and
workers together to achieve success.
(n) Getting more people involved and
interested in their work.
(n) Improving participation
(o) Reducing' absenteeism and grievances.
An analysis of 226 problems identified in a
company and taken up for solving by the Quality Circle
indicates that thosb directly related to improved
productivity were about 30 percent while the other
aspects such as Quality (26 per cent), House Keeping
(8$),
(11%) Technolo/’y (13%), Materials Management (8%),
ip'tion (27a)
Engineering (8%), cost reduction
(2%) and Safety
Safety^
(2%) have also an indirect/'Oearinf' on productivity,
ultimately resulting in mor•c effective utilisation of
resources.
/
For instance, the/tremendous benefits towards
j s/nd quality in Nissan factories
improving productivity
in Japan which, it is stated, have around 4,200 Quality
Circles and in a year1’ s time could ^et 1.12 million .
suggestions for bctjtcy-pcrfornancc can verx^well be
imagined. From the experience of the efficacy of the •
Quality Circles philosophy, a few typical examples arc
stated below which would ^ive an idea of the r,reat
potential for creativity and innovation that exists
amon/3 our workers•
\sation tlio Quality Circle decided to
In an orranis
ut down the cycle t:iinic for the assenbly of the purip rotor
W identified the v.Various problems coning in the way.
Quality Circle nenbers took then up with the related
cies such as EnAnecrin^, Machine Shop, Technolo/sy ct^
and s^fcrcd suggestions. As a result of the inplenontation
; the Quality Circle’s rcconnendations, the
time for rotors was reduced from three shifts
asschb'
to one shift.
Im another organisation in the Turbine C: Comprcs^i1
Shop$ Quality Circle, in the Lif-ht Machine Section, studied
the teclYfolorical process for ;r-;uide sleeves and suf-^cstcd
improvements in the- sequencing operations. This resulted
in the elimination of rejections by 100%«
?
3
*
There are riany instances where the Quality Circles
have been able to inpfbve productivity in their res
pective work areas. It can, therefore, be safely surmised
that with thjr-larfte number’of Quality Circles., in any
organisation working in different areas, the cumulative
affect jan ^their participation in improving the total
performance would be substantial.
Gfreh.ter AwafonG s s;
4-
Apart froa what the workers thcnselves carry out
as'part of the Quality Circle activities,,there is no
/?ain saying the fact that the Quality Circle uovcr.icnt
brin/’s about a,reatcr ay/cireness in the minds* of all with
ror.ard. to optimum quality and productivity standards.
The /■•roup pressure exerted by tile Quality Circle members
also results in chany,in,'; the attitudes of other middle
levels of rianar,cr.icnt towards more cohesive team work
for solving probl ms standiitq in the way of optimum
productivity of a y organisation.
1
/
;•
But it dus” be ^ecorjiiisad that it is not a panacea
for all ills and ^ho Quality Circle novonent has to be
nurtured carefully
continuously to bccor.ia' a way of
life# For this, the important prerequisite fls total
nanar'oraent undorstar-dlxv’ and support to the concept.
There is another interesting exaupl/ of v/hat
workers’ involvement can,do for improving productivity#
improvement in safety records would naturally lead to
better productivity. When it was observed that the
incidence of accidents Vias showing; a/; adversp trend in
early 1980, one of the workers v/as nominated! a Safety
Steward for preventing accidents. This au/y.icnted the
effor't^ of other pcrsomiel responsible ’for safety to such
an extent that remarkable improvement in safety records
could be achieved.
‘
•
V
Ir.minent Challenges;
Alvin Toffler has, in the book, talked about the
emer/’ink "third wave" which would brinr, about si,qnal
Chandos in society. ’He forecasts
seeking morc-rc'-'Dbnsibility amhTprbatcr commitment for
fully utilising their talent. There is no doubt what
soever that we, in this country, too," would be effected
by -such environmental and social changes that will come
about in the 80s.
--k
'
yjr
This is another factqr whicli^ makes it imperative
for us to be fully preparedSto facp such imminent
challenges. -One of the many \ays of doing so is to
..
./1
’
encourage and establish ouch t-qchniqacs which have, as
- 4 *
thoiKmain objective, participative management in its .
jrcal sense. The philosophy'of Quality-Circles fits jn
well with this requirement.
„
*'
.‘ri
/
-
*'
-t
J
♦v>
j
/?•
I
/
■»
<5.
:
4
Tho Quality Circle nqvcr.icnt has take;i noro than
20 years to be transferrod fron Japan to India# Porhap:
the protected narket conditions in our country and ’ .
aboence of eonpotitivensss in the work narket inhibitpd
ufi from loolir , for avenues to inp^ovc oUr productivity
of- operations hitherto■> But vdth rapid changes talcinn
place in th^ in*’ str. ?.l sector, there is no: alternative
for us but to ad pt the concept of Quality Circles in
our re ^poctivo o sanitations to ensure that all
oporati ons are a- off cient and productive as those
elsewhere.
Q lality uxrc q n ven out. !> tlio total conp^/y
approac/i for asruT neo ">f quality and inprovonon*1, of
produot-' vity
\ .
/
/
*
f
ROLE of the hospital administrator
Dr.RANJIT PANDEY,M.B.B.S (Gold Medalist)
MB.DCH.,MRSH (London) MIHF (England)
AS A HOSPITAL ADMINISTRATOR, you' re on the ."hot, seat "^ Presented
I
with problems and challenges of increasing complexity, you are
faced with decisions that can have a profound effect on the
c o m m u r i i t y y o u s e r v e.
faced with the dilemma of maintaining a high quality of
You are
the
line on
the cost.
Everhea1th service while holding
brought
from
the
society
and
the
is being
increasing pressure
of
hospital
communi ty you serve to decrease the inflation rate
care.
To achieve this goal , your task is to mold numerous departments,
problems and viewpoints, into a smooth-running
with differing
and
job can be a source of great personal
machine.
The
be
as
nervewracking
as
tipsatisfaction; or i t can
professional
Much depends on the approach you
through a mine field.
toe i ng
take.
it, many administrators become so attached to
rea1i z ing
Without
sight of the human aspects of
ffigures
icures that they lose s
facts and
By placing a disproportionate emphasis on the
their position.
a human
is achieved,
result,
to
how
it
as opposed
final
direct
result,
As
a
"nightmare" can be created,
relations
optimum hospital operation is sacri f iced.
Hospital Administrators are in a period of change-from which
The
greatest
medical
and
spring
great
opportunities,
technological
advancements
in the history of hospital care have
The foreseeable future shows
happened
in the past two decades,
an acceleration of these advances.
With
these changes,
the benefits of hospital care have been
the most progressive
expanded far beyond
the dreams of even
But
these advancements
analysts of
three and four decades ago.
have had a price.
quest i ons have been raised by the f ac t
Intricate sociological
that some members of our society may not be able to efford the
This is the dilemma that has forced
health care they might need.
its costs
into the national
the
issue of health care and
political limelight.
These same
issues are a major challenge to your work as a
Working principally as a communicator
hospital administrator,
people,
you must be
in
the front line of
and motivator of
protectors of
the advancements made in hospital management and
health care.
as a communicator are essential to the building and
Your skills
your
hospital’s success.
One
industrial
of
cont inuation
He stated, "you
it "The Velvet Boot Theory".
supervi sor cal 1ed
must know how to give someone a kick in the pants without letting
them feel the boot".
large group of people, project an inherent
for a
As mot i vator
and for the ultimate success of your
enthusi asm for your wor k
Let these who implement
Enthusiasm
is contagious!
hospi tai.
your plans and policies catch i t.
rule that enthusiastic employees are more
It
is a fundamen tai
the key to cost control,
Increased productivity,
pruuuuv±viuy,
product i ve.
begins with the enthusiastic leadership which only you
can provide.
Knowing
the basics of good management,
plus effective budge
planning,
through
knowledge of departmental operations, and all
the other
If you fail
o t h e r fundamentals of your job are not enough.
to motivate
department
chiefs
and
employees,
the
medical
staff,
mot i vate
the board of
trustees, and anyone else directly connected with
your hospital
hosp i ta 1 ■’’ s operations to new heights of excellence, your
administrative efforts might end up in failure.
and other factors presented by outside
containment
As cost
increasing
influence on your hospital s
present
an
sources
commu.n
ica.
t
i
on
abilities
will become increasingly
your
operat ion,
opportunity
in
which
you can successfully
Every
c rue ial.
employees
to
increase
productivity
and utilize
mot i vate your
abilities
to
enhance
the
quality
of their
inn ova. t i ve
their own
dividends
towards
your
ultimate
administrative
b r i ng
w o rk will
gca1s.
to your success as a hosp i ta1 admin istrator is
The
key element
The motivation level of your employees, physicians,
mot i vat ion.
and
other personnel
will
largely
supervisors,
department
determine the overall level of success your hospital will enjoy.
turn the tide,
As stated before it is your enthusiasm that can
people
around
you
will
tend
to
be the same,
If
you are f i red up,
This
is
the vital force that marks the successful people from
If you do not settle for the average performance
t h e a1so-rans.
i n yourse1f, your employees will be less likely to settle for it
in themselves.
"average,"
"I!
a case of
One
noted public speaker called
You,
as the leader, set the
med iocri ty on a grand scale".
Set your sights high! Believe in
example for others to follow.
yourse1f!
Dated
5
27th September
-1990.
I 'I
A .SPECIAL PR0GRAIF1E
ON
:,MANAGEI/IENT OF HUM_AN RE SOURCES”
FOR
*
CATHOLIC HOSPITALS ASSOCIATTON OF INDIA
.SECUNDERABAD
’
SEPTSHBaa 27-2% 1990
TIME TABLE
., <
Date
Time
(Hrs.)
27-9*’90 0900-0915
0915-1100
1100-1115
imM
-F-
Topic
About the programme.
Sri I. Moses
H.R.D. - Ai integral part
-doof human resource
management.
Tea
1115-1300
Healthy organisation for
better health.
1300-1400
Lunch.
1400-1530
Quality circle concept A relevance for human
resource management - I.
1530-1545
Te a
1545-1700
Quality circle concept A relevance for human
resource management A case.
28-9-’90 0900-1015
Speaker
Dr# Ranjit Pandey
MBDS, MD, DCH
Sri S. I?. Udpa
Executive Director
Quality Circle
Forum of India*
Hyderabad.
-do-
Self development - A
methodology.
Sri I. Moses
1015-1130
Development of Subordinates.
1130-1145
Tea
1145-1300
Managerial effectiveness A prerequisite for Hunan
Resource Management.
1300-1400
1400-1530
Lunch
1530-1545
1545-1700
Personnel policies—An
aid towards effective
H.R.M.
Tea
Training <3: specialisa
tion - A changing need
for H.R.H.
-do-
-do-
Dr.P, Sathyanarayana,RMO-I, Prof,&
Head,Dept,of Hospi^
tai Adan., N.I.M.S,
Hyderabad.
-do-
. ...P.2.
^1
- 2 -
Date
.Time (Hrs. )
29-9-’90 0900-1100
Topic
Spe aker
Interfunctional interface Dr. Fanjit Pandey,
and Conflict Management. HBBS, MD, DCH
1100-1115
Te a
1115-1300
Management of change.
1300-1400
Lunch.
1400-1515
Cost of maintaining human
resources - A view point.
1515-1530
Te a
1530-1700
Hunan Resource Audit.
Sri I. Moses
Guest Speaker
(Finance)
Guest Speaker
(Finance)
PDOFFSSIONilL MANAGSMSNT AND ENGINF2RING CONSULTANTS
9-1-48/1/A, 1st FLOOR 38, ABOVE G.iRDEN RESTAURANT
SARDJINI DEVI ROAD, SECUNDERABAD - 500 003
MANAGEMENT OF HUMAN RESOURCES
PROGRAIiME_FOR_SUNDAYi__JOi9x9O
9 am to 9•JO am
Arrival at Nizam Institute
of Medical Sciences (NIMS)
9.30 am to 12 Noon
Visits to various departments
at NIMS
12 Noon
Departure to CHAI
12.30 pm
Lunch
2.30 pm to 4.J0 pm
Open Session
***********
*********
0N management of WMAN RESOURCES
f -/b
22-i_^2_§eptember 1990 at chai
LIST OF PARTICIPANTS
1. Dr Shirdi Prasad Tekur
Community Health Cell
i7/l St Mark’s Road
Bangalore - 560 001
3. Sr Therese Joseph
St Theresa's Hospital
Kurnool - 518 001
Andhra Pradesh
5. Sr Dora D'Souza
Vimala Dermatological Centre
Yari Road, Versova
Bombay - 400 061
7. Sr Rose Theresa
Multipurpose Social
Service Society
Bangalore
2. Sr Jerome
St Joseph’s Hospital
School of Nursing
Maryland
Vishakapatnam - 530 002
Andhra^ Pradesh
4. Sr Lourde Mary SABS
Mar Augustine Jubilee
Hospital
Edappally
Kochy - 682 024
KERALA
6. Sr Tresa Panampara
St. Xavier’s Hospital
Vinukonda, Guntur Dist
Andhra Pradesh -522 647
8. Fr Jose Palakkattel
Executive Director
Social Service Centre
PB No. 7
Sultan's Bat ery
Wayanad, Kerala
9. Sr Letizia
Nirmala House
6-1-280/1
Padmarao Nagar
Secunderabad- 500 025
10. Fr Emmanuel Mariampillai
Education Multi Media
Association, 32 college
Road, Nungambakkam
Madras - 600 006
11. Mr A R Edwards
Low Cost Health Care
’E’ Block 3rd Street
H.No. E-48 Plot No.3398
Annanagar East
Madras - 600 102
12. Sr Jane Francisca
Assumption Hospital
Thomaspuram
Avanashi, Coimbatore D-i
South India
13. Pr Jerome D*Souza
Bandra East Community Centre
341-A Siddartha Colony
Bandra East
Bombay - 400 051
14. Sr Mercy Abraham
St Martha’s Hospital
Bangalore - 560 009
15. Ms J Daya Christine
Nitya Seva Hospital
Shevgaon 414 502
Ahmednagar District
Maharashtra
16. Sr Anita
St Joseph’s Hospital
Maryland
Visakhapatnam
Andhra Pradesh
2. t
2
17. Sr Christine
Nirmala House
6-1-280/1
Padmarao Nagar
Secunderabad -500025
18. Ms Maria Joseph
JDSSS Office
Catholic Ashram
Binjhia, Mandla Dist
Madhya Pradesh-481 661
19. Ms JJ Bonney
Administrator
Bethany Colony
Leprosy Association
Bapatla - 522 101
Guntur District
Andhra Pradesh
20. Rev Fr Gerald Almeida
J D S S S Office
Catholic Ashram
Binjhia,Mandla District
Madhya Pradesh -481 661
21. Sr Philo K
St Ann's Hospital
Vijayawada - 2
Andhra Pradesh
22. Sr Agnes Fuseau
Narol Leprosy Hospital
Narol
Ahmedabad - 382 405
23. Rev Msrg A.Fe D’Souza
Director
Fr Mull r's Charitable
Institutions, PB 501
Kankanady
Mangalore - 575 002
24. Sr Mary Mathew JMJ
St Theresa's Hospital
Sanathnagar
Hyderabad - 500 018
Dr. Ranjit Pande, MBBS, MD, DOH
A—31, Steel & Mines Complex
Srinagar Colony Extension
Hyderabad-500 8?3
4
Dr, P. S at hy an ar ay ana,
R.M.O.-I, Prof, & Head,
Dept, of Hospital Administration
Nizam’s Institute of Medical Sciences,
Somajiguda,
Hyderabad-500 004
Sri P, Jeer
1-10-66/A, Plot No. 6,
Behind Jeevan Jyothi
Bockland, Begumpet,
Hyderabad-500 016
»
Sri I. Moses, Director,
Professional Management &
Engineering Consultants,
9-1-48/1/A, 1st floor
38, above Garden Restaurant
Sarojini Devi Road
Secunderabad*-500 003
1
Sri I, Moses, Director,
Professional Management &
Engineering Consultants,
9-1-48/1/a, 1st floor,
38, Above Garden Restaurant,
Sarojini Devi Road,
Sec underabad-500 003
Sri It Moses, Director
Professional Management &
Engineering Consultants,
9-1-48/1/a, 1st floor,
38, Above Garden Restaurant,
Sarojini Devi Road
Sacunderabad-500 003
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-
18 YOUTH ACTIVITIES: BECC has a membership of about 150
youth. They are provided with Library, Reading Room,
Study Room, Indoor games and Counselling facilities. The
Centre organizes Camps, Seminars, Sports, Dramatics and
other recreational activities.
341-A Siddharth Colony, Bandra East,
Bombay 400 051. • Tel: 642 46 91.
Dear Friend,
For all our activities we depend on the cooperation of the
public, both financial ly and moral ly. You can help us with
your generosity and support these activities in whatever
manner possible big or small.
The Bandra East Community Centre (BECC) is a regis
tered voluntary Social welfare organization, catering to
the socio-economic development of the slums and pavement
dwellers. It is administered by the Norbertine Fathers.
h^e will be glad to receive your support and hope that you
will always be with us in serving Humanity.
BECC was established in 1974 initially working in one
s lum, i.e. Siddharth Colony. Over the years it has grown
from strength to strength, and now with thirty staff
members and many voluntary workers it has community based
programs in ten slums and two pavement colonies. Irrespec
tive of Caste or Creed BECC conducts number of awareness
and developmental programmes and has a number of services
rendered.
Thanking You,
Yours Gratefully
Some of activities of the BECC are:
I
Fr. Jerome D’Souza, O.Praem
Director of B.E.C.C.
1. ADULT LITERACY/ADULT EDUCATION: It is imparted to those
girls and women who could not pursue their studies at
Primary and Secondary School level of education. They
are interested in learning some basic literary knowl
edge. There is a plan to conduct such classes for boys
and men too.
2. BALWADI: The centre conducts one balwadi (nursery) in
the Centre for the slum children and two ba 1 wadies in
the two pavement colonies are conducted in loca 1
languages for the benefit of the rag-pickers.
3. CAREER GUIDANCE BUREAU: The Career Guidance Bureau (CGB)
creates consciousness among High School and College
students about various Job opportunities available after
their school or college studies. It prepares candidates
for interviews. BECC through the CGB contacts renders
service to the poor by securing Jobs. Seif-employment is
given a top priority.
4. COMMUNITY HEALTH: Ten trained health workers and a few
volunteers work in seven slums on preventive health
care. It conducts awareness classes on health care,
nutrition, hygiene, etc. Five days a week the centre runs
a clinic for the benefit of these families and a follow
up is done by the health workers.
5. CRECHE: The Creche, or the Day-care Centre enable the
women of the slums to leave their infants under the care
of BECC and earn additional income for their families.
It also prevents the slum girls from discontinuing their
studies in order to look after their younger brothers
and sisters while their mothers go to work. BECC also
provides nutrition and medical care to these children.
6. EDUCATIONAL AID: The Centre provides financial assis
tance to many students who are in need of financial help
to pay their school fees on a temporary basis due to
some financial crisis in the family.
7. FAMILY ASSISTANCE SCHEME: More than sixty families are
given monetary help every month to supplement their
family income to lead a normal family life. They in
clude, the widows, the aged, the victims of unemployment
and women deserted by their husbands because of social
evils like alcoholism, drug addiction, etc.
8. FREE LEGAL AID AND ADVICE CELL: Every Thursday a team of
Lawyers comes to BECC at 5:30 P.M. to impart legal know
ledge. They listen to the grievances of those in need
of legal advice and offer assistance. This is arranged
in collaboration with the Free Legal Aid and Advice
Department of the Government of Maharashtra. Legal
Literacy Camps and workshops are organized to educate
the illiterate about their legal rights and duties.
9. HOUSE WORKERS CELL: Most often the house-workers. (parttime and full-time) who come under the un-organized
sector are exploited by their employers. BECC together
with many other such organizations aims at the unioniza
tion of the domestic workers. It tries to create an
awareness of their basic rights and duties. It ensures
Job security, imparts an awareness concerning their
holidays and their right to medical facilities, etc...!
10 LOW-COST HOUSING: With the participation and involve
ment of the local people BECC started a Low-Cost Housing
Scheme to re-house the slum dwellers to a better envi
ronment. CEBEMO (Holland), Bank of Maharashtra and the
Maharashtra Housing Board collaborated with the local
Committee of Siddharth Colony and thus far has re-housed
168 families.
11MAHILA MANUALS: Women in the slums are often neglected,
even though they are the backbone of their families and
society in general. In view of organizing these Women's
Mahila Mandals are formed in all the seven slums. These
groups meet regularly in their own slums to discuss and
solve their problems. They also come to the Centre for
various programmes, seminars, audio-visual shows, discu
ssions and cultural programmes. Seif-employment and
Small-scale Savings are given a top priority.
12CHILD-SPONSORSHIP PROGRAMME: This programme caters to
the poor children who may have to drop out of school due
to acute financial problems in their family. The or
phans, children of alcoholics and drug edicts or those
who are unemployed are given educational, medical and
nutrition facilities, and any thing that is needed to
give them an all-round Development.
13 TAIL ORING CLASSES: Sisters of the Missionaries of
Charity conduct tailoring classes free of cost. Besides
this BECC conducts another batch of Advanced Tailoring
Classes.
14TRADE COURSES: To help the school drop-outs the Centre
conducts Short-term courses whenever possible.
15 TUITION FOR THE SLOW LEARNERS: Students of the Cardinal
Gracias High School who are weak in studies and are
economically poor having no facilities either to study
at home or an access to any other coaching are provided
with coaching classes at BECC.
16 TUITION CLASSES FOR THE SLUM CHILDREN: Our Youth, (both
High school and College) coach the children of classes
I to VII every evening from 6:00 P.M. to 9:00 P.M.
17TYPING CLASSES: The Centre conducts typing classes.
About 80% of students enrolled are from the slums. They
get an opportunity to equip themselves for jobs.
C^^'V^cL
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•
HOSPITAL
iMWk. ■
INFORMATION
system
- DESCRIPTION
s
X
- GOALS
i)
iv)
BETTER PATIENT CARE
efficient management of hospital
timely & accurate patient INFORMATION
OPTIMUM USE of HOSPITAL RESOLRCES
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
Vi)
ii)
Viii)
ix)
x)
xi)
xii)
xiii)
xiv)
PATIENT ADMISSION
A Ja \
i
patient fBilling 11
NURSE STATION
INVESTIGATIVE LABORATORY / DIAGNOSTICS
OUTPATIENT MANAGEMENT
OPERATION THEATRE & FACILITY MANAGEMENT
MEDICAL RECORDS
PHARMACY /MANAGEMENT
-MEDICAL INSURANCE
FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING
PAYROLL TIME 8. ALLOWANCE SYSTEM
PURCHASE 8. INVENTORY CONTROL
EQUIPMENT MAINTENANCE
KITCHEN MANAGEMENT
a* ■
'L-
w
- MODULES
■
■
-
■t’
■
■
■
o ■
W'
w
■
/
■
:■>&'
r
x
f'
ll
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■
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•
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IP II
5
J■
\ r
OUST TO MAINIAJN HUMAN FOi<CE AN A GOftlPANY
P JEER
BOOM A'AIRT /ABA FICWA aMBIM CI A
•/
THE COST OF MAINTAINING PERSONNEL IN A COMPANY IS VERY HUGE PARTICU
LARLY IN VIEW Or THE rAGT THaT aLL CAPTAINS OF INDUSTRY .\ND THOSE WHO
ARE AT THE NATIONAL DECISION /MAKING LEVEL HAVE GOiWE TO REALISE THAT
•HUMANS ARE THE BEST ASSETS AN INDUSTRY CAN HAVE AND WITH AN ORGANISED
HLP4AN SET UP A COMPANY CAN ACHIEVE COMMANDING HEIGHTS OF COMPETITIVE
POSITION IN THE INDUSTRY. 0
IT Has been said that all "excellent companies" are well run
COMPANIES HAVEING GOOD PEOPLE TO WORK. ON THE CONTRARY A DISGRUNTLED
SET OF TO4Ai4 BEINGS IN A COMP AW WHILE A SET OF HAPPY PEOPLE AmE
SUPPOSED TO BE THE MOST ECONOMICAL GROUP IN THE ORGANISATION.
IN A DEVELOPING ECONOMY LIKE IN INDIA NON-MONETARY INCENTIVES DO NOT
MOTIVATE ALL THE MEMBERS OF THE GROUP IN THE SAME FaSHION AND TO THE
SAME EXTENT. MOST INCENTIVES ARE THEREFORE MONETARY INCENTIVES.
=W£TARY incentives fall into three broad CATEGORIES J
V
1) MONTHLY
11) ANNUAL
111) OTHERS
BESIDES EMOLUMENTS | PERQUISITES J INCENTIVES • SOME INDUSTRIAL WORKERS
ARE ALSO ENTITLED FOR SOME EXTRAORDINARY TER&UNAL BENEFITS APART FROM
sr9 Gratuity, lic, gis etc.
1) JjSkJSX EMPLOYEES DEPOSIT LINKED INSURANCE SCHEME. EMPLOYEE
DOES NOT SUBSCRIBE ANY AMOUNT FOR THE FUND. A SUM OF
b 10500 IS PAID TO DECEASED EMPLOYEE’S SURVIVING SPOUSE OR
CHILDREN ON PRODUCTION OF DEATH CERTIFICATE THROUGH UNIT
OFFICER, STAFF ME/ABERS, SUPERVISORS & MANAGERS ARE ENTITI£D
TO THIS BENEFIT. IN CASE OF NORMAL RETIRE/AENT NO BENEFIT
ACCRUES.
*1)
STAFF BENEVOLENT THRIFT SCHEME. STAFF MEMBERjSUPERVISOR
SUBSCRIBES Rs 20/- PER MONTH . MAN AGERS SUBSCRIBE Es 40/- P.M
' -ON'DEATH A SUM OF Rs 20000 IN CASE OF STAFF MEMBER)SUPERVISOR
AND fis 40000 IN CASE OF MANAGERS IS PAID ON PRODUCTION OF DEATH
CBRTIFICATE. IF DEATH OCCURS DUE TO ’ACCIDENT’ TO ANY
EMPLOYEE OF THE CORPORATION, THE BENEFICIARIES ARE PAID
ADDITIONAL AMOUNT OF Es 15000/-. IN CASE OF RETIREMENT, THE
AMOUNT SUBSCRIBED TOGETHER WITH INTEREST <3 6% P.A IS REFlfriDED.
1*1
COST TO MAINTAIN HUMAN
FORCE IN A COMPANY
ill)
STAFF MUTUAL BENEFIT FUND. STAFF MEMBERS |
SUPERVISORS SUBSCRIBE Rs 5/-PM. ON DEATH OF ANY OF THESE
TWO CATEGORIES A SUM OF fc 3000/- IS PAID WITHIN TWO
MONTHS ON PRODUCTION OF DEATH CERTIFICATE. IN CASE OF
RETIREMENT b 2500 IS PAID WITHIN ONE MONTH OF RETIREMENT,
THIS FUND IS MANAGED BY EMPLOYEES UNION.
JOANS & ADVANCESt STAFF MEMBERS SUPERVISORS & MANAGERS
ARE ENTITLED FOR THE FOLLOWING LOANS AND ADVANCES*
1) CAR|SCOOTER LOANS TO MANAGERS
U) SCOOTER(MOPED LOANS TO STAFF MEMBERS &
ill)
iv)
v)
SUPERVISORS
HOUSE BUILDING ADVANCE TO ALL EMPLOYEEfi
LAND PROCUREMENT ADVANCE TO ALL EMPLOYEES
DOMESTIC FURNITURE ADVANCE TO ALL MANAGERS
(Rs 15000 - Rs 30000)
---- ==1~
—■
IN CASE OF DEATH (ACCIDENT OR OTHERWISE) OF ANY EMPLOYEE BALANCE OF
LOAN & INTEREST PAYABLE BY HIM (HER IS WRITTEN OFF.
THE GONCEPT Cff •MODEL EMPLOYER" HAS BEEN ADVOCATED FOR PUBLIC
SECTOR WDERTAKINGS. PROTAGONISTS OF THIS CONCEPT ALWAYS FEEL THAT
COMPARED TO THE REST OF THE WORLD A MODEL EMPLOYER WILL PAY THE
MAXIARM BENEFITS TO HIS EMPLOYEES. THIS IS A RELATIVE CONCEPT & EACH
COMPANY HAS ITS OWN SET OF FRINGE BENEFITS WHICH ARE GIVEN TO ITS
EMPLOYEES DEPENDING UPON THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND, THE CUSTOM,
THE USAGE AND THE FACTOR OF ACCEPTABILITY BY THE UNIONS IN THAT
PARTICULAR PART OF THE COUNTRY.
*1*
I
PERSONNEL COST
121
SL
NO
TOTAL
AMJUNT
ITEM
%
-o 5"
C OTHERS
11? SCHOOL FEES FOR
CHILDREN
20 CHILD CARL CENTRE
26.39
21
STAFF BENEFIT FU8iD
2.91
22
RECfiEATION &
CULTURAL ACTIVITIES
24
SUBSIDY TO QJ-OP
SOCIETIES
TOTAL
GHANB TOTAL
0.43
3.73
228*44
23 OTiiERS
1
0.1
1*0
0.01
261.91
1.11
21773.96
100.0
gy-wax
ft/Crores
%
1) MONTHLY
PAYMENTS
177.70
81.7
it) annual payments
37.42
17.2
iU) OTHER PAYMENTS
2.62
1.1
217.74
100.0
TOTAL
PERSONNEL COST. A AWEL
SL
A
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
ITEM
PAY
DEARNESS ALLOWANCE
CCA & liRA
TRZiVELLING ALLOWANCE
OVERTURE ALLOWANCE
OTHER ALLOWANCE
EQUALISATION
SAI ETY MAINTENANCE
allowance
MEDICIt^S
INCENTIVES
10a PRODUCTION INCENTIVES
11 TRAINING OF DEPT.
PERSONNEL
12 INTERIM RELIEF
TOTAL
TOTAL
amount
%
7238.05
7155.88
1146.38
709.58
259.19
150.15
145.22
33.2
32.8
5.3
3.3
1.2
0.^7
0.7
7.05
103.36
730.93
76.35
•S9
0.5
3.3
0.4
58.62
0.02
0.3
17770.38
81.7
b
aemual paymentst
13
ex-gratia
1151.96
5.3
14
E.vGASHMSNT
462.91
2.1
15
EDLIF*
53.03
0.2
16
CONTRISUIION TO
GRATUITY
709.06
3.3
EMPLOYER’S CONTRI
BUTION TO PF
1107.05
5.1
UNIIORM
257.61
1.2
TOT.X
3741.67
17.2
y-iSL-J-- 0&
°18- ‘’I
17
18
(*) EMPLOYEES DEPOSIT LINKED INSURAI-JGE FUND (EDLIF)
K'X'.VJ RESOURCE ACCOUNTING
(WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO INDIA)
BY
F JEER
BOOM AMIRT MBA FIGWA AM3.IM CIA FII.^
'
1
■
™
■■-7'
■
.T”',
A VERY VITAL AND INDISPENSABT E IN
OF
sma. w
ZMFORT/Ma
«J.'
j -o
.
RseouBcwf tahmbib /ssets ■ land
WnDItrsS, TLANT &MACmNHRY, EQUIPMENT, FURNJTURR 8. FIXTUFFSk
t
<Ff., .a > ;'s-P,Q6f;“;
M'
4
<
TO THE A
r
DESISIOH
PACKAGES) has NOT BEEN GIVEN SO F/R
WING FOR EJ^AN RESOURCES.
2 EVEN THE PRSFESSIOW, ACCOUNTANTS HAVE
NOT BEEN ABLE TO DEVELOP
A SET OF CRITERIA TO MEASURE THE value of hisian resources in an
ORGANISATION. HENCE THEY ARE W ABLE TO SHOW VALUE OF HU&UN
RESOLRCE IN THE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS.
3 IT IS AMUSING TO ®TE THAT I---WHILE SMALL ITEMSOF FURNITURE OR
TYFEtFRITER OR A CALCULATING MACHINE
------ i IS VALUED AND put ON THE
Balance sheet as an asset, iBUT
— _IRE ACQUISITION OR DEVELOFiiENT
COST OF EVEN THE
-- i ls
WOT REFLECTED AT ALL.
\
4 MAT IS REQUIRED TO SHOW THE IteUN RESOURCE IN FINANCIAL
STATS-eENTS AS ASSET IS THE DEVEIDPHENT OF STAND/RDS TO MEASURE
THS VMUB OF WMN RgsoOMB M FiKANC^X r-FOMBS AND “ AN Izd
TO MAMGERIAL DEGIf W^’WaN3;
5
KIY ERA IS RECEIVING ATTENTION*
1) THERE IS GEWJMB NF..ED FOR RELIABLE AND COMPLETE
I&EWATZQM WIM CAN BE USED IN I/-1PR0VING AND
EVALUATING THE MANAGEMENT OF HUMAN RESOURCE.
• •2)
6
HUMAN RESOURCE ACCOUNTING •
12*
11) THE TRADITIONAL FRAMEWORK
OF ACCOUNTING IS IN THE
PROCESS OF BEING EXPANDED TO INCLUDE A BROADER SET OF
STANDARDS OF MEASUREMENT TO MEASURE
J AND RECORD HUMAN
resource.
f
.
/r
1) *HRA IS ACCOUNTING FOR PEOPLE <
AS AN ORGANISATIONAL
RBSOURQg. If involves measuring the O
COST INCURRED by
BUSINESS FIRMfe AND OTHER ORGANISATIONS
, I TP RECRUIT*
SELECT* HIRE* TRAIN AND> fDEVELOP HUMAN ASSETS'. IT ALSO
I*WIVES MEASURING the ECONOMIC VALUE OF PEOPLE TO THE
OKGANXSATIQN*.
•ERIC FLAMHOLIz
11) *HRA IS THE PROVES <jf
IDENTIFYING AND MEASURING DATA
WIS »*«
ABOUT
HUMAN RESOURCES
» XNTWSKD
FAKnBS.r
•AMERICAN ACCOUNTING ASSOCIATION
7
W
"" ~
■
IN MEASURING STANDARD COST OF
seusnoHs, kmwj * iB^wMa reom «©
IMS mumSATWM CM! SBMCT A PEBSON WITH HIGHEST
expected realisable value
HUM AM RF?
TO KNOW WHETHER
Atafi_____
*®*NAN RESOURCES ARB '
R8™“ « COMWMSON 1
TO PmsHT MAM TO THEM WHETHER THEY ARB OVEBPAXD
___ J AND
UNDERPAID.
wvcrfaw
1V> ^WI0N OT "UMAM
13 ABSowrar essentiai in
such organisation where the human element is PHIME fXr
BG. A PROFESSIONAL A
V) THE INCLUSION OF RELEVANT HUMAN RESOURCE DATA WOULD
CREATE A MORE COMPLETE MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM.
Br
Iff
Ir
T
tai
[
”
F
&IMAN RESOURCE ACCOUNTING
"»r»h"= z:~~;;
a
Vi) THE VALUE i
ISATION’S HUMAN
helpful TO
HAJCIN3 WM3-TERM INVESTMENT
------ ' DEGISIGNS.
DRGAIiXSaTIONS WHICH HAVE i-----OaVBWPBD KHAI) i^ARAT HEAVY TUCTRICaZs'
li) CEMENT (QORPORAIXON
-----of INDIA LIMITED
ill) PROJECT &L [EQUIPMENT
------CORPORATION OF INDIA LIMITED
iv) ENGINEERS INDIA LIMITED
v) THE MINERALS & METALS 7.
> TRADING CORPORATION OF INDIA LTD.
vl) ELFCTRONIGS GQRKJRATIGH
. —J OF INDIA LTD.
Vil) STf L AHTtORITY GF INDIA LTD.
VLSI) HliuJSTAN SHXJYW
9 HUMAN RESOURCE AGQDUJiTlNG
INVOLVES i) capitalisation
(wuxsition co^IX^XXT*" sX^n
2™^“asis “
*
il) RECORDING THE N3RHAL
«®, ’JSUA1. expiration on THE basis
OF AMORTISATION
in) recording losses CUE TO LABOUR TUIWVER OR OUTDATED
SKILLS AND
lv) REQD1WING THE
9
oRCANESAnoN
SU°XXXT “IWIN
«“X^ZriS 00MSJSIS <* acquisition,
& IBBMJMtxpn costs.
1) THE QDNC3PT OF HRA IS
bEVSWWTAL stage
STILL Al THE EXPERIMENTAL &
H) VW FE3 ORGWSATIQ^ HAVE
rations
XNTH£HX.ICgD IN BEVHLOF'ED
ill) HRa IS STILL
NBW i MUCH BESEAHCH IS NECESSARY
iv) THERE IS AS T
¥BT 10 UNIVERSAUY ACCEPTED METOd of
human asset valuation,.
EVEN IF HRA IS IN ITS INFANCY NOTHING PROHIBITS
obcanisateon from attsmp™ to inttoX L
REFINE THE SYSTEM AS THE ORGANISATION PROCEEDS INTO
experienced years.
-ff
•. -■■A/-/.
,
AUDITING OF HUMAN RESOURCES
♦
SY
P JEER
BOOM AMIRT MBA FICWA AMBIM CIA F " m m
THE ACCOUNTANTS BELONG :NG TO DIFFERENT SCHOOLS OF THOUGHTAND COMING
• From various backgroun )S HAVE BEEN SHARING INCREASING CONCERN IN THE
recent years for some j ORT OF ‘•VALUATION’’ OF HUMAN RESOURCES IM an
INDUSTRIAL unit.
.THERE ARE A NUMBER OF APPROACHES AND NUMBER OF VALUATION MODELS
DEVELOPED BY SOCIAL SCIENTISTS REPRESENTING DIVERSE DISCIPLINES.
PROTAGONISTS OF HUMAN RESOURCES ACCOUNTING (HRA) HAVE BEEN STRESSING
ON THE IMPORTANCE OF HUMAN RESOURCES GOST AND HUMAN RESOURCES VALUE.
HLB4AN RESOURCES IS THF MOST VITAL COMPONENT OF ANY SOCIAL SYSTEM AND
ORGANISATION.
■ PLANTS, OFFICES, COMPUTERS, AUTOMATED EQUIPMENT AND ALL
ELSE THAT A MODERN FIRM USES ARE UNPRODUCTIVE EXCEPT FOR
. HUMAN EFFORT AND DIRECTION"
-a LIKERT
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THE ENTIRE SYSTEM OF ANY ORGANISATION IS UN
QUESTIONABLY BASED ON THE STATE OF HEALTH OF ITS HUMAN RESOURCES
SYSTEM (HRS). HRS OPERATES MEASURING THE PROCESS OF TRANSFORMATION
OF HUMAN INPUTS INTO HUMAN OUTPUTS - MEASURABLE IN TERMS OF "VALUE
ADDED" TO THE OPERATIONAL EFFICIENCY.
WMAN RESOURCES INPUTS AHRI) ARE VALUE OF ENERGY, COMPETENCE, SKILLS
AND TALENTS ETC. OF INDIVIDUALS, GROUPS AND TOTAL HUMAN ORGANISATION.
HUMAN RESOURCES OUTPUTS (HRO) ARE PHYSICAL OR MENTAL CREATIVE OR
MECHANICAL ROUTINE SERVICES RENDERED AND COMMITMENT OF THE
INDIVIDUALS AND GROUPS TO THE ORGANISATION AS A WHOLE.
THE TRANSFORMATION PROCESS OF HUMAN RESOURCES INPUTS (HRT) INTO
DESIRED HUMAN RESOURCES OUTPUTS CAN BE IDEiVTIFlED AS ACQUIRING,
TRAINING, UTILISING, EVALUATING, COMPENSATING AND EFFECTIVELY
DEVELOPING SKILLS ON A CONTINUOUS BASIS OR ALL HUMAN FORCE IN THE
organisation.
Traditional accounting has developed certain quantitative data
HBLATIHG-TO
ITS MAN-POWER AS UNDER:
1
1,
ii
iii
iv
vi
vii
number of employees
AVERAGE CAPITAL EMPLOYED PER EMPLOYEE
AVERAGE MONTHLY EMOLUMENTS PER EMPLOYEE
VALUE OF PRODUCTION PER MAN-MONTH
VALUE ADDED PER MAN-MONTH
AVERAGE MONTHLY SALES PER EMPLOYEE
PERCENTAGE OF MAN-POWER COST TO COST OF PRODUCTION
' Y. -.ci, , ■,
.
|
;2:
:2:
AUDITING OF HUMAN RESOURCES
ORGANISATION'S ACCOUNTING INFORMATION SYSTEM SHOULD GENERATE
RELATIVE
I^QRMATION RELATING TO-
t • "
C ' ' ' >"
.
i
i) INVESTMENT ON HUMAN RESOURCES
ii) VALUE OF HUMAN RESOURCES
• iii) CONTRIBUTlbN OF
HUMAN RESOURCES TOWARDS GOAL
■ACHIEVEMENT
IN USIA SEVEN FUNCTIONAL CAPITAL ACCOUNTS TO MEASURE INVESTMENT IN
HUMAN RESOURCES WERE developed -
r-
1) RECRUITING OUTLAY COSTS
ii) ACQUISITION COSTS
iii) ' FORMAL TRAINING AND FAMILIARISATION COSTS
iv) INFORMAt TRAINING COSTS
v) FAMILIARISATION COSTS
vi) EXPERIENCE - BUILDING INVESTMENT COSTS
vii) DEVELOPMENT COSTS
THERE ARE TWO BASIC APPROACHES FOR BUILDING MODELS FOR VALUATION CF
HUMAN RESOURCES:
|
i) COST APPROACHES
ii) present value approaches
COST APPROACHES;
' •
THE THREE MOST I/^ORTANT COST APPROACH MODELS ARE-
i)
ii)
iii)
HISTORICAL COST
REPLACEMENT COST
OPPORTUNITY COST
i) HISTORICAL COST MODEL; RECRUITMENT, HIRING 8. TRAINING COSTS
RECEIVE MAJOR ATTENTION UNDER THIS MODEL. COSTS INCURRED AND
REFLECTED IN BOOKS ARE EASILY DETERMINED UNDER THIS MODEL.
ii) REPLACEMENT COST MODEL; THE COSTS OF REPLACEMENT OF A PRESENT
EMPLOYEE WITH A PERSON OF EQUAL ABILITY & CAPABILITIES. THIS
MODEL CONSIDERS THE PERFORMANCE OF AN INDIVIDUAL.
iii) OPPORTUNITY GOST MPPEL; UNDER THIS MODEL ANY RESOURCE HAS VALUE
W-ONLY WHEN THERE IS AN ALTERNATIVE USE FOR THAT RESOURCE. IF AN
INDIVIDUAL EMPLOYEE HAS A BID FROM ANY OTHER ORGANISATION THAT BID
SHOULD BE QUANTIFIED AND COMPARED 'WITH THE PRESENT LEVEL OF
EMOLUMENTS DRAWN BY HIM.
..3)
I
:3:
AUDITING OF HUMAN RESOURCES
PHS?£NT VALUE APPROACHF-S—
. .. --------
the basic assumption under THIS APPROACH IS THAT THE VALUE OF AN
employee to an organisation
refers to the services the organisation will
SET FROM HIM IN FUTURE. the ECONOMIC value CONCEPTS SUGGESTIONS DIS
COUNTING ON EMPLOYEES• OF EARNINGS FOR FUTURE SERVICES TO ARRIVE AT
present value of the EMPLOYEE TO THE ORGANISATION.
there ARE FOUR
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
IMPORTANT MODELS UNDcR PRESENT
VALUE APPROACH:
PRESENT VALUE OF future earnings model
STOCHASTIC (RAND0T4) rewards valuation model
ECONOMIC VALUE MODEL OF GROUP BASIS
adjusted PRESENT value MODEL
E£.E£ENT Value of future earnings ___
.MODEL; IN FUTURE SERVICES OF AN
employee Can be assessed and the period
FOR WHICH THE EMPLOYEE WILL
CONTINUE 1with
-<ITH THE
TH£ (organisation
is known /ITH EXACTITUDE, THEN THE
value re the organisation OF HIS, FUTURE EARNINGS
-----i FROM T.Rv
ORGANISATION.
ii) SIOCHASTIC (RANDOM) VALUATI
’
ON MODEL: THE ULTIMATE
MEASURE OF Al'j
INDIVIDUAL value TO an organisation
IS THE EXPECTED REALISABLE VaLIE
IE. THE PRESENT WORTH OF FUTURE SERVICES EXPECTED
TO BE RENDERED.
A) ECONOMIC V^ .IIR of GROUP BA^TS:
IN THIS MODEL GROUP BASIS FOR
valuation of human RESOURCES IS SUGGESTED.
THE Gx-lOUP HERE REFERS IO
the homogeneous GROUP OF EMPLOYEES.
iv) adjusted prfrent .VaLUE MODEL: HUMAN RESOURCES MUST BE REJORTED AS UTS
assets in financial STaTEMiENTS and OFFERED A MODEL with A VIEW TO
quantifying value OF HUMAN CAPITAL IN AN ORGANISATION.
Vinalae
WHATEVER METHOD IS (ADOPTED
-TO CAPITAL HUMAN RESOURCES IN THE
ACCOUNTS,
■WORKABLE BASIS OF AUDITIN
AUDITING^ THE DATA SHOULD BE DEVELOPED SO
MO REPORTING TO MANAGEMENTlo
THAT AUDITING
- —.-'lOF A CONTINUOUS BASIS
SHOULD BE EVOLVED.
I
H r-
Burnout
Dr V N Rao, M^.^psw.BiMs.MCH.Ph.p
Dr R Parthasarathy, MA.DPSW.Ph D,
he dictionary meaning of
'burnout’ is to destroy by means
of burning or to bum till the
fire dies down from want of fuel. The
word is derived from the idea that once a
rocket has burnt up its fuel, it is of no
use, though it may continue to circulate
in space.
The word is presently applied to a
serious pliase in the life of some personnel
working in various organizations. They
are utterly bored with their job
assignments, and do not get involved in
any of the activities. Tliough they come
on time to the office, they will be either
looking at the watch or the clock all the
time. Interacting with their colleagues do
not interest them.
If forced into conversation, they tend
to inject a sense of pessimism and
frustration into the listeners. They
consider the society in general and the
organization in particular to be useless and
meaningless. They are always totally
exhausted. In fact, they are liabilities to
their organizations. Such people are
frquently found in human service
agencies.
Experts in the field of human resource
management have suggested that there are
many who suffer from burnout. It is good
to be aware of what creates such a crisis
in one’s career.
• Doing the same type of work over
and over again with little or no variation
• Giving a great deal of one’s own
emotional and personal energy to others
while getting very little back
• Being under constant pressure to
produce results in a certain time-scale
30
when the time-scale and the pressure are
unrealistic.
• Working with a difficult group, for
example with those who are highly
resistant to change. Working with people
who have been 'sent’ for help, but who do
not wish to be helped. Facilitating people
whose chances of change are small
because of the nature of their difficulties
(for example, the terminally ill, or victims
of disaster or persons with multiple
handicaps).
• The absence of support from
immediate colleagues and an abundance
of criticism. This might be called “the
atmosphere of certain doubt.”
• Lack of trust between those who
engage in helping and those who manage
the organizational resources that make
helping possible - a feature sometimes
present in voluntary organizations.
• Not having the opportunity to take
new directions, to develop one’s own
approach or to experiment with new
models of working and being
unnecessarily constrained.
• Having few opportunities for
training, continuing education,
supervision or support.
• Unresolved personal conflicts
beyond the helping and counselling work
which interfere with the helper’s ability
to be effective. For example, mental
problems, health problems, utter poverty,
alcoholism, drug abuse, chronic mental
illnesses etc.
Anyone who wants to avoid a burnout
needs to consider the following preventive
measures as suggested by Filip Bumard
(1995):
• vary your work as much as possible.
• consider your education and training
needs and plan ahead
• take care of your physical health
• consider new ways of doing your
work and try them out
• develop an effective supervision or
peer support system
• nurture your friendships and
relationships with others
• develop a range of interests away
from work
• attend ‘refresher’ workshops
occasionally as a means of'updating’ and
also as a means of experiencing new ideas
and methods.
• initiate your own projects without
relying on others to approve them
• seek positive and reliable feed-back«
on your performance from other people.
If we are to avoid burnout and
subsequent disillusionment with the task
of human services, it is vital that we have
an adequate peer-support system. The
building of a network of support
throughout the career is necessary if it is
to function effectively and caringly. In
order to care effectively for others, we
must learn to care for ourselves.
Let us learn positive principles of
health and mental health, and adopt
healthy life-styles, effective coping and
stress management and integrate them into
our personal and professional lives so that
our services may be of high quality and
order. ■
The authors are Additional Professors of
Psychiatric Social Work. N1MHANS.
Bangalore 560 029
Health Action • December '98
* >
Hi- HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
M=4
M-l.l
Motivation to work, In-house Programme on “Management of Human
Resources” for Catholic Hospitals Association of India, Sept 27 - 29,
1990, Secundrabad, Professional Management and Engineering
Consultants, pl - 9.
M-1.2
”
~
Man Power Planning, -In-House
Programme: on “Mangement of Human
Resources” for Catholic Hospitals Association of India, September 27 29, 1990, Secundrabad, Professional Management and Engineering
Consultants, pl - 9.
M- 1.3
*'
"Programme: on “Management of
Auditing of Human Resources, -In-House
Human Resources” for Catholic Hospitals Association of India, Sept 27 29, 1990, Secundrabad, Professional Management and Engineering
Consultants, pl - 6.
M- 1.4
Human Resource Development — An Approach, In-House Programme on
“Management of Human Resources” for Catholic Hospitals Association of
India, Sept 27 - 29, 1990, Secundrabad, Professional Management and
Engineering Consultants, pl - 6.
M-1.5
"
“Programme; on “Management of Human
Introducing a Change, -In-House
for
Catholic
Hospitals
Association of India, Sept 27 - 29,
Resources” 1
1990, Secundrabad, Professional Management and Engineering
Consultants, pl - 4.
M-1.6
Management Development and Training Need Policy, In-House
Programme on “Management of Human Resources for Catholic Hospitals
Association of India, Sept 27 - 29, 1990, Secundrabad, Professional
Management and Engineering Consultants, pl - 6.
M- 1.7
' '
*In-House
"
1 on “Management of
Managing Industrial' ~Relations,
programme
Human Resources” for Catholic Hospitals Association of India, Sept 27 29, 1990, Secundrabad, Professional Management and Engineering
Consultants, pl -13.
M- 1.8
Some Characteristics of Unhealthy and Healthy Organisations, In-House
Professional on “Management of Human Resources” for Catholic
Hospitals Association of India, Sept 27 - 29, 1990, Secundrabad,
Professional Management and Engineering Consultants, pl - 4.
M-1.9
Cost for Maintaining Human Force in a Company - A View Point, InHouse Programme on “Management of Human Resources” for Catholic
Hospitals Association of India, Sept XI - 29, 1990, Secundrabad,
Professional Management and Engineering Consultants, pl - 3.
M-1.10
Dr. Ranjit Pandey, M.D., D.C.H., Consultant, Management of Conflicts in
Hospitals, pl - 4.
M- 1.11
Self Development Plans for Professional Effectiveness and Growth - A
Methodology, pl - 3.
M- 1.12
Development Plan for Subordinates - A Methodology, In-House
Programme on “Management of Human Resources” for Catholic Hospitals
Association of India, Sept 27 - 29, 1990, Secundrabad, Professional
Management and Engineering Consultants,! pl - 3.
M-1.13
Quality Circle — ‘Impact on Productivity’, In-House Programme on
"Management of Human Resources” for Catholic Hospitals Association of
India, Sept 27 - 29, 1990, Secundrabad, Professional Management and
Engineering Consultants, pl - 4.
M- 1.14
Role of the Hospital Administrator, Dr. Ranjit Pandey, 27th Sept 1990
Pl-3.
M- 1.15
A Special Programme on “Management of Human Resources” Catholic
Hospitals Association of India, Time- Table, Sept 27 - 29, 1990, pl - 3.
M-1.16
Course on Management of Human Resources, 27 - 30 September, 1990
At CHM, List of Participants, p 1 - 2.
M-1.17
Notepad, Dr. SPT Notes.
M-1.18
Hospital Information System, Auditing of Human Resources, Jeer. B.
Pl -9.
Mi.w I>y Ketiii urijjin and published by Macmillan
ALTERNATIVE STRATEGIES FOR ECONOMIC DEVELOFMENT
MSI™?.I»rrAALITY ‘N PAKISTAN («''">'■
Rahman Khan)
CHINESEPZn™deA(X)CONOM'C DEVELO™ENT -N THE
INTERNATIONAL INEQUALITY AND NATIONAL POVERTY
LAND CONCENTRATION AND RURAL POVERTY
T1EAE|°/?,?MIC DEVELOPMENT OF BANGLADESH (cdihfor with
THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF AGRARIAN CHANGE
T° EGALITARIAN DEVELOPMENT (with Jeffrey James}
WORLD HUNGER AND THE WORLD ECONOMY
J
Also by John Knight
ANI>
Human Development and
the International
Development Strategy
for the 1990s
. .......
I
Edited by
Keith Griffin
!
Piofessor and Chairman, Economics Department
University of California, Riverside
and
John Knight
Senior Research Officer
Institute of Economics and Statistics, University of Oxford
i
■■■■■I
RUCA-BIBLIOTHEEK
03 01 0041943 8
M „.
MACMILLAN
the United Nations
r
xz./zicnaivft vu/iiiicu i^auuns puuucanon, dales no. BO.lli.u.Z), p. 20.
For evidence that participation raises the return on physical capital and
increases the productivity of labour, see Conrad Phillip Kottak, “When people don’t
come first; some sociological lessons from completed projects” (Washington, D.C.,
World Bank, 1985); and David C. Korten, “Community organization for rural
OCctobePrmCnl: 3 learn‘n8 process aPProach”» Public Administration Review (September-
'L
DEVELOPMENT AS CAPABILITY EXPANSION
Amartya Sen*
19 Robert Cassen, “Population and development: a survey”, World Development
vol. 4, Nos. 10/11 (1976), pp. 788-796.
See J. Gaude and others, "Rural development and labour-intensive schemes:
SlUdy °f S°me pi,Ot Pr°8rarnmes”. International Labour Review (July-August
1987).
21M. E. Lockhead, D. T. Jamison and L. J. Lau, “Farmer education and farm
37 76enCy 3 SUrVey”’ £conomic Development and Cultural Change, vol. 29 (1980), pp.
CONTENTS
Page
Introduction
The capability approach: conceptual roots
Commodities, functionings and capability
Utilitarian calculus versus objective deprivation
Ambiguities, precision and relevance
........
Quality of life, basic needs and capability
Rawls, primary goods and freedoms
Freedom, capability and data limitations
Inequality, class and gender
Conclusion
Daniel Cotlear, The effects of education on farm productivity: a case study
from Peru” (1987).
J
^R’ P- Dore> The Diploma Disease. Education. Qualification and Development
(London, George Allen and Unwin, 1976).
Jere Behrman and Nancy Birdsall, “The quality of schooling: quantity alone
may be misleading”, American Economic Review, vol. 73, No. 5 (1983), pp. 928-946.
25 Jocelyn Dejong and John Oxenham, “The quality of education in developing
countries (1987).
6
26 World Population Prospects. Estimates and Projections as Assessed in 1984
(United Nations publication, Sales No. E.86.XIII.3).
y Figures from G. A. Cornia, "Investing in human resources: health, nutrition and
development for the 1990s” (November 1987).
28Cited in Cornia, op. cit., p. 23.
^Economic and Social Survey of Asia and the Pacific 1986 (United Nations
publication, Sales No. E.87.II.F. 1), part two, p. 171.
J0See G. A Cornia, “Social policy making during adjustment”, in Human
Development. Adjustment and Growth. Khadija Haq and Uner Kirdar, eds. (Islamabad
North-South Round-table, 1987), pp. 85-88.
Jl United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, C
Office of
Statistics, The Current Literacy Situation in the World (Paris, May 1987),„ P- 4.
32 N. J. Kurian, “IRDP—how relevant is it?” (May 1987), p. 7.
33See Keith Griffin and Jeffrey James, The Transition to Egalitarian Development
(London, Macmillan, 1981), chap. 4.
34 World Bank, World Development Report 1987 .
35 International Labour Organisation, Employment, Incomes and Equality A
Strategy for Increasing Productive Employment in Kenya (Geneva, 1972), p. 226.
. 3 Se,e Hernando de Soto, El Otro Sendero: La Revolution Informal (Lima
Editorial El Barranco, 1986). See also Victor Tokman, “The informal sector today: a
policy proposal", paper presented to the Round-table in Managing Human Develop
ment, Budapest, 6-9 September 1987.
41
43
43
44
45
46
47
48
51
54
Introduction
In his Grundlegung zur Metaphysik de Sitten, Immanuel Kant
argues for the necessity of seeing human beings as ends in themselves,
rather than as means to other ends: “So act as to treat humanity,
whether inlhine own person or in that of any other, inFevery case~as
an end withal, never as means only.This principle has importance
m many contexts—even in analysing poverty, progress and planning.
Human beings are the agents, beneficiaries and adjudicators of
progress, but they also happen to be—directly or indirectly—the
primary means of all production. This dual role of human beings
provides a rich ground for confusion of ends and means in planning
and policy-making. Indeed, it can—and frequently does—take the
form of focusing on production and prosperity as the essence of
progress, treating people as the means through which that productive
progress is brought about (rather than seeing the lives of people as the
ultimate concern and treating production and prosperity merely as
means to those lives).
Indeed, the widely prevalent concentration on the expansion of
real income and on economic growth as the characteristics of
successful development can be precisely an aspect of the mistake
against which Kant had warned. This problem is particularly pivotal
in the assessment and planning of economic development. The
♦Lamont University Professor, Harvard University.
40
41
if-
problem does not, of course, lie in the fact thu th
■ r
economic prosperity is tvoicallv
u
• 1 the Pursuit of
and policy-making This need nnt h
^ea ™ajor ^oal of planning
problem relates to the level aj wh ch th'"
“enable. The8
goal. Is it just an inter^
Sh°U,d be taken as a
means, we have to face the issue of identification of ends, in terms of
which the effectiveness of the means can be systematically assessed.
This paper is concerned with discussing the nature and implications of that general task.
The capability approach: conceptual roots
achie^lmenToTLcono^k
n° 8reat Practical interest if the
thing like a one-to-one corresoonden
linked-in somehves of the people. If that were the case6 thw the m °f ten"ching the
prosperity as an end in itself Lhtu ’
pursuit of economic
been, in effect, indistingu hablXj'0"8 ,n Pr,nCiple’ might have
the end of enrichine En 1 f o
“ only as a means to
obtain. Countries with high CNP Ut
f6*31’00 does not
astonishingly low ach evSSnSVTth" Ca?It3
nevertheless have
the population being sXct to
°f Hfe-\ith
bulk of
morbidity, overwhelming illiteracy and so“on
‘y' escaPable
six cium^sK"en7nX?2ngPrOhhem’ ‘t?6 GNF Per CaPita of
level of life expectancy at^ binh.
country’s respective
H
Table 1. Economic PROSPERITY AND LIFE EXPECTANCY, 1985
Country
China ....................
Sri Lanka
Brazil
South Africa
Mexico
Oman ....................
expeclancy a, binh
------------ GNP per capita
3,0
380
1 64O
2 010
2 °80
6 730
Source:
—World
>vOr,aDevelop
Dmlopmen, ^,987^ York> Oxtor(J
69
“
t
five or six times the GNP^er caoita nPs” ,lfe-,South Africa, with
much lower longevity rate and thf™ °f Srl,Lanka or China, has a
Brazil, Mexico Oman and Ind.
apP'leS ln different Ws to
included in this table
d t0 many °,her countries not
The particular line of reasoning that will be pursued here is based
on evaluating social change in terms of the richness of human life
resulting from it. But the quality of human life is .itself a matter of
great complexity. The approach that will be used here, which is
sometimes called the “capability approach’’, sees human life as a set
of doings and beings”—we may call them “functionings”—and it
relates the evaluation of the quality of life to the assessment of the
capability to function. It is an approach that I have tried to explore in
some detail, both conceptually and in terms of its empirical
imp ications 2 The roots of the approach go back at least to Adam
amitn and Karl Marx, and indeed to Aristotle.
In investigating the problem of “political distribution”, Aristotle
ma4d!ueXtunS.1V^ USe Of his analysis of “the good of human beings”
and this he linked with his examination of “the functions of man”
and his exploration of “life in the sense of activity”.3 The Aristotelian
theory is, of course, highly ambitious and involves elements that go
well beyond this particular issue (e.g., it takes a specific view of
human nature and relates a notion of objective goodness to it). But
the argument for seeing the quality of life in terms of valued activities
and the capability to achieve these activities has much broader
relevance and application.
v A1?008 the classical political economists, both Adam Smith and
Karl Marx explicitly discussed the importance of functionings and
the capability to function as determinants of well-being.4 Marx’s
approach to the question was closely related to the Aristotelian
analysis (and indeed was apparently directly influenced by it).5
Indeed, an important part of Marx’s programme of reformulation of
the foundations of political economy is clearly related to seeing the
success of human life in terms of fulfilling the needed human
activities. Marx put it thus: “It will be seen how in place of the wealth
and poverty of political economy come the rich human being and
rich human need. The rich human being is simultaneously the human
being in need of a totality of human life-activities—the man in whom
his own realization exists as an inner necessity, as need.”6
Commodities, functionings and capability
If life is seen as a set of “doings and beings” , that are valuable
valuable,
the exercise of assessing the quality of life takes the form of
one undertaken under comoulsion V m?klng. ’ as Arlstotle put it, “is
good we are seekine for h k ’
Wer,th 1S evidently not the
something else The\IsL tha^^^
f°r the sake
various functionings in hum™
?
ng the ,mP°rtance of the
in a different but rehted
Marx called,
functionings themselves have tn
comm°d,,y feUshism”.- The
•be Peeso.' B
oriife^re'sXXXXr"" f'd l”"' ‘h'elemems
“functioning n-tuple”) This amount^00118- d,fferent functionings (a
an “active” rather thL ,st<amounts to seeing a person in, as it were
states of being nor even the “doVnes” f°n d ^Ut ne,ther the vari°us
ones). The included items may vaX from 1 n^Sari,y be “athletic”
ings as escaping morbidity and mn kh J? ,ementary ^nctionished, undertaking usual mov^nTc I !
be,ng adequately nourings such as achieving self-resoec?
t0 many complex Unction
community and appearing in Pnnhr
Part 10 the
the
functioning that was illuminating^ discu^bv
3
achievement that is valued in all societies hnt
Sm‘th as an
requirement of which he pointed m v 6 r h PreC1Se commodity
The claim is that the functioning
fr°m society to society).
and an evaluationi ofFpS
pCrS?"’s bei^
assessment of these constituent elements
C
f°rm °f an
seen as consdtuti vehement's ofHvin^A^ncf31 °f functionin8s—
ment of a person: what he nr
g
functioning is an achievesuch functioning reflects as it wereh13”3^8/0^0 °r t0 be’ and any
The capability of a person i\ «
•’ 3 ?art °^tbe state °f ^at person,
combinations of functioninoc
not’on- It reflects the various
achieve.10 It takes a certain vie ?iln^s and beings) he or she can
“doings and beings” Capability refi171^ 38 3 comb^nat’on °f various
between differed way of
t0 choose
focusing on freedom- s wel
dekunderIy,ng motivation-the
need is “replacingX doS. tn
by MarX’S C,aim that wha< we
individuals by the doXfio^of
circumstances”."
individuals over chance and
Utilitarian calculus versus objective deprivation
“XS “Tr?
based assessment The ulilim™ „olio„'of
44
”ilh
explicitly or by implication in much of welfare economics, sees value
ultimately, only in individual utility, which is defined in terms of
some mental condition, such as pleasure, happiness, desire-fulfil
ment. 1 his subjectivist perspective has been extensively used but it
can be very misleading, since it may fail to reflect a person’s real
deprivation.
A thoroughly deprived person, leading a very reduced life, might
n5)t app5aLr.t0 be badly
*n terms °f the mental metric of utility if
the hardship is accepted with non-grumbling resignation. In situa
tions of long-standing deprivation, the victims do not go on weeping
all the time, and very often make great efforts to take pleasure in
small mercies and to cut down personal desires to modest—“realis
tic
proportions. The person’s deprivation, then, may not at all
show up in the metrics of pleasure, desire-fulfilment etc., even though
he or she may be quite unable to be adequately nourished, decently
clothed, minimally educated and so on.12
This issue, apart from its foundational relevance, may have some
immediate bearing on practical public policy. Smugness about
continued deprivation and vulnerability is often made to look
justified on grounds of lack of strong public demand and forcefully
expressed desire for removing these impediments.13
Ambiguities, precision and relevance
There are many ambiguities in the conceptual framework of the
capabihty approach. Indeed, the nature of human life and the content
ot human freedom are themselves far from unproblematic concepts
It is not my purpose to brush these difficult questions under the
carpet. In so far as there are genuine ambiguities in the underlying
objects of value, these will be reflected in corresponding ambiguities
10 the characterization of capability. The need for this relates to a
methodo ogical point, which I have tried to defend elsewhere, that if
an underlying idea has an essential ambiguity, a precise formulation
ot that idea must try to capture that ambiguity rather than attempt to
Even when precisely capturing an ambiguity proves to be a
difficult exercise, that is not an argument for forgetting the complex
nature of the concept and seeking a spuriously narrow exactness. In
social investigation and measurement, it is undoubtedly more
important to be vaguely right than to be precisely wrong.15
It should be noted also that there is always an element of real
choice in the description of functionings, since the format of
doings and “beings” permits additional “achievements” to be
defined and included. Frequently, the same doings and beings can be
seen from different perspectives, with varying emphases. Also, some
functionings may be easy to describe, but of no great interest in the
relevant context (e.g., using a particular washing powder in doing the
washing).16 There is no escape from the problem of evaluation in
evaluative exercise cannot be fully
“"h1 °therS nOt SO' The
questions concerning what are* the
Y'!thout explicitly facing
freedoms, and which^re not. The chosen f»b 6 achlevements and
bas^neel31 [6atUre8u u,nderlying ‘he concern with quality of life
phy'"uch* apepTdteS
defina"^^^
S?u£neSiFbe“="a^
Xmg'5^"
ahzation of functioning and capabili^'^ ‘y f°r the conceP'u-
^^as
dealing with eltmme p^erty^n deXofn analysis’ for examPle, in
in lhe
"hie to go a long distance in terms of . f ecoaomies, we may be
centrally important functionings and the atlvely sma11 number of
such as the ability to be well nourish “rrcspond|ng capabilities,
capability of escaping avoidabfe rnorbhm
We"-shel‘ered, the
and so forth." In other contexts inehizT Y and Prernature mortality
assessing economic and social developmen^fhe IT™' P™blems of
much longer and much more diverse '’PThr /
cSt may have t0 be
relate to the underlying motivation of tTn
k of sPecifica'ion must
with the social values involve!
61X186 38 We“ as dealing
Quality of life, basic needs and capability
>
concerned with "valuing^he quah/vof IT d7clof.pnlent economics
needs and related matters » That literal
fulfilment of basic
m recent years in drawing attentionTo
I hfS ,been qu,te influential
and social development. It is however hi A
°f economic
have been typically comprehensivelv ion
Sa{ 1 ’at these wrltings
economics, which has tended to trea^ h?- d 'n -u6 theory of weifare
ly at/ hoc suggestions. This treatmem S|<tCOn‘(r| “'ons as e«entialconcern of welfare theorv
atrnent is partly the result of the
intuitions but X be JruXdTdt
JUSt app-' ‘o
i intellectual standing that such traddfonni""^' t,alsO reflects 'he
evaluation enjoy in welfare theorv and
approaches as utilitarian
accepting departures even whJn they selm w SterVe%aS a barrier t0
utihty-based evaluations to cone with attractlve- The inability of
discussed earlier, but in the welfare
deprivat'°ns was
this tradition has been hard to dislodge
llteratUre the hold
relates to the^differem mod7sSSofTg1uiSnothtLdteVelOPm?t literature
theory and in development theorv
fa g
is concerned, the latter tends to^be nthprS
strong intuitions that seem obvious pJn C
TO bridge the'
3re USe^ ’n we^are
n.ormative structure
‘ate’ aPPealin8 to
-
ongmal formulations often took thTform~oTd®g basfc needTin
suLhSa?fneddV<Vertain m,nlmal amounts of essentfal commodities
then theSmtu0e'^m^ 'b6'16"' If
type of Emulation is used,
men me literature remains imprisoned m the mould of commodity
“commnTt UartlOnu and Can ln fact be accuse<foTAdopting a form of
commodity fetishism”. The objects of value can scarcely be the
mn?mnd hf COmmOddie8' Judged even as means, the usefulness of the
the con lty'.persP^ctlve 1S severely compromised by the variability of
the convers.on of commodities into capabilities. For examoie the
equirement of food and of nutrients for the capability of being well
nourished may greatly vary from person to person depend^ on
hnlrlinL
aiIments and so on?* The evaluation of commodityoldings or of incomes (with which to purchase commodities) can be
« 'S o’, s “
"’?•f- u2".“n2, k
aoes not seem to be a particularly good proxy in most cases?’
Rawls, primary goods and freedoms
wh' TtuC°nCern Wlth commodities and means of achievement with
which the motivation of the capability approach is be ng cTnt as^d
happens to be, in fact, influential in the literature of modern mS
jT?st °ce0(ParyguaSb7^he eXtample, J°hn Rawls’ outs‘andmg book on
justice (arguably the most important contribution to moral nhilosoP y in recent decades), the concentration is on the holdings of
°frdi,Teren' p'op,e in “ki"S l»l«P«»"a“«Tpar
isons. His theory of justice, particularly the “difference principle” is
dependent on this procedure for interpersonal comparisons This
Procedm-e has the feature of being partly commodity-based, since the
basiTai?be8rt?es”,M‘UdeS “b1^6 and Wealth”> in Edition to
tne basic liberties , powers and prerogatives of offices and
positions of responsibility”, “social bases of self-respect” and so on.M
wirhlndeed’ th6uentireu 11St of “primary goods” of Rawls is concerned
with means rather than ends; they deal with things that help to
46
47
9
o
Part of the list but havin^fo. aChleVe' Being "Wished is not a
Similarly, the social bases ol self res'F'TtF bUy f°Od certainly is.
self-respect as such does not
P
10ng t0 the list in a way
differerH ends' must^bTfost' ^nfo^evafoaf'
Pe°Ple have
should have the freedom to pursue their
and peOple
concern is indeed important and ih J" Jr PeCtlVe ends- This
much involved with vafoine freedom L capability approach is also
that the capability approach givesT berm In faCt’d can be argued
actually
enjoyedat by
i oF acc°unt
the freedoms
looking merely
Ke different
be of
obtained
from
1SX?'dOmS- W,“re‘S
expSjKS"'
■ly approach are^mUar^bul8lhe aco*15'3!11 ,heory and [[lecapabilproblem with the Rawlsia’n accounting I
tlngu are dlfferent. The
the same ends, people^ abifov"
the fact that> even for
achievements diffuse> that JnK erpTrso", Primary 8°ods int°
the holdings of primary goods cannot ?
comPanson based on
ranking of their respective real freedom n general’ a‘so reflect the
variable-ends. The variabifity n thFen° PUrSUe any given~or
persons for given ends is a problem k conversion rates between
problem of variability of primalgoodF ls.ei?bedded
the wider
Pursuing their respective ends “lienee FmF for d!fferent persons
Rawlsian accounting procedure as TnoV ,
ar crlticism applies to
literature for their concentration on means ?
°f the basic needs
opposed to achievements or the freedom So^achfo??.”1"1^1^^ 3S
Freedom, capability and data limitations
various funcfiofoKg comfonwion^f fPe^
freedom to achieve
tant, then the alternative combinations a OIn k ln*r,ns’cally imporrelevant forjudging a person’s ndvn
variable for choice are all
eventually choote only an alternaKw■ iFfo676"
he °r she wil1
a valuable feature of a person’s life th lew’the choice itself is
ly important? foen^^^
only instrumentalthat it offers the person opX n^t^^es^to KchT ““ °nly in the faCt
states. Only the achieved states are fo th F
Varlous valuable
opportunities, which are valued onlv « th mselves valuable, not the
valuable states.
y as means to the end of reaching
freedom is
instrumental views of
the distinction elsewhe^^Both^v XlT*
iniPOrtance of
ews can be accommodated within
4R
the capability approach. With the instrumental view the capability
set ts valued only for the sake of the best alternX’e available for
choice (or the actual alternative chosen). This way of evaluatine a
caH “demt6/ thC Va.1Ue °f °ne distin8uished element in it can be
calied elemen ary evaluation”?’ If, on the other hand freedom is
ntnnsically valued, then elementary evaluation will be inadeauat?
unavailabfo, then ke^would bfaTal £ inXa^of t£ foSc
atan’abfo. nOt
Instrumental> since the alternative chosen is still
harder ^rmr" of P^ctica* aPPlication, the intrinsic view is much
arder to reflect than the instrumental view, since our direct
observations relate to what was chosen and achieved. The estimation
of what could have been chosen is, by its very nature more
problematic (involving, in particular, assumptions about the con
straints actually faced by the person). The limits of praS
hir'd onXarC SSt by data restrictions> and this can be particularly
• aI •
uh rePres.entatlon of capability sets in full as onoosed tn
JU gmg the capability sets by the observed functioning achievements,
this red^rpH f ° realinvolved in using the capability approach in
there is foss^fX follnstrumental. view of freedom is laken, but
mere is loss it the intrinsic view is accepted. For the latter a
representation of the capability set as such is important.
likell'1!?^11!-’1.1?61’ ‘F instrumental view nor the intrinsic view is
likely to be fully adequate. Certainly, freedom is a means to
achievement, whether or not it is also intrinsically important so that
the instrumental view must be inter alia present in an} use of the
viewVo be foiriFade A1SJ>’ T" lfWe
general the instrumental
e^emelv hm ed F^3 ’ F K°Uld Clearly be Cases in which 11 is
Im o? rh Ilmited- F°r example, the person who fasts, that is, starves
ut of choice, can hardly be seen as being similarly deprived as a
though foh0 htS n° Ft-1'0" but t0 Starve because of penury Even
SudfreSenfatfor'd fufnct\onlnSs may be the same, at least in the
same representatlon of functionings, their predicaments are not the
the redS^forF" f
general the caPability aPProach )s used in
comhfo^fon f
f “nc.cntrating on the chosen functioning
Uk™ care of eaTf SySt“c supplementation would be needed to
take care of cases in which the freedom enjoyed is of clear and
sun^fo latef‘?tereSt' There may be no great difficulty in doing this
enough aT^ hFdTt many FSeS’ °nCe the problem ia posed ctearly
enough and the data search is made purposive and precise Some
Umes it would be useful to redefine the functionings in what is cahed
a refined way, to take note of some of the obviously relevant
alternatives that were available, but not chosen. Indeed, fasting is an
example of a “refined” functioning, and contrasts with the unrefined
functioning of “starving”, which does not specify whether or not this
was by choice.28 The important issue does not concern the existence
or not of some actual word (such as fasting) that reflects the refined
functioning (that is largely a matter of linguistic convention), but
assessing whether or not such refining would be central to the
exercise in question, and if central, deciding how this might be done.
As a matter of fact, the informational base of functionings is still
a much finer basis of evaluation of the quality of life and economic
progress than various alternatives more commonly recommended,
such as individual utilities or commodity holdings. The commodity
fetishism of the formerand the subjectivist metric of the latter make
them deeply problematic. Thus, the concentration on achieved
functionings has merits over the feasible rivals (even though it may
not be based on as much information as would be needed to attach
intrinsic importance to freedom). And in terms of data availability,
keeping track of functionings (including vital ones such as being wellnourished and avoiding escapable morbidity or premature mortality)
is typically no harder—often much easier—than getting data on
commodity use (especially divisions within the family), not to
mention utilities.
The capability approach can, thus, be used at various levels of
sophistication, and how far we can go would depend much on the
practical consideration of what data we can get and what we cannot.
In so far as freedom is seen to be intrinsically important, the
observation of the chosen functioning bundle cannot be in itself an
adequate guide for the evaluative exercise, even though the freedom
to choose a better bundle rather than a worse one can be seen to be, in
some accounting, an advantage even from the perspective of
freedom.29
The point can be illustrated with a particular example. An
expansion of longevity is seen, by common agreement, as an
enhancement of the quality of life (though, strictly speaking, I
suppose one can think of it as an enhancement of the quantity of life).
This is so partly because living longer is an achievement that is
valued. It is also partly because other achievements, such as avoiding
morbidity, tend to go with longevity (and thus longevity serves also as
a proxy for some achievements that too are intrinsically valued). But
greater longevity can also be seen as an enhancement of the freedom
to live long. We often take this for granted on the solid ground that
given the option, people value living longer, and thus the observed
achievement of living longer reflects a greater freedom than was
enjoyed.
The interpretative question arises at this precise point. Why is it
evidence of greater freedom as such that a person ends up living
longer rather than shorter? Why can it not be just a preferred
achievement, but involving no difference in terms of freedom? One
answer is to say that one always does have the option of killing
oneself, and thus an expansion of longevity expands one’s options.
But there is a further issue here. Consider a case in which, for some
reason (either legal or psychological or whatever), one cannot really
kill oneself (despite the presence in the world of poisons, knives, tall
buildings and other useful objects). Would we then say that’ the
person does not have more freedom by virtue of being free to live
longer though not shorter? It can be argued that if the person values,
prefers and wishes to choose living longer, then the change in
question is in fact an expansion of the person’s freedom, since the
evaluation of freedom cannot be dissociated from the assessment of
the actual options in terms of the person’s evaluative judgments.30
The idea of freedom takes us beyond achievements, but that does
not entail that the assessment of freedom must be independent of
that of achievements. The freedom to live the kind of life one would
like to live has importance that the freedom to live the kind of life
one would hate to have does not. Thus, the temptation to see more
freedom in greater longevity is justifiable from several points of view,
including noting the option of ending one’s life and being sensitive to
the evaluative structure of achievements which directly affect the
metric of freedom. The bottom line of all this is to recognize that the
use of the capability approach even in the reduced form of
concentrating on the achieved functionings (longevity, absence of
morbidity, avoidance of undernourishment etc.) may give more role
to the value of freedom than might have been initially apparent.
Inequality, class and gender
The choice of an approach to the evaluation of well-being and
advantage has bearings on many exercises. These include the
assessment of efficiency as well as inequality. Efficiency, as it is
normally defined, is concerned with noting overall improvements,
and in standard economic theory, this takes the form of checking
whether someone s position has improved without anyone’s position
having gone down. A situation is efficient if and only if there is no
alternative feasible situation in which someone’s position is better
and no one’s worse. Obviously, the content of this criterion depends
crucially on the way individual advantage is defined. If it is defined
in terms of utility, then this criterion of efficiency immediately
becomes that of “Pareto optimality” (or “Pareto efficiency”, as it is
sometimes—more accurately—called). On the other hand, efficiency
can be defined also in terms of other metrics, including that of the
quality of life based on the evaluation of functionings and capabili
ties.
Similarly, the assessment of inequality too depends on the
chosen indicator of individual advantage. The usual inequality
measures that can be found in empirical economic literatures tend to
concentrate on inequalities of incomes or wealth.3' These are
vaIuable contributions. On the other hand, in so far as income and
wealth do not give adequate account of quality of life, there is a case
lor basing the evaluation of inequality on information more closely
related to living standards.
y
Indeed the two informational bases are not alternatives In
equality of wealth may tell us things about the generation and
persistence of inequalities of other types, even when our ultimate
concern may be with inequality of living standard and quality of life,
articulady in the context of the continuation and stubbornness of
social divisions information on inter-class inequalities in wealth and
property ownership is especially crucial. But this recognition does not
reduce the importance of bringing in indicators of quality of life to
assess the actual inter-class inequalities of well-being and freedom,
that ?rnC
LnJhich ine^uaHties are particularly hard to assess is
that of gender differences. There is a great deal of general evidence to
indicate that women often have a much worse deal than men do, and
that girls are often much more deprived than boys. These differences
may be reflected in many subtle as well as crude ways, and in various
forms they can be observed in different parts of the world—among
what fc1Cth akd J500/- countrles- However, it is not easy to determine
what is the best indicator of advantage in terms of which these gender
inequalities are to be examined. There is, to be sure, no need to look
tor one specific metric only, and the need for plurality of indicators is
as strong here as in any other field. But there is still an issue of the
choice of approach to well-being and advantage in the assessment of
inequalities between women and men.
The approach of utility-based evaluation is particularly limiting
m th's context since the unequal deals that obtain, particularly
within the ^family are often made “acceptable” by certain social
notions of normal arrangements, and this may affect the percep10ns of women as well as men of the comparative levels of well-being
they respectively enjoy. For example, in the context of some
developing countries such as India, the point has been made that
rural women may have no clear perception of being deprived of
things that men have, and may not be in fact any more unhappy than
men are. This may or may not be the case, but even if it were so it
can be argued that the mental metric of utility may be particularly
inappropriate for judging inequality in this context. The presence of
objective depri vation in the form of greater undernourishment, more
frequent morbidity, lower literacy etc. cannot be rendered irrelevant
just by the quiet and ungrumbling acceptance of women of their
deprived conditions.”
In rejecting utility-based evaluations, it may be tempting to go in
the direction of actual commodities (enjoyed by women and men
respectively) to check inequalities between them. There is here the
problem, already discussed earlier in this paper, that commodity-
52
based evaluations are inadequate because commodities are merely
means to well-being and freedom and do not reflect the nature of the
lives that the people involved can lead. But, in addition, there is the
further problem that it is hard—sometimes impossible—to get
information on how the commodities belonging to the family are
divided between men and women, and between boys and girls.
For example, studies on the division of food within the family
tend to be deeply problematic since the observation needed to see
who is eating how much is hard to carry out with any degree of
reliability. On the other hand, it is possible to compare signs of
undernourishment of boys and girls, to check their respective
morbidity rates etc., and these functioning differences are both easier
to observe and of greater intrinsic relevance.33
There are indeed inequalities between men and women in terms
of functionings, and in the context of developing countries the
contrast may be sharp even in basic matters of life and death, health
and illness, education and illiteracy. For example, despite the fact
that when men and women are treated reasonably equally in terms of
food and health care (as they tend to be in the richer countries, even
though gender biases may remain in other—less elementary—fields),
women seem to have a greater ability to survive than men, in the bulk
of the developing economies, men outnumber women by large
margins. While the ratio of females to males in Europe and North
America tends to be about 1.06 or so, that ratio is below 0.95 for the
Middle East (including countries in Western Asia and North Africa),
South Asia (including India, Pakistan and Bangladesh) and China.34’
This crude figure of the ratio of survived females to survived males
already tells a story that has much informational value in judging
inter-gender inequalities. Sometimes there are sharp contrasts even
within a country (e.g., the ratio of females to males varies within
India all the way from 1.03 in Kerala to 0.87 or 0.88 in Haryana and
Punjab). From the point of view of studying both the actual
situations and the causal influences operating in the generation of
inter-gender inequalities, these regional contrasts may be particularly
important.
Being able to survive is of course only one capability (though
undoubtedly a very basic one), and other comparisons can be made
with information on health, morbidity etc. The ability to read and
write is also another important capability, and here it can be seen
that the ratio of female to male literacy rates is often shockingly low
in different parts of the world. The combined effects of low literacy
rates in general (a deprivation of a basic capability across genders)
and gender inequalities in literacy rates (unequal deprivation of this
basic capability for women) tend to be quite disastrous denials for
women. It appears that even leaving out many countries for which no
reliable data exist, in a great many countries in the world, the female
literacy rate is still below 50 per cent. In fact, it is below even 30 per
53
“X?, TL“.£ “v“e",‘,'ie5-bd”20
f” 16
b"«»
In general, the perspective of functionings and capabilities
u7oesenotP nffebIf appr°ach t0 exami™g inter-gender inequalities,
based irrn
fr°m h.e tyPe °f subJectivism that makes utility
based accounting particularly obtuse in dealing with entrenched
"equalities. Nor does it suffer from the over-concentration on means
undoubtedly does, and in fact it
family han Krm '°tna k0^65
StUdy'ng ‘"equalities within the
tamdy than is provided by guesswork on commodity distributions
Vcourse^on! h°W
CaSe °f -‘-ge/der inequafi?
’S’ ‘ i ,
’ °"!y °ne ‘bustration of the advantages that the
apability approach has. But it happens to be an illustration that is
particularl7 important on its own as well, given the pervasive and
pa"?'; of'the worN1"'"113"”05 betWeen WOmen and me" in differe"‘
Conclusion
The assessment of achievement and advantage of members of
the society is a central part of development analysis. In this paper I
si'.X.e ,h
T
aPP™ach m.y £ Sg'lo
focus on h h evaJuatlve concerns of human development. The
focus on human achievement and freedom, and on the need for
aS 7C7r thCr> ‘han mechanical—evaluation, is an adaptation of
an old tradition that can be fruitfully used in providing a conceptual
rarv" world"
‘S °f lhuman development in fhe contemponrny 7 d- The foundational importance of human capabilities
of HfS d S baS1S f°r evaluatln8 llving standards and the quality
of hfe, and also points to a general format in terms of which problems
of efficiency and equality can both be discussed.
Pr0Dlems
nat„The C0aceiJ.tratl0n On distinct capabilities entails, by its very
aturc, a p urahst approach. Indeed, it points to the necessity of
thin 1 d|ChVe Opment as a combination of distinct processes, rather
inch n lhe| expansion of some apparently homogeneous magnitude
ch as real income or utility. The things that people value doing or
being can be quite diverse, and the valuable capabilities vary from
such elementary freedoms as being free from hunger and undemourpaSa‘tion ThTT't?
38 achievinB self-respect and social
parncipanon. The challenge of human development demands atteno° ial and^cono 3 Vanety °f SeCt°ral C°nCernS and a combination of
social and economic processes.
In the collection of papers of which this one is a part there are a
hea"liher
SpPC!f!C Studies dealing with such matters as education
Jion and"; ? / Ta’
We" 3S the Processes of agricultural expan
sion and industrial development. The problems of resource mobilizaon and participatory development are also addressed. Some of the
subjects thus covered deal with variables that are direct determinants
of human capability (e.g., education and health), while others relate
to instrumental influences that operate through economic or social
processes (e.g., the promotion of agricultural and industrial produc
tivity). The uniting feature is the motivating concern with human
development and its constitutive characteristics.
In the distinction between functionings and capabilities, empha
sis was placed on the importance of having the freedom to choose one
kind of life rather than another. This is an emphasis that distin
guishes the capability approach from any accounting of only realized
achievements. However, the ability to exercise freedom may, to a
considerable extent, be directly dependent on the education we have
received, and thus the development of the educational sector may
have a foundational connection with the capability-based approach.
In fact, educational expansion has a variety of roles that have to
be carefully distinguished. First, more education can help productivi
ty. Secondly, wide sharing of educational advancement can contrib
ute to a better distribution of the aggregate national income among
different people. Thirdly, being better educated can help in the
conversion of incomes and resources into various functionings and
ways of living. Last (and by no means the least), education also helps
in the intelligent choice between different types of lives that a person
can lead. All these distinct influences can have important bearings on
the development of valuable capabilities and thus on the process of
human development.
There are also other interconnections between the different areas
covered in the collection; for example,Vgood health is an achievement
in itself and also contributes both to higher productivity and to an
enhanced ability to convert incomes and resources into good living;
In focusing on human capabilities as the yardstick in terms of which*
successes and failures of human development are to be judged,
attention is particularly invited to addressing these social intercon
nections. Given clarity regarding the ends (avoiding, in particular,
the pitfall of treating human beings as means), the social and
economic instrumentalities involved in the ends-means relations can
be extensively explored.
One of the most important tasks of an evaluative system is to do
justice to our deeply held human values. The challenge of “human
development in the 1980s and beyond” cannot be fully grasped
without consciously facing this issue and paying deliberate attention
to the enhancement of those freedoms and capabilities that matter
most in the lives that we can lead. To broaden the limited lives into
which the majority of human beings are willy-nilly imprisoned by
force of circumstances is the major challenge of human development
in the contemporary world. Informed and intelligent evaluation both
of the lives we are forced to lead and of the lives we would be able to
choose to lead through bringing about social changes is the first step
in confronting that challenge. It is a task that we must face.
tk '_™ °r»» p.™-, own valuation.
»s=“ st
Notes
(178?), sect. Il; English translation, Fundamental Principles of the
ThpnP
r^ynf^LMOr^’ Kant L,Cr,tt^ue °fPractical Reason and Other Works on the
ry of Ethics, 6th edition, T. K. Abbot, ed. (London, Longmans 1909) n. 47
MpMAmartyarlSen’ ?ETq?i,ity °r what?" in Tanner Lectures on Human Values, S M
rWrp1"^8//4^'’ Vj J (Cambr^ge, Cambridge University Press, 1980, reprinted in
Ml^Pr^
Blackwell; and Cambridge, Massachusetts,
CamhHdo ’ !?82))>. Resource^' Valu^ and Development (Oxford, Blackwell; and
Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1984); Commodities and
SntwX^
r,Orth-,H°’La.n^ 19f5) “Well-being, agency and freedom:
welS” W.DER VonftX p^,'^'985);
“Capablli‘y
Nlc^archela'lE'l>^- book I. sect. 7; in the translation by David
oss, Worlds Classics (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1980), pp. 12-14 Note that
Anstotles term "eudatmonia”, which is often misleadingly translated simply as
happtness .standsfor fulfilment of life tn a way that goes well beyond the utilitarian
perspective. Though pleasure may well result from fulfilment, that is seen as a
consequence rather than the cause of valuing that fulfilment. For an examination of
the Aristotelian approach and its relation to recent works on functionings and
capabilities, see Martha Nussbaum, “Nature, function and capability Aristotle on
£lume 1^88.
°" ’
‘n
nrdAr;In many contexls> the ^mal representations will take the form of nartial
orderings, or of overdetermined rankings, or of “fuzzy” relations This is nf ™
d ffe en7uvre,asmofNDrIth'HO11?nd'
f°™a* Probl-S c^n^d alt w ^at
"ZiX EZ0 '-' W‘1th VaryinE eX,ent °f precise ^Presentation of
snhZ
'
r 'mportanl 8eneral pomt to note here is that it mav be for
antb.’gu.t'ies500'3
b°th
limiting and ailogelher unnecessa^ to shun
Gmk
(17761
rnbAmJtv An lnniry
'he Na'Ure and Causes of lhe Wea,lh of Nations
a r ’<
■ b J k ■ secl- I[; rePubhshed, R. H Campbell and A. S. Skinner eds
(Oxford Clarendon Press 1976), pp. 869-872; and Karl Marx, Economic and
Pubfilhen" ^‘SCr‘P,S °f ,8“ (1844); English ‘^la'ion (Moscow Progressive
tt nnXe„e n Ei; M' ?',Mne C?ix’ The Class Slr“^le in ,ho Ancient Greek World
(y ondon, Duckworth, 1981); and Martha Nussbaum, "Nature, function and capabili-
Karl Marx, Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844
8^?S|tOxie’ 0P^Cit'- lJ00k11’ secL 5; in the translation by David Ross, p. 7.
QMarX’ C^P‘la '. o?; ’ En«,,sh translation by S. Moore and E. Aveling
(London, Sonnenschein, 1887), chap. 1, sect. 4, pp. 41-55; see also Karl Marx
Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844
Consnmnhie3? Sn"th’f/’' f!'" voL
book V, chap. II (section entitled "Taxes upon
Consumable Commodities ); republished . . . , pp. 469-471.
n.m‘°The<rerarC SeuV.eraI techn,ca* Prob|enis in the representation of functioning nwhirh 3nd of capab,1,ty as a Jet of alternative functioning n-tuples, any one n-tuple of
which a person can choose. In this paper, I shall not be particularly concernedwith
these formal matters, for which see Commodities and Capabilities .... especially
cnaps. z, 4 and 7.
J
"Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, The German Ideology (1846). The quoted
P^ge1 s taken from the translation by David McLellan, Karl Marx: Selected Writings
(Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1977), p. 190.
S
and Capabf/Sya SCn’ **We,,'bein8’ agency and freedom . .-J’; and Commodities
nlo.?11 *S S0™etimes Plumed that to depart from a person’s own actual desires or
pleasures as the measuring rod of assessment would be to introduce paternalism into
andT Ua C eXer7St Th,i V,CW overlooks lhe important fact that having pleasure
and desiring are not themselves valuational activities, even though the latter (desire)
can often result from valuing something, and the former (pleasure) can often result
101 and Jo8 W9y
*
(Cambrid^ Cambridge University Press, 1987), pp. 98-
descrinti’oVfn1"^ tO d'SCUSS s<?me of the general methodological issues involved in
32 <198^ printed in
Choiee. ^e//are and^
20- a'nde"-^mar‘ya Sen’Resources' Values and Development . . ..chaps 15 19 and
Chene'
“n^p* °f development”, in Handbook of Development Economics. H
s san,* «5afe
be very wide indeed; see Amartya
20See, among other contributions, Michael Lipton, Assessing Economic Pcrfnr
SX((^nSXm^'
UnKeX p'ress
D^e'Opln^ Countries (Stanford, Stanford
GrifFi^a^A0" (^aShhingtOn’ D (=’’ ^rseas De^eloS^
^97^
(New York, Oxford University Press, 1981); S. R. Osmani, Economic Inequality and
Group Welfare (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1982); and Frances Stewart, Planning to
Meet Basic Needs (London, Macmillan, 1985).
21 This general question of foundations and informational bases is discussed in
Amartya Sen, “Informational analysis of moral principles”, in Rational Action, Ross
Harrison, ed. (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1979); and “Well-being,
agency and freedom . .
In the latter analysis, some distinctions are drawn
(especially between agency and well-being and between achievement and freedom) that
may be worth pursuing in a more elaborate treatment of this matter, but I shall resist
the temptation to go into these issues here.
22On this general question and on the relation between commodities, characteris
tics and functionings, see Amartya Sen, Commodities and Capabilities . . . , chap. 2.
21 On this question, see Amartya Sen, Resources, Values and Development . . . ,
essays 19 and 20; and Paul Streeten, “Basic needs: some unsettled questions”, World
Development, 12 (1984).
24 John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Oxford, Clarendon Press; and Cambridge,
Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1971), pp. 60-65.
25See Amartya Sen, “Equality of what?” . ... , and Resources, Values and
Development . . .
26See Amartya Sen, “Freedom of choice: concept and content”, Alfred Marshall
Lecture at the European Economic Association, European Economic Review, 1988.
27 See Amartya Sen, Commodities and Capabilities . . . , pp. 60-67.
28See Amartya Sen, “Well-being, agency and freedom . . .”; and “Freedom of
choice: concept and content . . .”
29On the question of the relation between achieved states and the extent of
freedom and liberty, see Amartya Sen, “Liberty and social choice”, Journal of
Philosophy. 80 (1983).
30 Indeed, not to take note of the person’s own evaluations of slates of affairs in
providing a measure of freedom can yield a very peculiar view of freedom, which
would be seriously at odds with the tradition of seeing freedom as important. On this,
see Amartya Sen, “Liberty as control: an appraisal”, Midwest Studies in Philosophy, 7
(1982); and “Liberty and social choice . . .”
31 See, for example, A. B. Atkinson, Unequal Shares: Wealth in Britain (London,
Penguin, 1972); and The Economics of Inequality (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1975).
321 have discussed this question in Commodities and Capabilities . . . , appendix
B, and also in Resources, Values and Development . . . , essays 15 and 16. The
importance of perception biases in the continuation of inter-gender inequalities is
discussed in “Gender and cooperative conflicts”, WIDER working paper, in Persistent
Inequalities, Irene Tinker, ed. (forthcoming).
33For an attempt to make such functioning-based comparisons between men and
women, see Jocelyn Kynch and Amartya Sen, “Indian women: well-being and
survival”, Cambridge Journal of Economics, 7 (1983).
34See Jocelyn Kynch, “How many women are enough: sex ratios and the right to
life”, Third World Affairs 1985 (London, Third World Foundation for Social and
Economic Studies, 1985). The ratios of life expectancy seem to have turned in favour
of women vis-a-vis men, according to reported statistics in most countries (see United
Nations Children’s Fund, The State of the World's Children 1988 (New York, Oxford
University Press, 1988), table 7), but the undoing of past biases against women in the
sex composition of the population tends to be a slow process over the years.
35 United Nations Children’s Fund, The State of the World’s Children 1988 ....
table 4.
3
EDUCATIONAL POLICY ISSUES IN A PERIOD
OF STABILIZATION AND STRUCTURAL
ADJUSTMENT
John Knight*
CONTENTS
Page
Introduction
Educational expansion
The fiscal squeeze on education
Financing of education
Educational priorities
Linkages with education
Conclusion
59
60
62
63
68
70
71
Introduction
During the past quarter century many developing countries have
by historical standards, made rapid progress in the development of
their human resources. Today, however, the pace has slowed, alone
with a decline in economic growth and a fiscal squeeze. The case for
human resource development has not diminished: in part this is tied
to the rate of population growth. Nor is the popular demand for
education health and other human resource-improving services any
the less. Governments are thus posed with a severe dilemma of
having to choose between adjusting to the short-run economic and
fiscal constraints and pursuing the long-run human resource goals.
I here is a danger that the former will dominate the latter. For
instance, the costs of neglecting the former are more calculable, and
more attributable, than the long-run costs to the development process
of neglecting the latter. Nevertheless, the solution to the short-run
prob ems now may contribute to a series of equally pressing short-run
problems in the future.
This paper takes a broad look at the main educational policy
issues that face developing countries over the next decade. The
following section briefly documents the substantial progress that has
been made over the previous two decades, and the reasons for that
Fell0wCof0StR“„d° Hafl?
ford.U"'VCrSilnS,itUte °f ECOn°miCS and Statislics;
-
COMPETITIVENESS 1
CH
of India Inc.^J
Confederation of Indian Industry
Workshop
on
" MODELS FOR MANAGEMENT "
14 - 16 July, 2003
CII Institute of Quality, Bangalore
Organised by :
CII Institute of Quality
(Sponsored by ABB Limited)
Near Bharat Nagara, Phase - II
Magadi Main Road, Vishwaneedam P.O.
Bangalore - 560 091
♦
Workshop on " MODELS FOR MANAGEMENT "
14 - 16 July, 2003 : CII Institute Of Quality, Bangalore
In pursuit of its goal to improve "Competitiveness of India Inc.", CII Institute of Quality is
offering a 3-day Intensive Workshop on "Models for Management" jointly with ACUMEN
Consulting India (P) Ltd. The workshop would be held during 14-16 July, 2003 at
Bangalore and is aimed at providing well researched and proven solutions for achieving
breakthrough performance - both at individual and organisational level.
The objectives of the workshop includes :
•
Developing core competencies of individuals and organizations
•
Using Instruments grounded in proven behavioural models and classic management
theories to improve organisational and individual effectiveness
•
Enabling people to put internationally validated theories into real world experiences
•
Comparing the management beliefs and behaviours with the 'proven best'
•
Exploring the ways to accomplish positive change and performance breakthroughs
Among others, the Workshop would cover topics such as :
•
Management Values:
Discover to expand your effectiveness as managers
•
Employee Involvement:
Discover to turn on employees' willingness to work
•
Communication :
Discover the way communication energises the work climate
• Work Motivation :
Discover to boost performance by harnessing the motivation powerhouse
•
Empowerment:
Discover to managing power productively to boost organisational performance
•
Group Decision Making :
Discover to transform low-performing group into triumphant winners
•
Management Style;
Discover the effectiveness of your management style
• The Competence Process :
Discover your power as a manager to shape and change organisational culture
Take Aways from the Workshop include :
• Achieve breakthrough performance - organisational & individual
•
Contribute to dramatic corporate successes
Make lasting change to transform your team, your work culture and your
organization
• Provide internationally validated and field tested solutions for improving
organisational and individual effectiveness
•
Faculty for the Workshop :
The Workshop would be conducted by best available trainers including :
Mr Ashok Singh : B.Tech from IIT, Kharagpur with over 30 years of experience in
Operations, Projects, Materials Management, HR & General Management in companies like
ICI, Chambal Fertilizers and Eternit Everest. Promoted and managed successful consulting
firms like 'The Management Group' and the 'Gilbert Tweed Management Group (P) Ltd.
Mr Jaskaran Singh : B.Tech from IIT, Madras, Fellow at Queens University, UK, taught at
the University. Was consultant Italian Trade Commission, Member of ASTD/ISTD and
certified Trainer of Teleometrics International, USA.
Mr Ramesh K Anand : An MBA from IIM, Ahmedabad, taught in XLRI in the areas of
Marketing and Organisational Behaviour. Was group leader of Management Consultancy
Division of TCS and was HR head for EIH Ltd (Oberoi Hotels), Wockhardt Ltd and Samtel
Group. He is a certified trainer on Situational Leadership with Blanchard Institute and for
Teleometrics International, USA.
Participant Profile:
This workshop is a must for all those managers who are leading the change process in
their organisations to become globally competitive and progress towards business
excellence. It is particularly beneficial to CEOs, Top Management, Heads of Corporate
Planning, Business Development, Departmental Heads, and Senior Managers with
functional responsibilities in Marketing, Design, Manufacturing/Service provisioning, Quality,
Materials, Maintenance, HRD , Training etc.
Organisations who have benefitted from this Model includes :
Britannia Industries Ltd
Delphi Auto Systems
EIH Limited
Escotel Communication Ltd
Feedback Ventures
Gilbert Tweed India (P) Ltd
Hindustan Electro Graphite Ltd
ICI India Limited
ICICI Limited
Indian Hotels Co. Ltd
Management Network
Mire Electronics Ltd
Motherson Sumi Systems Ltd
Oil & Natural Gas Corp. Ltd
Oil India Limited
Reliance Industries Ltd
Reliance Power Ltd
Samtel Colour Limited
Tata Infotech Ltd
Tata Iron & Steel Co. Ltd
The Associated India Financial
Services Ltd
• Voltas Limited
• Wockhardt Limited and
• Many others
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Delegate Fee :
The Delegate Fee is Rs.20,000/- per participant. Organisations nominating 3 or
more participants to the Workshop will be eligible for 10% discount on the delegate fee.
Please take advantage of this unique workshop by participating and by nominating
colleagues from your organisation. The registration details and Reply Form are enclosed for
your ready reference and use. Since the seats are limited to 25, kindly forward your
nominations at the earliest.
Registration Details
> The Delegate Fee is Rs.20,000/- per participant. Discount of 10% is applicable for
organisations nominating 3 or more participants to the programme.
> For confirmation of nominations, kindly forward your nominations alongwith the
cheque/DD towards delegate fee drawn in favour of Confederation of Indian
Industry, New Delhi.
> Delegate fee is non-refundable. Changes in nominations are acceptable.
> CII has made arrangements to transport participants from Hotel Central Park to the
CII Institute of Quality and back to Hotel Central Park.
> For registration and more details please contact Mr Siju Nair
Siju Nair
CII Institute of Quality
Confederation of Indian Industry
Near Bharat Nagara, Phase - II
Magadi Main Road, Vishwaneedam P.O.
Bangalore - 560 091
Reply Form
Phone : 080 - 328 9391 / 6085 / 7690
Fax
: 080-328 9388/ 358 0314
Email : siju.nair@ciionline.org
Workshop on " MODELS FOR MANAGEMENT "
14 - 16 July, 2003 : CII Institute Of Quality, Bangalore
Our organisation will be represented by :
Designation
Name
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The participant(s) will / will not avail the transport facility arranged by CII.
Name :
Designation :
Company :
Address :
Tel :
Email :
Fax :
Subject:
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A Ci iticai Resource: Nursing Shortages and the Use of Agency Nurses - Report No. 3- August 2002
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Read Just Some of the Press
to
MD, nurse shortages reaching crisis ieveis
WASHINGTON. (UP!) - Shortages of surgeons, pharmacists and nurses in hospitals across the United
States are reaching crisis levels and may 'worsen over the next several years, health care experts warned.
The nursing shortage — more than 126,000 positions currently remain unfilled — has become so severe it
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10/16/03
TH
i
/
At
Z, <*A
Joint Commission on the Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations.
The Society for Thoracic Surgeons recently warned that a shortage of heart surgeons iooms within a few
years and a survey of hospitals found pharmacists, X-ray technicians and therapists are leaving at such
an alarming rate it already is impacting the quality of care patients receive.
Doctor Shortages - a looming major social problem for Australia - AMA submission to the benate Select
Committee on Medicare
»
-4
Johnson Co-Sponsors Legislation to Address Nurse Shortages
January 24, 2003 Washington, DC- U.S. Senator Tim Johnson (D-SD) recently co-sponsored the Nurse
Reinvestment Act to address areas with critical nurse shortages in an effort to provide more opportunities
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Johnson Co-Sponsors Legislation to Address Nurse S
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College of Farriily Physicians of Canada
Past decisions with respect to health care “reform" have been made without complete or accurate
information, and this has led to critical problems in the system such as doctor shortages and waiting lists.
Texas Public Policy Foundation
Check with Your Doctor First! September 03, 2003
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Today, Texans are suffering from a serious lack of medical care. The American Medical Association says
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Texans Can Cure State's Medical Crisis - TexasPolicv.com
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i 11 iai ■ uinin
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ine II li too I i itol ill IS toi lUtoQ UUly vJ I , ZuUZ.
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31, 2003, compared to the three months ended July 31, 2002. This reflects the growth in the business
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Additional Sources
National Physician Hotline Responds to Health Care Crisis
MD. nurse shortages reaching crisis levels
t a constant struggle; Universities help, but finding and keeping needed medical
Recrui
professionals... easy
10/16/03
Page 3 of 3
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D I F F E R E N T VOJCE
Genius 3t Work
A Conversation with Mark Morris
What should you dowhen true genius shows up
in your organization as boss, colleague, or subordinate?
One of the world’s most gifted choreographers says
you should handle it with unconventional
sensitivity steeled with radical honesty.
-T"0 MOVE FORWARD, SOCIETY NEEDS
| geniuses-those rare individuals whose
| flashes of insight and imagination
I change the way we live and see the
world. Without the likes of Alexander
Graham Bell, Henry Ford, and Jack Kilby
and Robert Noyce (inventors of the inte
grated circuit), we would not have tele
phones, cars, or computers-the defining
innovations of the modem world.Jndi• viduals-not organizations-invented
these amazing creations, and individuals
• recognized the opportunities presented
...by them.
Geniuses appear in many guises. Al
though traditionally associated with the
arts and sciences, engineers, designers,
analysts-even some managers-display
genius. Yet for all their creative energy,
they don’t always make the best employ
ees, colleagues, or bosses. They are noto
riously prickly people: They don’t suffer
fools gladly. And they can be fiercely in
dividualistic; often they are anti-team
players. Moreover, the inner lives of ge
niuses can be surprisingly fragile. They
frequently act with flamboyance - but
inside, they can be deeply vulnerable.
1
63
OCTOBER 2001
DIFFERENT VOICE • GemusatWork
Despite these obstacles, working with geniuses at that. But so far as dance is
and managing genius is precisely what concerned, it’s entirely mine. I’m a com
companies must learn to do if they are plete autocrat in my work. For example,
to survive in the unforgiving, compet when I’m working on a piece, I might
itive environment of the twenty-first occasionally say to a dancer, “I don’t
century.
know how to get you out of this bind,
To understand how a manager might help me.” But they don’t make up the
approach the challenges of genius, se dance; I do. That’s the vyay it was when
nior editor Diane L. Coutu recently vis I was a young dancer: I tried not to
ited choreographer and dancer Mark make suggestions to other choreogra
Morris at his home in Manhattan. If phers. And when I couldn’t help myself
anyone deserves the label of genius, it is anymore, I left and founded my own
Morris. At an age when most children company.
are still trying to color within the lines,
he was already choreographing dances.
By 15, he had composed his first ballet. So what S the best way
In 1980, he formed the Mark Morris to work with you?
Dance Group-a collection of often un You can’t be afraid of me, that’s the
conventional-looking dancers who, in biggest thing. I hate people who shut
1988, were invited to become Belgium’s down instead of debating with me be
national dance company. There, Morris cause I’m famous or whatever. For ex
created some of modem dance’s most ample, since my company has grown so
enduring works. When he returned to large, I meet regularly with all the
the United States in 1991, Morris was dancers. And the last topic we cover is
awarded a MacArthur Fellowship (pop- always complaints. I’ve had a couple of
ularly called the “genius grant”), andI 1people say to me, “-I don
- ’t have any.”
today the Mark Morris Dance Group is Well, that is one of my chief complaints.
widely considered to be the most excit So I tell them, “It’s way more important
ing company in the business.
that you cast aside your fear of me. I’m
In a three-hour conversation, Morris not necessarily going to be fair to you,
talked about the realities of living with because that’s not what it’s all about.
genius-from the inside as well as the I will be honest to the best of my ability,
outside. Not only is Morris a genius of though I may yell at you-which has got
choreography in his own right but, since nothing to do with whether or not I hate a point and didn’t mean to call her ugly S
he works with live music, he must also you. It’s not personal. But if you respond and stupid. She just got in my field of
manage the genius of sopranos and vir only out of fear of doing something vision. At other times, I scream and chase g
tuoso conductors who collaborate with wrong or getting in trouble, it’s not go- people around. They think I’m mad but, S
his dance group. In the following pages, ing to work between us. That doesn’t in fact, very few people in my company 1z
Morris discusses the roots of creativity, mean you have to fight with me all the have ever seen me truly angry. You see, *
a.
the truth about prima donnas, and the time, but don’t be passive.”
I’m pretty rational and fundamentally §
dangers of living with mediocrity. In
kind, although sometimes that kindness o5
doing so, he helps unlock the mysteri
is camouflaged by bossiness. I’m very
ous world of genius.
How do geniuses approach work? bossy.
I suppose if I hadn’t been a chore
Well, the important thing about me is ographer, 1 would have been a conduc
that I work very, very fast: I think fast; tor. Conductors are so much bossier
You vo boon caHod the most
I choreograph quickly. Sometimes I than composers are.
inventive choreographer in the
choreograph as I am going along. And
country. In fact, to many people,
because I’m so fast, I can be impatient.
you’re the archetype of genius.
What conductor would
1 say things sooner than maybe I should.
How would somebody go about
So I can hurt people’s feelings, though you have been?
managing you?
I don’t think I’m mean for meanness’s Well, me-Maestro Morris, the great
Me? I don’t need a manager-I’m it. Of sake. If somebody says after class, “You conductor! Or Bugs Bunny, maybe. He
course, I have other people to do the really hurt my feelings when you said was a great conductor; just th ink, every
things that I can’t-could never-do, like such-and-such,” then I’m truly contrite.
body knows classical music because of
managing my money. Those people are I explain that I was only trying to prove the genius of those cartoons. And don’t
I
Q.
64
HARVARD BUSINkSS REVIEW
Genius at Work •
DIFFERENT voice
And what keeps.you from
becoming an evil genius?
Primarily my two business associates,
who couldn’t be more different from
one another or from me. We’ve been to
gether for more than 15 years now, and
we work together unbelievably well.
They take care of the scheduling and
the fundraising-the business side of
things. They love their work, and they
love me. My dancers also keep me in
check. If I say,“Do it again, pick her up,”
and we haven’t had a break for two
hours, a few people might turn to me
and say, “No, damn it”; “I’m tired”; or
“My mother just died.” And that’s fine
with me. I much prefer opposition to
everyone going along with what I say
and then complaining afterwards that
dancing is so hard. Of course dancing is
hard. I know that. Everyone knows that
But you’ve got to speak up when you
can’t take it anymore.
As a manager of artists, you
must deal with a lot of prima
donnas. What is that like?
“Nobody wants to tell a big star to crank things up,
because he is such a big star. But the fact is, real
artists or geniuses or whatever you want to call them
especially need the truth. They’re notfooled by false
praise and empty encouragement. Only honest
recognition of their real accomplishment means
anything to them at all.”
-Mark Morris
forget, it was Warner Brothers, not Dis
ney, that created such memorable art.
Of course, Walt Disney was a genius,
too, but he was an evil genius. His com
pany is quite evil in the way it manipu
lates every story to have a happy ending.
Still, I think Fantasia is the best chore
No, no, no, no. “Prima donna” is a veryspecific term that really only means the
number one woman in an opera. Of
course, it’s come to mean someone who
is flighty and ^responsible and demand
ing: a diva like soprano Kathy Battle
who-rumor has it-calls her agent on
her cell phone to tell him to call the
driver of her car to ask him to turn off
the air conditioning. Prima donnas cer
tainly exist, but I don’t like the term at
all because someone who’s truly artistic
can’t be categorized so easily. And the
truth is, I rarely allow so-called prima
donnas in my dances. My dancers are
very humble-they’re not creeps. So if
they’re going crazy, it may be because
they’ve been forced on the defensive
about something.
ography of the Nutcracker music ever —----------------produced - including mine and George $ y r CIV V 011 FnanagC other
« •
»_
5rr 11IrO if" ITT
'
.
Balanchine’s. There’s nothing likejt m genjuses anc| near geniuses?
the world. Those fairies flying with the
ice and the flowers falling into the wa Of course, particularly if I’m working
ter. It’s unbelievable-truly great. It’s so with a fancy conductor or a soprano
And what I will tell you is that these
deep and beautiful.
6?
OCTOBER 2001
DIFFERENT VOICE • Genius at Work
people are up against their own egos,
that’s why they’re so delicate or flam
boyant or insecure. Those qualities all
amount to the same thing: vulnerability.
And vulnerability explains why excep
tionally brilliant people, I believe, are
all monsters in some way. Imagine, for
instance, having to sing in front of 4,000
people a piece that everybody knows by
heart, while the audience is just waiting
for something to go wrong. That can
make a person crazy. Of course, if you’re
embarrassed to perform in front of peo
ple, you’re in the wrong job. But per
forming places you in a very exposed
position, and working with great talent
like this requires huge sensitivity.
Are you saying that managers
should spend precious time
bolstering the fragile egos of
their exceptional people?
Yes, but not in an obvious way. You’ve
got to guide these very talented indi
viduals without actually intruding. In
addition, you can’t be fake. There’s no
use in saying something like, "You are so
fabulous; you can do no wrong.” Such
general praise might work with ordinary
people, but that’s no way to manage a
gifted artist With them, you’ve got to be
honest and say,“Hey, you were a little bit
flat there, so let’s fix that.” Of course, no
body wants to tell a big star to crank
things up, because he is such a big star.
But the fact is, real artists or geniuses or
whatever you want to call them espe
cially need the truth. They’re not fooled
by false praise and empty encourage
ment. Only honest recognition of thenreal accomplishment means anything
to them at all.
A Master Class on Emotion
As an artist, Mark Morris is a master at communication. At a time when
executives are being told that they must constantly-and authenticallycommunicate their ideas and feelings, Morris has much to teach us.
f^One of the most important things I’ve learned in my work
is that you don’t get emotional to communicate emotion. A
fabulous mezzo-soprano friend of mine once told me that the
last way to make people cry is to cry yourself. You can't cry
when you’re singing because you get all choked up and every
thing shuts down. Deep communication is not an emotional
free-for-all.
That’s why I, personally, am opposed to the method school
of acting, where actors are encouraged to immerse themselves
in their feelings. I think self-expression is terribly overrated,
I prefer communication. Of course, it may be fun for a three
year-old to spin and spin until she falls down, but it gets a little
irritating if you're the uncle watching. That’s not communica
tion, it's something else. The same is true of a lot of music,
which is why most garage bands are still playing in garages.
A lot of people don’t understand that controlling emotion is
an essential part of any performer’s bag of tricks. Here s a
beautiful example of what I mean. I was once in Tokyo and we
were bumped from the plane and forced to spend the night
near a mall at the outskirts of the city, One shop had a display
of about 1,000 TVs for sale. On every one was the same image:
a geisha crying with a handkerchief. I watched this picture for
several minutes. I couldn’t believe how moving it was, this
woman painted white and crying. After a few minutes, the
camera came in for a close-up, and I realized that the crying
geisha was a puppet. It was a chunk of wood that a 75-year-old
guy was manipulating, ft made such an impression on me that
I have never forgotten it. When it comes to emotion, you see,
mastery-and not indulgence-is everything.,?
You're known for creating
intensely loyal teams. Is that why?
Yes, I think so. My dancers trust me be
cause I try to give them what they need.
For instance, we now have our own
building in Brooklyn with our own stu
dios and showers. That may be taken for
granted in corporate America, but facil
ities like these don’t exist at all among
dance companies.
But even though I try to do a lot for
my company, I can also be a little para
noid, a little suspicious. I need to know
as much as possible about everything
that’s going on. If I find out that some
one in my office did something in my
name that 1 didn’t know about-even if
that person was just trying to save me
the bother-it really bugs me. It’s
that I’m desperately nosey, it’s just thz:
I’m very sensitive to what is happeniiAx
in my company. That’s one reason why
I proofread everything that leaves my
office: the newsletter, the brochure;.
HARVARD BUSINESS REVIEW
66
►
G c n i u s a I Work • DIFFERENT V O I C F
everything. I have to. Imagine if some
thing was sent out in my name that said,
“to each their own." I would go abso
lutely mad. Despite what people may
say, I’m not ambitious in a competitive
career sense. But I am totally ambitious
in getting something right: I must have
excellence.
Let S talk more about the
Can geniuses be mentors?
Are you a mentor?
creative process. How do you
know when something is right?
When is it time to stop tinkering
with your innovation?
My brilliant, beautiful ideas only exist
when they are being executed by these
fabulous dancers so, naturally, I try to
bring people along. But please don’t
use the word “mentor” because I hate
it. I can encourage a dancer, and foster
her, but she has to have her own moti
vation. If she isn’t wild about what she’s
doing, then she ought to leave - or I sup
pose I ought to fire her.
Unfortunately I’m very, very bad at
firing anyone; I wish I were better. But
it’s a big enough company that if I’m
sick to death of somebody, I can spend
It’s easy to start choreographing a dance,
but it’s very, very difficult to finish itand, by the way, the ending is usually
not the last thing 1 make up. Still, it’s
definitely not magic; it’s a decision. I
know a piece is done when it has satis
fied itself. By that I mean that the piece
has achieved clarification for me. The
easiest thing in the world to do in art and I imagine this is true in business as
well-is to make up something incredi
bly complicated and ornate and dense.
It’s much harder to get something to the
right level of simplification, with just ex-
■
r
a couple of weeks not talking to him.
When I spend all my time trying to
avoid somebody, then I know it’s time
for somebody to go-and that some
body is not going to be me.
...
Creativity" is the hottest
buzzword in business today:
Everybody wants to be creative
not just artists. Is something forced
about this push for creativity?
Oh, it’s all so completely phony. Look at
education: There’s this horrible homog
enization going on-everybody has got
to be special. So if it’s somebody’s birth
day in grade school, then you have to
celebrate everybody’s birthday, all year
long. Everyone gets absolutely equal
treatment; nobody is allowed to stick
out-whether it’s because they are be
having badly or are brilliantly smart.
Everyone has to be of equal value in
tellectually, artistically, and creatively;
it makes me want to scream. There’s
■
•
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actly the right amount of information
and effort so that it seems inevitable.
When you create a sense of inevitability,
you have succeeded in creating the illu
sion of spontaneity, and that’s what art
is all about.
/
•/
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worldIBSI
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AN ASSET TO ANY PORTFOLIO.
DIFFERENT VOICE • Genius at Work
this irrepressible drive toward medioc
rity; everything seems to be degenerat
ing into a kind of middlebrow “world
class.” Singers like Charlotte Church,
bless her little heart and loye her, and
Andrea Bocelli are important for pop
ular culture. But come on, these people
are not world-class singers, and they will
never be. I’m sorry. The very designation
“world-class” drives me nuts.
Do you think businesspeople
can be creative?
They can, but it’s important to distin
guish between creativity and art. The
most common form of creativity is prob
lem solving: You can’t get the truck
through the tunnel, so you let the air out
of the tires. I presume that businesspeo
ple are very good at this kind of creativ
ity, which is also important in dance. If
I keep running into you on stage, I have
to figure out what I’m doing wrong.
By contrast, art depends on whether
you can invent something from very
little. That’s the way it is with me. I can
r-nke u’1 ? lance just by listening to
music.* I can invent an entire canon of
works that didn’t exist before. Of course,
skill and learning are also involved, but
art goes beyond skill.
How much do you consideryour
audience when you make a dance?
A lot. After all, I’m in the entertainment
business, and we are putting on a show.
For me, dance is quintessentially a the
ater thing; we’re all about pretense. We
dance wearing makeup and costumes.
We try to please people. And yet, para
doxically, I know that if I try to make up
something just to wow an audience, I m
doomed to fail. It just doesn’t work. In
deed, if I find myself trying too hard to
tweak and adjust things in order to de
liver a message to please a particular au
dience, then I know something is wrong.
I don’t create a Protestant or a Catholic
dance. I just do a dance - and let the au
dience take away from that whatever
they want. There is a quotation I love
that says,“My work isn’t for everyone, it’s
for anyone.” That is so true for me.
What do you think accounts
for your company’s success?
I think the reason we are so popular
with audiences is we don’t lie or blus-
ter. We don’t inflate ourselves. The
dancers dance honestly-that’s the best
thing I can say about them. Indeed,
one of the things 1 scream about the
most is “fake, fake, fake,” or “chicken,
chicken, chicken.” I want the dancers
to reach a level of authenticity that is
surprising-not only to audiences but
also to themselves. In the end, we have
to mean what we’re doing or else it’s a’.l
worthless.
That’s the point about genius, really.
It involves both skill and honesty. Con
sider Maria Callas, whom we all loved
and adored even though she was singing
so horribly flat half the time. Yet she had
this terrific authenticity. Horowitz made
lots of mistakes playing the piano, but it
worked because it’s not about playing
note perfect. That doesn’t mean that
you have to be touchingly imperfect to
be a genius, but you do have to be real.
And that’s the essence of my company
We are real people who are incredibly
skilled.
Reprint R0109C
To order reprints, see the last page
of Executive Summaries.
In the creative process,
do you ever seek advice or
feedback from other people?
I talk to my friends. But there’s a lot that
I don’t talk about because it’s not word
stuff, it’s dance stuff, and dance is com
municated primarily nonverbally. Of
course, on some pieces, my very, very
close advisers and friends have said to
me, “Mark, the ending is wrong. You’re
cheating everybody.”
And then I really did think about
what they said. A few times, 1 even tried
another ending because of what I heard.
But invariably the new ending was re
tarded in some way. For instance, every
body started laughing at a part that was
so not funny to me. So even though I do
listen to other people’s opinions, over
the years, I have come to trust my own
instincts more.
-:'r
I.
i
7
I
I
5
“Stop asking for a progress report on the toast."
HARVARD BUSINESS REVIEW
68
k
M -Ir
Page 1 of 1
Community Heaith Cell
From:
To:
Sent:
Attach:
Subject:
Nisha Hurusnothaman" <nisna(anijnaraising-inaia org>
<nisha(Qlfundraisina-india. orq>
Thursday, March 04, 2004 5:36 PM
Management development programme in leadership.pdf
[info] Effective ieaoership - 10-12 March 2004
Desr Friends,
Greetings from mcas and Ximc in Bangalore!
We are pleased to inform you about the three-day management development
programme in Effective Leadership to be conducted 10-12 March 2004 at
the XIME campus in Bangalore.
Please find attached the biochui e for the course.
If you haven't registered already, please email Prof S D Tyagaraj at
xime@xime.org
Please do not reply to this broadcast email.
best regar ds.
Nisha
Nisha Purushothaman
Murray Culshaw Advisory Services
Into mailing list
Info@lists. fundraising-india, org
htip://lists.mahiti.org/maiiman/iisimto/inio
3/5/04
I
M -U
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SELF
APPRAISAL
Rating
(awar^l/on a rating
scale of 1 to 9)
Knowledge
a.
Your knowledge of the
basic jobs
b.
Ability to do jobs of other
departments
c.
Your knowledge of the latest
developments related to your
j ob s
Skill
a.
Ability to foresee problems
b.
Utilisation of resources
c.
Ability to organise
d.
Seeking peer group support
e.
Monitoring the work
f.
Verb a1 commun i c a t ion
9-
Written communication
Rank order the above skills in you as you think you possess.
1
Attitude
Your commitment to the organisation
- towards superiors, peers
and juniors
— open mindedness
— willingness to accept criticism
and suggestions, and ability to
forego personal conveniences
and comforts for. the sake of the
inst i tut ion
Mention two out of the best qualities
that you possess and two of worst.
2
Part II continued
reporting
1.
kinds of assignments you handled during
the
What
period? Did you like handling them? If not why?
2.
Was there any constraints which prevented you from performing
better? Mention, if any ?
3.
What other kinds of job you can handle?
4.
Do you come on time to work?
5.
Mention
two of your best ach i evements
contributions of the year, if any ?
3
or
outstand ing
file : 017
THE CATHOLIC HEALTH ASSOCIATION OF INDIA
ANNUAL CONFIDENTIAL REPORT FOR HODs / EXECUTIVES
1.
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s
2.
Designation
c
3.
Department
i
4.
Joined CHAI on
i
5-
Employee No
s
6.
Present Salary
i
7.
Present Grade
i
8.
Appraisal Period - From
To
8
9.
Length of Service at CHAI
8
10.
No. of days absent
(loss of pay) during
appraisal period
8
8
Educational Qualification
1.
Academic
2.
Professional
3.
Additions, if any,
during the appraisal period
I
j
1
I
I
<
Last Promotion detail*
Designat ion
i
Effective From
i
No. of additional increment given
c
No. / s
R*.
Additional Emoluments given,if any
(mention justification)
2
8
Rs.
>
ANNUAL APPRAISAL REPORT FOR HOD« / EXECUTIVES
General Instructions
1.
This form is to assess the persons workig with you based
the following major criteria;
a.
Personali ty
b. Performance
c . Poten t i al
2.
Performance
evaluation
under review.
3.
Do not assess performance based on isolated inc iden ts.
4.
The form contains two parts—
5.
I
a.
Part
b.
Part 11
should be restricted to
9
Should be completed by the appraisee
himse1f/herse1f (se1f-appraisal)
- outstanding
b.
7
8
above average
c.
5
6
average
d.
3
4
below average
e.
the
Should be completed by
the
Immediate Supervisor (IS)
Reviewing Authority (RA)
Superior Reviewing Authority (SRA)
Rating to be given on a 9 point scale as under :
a.
1-2
- poor
(avoid decimals)
3
on
peri od
e»
A.
PERSONALITY
RATING
(award on a rating scale of
1 to 9 )
CRITERIA
IS
1.
Appearance and bearing
(turn out, smartness,
social graces)
2.
Knowledge
- professional knowledge
related to the department-
- related to other dap-artmentsr
- related to latest developments
in the field
3.
Skill
a.
Forecasting
- analytical ability
- ability to visualise
the course of events
- anticipate requirements
and identify resources
locating the resources
b.
Planning
(of activities)
c•
Organising
(delegation, division of work)
d.
Coo rd i n a t cm* '
(intergroup support seeking)
e.
Control1ing
(monitoring, midcourse
corrective measures)
f.
Commun icat ing
- verbal expression
- written expression
4
RA
SRA
4.
Attitude
(towards juniors, peers
guests, project holders-^
visitors, seniors)
Interpersonal relationships
Leadership
(setting personal examples
leading from the front
when required)
- Receptiveness to others
views and ideas
- Approachabi1ity and concern
for welfare of juniors
— Conduct and character
5
B-
PERSONAtTTV^
RATING
(award on a rating scale of
1 to 9 )
CRITERIA
IS
1.
Integrity and moral
courage
(displaying of intellectual
honesty, courage of conviction
and honest, just appraoch in
personal and professional
dealings)
2.
Loyalty
(giving willing support to
the organisation, peers,
superiors and juniors)
3.
Decisiveness
(to be able to promptly
arrive at logical conclusion
and decide on a definite
course of action)
4.
Dependability
(executing tasks without
supervision and accepting
additional responsibility)
5.
ingenuity and- initiative
(devising means to solve
unforeseen contingencies)
6.
Drive
(vigour in execution of
tasks and pprevailing
■*
upon
others to do so)
RA
SRA
I
6
'II
7.
Maturity
(displaying a balance of
judgement commensurate
with age and service)
8.
Stamina and tenacity
(ability to withstand
physical and mental stress,
degree of will to persevere
in the face of difficulties)
9.
Adaptabi1i ty
(adjustment to new situations
and people^ with flexibility)
10.
Result achievements
(as per targets in terms of
quantity, quality and time)
11.
Commun i c a t i on
(ability to express clearly,
lucidly and concisely in
writing and verbally)
12.
Punctuali ty
(in attending office)
c.
POTENTIAL
RATING
(award on a rating scale of
1 to 9 )
CRITERIA
IS
1.
Understanding of the
internal and external
environment of the
organisation at a level
higher than his present
position.
2.
Multi-disciplinary knowledge
3.
Appraising ability
4.
Leadersh ip
(ability to control,
motivate and set personal
examples for higher levels)
5.
Sensitivity to people
(humane)
6.
Ability to think big
(magnanimi ty)
7.
Sense of humour
(including the ability
to crack a joke on oneself)
8.
Optimism
RA
SRA
A short description of the individual, highlighting the speci al
qualities and achievements/failures, if any, may be given below:
8
ftegeffifflefidatieri far
/ promotion
Increment i {Recommended!
CNot Recommended!
Promotion s {Recommended!
{Not Recommended!
IS
To be promoted as
in Grade
Signature i
With remarks, i f any
Increment i {Recommended!
{Not Recommended!
Promotion
{Not Recommended!
RA
{Recommended!
To be promoted as
Signature
in Grade
8
With remarks. i f any
Increment
8
{Recommended!
{Not Recommended!
Promot ion
t
{Recommended!
{Not Recommended!
SRA
To be promoted as
Signature i
With remarks, i f any
9
in Grade
file 8 017a
THE CATHOLIC HEALTH ASSOCIATION OF INDIA
ANNUAL CONFIDENTIAL REPORT FOR CATEGORY I AND II
1.
Name
t
2.
Designation
8
3.
Department
a
4.
Joined CHAI on
i
5.
Employee No
i
6.
Present Salary
i
7.
Present Grade
i
8.
Appraisal Period - From
To
8
9.
Length of Service at CHAI
i
10.
No. of days absent
(loss of pay) during
appraisal period
8
8
Educational Qualification
1.
Academic
2.
Professional
3.
Additions, if any,
during the appraisal period
1
Last Promotion details
Designation
i
Effective From
i
No. of additional increment given
t
No. / s
Rs.
Additional Emoluments given,if any
(mention justification)
2
i
Rs.
ANNUAL APPRAISAL REPORT FOR CATEGORY 1 AND 2
General Instruction*
1.
This form is to assess the persons workig with you based
the following major criteria:
a.
Personali ty
b. Performance
c. Potential
2.
Performance evaluation
under review.
3.
Do not assess performance based on i solated incidents.
4.
The form contains two parts—
5.
a.
Part
b.
Part I I
I
should be restricted to
9
Should be completed by the appraisee
himself/herself (se1f-appraisal)
- outstanding
b.
7
8
above average
c.
5
6
average
d.
3
4
e.
the
Should be completed by
the
Immediate Supervisor (IS)
Reviewing Authority (RA)
Superior Reviewing Authority (SRA)
Rating to be given on a 9 point scale as under :
a.
— below average
1-2
~ poor
(avoid decimals)
3
on
period
A.
PERSONALITY
RATING
(award on a rating scale of
1 to 9 >
CRITERIA
IS
1.
Appearance and bearing
(turn out, smartness,
social graces)
2.
Knowledge of the job
(what is expected to do)
3.
Skill
(to carry out the work
assigned)
- anticipate the requirements
for doing the work
- ability to identify resources
- ability to mobilise resources
- ability to plan the activity
ability to understand instructions
4.
Att i tude
(towards peers, seniors
visitors, guests)
5.
Relationship with colleagues
6.
Character and Conduct
4
RA
8RA
B.
PERFORMANCE
RATING
(award on a rating scale of
1 to 9 )
CRITERIA
IS
1.
Integrity and moral
courage
(displaying of intellectual
honesty, courage of conviction
and honest)
2.
Loyalty
(giving willing support to
the organisation, peers,
superiors)
3.
Application to work
(to be able to arrive
at logical conclusion
to decide course of action)
4.
Dependabi1i ty
(executing tasks without
supervision and accepting
additional responsibility)
5.
Initiative and drive
(devising means to solve
unforeseen contingencies/
vigour in execution of
tasks and prevailing
upon others to do so)
5
RA
8RA
c.
POTENTIAL
RATING
(award on a rating scale of
1 to 9 >
CRITERIA
IS
1.
Understanding of the
internal and external
environment of the
organisation at a level
higher than his/her present
pos i t i on.
2.
Knowledge of other work
3.
Appraising ability
4.
Leadership
5.
Sensitivity to people
(humane)
RA
SRA
Sense of humour
(including the ability
to crack a joke on oneself)
7.
Optimism
A ishort
*
description of the individual, highlighting the speci al
1
■’
~
‘
______ m
if
qualities
and achievements/failures
any , may be given below:
6
Recommendation for increment / promotion
Increment s
CRecommended 3
CNot Recommended!
Promotion s [Recommended!
CNot Recommended!
IS
To be promoted as
in Srade
Signature 8
With remarks,
i f any
Increment i [Recommended!
CNot Recommended!
Promotion s [Recommended!
CNot Recommended!
RA
To be promoted as
in Grade
Signature i
With remarks,
SRA
Increment s
i f any
[Recommended!
CNot Recommended!
Promotion : [Recommended!
CNot Recommended!
To be promoted as
Signature s
With remarks,
7
i f any
in Grade
file : 017b
THE CATHOLIC HEALTH ASSOCIATION OF INDIA
ANNUAL CONFIDENTIAL REPORT FOR CATEGORY III AND IV
1.
Name
i
2.
Designation
i
3.
Department
s
4.
Joined CHAI on
c
5.
Employee No
6.
Present Salary
8
7.
Present Grade
8
8.
Appraisal Period - From
To
8
9.
Length of Service at CHAI
i
10.
No. of days absent
(loss of pay) during
appraisal period
8
Educational Qualification
1.
Academic
2.
Professional
3.
Additions, if any,
during the appraisal period
file : 017b
THE CATHOLIC HEALTH ASSOCIATION OF INDIA
ANNUAL CONFIDENTIAL REPORT FOR CATEGORY III AND IV
1.
Name
i
2.
Designation
s
3.
Department
s
4.
Joined CHAI on
i
5.
Employee No
6.
Present Salary
8
7.
Present Grade
s
8.
Appraisal Period ~ From
To
s
9.
Length of Service at CHAI
i
10.
No. of days absent
(loss of pay) during
appraisal period
Educational Qualification
1.
Academic
2.
Professional
3.
Additions, if any,
during the appraisal period
1
Last Promotion details
Designation
i
Effective From
i
No. of additional increment given
<
No. / s
Rs.
Additional Emoluments given,if any
(mention justification)
2
8
Rs.
I
ANNUAL APPRAISAL REPORT FOR CATEGORY III AND IV
General
1.
Instructions
This form is to assess the persons workig with you based
the following major criteria:
a.
Personality
b. Performance
c . Potent i a1
2.
Performance
evaluation
under review.
3.
Do not assess performance based on isolated incidents.
4.
The form contains two parts—
5.
a.
Part
b.
Part 11
I
on
should be restricted to
the
peri od
Should be completed by the
Immediate Supervisor (IS)
Reviewing Authority (RA)
Superior Reviewing Authority (SRA)
Should be completed by the appraisee
himself/herself (se1f-appraisal)
Rating to be given on a 9 point scale as under :
a.
9
- outstanding
b.
7
8
above average
c.
5
6
average
d.
3
4
below average
e.
1-2
- poor
(avoid decimals)
I
!
3
I
II
A.
PERSONALITY
RATING
(award on a rating scale of
1 to 9 >
CRITERIA
IS
1.
Appearance and bearing
(turn out, smartness,
social graces)
2.
Knowledge
- professional knowledge
related to the department
RA
SRA
- related to other departments
- related to latest developments
in the field
3.
Skill
- analytical ability
- ability to visualise
the course of events
- anticipate requirements
and identify resources
locating the resources
Planning of activities
Peer group support seeking
Verbal expression
Written expression
4.
Attitude
(towards juniors, peers
seniors, guests, visitors)
5.
Interpersonal relationships
6.
Leadership
7.
Receptiveness to
others views and ideas
8.
Conduct and character
4
1
LI
B.
PERSONALITY
RATING
(award on a rating scale of
1 to 9 )
CRITERIA
IS
1.
Integrity and moral
courage
(displaying of intellectual
honesty, courage of conviction
and honest, just appraoch in
personal and professional
dealings)
2.
Loyalty
(giving willing support to
the organisation, peers,
superiors and juniors)
3.
Ability to understand
instructions
4.
Dependabi1i ty
(executing tasks without
supervision and accepting
additional responsibility)
5.
Quality of work
(in terms of neatness,
presentation)
6.
Application to work
(in terms of application
of mind, usage of
stationery and office
equipment, spped in
carrying out the work,
maintenance of records
such as filing, registering
etc)
5
RA
SRA
7.
Initiative and drive
(devising means to solve
unforeseen problems/
vigour in execution of
tasks)
8.
Maturity
(displaying a balance of
judgement commensurate
with age and service)
9.
Stamina and tenacity
(ability to withstand
physical and mental stress
while in an emergency
situation)
10.
Adaptab i1i ty
(to new Office procedures
*nd office automation)
11.
Commun i c a t i on
(ability to express clearly
in writing
- verbally
12.
Punetua1i ty
(in attending office)
6
c.
POTENTIAL
RATING
(award on a rating scale of
1 to 9 )
CRITERIA
IS
1.
Understanding of the
internal and external
environment of the
organisation at a level
higher than his present
position.
2.
Multi-disciplinary knowledge
(like accounts, operation
of EPABX, photocopying,
faxing, computer operation)
3.
Leadership
(ability to lead a group
in executing a job)
4.
Sensitivity to people
(humane)
5.
Sense of humour
(including the ability
to crack a joke on oneself)
6.
Opt imism
RA
SRA
A short description of the individual, highlighting the special
qualities and achievements/failures , if any, may be given below:
7
C.
POTENTIAL
RATING
(award on a rating scale of
1 to 9 )
CRITERIA
IS
1.
Understanding of the
internal and external
environment of the
organisation at a level
higher than his present
position.
2.
Multi-disciplinary knowledge
(like accounts, operation
of EPABX, photocopying,
faxing, computer operation)
3.
Leadership
(ability to lead a group
in executing a job>
4.
Sensitivity to people
(humane)
5.
Sense of humour
(including the ability
to crack a joke on oneself)
6.
Optimism
RA
SRA
A short description of the individual, highlighting the spec i a1
qualities and achievements/failures, if any, may be given b e1ow:
7
1
Recommendation for increment / promotion
Increment 2 CRecommendedl
CNot Recommended]
Promotion 2 [Recommended]
CNot Recommended]
IS
To be promoted as
in Grade
Signature 1
With remarks,
if any
Increment 2 [Recommended]
CNot Recommended]
Promotion 2 [Recommended]
CNot Recommended]
RA
To be promoted as
in Grade
Signature 2
With remarks,
i f any
Increment
2
[Recommended]
CNot Recommended]
Promotion
2
[Recommended]
[Not Recommended]
SRA
To be promoted as
Signature 2
With remarks,
8
i f any
in Grade
lntroduction/1
p5
O
Contents
2 Group Leader’s Guide
3 Conservation Lifeline and its Aims
4 Ecosystems, Interdependency and
Conservation Strategies
S
I?
/ivEL-CoME 2°
CON^EK'/ATJON
, LIFELINE
J
r'J
■
P
................
'■
e
-f- %>
&>^S^oc>AxJ^vq
' cJUA^2-
fe
V .•- /•■
^ntroduction/2
■
JI ^0
I .eadter’s
Guide
Section Objectives
• To introduce children to the
K concept of conservation.
O • To familiarize them with the
O objectives of this program.
Q Section Concepts
• Children can make a difference.
L • • Everything living on Earth is part
M of a huge and complex network of
| interdependent organisms.
M • The human population has to live
I in harmony with its environment.
• We must protect the biosphere and
® its resources, otherwise it will be unable to continue to support us.
E| • People have caused most of the environmental problems and people
@ must now solve these problems.
The conservation issues your group will
face are serious. It is important to stress
at the end of each session that there are
solutions to most problems, provided
everyone is prepared to learn and put
into practice the lessons of conserva
tion. The rainbow should be viewed as
a symbol of hope. Remember always to
make global issues and their solutions
relevant to your group by citing local
examples.
Page 4
What is your ecosystem?
Here is an example of the type of things
you can encourage your group to ex
plore within its own ecosystem. You
could set them out in the form of a wall
chart:
My Ecosystem
•Climate
Hot and wet
Hot and dry
Rains every day
Only rains in rainy
season
Hot summer/cold winter
Windy
Other
What affects the climate in your area?
Page 3
•Natural surroundings
fertile soil
poor soil
grassland
forest
desert
flat land
hilly
land
cultivated fields
lake nearby __ sea nearby
river
nearby
marsh nearby _ built-up
urban setting
rural setting
other features
Group discussions could focus on ques
tions such as:
Wild plants What type?
HL
is
i'
• Why should I be concerned about
somebody else’s problems? (In a global
community, environmental problems
affect us all and we must all cooperate
to solve them.)
Wild animals What type?.
People How many?
Livestock What type?
• What difference can I make when the
problems are so big? (This conserva
tion program shows children how to
work together to make a difference.)
Pets What type?
Crops What type?
•Man-made things in my
ecosystem:
Buildings How many?
Building Materials:
Roads, railroads, canals
Irrigation systems
(See also food webs on page 55 and
biomes on pages 63-67.)
What do you depend on?
Follow the chain of dependency back to
its origins in each instance. For ex
ample, clothes might be made by a
mother or come from a shop. But that is
not the end of the chain. Did the
material come from plants or animals,
or was it man-made? Who or what was
involved in the process?
Why do we need to conserve?
As the human population continues to
increase, additional stresses are placed
on fragile ecosystems. Natural habitat
is lost when it is converted into
farmland or taken over by roads and
towns. The overuse of synthetic fer
tilizers and pesticides to grow crops to
feed a growing population can pollute
soil and water and have far-reaching ef
fects on plant and animal communities.
The ever-growing demand for energy
by people is diminishing the Earth’s
natural resources and, in most cases,
creating pollution that threatens to alter
global climate.
You will Find many opportunities
within this conservation program to dis
cuss the impact of human population
growth on the environment.
Make Your Own Rainbow
All the colours ever seen on Earth are
found in a rainbow, or spectrum. But
our eyes can only see seven distinct
colours. Sunlight splits into a spectrum
when it shines into a raindrop. The back
of the raindrop acts like a tiny mirror to
bounce the light out at a specific angle,
causing it to separate out into colours.
When thousands of raindrops do the
same thing, a rainbow results.
•A *
f*
- 4
Group Activities
1. Research the impact that human
population growth has had on your
region. Your class could present its find
ings in the form of murals.
2. Research an ecosystem different
from the one in which you live. Put on
a play that depicts a day in the life of
another ecosystem.
ew
o.
Apart from these harmful effects that a
too-large human population has on the
environment, its toll in human suffering
from poverty and starvation continues
to be a serious problem.
O
lntroduction/3
Have you ever experienced a storm so
severe, so dark, that it seems the sun
will never appear again? Then sudden
ly, the clouds break, the sun’s rays
flood the sky and a rainbow appears, a
sign that the storm will soon blow over.
Today, a dark storm is threatening the
Earth. It is made up of serious environ
mental issues that threaten the soil you
grow things in, the water you drink, the
air you breathe and the plants and
animals that share it all with you.
A Rainbow Guardian
1. Joins with young people every
where to try to solve environmen
tal problems through informed
action.
2. Becomes a world conservation
ist by thinking globally and acting
locally and pledging to spread the
Ji word about conservation.
H 3. Adopts the rainbow as a symbol
J of hope, believing that no problem
is too big to tackle when enough
& people work together on a solution.
9
"3
j 3
Start right here with this maze! It tells
you about conservation. To get to the
end, you must choose the correct
answers.
V
ATTACKED BY MOSAIC LEAF
ViRLS.DOYoU-.
Vif?u6.
YOU’.
A
/'V
A. ^TWYTHEM WITH A _
POWERFUL•pE5-TlClt>'e
PO
WERFVL PE5'TICIP5J .
B. ^pFAy THE SA VJ rra *3
m 1LK
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WHEN A PO5TCK OBTEST Av
SCHOOL 15 F1N^HH>,£OYOU:
ALL AWAY[J
f^VCOHEAO^^A
PLANT. VoYbu:
A. FULL IT vpTD^HOV/
Conservation Lifeline has adopted the
rainbow as its symbol of belief that you
can bring about change for the better.
When you get involved in the program,
you become a Rainbow Guardian
who pledges to be an active conser
vationist by earning all the colours on
your Rainbow badge.
a
y f _
_____
Conservation Lifeline is a learning
and action program for young people
all over the world. It explains the
environmental issues that face us all
today, and shows you how to get
involved in solving them.
n How do you become
a Rainbow Guardian?
GVRN IT?
fl
What is Conservation
Lifeline?
4.
4
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you've C( OTA LOT Of VEd EIAE'- SU/A5TE
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A.COMPOST ITIDFO^M ^L" J
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CAKE FOR ITScTW ITWSLL
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k.
^ntroduction/4
The world is made up of many different
communities of plants and animals that
live together and share the same kinds
of natural conditions. These com
munities and their sunoundings are
called ecosystems and every member of
an ecosystem plays an important role.
Q What is your
ecosystem?
What types of plants and animals, land
formations, climate and man-made
things surround you? Create a chart that
lists all the different parts of your
ecosystem.
What would happen to your ecosystem
if one of its parts - say its climate were to change?
□ What do you need to
survive?
You need:
•Air
• Water
• Food
• Shelter and clothing
You depend on many things, both living
and non-living, in your ecosystem. Can
you identify them and all the other sup
pliers of things you need to survive?
Give and Take
The bull’s-horn acacia tree lives in
dense forests in South America. Ants
live in the tree’s hollow thorns and eat
the sugar, oil and protein that the tree
produces. In return for food and lodg
ing, the ants prevent hungry animals
and insects from eating the tree’s
leaves. They also remove any foliage
that blocks the tree’s light.
What do ants and acacia trees helping
each other to survive have to do with
you and conservation?
Soon there will be six billion people
living on Earth. If we continue doing
what we are doing today, a human
population of this size cannot help but
damage the planet’s life support sys
tems as people search for food, resour
ces, energy and living space.
The answer is for people to think of
themselves as being in the same kind of
relationship with the Earth as the ant is
with the acacia tree. If the tree dies, so
too does the ant. If we fail to protect the
Earth and its resources, it will no longer
be able to support us.
3 Make Your Own
Rainbow
You will need:
• a straight-sided, see-through container
at least 4 cm deep
• water
• a small mirror
• a piece of white card
%
1. Place the container so that the sun
shines directly on it and fill it almost to
the top with water.
2. Put the mirror in the water, shiny
face towards the sun.
3. Move the mirror until it catches the
sunlight and a small "rainbow" appears
on the card.
»'
S’
How can you help?
As a Rainbow Guardian you can help
achieve conservation’s three main
goals:
1. To maintain essential life support
systems such as soil, water and air.
-
2. To preserve the wide variety of life
forms and ecosystems presently
found on Earth.
3. To ensure that when we use things
from nature, we do so without upset
ting its balance.
■ >i
p 1
A •
/\^
.srr
How to Earn Your
Rainbow Bands
A rainbow is made up of seven visible
bands of light. You see them as colours:
red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo
and violet. Each time your group com
pletes one of the first seven sections of
this program you can colour in one of
the bands on the large rainbow on your
wall. You can also colour the same
band on your own badge or add another
strand to your wristband. Your teacher
or group leader will keep a chart to help
you record your progress.
§
If
JF
Water/23
□ Too Much!.
Water
Pollution
The use of fertilizers can lead to water
pollution. The nutrients in fertilizers,
especially phosphates, encourage plant
growth in lakes and rivers. But how can
that be bad? Find out by matching the
descriptions opposite with these pic
tures of a lake that is becoming polluted
to death.
Water pollution is anything that makes
water less healthy for human use, or for
plants and wildlife.
A
f
" 3
1. Too much phosphate increases the
plants, especially algae.
2. Dead algae sink and are decom
posed by bacteria, which remove
oxygen from the water. Fish begin to
die from lack of oxygen.
3. More plants and animals die and the
lake water becomes dirtier, blocking the
sun’s rays. Water plants can no longer
produce food or oxygen (see page 44).
The lake is unable to support life.
B
How To
Pollute
Water
How many of the actions here do
you think pollute water?
• Allowing untreated sewage to enter
rivers and oceans. (This includes
urinating or defecating into streams,
rivers and lakes.) .
• Dumping cans, bottles, plastics, old
tires and cars into rivers.
• Letting pesticides and fertilizers
wash into rivers and lakes.
• Spilling oil from tankers or dump
ing used motor oil near rivers.
• Pumping heated water back into
the river after using it to cool in
dustrial processes.
• Dumping radioactive materials in
the seas.
• Leaving chemical wastes or fer
tilizers in the open where rain can
wash them into rivers.
^2
Did You Know?
Less than half the countries south of the
equator have access to safe, clean water.
//?/D You ka/oi^ V
J THAT RMIN& TH£ Y
TEMPERATURE. OF (
RIVER WAT^. OAK Kill
R5WANZ)r—--YPAANVo?)
Bilharzia is a disease caused by
parasitic worms that enter people’s
bodies through their skin after spending
part of their life cycle in the bodies of
freshwater snails. Avoid contact with
the snails and their parasites by not
swimming or wading in slow-moving
or stagnant water.
Even in the high Arctic, many pesticide
toxins have been found in mammals
such as polar bears. The chemicals
were used thousands of kilometres
away, got into the water cycle, then into
the seals that the polar bears eat.
| S Water-Borne
I Diseases
S As many as 80% of all human disg eases can be linked to unsafe water
i and poor sanitation. Here are some
1 of the most dangerous diseases. Can
I you match up each one with the
| safety step you can take to avoid con| tracting it?
1. When people pass stool infected
with BILHARZIA in slow-moving
water, the disease quickly spreads.
Snails also help pass it on.
2. If a person infected with
TAPEWORM defecates where cows
and pigs graze, the animals can be
come infected. More people are in
turn infected when they eat im
properly cooked infected meat.
3. If you walk barefoot in stool in
fected with HOOKWORM, you can
become infected. Hookworm is also
found in dirty latrines. .
4. Drinking and using infected water
can cause CHOLERA. Incorrectly
built latrines can help spread the dis
ease.
5. DYSENTERY thrives when
people cannot wash their hands with
soap and hot water after using the
toilet.
Safety Steps
a. Wear shoes.
b. Only eat completely
cooked food.
c. Always try. to wash
your hands after using the
toilet.
d. Avoid stagnant
5°water.
r
> 7
e. Keep water clean and
pure and follow the clean
latrine tips on page 24.
. Answers page 18
Water/24
Keep it
Clean!
Having enough water is important, but
making sure that it is clean and safe is
just as important.
L3BMake
Your Own
Water Filter
Soil is a natural filter of water. To see
how, try this experiment.
Caution: This water is filtered but is
not purified. It should be boiled for
five minutes to kill microorganisms
before you drink it.
1 SKeep a
I Clean Latrine
I■I
Look over this picture of a latrine
and the tips on keeping it clean.
How many of them do you follow?
| • Sweep the latrine every day.
h • Spread hay on the floor before
I sweeping. The hay absorbs moisture
| and smells good.
I • Cover the latrine hole to keep out
I flies.
I • Empty the latrine hole before it
| gets full.
• Build your latrine at least 15 m
H from your water source.
|| • Wash your hands after using the
3 latrine.
• Build a tall vent pipe to carry away
odours.
i
I
You will need:
• a large drum or clay pot with a hole in
the bottom
• the ingredients shown below
• dirty water
■.
1. Layer the materials in the drum or
pot as shown.
rzzzzzz:
2. Pour the dirty water into the pot.
What does the water look like when it
comes out the bottom? Does it look any
different if you filter it a second time?
Why does this water filter not get rid of
harmful microorganisms?
r
s S^Quality Quiz
I
How can we improve our water
quality? Complete these sentences by
choosing words from the list below
and you will find out.
1.
the amount of solid, liq
uid and airborne waste that industry
creates.
waste
2. Carefully
and
that cannot be eliminated.
3. Use more
irrigation
methods to prevent run off.
Answers page 1 ft
Help Save
Lives
If safe drinking water is difficult to find
where you live, your community can do
many things to improve the quality of
available water.
A baby who drinks impure water can
end up with life-threatening diarrhoea.
Give this recipe to the mothers in your
community. Your action could save
lives.
• If possible, boil water for five minutes
then store it in clean containers. Use it
for drinking, cooking and preparing
food.
i
• Never dip a dirty container into pure
drinking water.
4
• Never store water in containers that
once held toxic substances.
Put a hand-scoop of com flour, a three
fingered pinch of salt and a litre of
water into a pot. Boil it for five minutes,
then let it cool.
Feed the child as much of this mixture
as he or she can take several times a
day for as long as the dianhoea persists.
• Take water from a well rather than
from the river.
This treatment is known as ORT - Oral
Rehydration Therapy. It can prevent
death from loss of vital body fluids.
• Help to keep the well covered to
prevent cattle fouling the water.
( piakrhoea iw
• See page 23 for other examples of
what pollutes water.
e
CHOOSE FROM THESE WORDS:
USE EFFICIENT RESTORE
REDUCE SEWAGE CONTAIN
TREAT
Pure Water is
Precious
• Never let livestock use the same water
source as humans.
/
4.
fertilizers and pes
ticides cautiously.
5. Carefully treat
in cities.
6.
damaged lakes and
rivers.
?MoR£-TWL
J 2.-S ’‘A
MILLION
CHILDREN^
VEVERYYB*R.
A1
I
&
St
CIA
I
.C-Vs
~r
St
si
Water/25
1a
it
What is the
answer?
Because we are using water so quickly,
by the year 2000 it will be scarce in at
least 30 countries. Fortunately, there are
things we can do to ensure there will al
ways be enough water for everyone.
■ J
■
1. Each household can catch and use
rain water for watering the garden. In
many areas, people stand a barrel under
neath a drainspout to collect water from
their roofs.
•
3 • Heat can be extracted from in
dustrial cooling water and used to heat
other buildings.
Vegetation is an important part of
water management. It allows rain to
soak into soil instead of running off
and causing floods. It also holds water
in the soil, as a sponge holds water, so
it is available when the dry season
comes. Trees are particularly good at
doing all these things. How? You
decide:
4. We can reduce the amount of water
wasted in homes by repairing leaking
water supply systems.
<3
’Hi
•> *']
3
I. Tree roots:
a. pump water straight up through the
soil to the surface
b. hold water in cup-shaped containers
c. allow water to enter the tree, which
helps in transpiration.
2. Tree branches:
a. slow down the rainfall so more
water can be absorbed by the soil and
less erosion occurs
b. sprout sponges in the rain to help
soak it up
*
c. act as slides for raindrops to hit the
ground faster.
3. Fallen leaves and twigs:
a. suck raindrops out of the air
b. lie on the ground and help hold
water by slowing its flow
c. chemically change molecules of
water.
Answers page 18 (Also, see page 47
for tree planting.)
■
5. Damming rivers helps control
flooding, may provide hydropower and
allows us to store water for many uses,
including irrigation. Before dams are
built, the environmental impact on the
area must be considered.
2. We can improve irrigation
methods. The drip-feed irrigation sys
tem shown here wastes less water than
more conventional methods. Also, it
removes the threat of diseases spread
by irrigation canals and reduces the
speed at which soil becomes salty.
Q Plant Thin-is
S Conserve
Water
WE QgQPoF y
WOK'S f
THAN 25*-CT
Are you a water waster or conserver?
How many of these things do you do to
conserve water?
• Wash your hands in a small basin of
water instead of leaving the
water running.
• Turn off the tap or
pump while you brush
your teeth.
• Use as little water as
possible when washing
dishes and clothes.
• Fix leaky taps fast.
What other
ways can you
think of? Ex
change ideas
with your
friends.
&
71
/
s.
Experiential Learning : Setting context
There are numerous ways and methodologies of learning. That is precisely \\ hv it is impor
tant to choose the methodology according to the objectives of learning and the situation of
the learners.
Our main objective is to facilitate the process of respectable life for the poor and down
trodden amidst various pressures and processes. In this context the objectives of learning is
not confined to mere intellectual development but is also spread in the sphere of chaneiim
the w hole attitude, rotten traditions and beliefs.
Broadly, our main need is to develop confidence among the poor and marginalised masses
so that they psychologically break the mental block of” we cannot do anything ” and " make
them believe that we can do everything ". Secondly they should be guided to anal\sc thenown situation and be motivated to intervene in the process of change. Lastly, and more
importantly they should develop the required skill and capabilities to change thensituation.
Therefore, in this context such a methodology is required which not only enhances their
intellectual capabilities but also initiate a process of change in their belief, attitude and
nature. Also, it should enable them to identify and initiate their role in the process of
change in their own conditions. Thus we need a methodology which fulfils rhe learning
requirement at all three level i.c. cognitive level, effective level, and skill level. 1 bus it is
imperative that such methodology is based on the experiences and the needs of the learners.
The preconditions of such methodology in the process of learning is to give respect to the
experiences and knowledge of the learners and believe in their resolve to change their situ
ation.
During last few years the efforts in the area of development for change revealed the fact that
this methodology (of experiential learning ) is the most congruent with the above mentioned
needs.
Experiential learning is a life long process and is nearest to the self learning processes of
the masses we are concerned with.
Recollecting individual experjences and entering into reflection is the first stage oLthis
method. The second stage of this process is the sharing of the gains of the first stage. The
most important thing in the second stage is to locate the similarities and dissimilarities of
the experiences during sharing and analysing the reasons of such similarities and
dissimilarities. fo_gain a new vision collectively through this process is the next stage of
this method. Experience shows that even aFfhis stage is neither complete nor permanent.
I herefore, the application of this found vision into practice is the integral part of this learn
ing process and thus becomes the next stage of experiential learning.
In this manner the application of this collectively found new vision into practice paves the
wav for a new experience and this learning process establishes itself'as a cyclic and con
tinuous ongoing process.
I he processes that build learning on " experiences" (experiential learning ) and address
issues al all three levels of learning : the cognitive, the effective and the skill arc most
appropriate processes. The processes that create opportunity, space and environment for
sharing, analysing and generalising and applying in sights drawn on this basis respond to
both these requirements
Recollection
Analysis
Sliainng
1-xpei icnce
/ Similarities
Application
&
\ Dissimilarities
New
Insights-
Such processes are ( by and large ) :
collective pursuit
interactive by implications
disseminative in nature
decentralised in structure.
The experiences demonstrate that such a mode of learning is closer to people's own learning
styles, manifested in the ways of their life-long struggle for survival; manifested in the
decision-making for the sharing of ever depleting resource, manifested in the process of
identifying one's own misery with that of others similarly placed; manifested in the joining
of hands for standing against the odds created by forces perpetuating the process of
marginalisation and deprivation.
The learning requirements of the marginalised and deprived people for transformation emerge
from the larger socio-political context and our interventions in response to such require
ments need to be situated in a way that they contribute to the overall strategy to transform
that context, lienee the educational interventions required al various levels and various
junctures, including training, have to be strategically-planned deliberate structures which
accelerate the ongoing dynamics of learning and action.
Our interventions in enhancing people’s learning need to be placed appropriately within the
ongoing cyclic and spiral process of reflection, action and reflection, which builds learning.
Our interventions therefore, arc required to be based on whatever has preceded and, we arc
required to contribute to w hat has to proceed.
wwww
Action
Action
_________Reflection_________ Reflection__________________________
Cyclic and spiral nature of ongoing learning
The role of educational intervention in this context implies structuring space for reflecting
upon experiences and opportunities to share and collectively analyses and learn from these
experiences in a conducive environment, f or a definite set of learners; with a definite set of
learning objectives. It also implies providing links to the course of application of the learn
ing that is consolidated/systcmatized as a result of one structured intervention, and then
providing another opportunity to further consolidate learning from a new set of experi
ences. The educational intervention, thus, will draw its \ alidation from the continuity of the
efforts—simultaneous and complementary to the larger process of organisation and action
in w hich a particular set of learners are involved in
%
X.
-------------------------- x<-
REFLECTION
GROUP
SELF
<
2LT
SHARING
o
GROUP
I lie Meaning Of Educational Intervention
Educational intervention is preplanned, specific and well organised process. The purpose of
it being preplanned is inherent in the objective with which we initiate the educational intervention.That
the poor and deprived should be able to lead a smooth, respectful life being the objective, the per
spective automatically gets determined and accordingly we plan the educational intervention i lore,
to use the energy and capabilities al the maximum level, it becomes imperative to do a proper
planning for the educational intervention.
Any educational intervention related to the experiential learning process has its ow n structure
and meaning. The relationship between the facilitalor(s) of the educational intervention and the
group of people w ho are supposed to participate in the process, becomes the base of the structure
Another important aspect of this structure is the oi21TTturiL[\ylhal has to be created for sharing the
experiences related to the subject matter, reflection and analysis. The nature of participants, their
relationship w ith the facililator(s) and the space and opportunity provided to the participants create
an atmosphere or environment for the learning process. These five elements create a situation in
which the group of participants develop a new insight, mostly based on their own experiences. To
create such a structure, the facilitator's role revolves around a continuous facilitation process w hich
include providing additional information as and when required.
Group
E\ cry group has a specihc character and individuality. This individuality takes shape as a result of
participation, communication, problem solving and decision making processes that goes on within
the group. The character and individuality of the group undergoes a process of change when some
new members enter the group or some old members leave the group. Another important aspect here
is that when a group turns into a learning group, it develops and picks up pace as group. This means
that the group does not remain the same as it was at the time of its formation. During the learning
process based on the expcrenlial learning method, the group develops its specific character and
indi\ idualily.
Relationship
The relationship between the facililalor(s) |trainer(s)} and the participants works as the founda
tion lor the learning process, in the context of experiential learning methodology, the relationship of
mutual respect, mutual exchange and faith is the precondition for the success of educational inter
vention. The feeling that the facilitator knows everything and the participants know nothing may be
fatal for the learning process. The fearless environment that is required to create space and opportu
nity for the reflection and its sharing, is best created when this relationship has a solid base.
Space
Here, this word has a psychological dimension which means creating a situation which facilitates
the process c>f travelling into one’s memory lanes and bringing out valuable experiences. Dcfinctclv
the physical arrangements and time to carry on the work is important, but here it is providing an
opportunity that is free of' fears and doubts to continue the learning process.
Opportunity
For the individual centered reflection process, alongwilh the time and space that has to be pro
vided. it is also important to pro\ ide proper opportunity for the experiential learning process to be
succcsful I he facilitator has an important role in providing opportunity for mutual exchange of
ideas and experiences once the reflection process is complete
I nvironmciit
Learning environment is a multi dimensional situation where one dimension is related to the physical
conditions and atmosphere while the other is related to the psychological conditions. The third
equally important dimension is the behavioural norms that should exist. The mutual relationship
amongst the individuals of the group during and after sessions is the key in creating such environ
ment. Equally important is the relationship between the facilitators and the group. Though the
character and the mdi\idualily of the group, the kind of relationship that exists within the group,
space and opportunity that is provided creates the learning cn\ ironment, often we have to make
special efforts towards it. To smoothly, carry out the learning process of the adults of the depi ived
and marginalised sclions of the society, the creation or existence of the proper learning environment
is a must
Access this article online
Original Research
Website: www.searo.who.int/publications/
journals/seajph
DOI: 10.4103/2224-3151.122944
Quick Response Code:
Health workforce in India: assessment of
availability production and distribution
Indrajit Hazarika
ABSTRACT
Background: India faces an acute shortage of health personnel. Together with
inequalities in distribution of health workers, this shortfall impedes progress towards
achievement of the Millennium Development Goals. The aim of this study was to
assess health-workforce distribution, identify inequalities in health-worker provision
and estimate the impact of this maldistribution on key health outcomes in India.
Materials and Methods: Health-workforce availability and production were
assessed by use of year-end data for 2009 obtained from the Indian Ministry of
Statistics and Programme Implementation. Inequalities in the distribution of doctors,
dentists, nurses and midwives were estimated by use of the Gini coefficient and
the relation between health-worker density and selected health outcomes was
assessed by linear regression.
Results: Inequalities in the availability of health workers exist in India. Certain
states are experiencing an acute shortage of health personnel. Inequalities in
the distribution of health workers are highest for doctors and dentists and have a
significant effect on health outcomes.
Conclusion: Although the production of health workers has expanded greatly
in recent years, the problems of imbalances in their distribution persist. As India
seeks to achieve universal health coverage by 2020, the realization of this goal
remains challenged by the current lack of availability and inequitable distribution
of appropriately trained, motivated and supported health workers.
Australian Health Workforce
Institute, University of Melbourne,
Melbourne, Australia, Public Health
Foundation of India, Vasant Kunj
Institutional Area, New Delhi, India
Address for correspondence:
Dr Indrajit Hazarika, Australian Health
Workforce Institute, University of
Melbourne, Level 3, 766 Elizabeth
Street, Parville, Victoria 3010, Australia.
E-mail: hazarika.indrajit@gmail.com
Key words: Availability, distribution, health workers, inequalities, production
INTRODUCTION
In low-income countries, despite the availability of effective
interventions for many priority health problems and
enhanced developmental assistance, progress towards
the health Millennium Development Goals is impeded
by the shortage of trained, motivated and supported
health workers.ri-21 Health workers play a central role in
ensuring the appropriate management of all aspects of the
health system: From logistics and facility management to
finances and health-care interventions. [3] Furthermore,
because a society’s health and its development are strongly
linked, health workers have an indirect but crucial role
in the achievement of sustainable human and economic
106
development/41 There have been efforts to expand the
health workforce to meet demand. However, these
efforts have been hampered by increases in factors such
as population size, purchasing power for health services
within communities, life expectancy and the prevalence of
noncommunicable diseases and other chronic conditions.[5]
India is a conglomeration of states with diverse levels of
socioeconomic status, governance, health systems and
health situations. As elsewhere, India has shortages and
maldistribution within its health workforce that have
contributed to inequities in health outcomes. India’s health
workforce is a combination of both registered, formal
health-care providers and informal medical practitioners,
WHO South-East Asia Journal of Public Health 2013 I April-June I 2(2)
Hazarika: Health workforce in India
the latter being the first point of contact for a large
proportion of the population/61
The country is unique because an expanding private
for-profit sector is juxtaposed against a vast network of
public sector health facilities, which compete for a common
pool of health human resources. Moreover, despite an
increasing shortage of local health professionals, India
has emerged as the most important source country in the
global health-workforce market. According to the 2006
World Health Report, India had 0.60 doctors, 0.80 nurses,
0.47 midwives, 0.06 dentists and 0.56 pharmacists,
respectively, per 1000 population. In absolute terms,
reversal of the country’s shortfall in health workers was
estimated to require an investment of almost US$ 2 billion
per year by 2015/71
In addition to the known shortage of health workers, there
is a common perception that large in-country inequalities
exist in their distribution. To date, the evidence to support
this proposition has been limited, owing to a lack of
reliable disaggregated data at the country level. This
study therefore used the most up-to-date data available
to assess the production, employment and distributional
patterns of health workers in India. Inequalities in
health-worker distribution at the state level and the
impact of this maldistribution on key health outcomes
were also assessed.
DATA AND METHODS
No ethics committee approval was required for this
research
Although WHO defines health workers171 as “all people
engaged in actions whose primary intent is to enhance
health”, the term “health worker” in this study was
restricted to three categories: Doctors, dentists and
nurses/midwives. Year-end data for 2009 on these health
workers at the state level were obtained from the Indian
Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation’s
2011 Report on Health and Family Welfare.181 In this
report, estimates on health-worker stock were derived
from three databases: (i) allopathic medical practitioners
registered with state medical councils; (ii) dental surgeons
registered with the central/state dental councils; and (iii)
information on registered nurses and midwives available to
the Indian Nursing Council and Central Bureau of Health
Information, Directorate General of Health Services,
Government of India. In addition, national and state data
on the number of educational institutions in medicine,
dentistry and nursing/midwifery, as well as the number
of admitted students, were extracted from the Medical
Council of India (MCI), Dental Council of India (DCI)
and Indian Nursing Council (INC) databases/9*111 Ministry
of Health and Family Welfare documents were used to
assess the employment of health personnel and number
of vacant health-worker posts/121 This latter analysis was
limited to the public sector, since data on private-sector
employment were not available.
For state-wise analysis, population projections published
by the Registrar General of India1131 were adjusted for
differences in the projected and estimated populations
from the 2011 census/141 Densities of health workers
were calculated from the workforce data described above
and census data on populations. National time trends for
health-worker densities were calculated for 2000-2009.
Where subnational data were available, Lorenz curves
and Gini indices were calculated to assess geographical
inequalities in doctor, dentist and nurse/midwife densities.
The Gini coefficient and Lorenz curve are measures of
inequality and have been used in previous studies of health
workforce inequality/15-161 This inequality analysis was
based on the density at the first administrative division
below national level, which is equivalent to the state
level in India.
Spearmans’s rank correlation coefficient was calculated
to assess the relation between health-worker density and
gross domestic product (GDP) at the state level. GDP
data were derived from Reserve Bank of India Handbook
of Statistics on Indian Economy/171 The relation between
health-worker density and selected health outcomes was
assessed by linear regression of data on infant mortality,
maternal mortality, mortality in children younger than
5 years and measles immunization coverage from the
2010 Government of India Annual Report to the People
on Health1181 against the density of health professionals.
All variables were transformed into natural logarithms.
Data analyses were done with STATA version 10.0.
RESULTS
Health-worker availability
Table 1 shows the absolute numbers and category-wise
density (per 1000 population) of doctors, dentists and
nurses including midwives at the national and state levels.
In 2009, India had 761 806 doctors, 104 603 dentists and
1 650 180 nurses and midwives. At the national level, the
aggregate density of doctors, nurses and midwives was
2.08 per 1000 population, which was lower than WHO’s
critical shortage threshold of 2.28.[7] There were gross
inequalities in the availability of these health workers at
the subnational level. For example, states such as Bihar,
Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh
had especially severe shortages of health workers [less
than 1 per 1000 population; Table 1].
The 1993 World Development Report1191 recommended
that the ratio of nurses to doctors should exceed 2:1
as a minimum, with 4:1 or higher considered best for
cost-effective quality care. In 2009 the ratio of nurses
WHO South-East Asia Journal of Public Health 2013 | April-June | 2(2)
J 07
Hazarika: Health workforce in India
Table 1: State-wise availability of doctors, dentists, nurses and midwives - 2009
States
Health-worker numbers0
Dentists
GNMs
Population
(million)0
Doctors
Doctors
Andhra Pradesh
83.11
62 349
6510
North-east states'3
49.84
19 324
944
Madhya Pradesh
70.28
25 662
Bihar
100.94
Chhattisgarh
Health-worker density per 1000 population
Ratio of nurses
and midwives
per doctor
ANMs
Doctors
Dentists
Nurses and
midwives
Combined'
136 477
112 269
0.75
0.078
2.99
3.74
3.99
20 285
23 375
0.39
0.019
0.88
1.26
2.26
2002
96 574
27 566
0.37
0.028
1.77
2.13
4.84
36 559
2807
8883
7501
0.36
0.028
0.16
0.52
0.45
24.85
2746
407
3945
1900
0.11
0.016
0.24
0.35
2.13
Goa
1.37
2716
687
N/A
N/A
1.99
0.503
N/A
N/A
N/A
Gujarat
58.76
45 058
2684
88 258
36 427
0.77
0.046
2.12
2.89
2.77
Haryana0
24.51
4132
2059
17 821
13 727
0.17
0.084
1.29
1.46
7.64
Himachal Pradesh
6.72
705
772
8550
10 152
0.10
0.115
2.78
2.89
26.53
Jammu and
Kashmir
12.22
10 906
1090
N/A
N/A
0.89
0.089
N/A
N/A
N/A
Jharkhand
32.06
2933
NA
1998
3405
0.09
NA
0.17
0.26
1.84
Karnataka
59.86
83 177
25 612
136 421
48 509
1.39
0.428
3.09
4.48
2.22
Kerala
32.90
37 835
6655
85 624
28 378
1.15
0.202
3.46
4.61
3.01
Maharashtra
109.27
134 859
18 159
93 032
33 158
1.23
0.166
1.15
2.39
0.94
Orissa
41.20
16 734
537
63 167
49 170
0.41
0.013
2.73
3.13
6.71
Punjabc
27.07
38 434
7348
45 801
18 152
1.42
0.271
2.36
3.78
1.66
Rajasthan
66.42
27 654
364
37 667
0.42
0.005
0.90
1.32
2.17
Tamil Nadud
71.20
84 525
11 609
186 972
22 239
54 124
1.19
0.163
3.39
4.57
2.85
Uttar Pradesh
192.62
55 355
5572
21 042
0.29
0.029
0.25
0.54
0.87
West Bengal
89.65
58 059
2054
48 470
0.65
0.023
1.17
1.82
1.80
Uttaranchal
9.82
3085
451
92
0.31
0.046
0.08
0.39
0.26
Delhi
15.83
8999
6280
26 547
27 328
56 302
700
2160
576 542
0.57
0.397
1.81
2.38
3.19
0.64
0.088
1.44
2.08
2.24
India
1183.56
761 806
104 603
1 127 626
GNM=General Nursing and Midwifery, ANM=Auxiliary Nurse Midwifery, N/A=data not available aPopulation data and health-professional statistics for 2009 from
references 9-14; binclude Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura and Sikkim; cinclude data from Chandigarh proportionate to state populations, dincludes
the Union Territories, i.e., Chandigarh, Puducherry, Daman and Diu, Lakshwadeep. Andaman and Nicobar and Dadar Nagar Haveli; eincludes doctors, nurses and midwives
to doctors in India was 1.5:1, while the ratio of nurses/
midwives to doctors was 2.2:1. There was substantial
variation at the state level, the ratio being lower than the
national average in six out of the eight Empowered Action
Group states3 [Table 1]. In the decade between 2000
and 2009, both the absolute numbers and the densities
of doctors, dentists and nurses/including midwives
have steadily increased. Figure 1 illustrates the trend in
densities.
S 2.50-.
3g 2.00§.
1
Q
£
Q
1.501.000.500.00
,
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Density of doctors
Density of dentists
«■» Density of nurses and midwives
Combined density (doctors+nurses/midwives)
omh»
Health-workforce production
Review of the available data on training of health
workers highlights three important developments. First
is the recent rapid expansion in the training capacity of
health workers. Between 1991 and 2013, the number of
admissions to medical colleges increased from 22 438
to 49 508, i.e. by 121%, while within the same period
admissions to dental institutions expanded from 3100 to
23 800, i.e. by 668%.[9,10] Similar increases occurred in
nursing. In 1997, there were 659 General Nursing and
Midwifery and 485 Auxiliary Nurse Midwifery institutes,
a. States with poor health outcomes identified on a priority basis by
the National Rural Health Mission in India: Bihar, Chhattisgarh,
Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Jharkhand, Uttarakhand
and Rajasthan.
108
Figure 1: Density of health professionals per 1000 population - 2000-2009
which increased more than threefold to 2487 and 1307
institutes, respectively, in 2012. Likewise, the number
of recognized nursing institutes offering the Bachelor
of Science in Nursing (BSc) degree has increased from
165 in 2004[20] to 1507 in 2012 [Table 2].[11] There were
clear inequalities in the distribution of these training
institutions among states. Although the Empowered
Action Group states account for almost half of the
country’s population, they house only approximately
one-fifth of the medical colleges and a quarter of the
dental and nursing institutes.
WHO South-East Asia Journal of Public Health 2013 I April-June I 2(2)
Hazarika: Health workforce in India
Table 2: State-wise production capacity of nurses and
midwives - 2012
GNM
ANM
BSc
Annual production
capacity
GNM
ANM
BSc
Andhra Pradesh
249
North-east states®
53
46
29
221
18
10 924
1543
1315
829
11 481
883
Madhya Pradesh
Bihar
201
10
115
40
106
1
7950
426
3765
1198
5245
40
Chhattisgarh
29
66
48
1046
2205
2260
20
2040
States
Number of
Institutions or schools
Goa
2
1
3
70
Gujarat
79
37
Haryana
53
60
53
3155
2140
Himachal Pradesh
31
11
6
8
12
Jharkhand
21
Karnataka
Kerala
130
1830
1695
1065
4
1170
470
185
285
540
180
5
336
735
25 214
685
230
543
23
44
1325
18 133
225
119
16
347
121
7015
3624
390
6630
3820
Orissa
51
Punjab
80
129
West Bengal
181
185
196
160
54
Uttaranchal
12
Delhi
Union Territories13
Jammu and
Kashmir
Maharashtra
Rajasthan
Tamil Nadu
Uttar Pradesh
India
23
85
14
1860
7493
2230
39
17
86
144
157
8893
8760
5540
112
58
38
16
7520
2021
4440
1170
435
3800
2555
17
12
4
7
12
380
705
315
150
5
2
160
40
2487
1289
13
1507
101 321
690
4170
6296
8790
1760
705
320
605
935
38 700 76 603
GNM=General Nursing and Midwifery, ANM=Auxiliary Nurse Midwifery alnclude
Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura, Arunachal Pradesh and
Sikkim; binclude Chandigarh, Puducherry, Daman and Diu, Lakshwadeep, Andaman
and Nicobar and Dadar Nagar Haveli. Data source: Indian Nursing Council, 2012
Second, there has been a notable increase in the private
sector’s involvement in medical education. Prior to 1991,
there were 144 medical colleges in India, 101 (70%)
of which were public colleges. By 2013, the number
of institutions recognized or approved by the MCI had
increased to 371. There has been a disproportionate
increase in the number of nongovernment colleges;
152 (67%) of the 227 new institutions are private.191
Similarly, before 1991, there were 49 dental colleges, of
which 23 (47%) were government owned. As of 2013,
246 new dental institutions recognized or approved by the
DCI have been added to the existing list, of which almost
all (229) are in the private sector [author’s calculation
based on data from reference 10; Table 3].
Third, despite the consistent increase in health-worker
production, posts in public-health facilities remain
unfilled. Between 2007[21] and 2009,[22] the stock of
health workers, i.e. doctors, dentists, nurses and midwives
increased by 264 225. Over the same period, however,
the total number of vacant posts in government health
staff positions improved little or increased. For instance,
vacant posts for medical officers at primary health centres
and specialists at community health centres, increased by
43.6% and 17.5%, respectively, during 2005-2010, with
Empowered Action Group states contributing to two-fifths
of these vacancies.tl3,23] Even when allowance for staff
attrition and creation of new posts is made, the trends in
vacancies do not match production patterns.
Distribution of health workers
Intra-state differences in health-worker availability,
which may be associated with the urban-rural divide
and corresponding economic disparities, could not be
assessed owing to lack of access to district-level data. The
analysis was therefore limited to inter-state inequalities in
availability of doctors, dentists, nurses and midwives in
2009. Overall inter-state inequalities were very high, with
Gini coefficients of 0.424 for doctors, 0.569 for dentists
and 0.412 for nurses (note that these Gini coefficients
are calculated across population groups - states with an
average population of 33 815 979 individuals - rather
than across individuals themselves).
There was a positive correlation between state
GDP and density of doctors, dentists, nurses and
midwives (Spearman’s rho = 0.353; P = 0.116), implying
that low-income states are disadvantaged in terms of
concentration of health workers.
Table 4 presents the regression results of selected
national health outcomes and worker density. The results
indicate that the density of doctors, nurses and midwives
is associated with the variation in rates of maternal
mortality, infant mortality, under-5 mortality and measles
immunization. The effect of increased density was greater
in reducing maternal than in reducing child mortality.
DISCUSSION
As India strives to achieve universal health coverage,
improvement in health-care delivery through tire availability
of skilled and motivated health workers is essential.[8] A
clear understanding of the health-workforce situation is
critical to the development of effective policies to develop
and manage a responsive workforce. Human resource
shortages hinder scale-up of health services and limit the
capacity to absorb additional financial resources/241
The primary data used in these analyses are the numbers of
health personnel registered with the respective professional
councils and therefore have several limitations. These
councils do not maintain live registers, except for doctors
in Delhi. The information they provide may be inaccurate
owing to nonadjustment for deaths, migrations and
retirements, or double counting of workers registered in
more than one state. Furthermore, not all state councils
follow the same procedure for registration, which may
WHO South-East Asia Journal of Public Health 2013 | April-June | 2(2)
109
Hazarika: Health workforce in India
Table 3: State-wise production capacity of doctors and dentists - 2013
Annual production capacity
Number of Institutions8
States
Dental
Medical
Dental
Medical
Government
Private11
Government
Privated
Government
Private11
Government
Private11
Andhra Pradesh
15
27
3
17
North-east states0
9
2
2
0
Madhya Pradesh
6
6
1
14
Bihar
9
3
1
5
Chhattisgarh
4
1
1
5
Goa
1
0
1
0
Gujarat
9
10
2
12
Haryana
3
3
i
9
Himachal Pradesh
2
1
1
3
Jammu and
Kashmir
3
1
2
1
2400
876
800
940
450
150
1530
400
200
400
3800
200
900
260
150
0
1400
350
150
100
180
90
40
40
100
40
140
60
60
100
1510
0
1320
280
500
0
1090
840
220
100
350
1500
1100
2740
0
5255
2000
3245
500
0
110
120
240
250
2990
1150
2760
20
360
695
80
1210
3
Kerala
7
18
Maharashtra
20
25
0
2
3
4
Orissa
3
5
1
4
Punjab
3
7
2
14
Jharkhand
3
0
Karnataka
12
34
43
20
31
550
400
Rajasthan
7
3
1
13
1300
350
40
1210
Tamil Nadu
21
20
1
28
2900
1500
2570
2650
300
250
100
130
220
0
200
900
24 205
140
140
2190
Uttar Pradesh
14
16
3
27
2665
1827
West Bengal
14
2
3
1
2050
Uttaranchal
2
2
0
2
200
Delhi
6
2
3
0
850
Union Territories0
3
7
2
3
India
176
195
40
255
325
24 003
100
200
0
300
21 610
“Includes only recognized, approved or permitted institutes; includes Assam, Manipur. Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura, Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim; “includes
Chandigarh, Puducherry, Daman and Diu, Lakshwadeep, Andaman and Nicobar and Dadar Nagar Haveli; dincludes societies, trusts, municipal corporations. Universities and
private enterprises. Source: Medical Council of India; Dental Council of India, 2012
Table 4: Linear regression for maternal, infant and under-5 mortalities and for measles vaccination coverage by
health-worker density
Independent variable
Maternal mortality
Infant mortality
Measles vaccination
coverage
Under-5 mortality
Coefficient
t
P>RI
Coefficient
t
P>|t|
Coefficient
t
t
P>KI
-1.01
-2.92
0.009
-0.89
-2.32
0.030
Density of nurses
and midwives
0.004
-0.36
-0.65
0.521
1.13
2.75
0.134
-3.38
-2.28
-2.03
1.55
-1.60
-0.92
-0.99
P>|f|
0.035
0.058
Coefficient
Density of doctors
2.82
0.010
Combined density of
doctors and nurses
-1.32
-3.58
0.002
-0.87
-1,73
0.099
-0.93
-2.28
0.035
2.53
2.69
0.014
compromise direct comparisons. Data for health workers
in some states (e.g. north-east India) are not available
because there are no state-specific professional councils.rbl
In addition, the analyses were limited to the supply or
availability of health workers and do not examine the
factors such as the quality or adequacy of services provided.
Nevertheless, the data used provide the most up-to-date
information on India’s health workforce, are maintained by
the WHO Global Atlas(25] and have been used extensively
for both intra-country and cross-country comparisons.
India and development partners should consider when
addressing the health human resource crisis. There is gross
inadequacy of the current stock of health workers available
and significant inequalities in their distribution between
the different states. Poorly performing states, in terms of
health outcomes, have a greater shortfall in the number
of health workers. These shortages highlight the need
to develop and implement high quality, evidence-based,
costed workforce plans, especially in the poorest and most
fragile states.
Notwithstanding these limitations, this analysis has
highlighted some key issues that the Government of
In the past two decades, there has been tremendous
progress in increasing the training capacity. This
110
WHO South-East Asia Journal of Public Health 2013 | April-June | 2(2)
Hazarika: Health workforce in India
analysis suggests three key findings regarding workforce
production. First, the increase in training capacity has
been largely because of the growth in private-sector
involvement in medical education. This trend seems likely
to increase, since incentives and regulation relaxations
have been introduced to encourage private investment
in medical education. While privatization of medical
education has helped to overcome the shortcomings
resulting from inadequate expansion of the training
capacity in the public sector, it has also raised questions on
the quality of medical training. An example of an initiative
to standardize the quality of medical education is the
MCI’s decision to introduce a single National Eligibility
and Entrance Test for undergraduate admissions at all
government and private medical colleges. This test has
not yet been implemented and there is scepticism as to
how it might be transparently and fairly applied to the
800 000 students who would take the test each year.1261
Second is the gross inequality in the distribution of the
training institutes among the different states. These
institutes are primarily clustered in states with high GDPs,
where the issues related to shortages of health workers
are relatively less acute. Third is the increased mismatch
between health-worker production and vacant staff posts
in the public-health systems. This finding suggests that
increases in the production and overall supply of medical
graduates will not necessarily address the public sector
shortages. Other strategies will need to be introduced to
encourage health workers to serve in the public sector.
These findings highlight major inequalities in the
distribution of health workers between the states. The
imbalances in the distributions of doctors and dentists were
found to be higher than those for nurses. Our estimates of
the inter-state inequality in the health-worker distributions
were similar to previously reported estimates.[16] The Gini
index for doctors was 0.424 and for nurses and midwives
was 0.412, while in a previous report[161 it was estimated
to be 0.4365 and 0.5271, respectively. These findings
suggest that over a period of almost a decade there has
been minimal improvement in the distribution pattern
of doctors, despite rapid increases in production. The
current estimates do however suggest an improvement
in the distribution of nurses and midwives.
Economically disadvantaged states had both lower
densities of workers and less-educated workforces. These
inequalities in the availability of health workers possibly
explain the inequities in health outcomes across the
states, as demonstrated in the regression results. Since
less-developed states are likely to have lower levels
of investments in health and health systems, training,
recruitment and retention of skilled health workers will
remain a persistent challenge.
experimented with the provision of doctors with lower
levels of training.[6] While the effectiveness of this cadre
of health workers and the quality of care provided
remains to be formally evaluated, the central government
has expressed plans to expand the model. It has been
proposed that a new cadre of rural health workers will
be trained through a course that is an abridged version
of the traditional medical degree, with a focus on
core competencies such as disease prevention, health
promotion and rehabilitation. This Bachelor of Rural
Medical Science has been advocated as innovative move
to address the country’s rural health-care challenges/271
The observed shortages in health workers also
suggests the need to strengthen further the available
alternative workforce such the Accredited Social Health
Activists (front-line health workers introduced under the
National Rural Health Mission) and the Ayurvedic, Yoga and
Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha and Homoeopathy (AYUSH)
doctors. Both of these providers can play a vital role in
enhancing access to basic health-care services, especially
at the community level.1281
In Conclusion, while production of health workers has
greatly expanded in recent years, this has been at the cost
of increased privatization of medical education in India.
The rapid growth in the production of health workers such
as doctors, dentists, nurses and midwives has not helped
fill vacant positions in the public-health system. Further,
the problems of imbalances in the distribution of these
health personnel persist, with certain states remaining at a
disadvantage. These findings suggest that mere increase in
production capacity is unlikely to resolve the issues related
to health-worker availability or distribution. There is an
urgent need to adopt sustained and innovative actions to
address India’s current health-workforce crisis.
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of availability, production and distribution. WHO South-East Asia J Public
Health 2013;2:106-12.
Source of Support: Nil. Conflict of Interest: None declared._____________
WHO South-East Asia Journal of Public Health 2013 I April-June | 2(2)
N'l-
■
Clarifying terms
Human Resource Management
• Rules - Cadre and Recruitment rules
Presentation to the Core Team on the
reorientation of the public health services
• Policies - usually written statements of what
is intended to happen (policies have to be
consistent with the rules)
5
• Practice - what actually happens
Gathering information
• Rules - these are well documented and
easily accessible
• Policies - these may not be readily available
and would need to be gathered
• Practice - some reports such as the Task
Force report discuss practice but maybe
there is a case for more fact gathering
Diagnosis
• Poorly motivated staff
• Management feels they have no authority
Cadre and Recruitment rules
• The rules can be divided into:
— rules the DollFW can change relatively easily
e g for re-designation of posts
- rules which are not easily change and which
would require a State wide process of
consultation, discussion and agreement
• It is proposed that Project is confined to the
first group only
Task Force Recommendations
• Extensive policy suggestions were made by
the Task Force
• Lack of career progression
- They should be thoroughly reviewed and
adopted if possible and appropriate
• The contracting of doctors has filled
vacancies but still doctors are absent
• The following suggestions are further policy
options to consider
• Lack of recognition of good performance
!
1
p-
I
I
Policy areas
• Roles and responsibilities
• Recruitment
• Building PHC team work
• Incentives and staff motivation
• Doctor availability
• Strengthen role of the ANM
• Appraisal
• Transparency
• Management development
Roles and responsibilities - at all
levels
• Ensure that there are up to date job
descriptions which make clear
- responsibilities
- to whom the member of staff is accountable
- which staff the individual manages/supervises
• Job specification is up to date which
specifies the qualifications, skills and
abilities required
I
I
Recruitment at all levels
• Review the recommendations of the Task
Force
• Maximise the leeway available within the
C&R rules
Build PHC Team work
• Develop the concept of all staff working at
PHC level as the team serving the local
population
• Develop at all levels the ideas in the Task
Force for reducing promotion by meritcum-scniority and increasing recruitment by
qualifications to do the job and lateral
recruitment
• Hold regular meeting of the Team to discuss
coordination of services, identification of
problems and resolving difficulties
• Team should regularly review working
practices and make improvements e.g.
outreach
Incentives - PHC team
(including sub-centres)
Individual Incentives for all staff
• Reward team good performance
- the best PHC of the year award - non monetary gifts
given to staff of the PHC in each District
- staff from a State wide winner being recognised with
publicity and awards being given by the Minister
• Alternative to gifts might he additional
money to improve local services
• Involvement of Zilla and Gram Panchayat,
and the DUO needs to be determined
• Reward individual good performance
- support requests for transfer
- support applications for training
- fund limited number of places at medical
schools etc. for employees and maybe their
dependents
• Rewards would need to be supported by
clear transparent criteria
2
i
L
Doctor availability
•Why are doctors not there?
- Poor supervision
- Lack of authority over staff
- Lack of quarters
- Poor local facilities for dependents
- Private practice
• Some evidence available from a recent
study- the Core Team needs more evidence?
Strengthening the contracting of
doctors at PHC level
Strengtliening the contracting of
doctors at PHC level
• Contract doctors given induction training
on managing staff
• After induction training, doctors given day
to day responsibility for staff supervision
• In the most difficult recruitment areas,
adopt a policy of entry into the cadre after
two rather three years
Strengthen the role of ANMs
• Provide postgraduate training for well
performing contract doctors
• Support additional training
BUT
• Review the work of the ANMs on a regular
basis
• Enforce the contract - if the doctor is not
there then the contract is terminated
• Build in a formal review of the performance
of the doctor before the doctor is admitted
to the cadre
Appraisal for all staff
• Make appraisal a meaningful system
• Emphasis on the rewards that can be
received from good performance
• Follow through on agreements with
individuals about actions to be taken by
both parties (senior and junior) to improve
performance
• Apply the rules in a fair but firm way
• Value the role of the ANM in the PHC team
• Address problems of the ANM in delivering
better services
Transparency
• Review the recent transparency law
• How can the law be used to publicise the
state of local primary health care services
• Celebrate the good performers - highlight
areas tor improvement
• Increase accountability of all players individuals and organisations
• Publicise the state of local public health
Management Development
• Improving human resource management
will require management development
• Who should be the target for this
management development?
• How much will it cost?
• How can it be delivered?
Support for the Core Team
• TORs for a study yet to be finalised
• Focus could be on supporting the work of
the Core Team
• Gathering hard and soft information - e.g.
documents (policies and rules) and focus
group discussions (soft)
• Study needs to undertaken expeditiously
■
Agenda for the Team today
• Determine the scope of the work the Team
wants to undertake
• Identify the information that the Team
requires
• Agree the actions that need to be taken
• Assign responsibilities for the work
• Outline the TORs for the consultant
4
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