FACTS FINDING MISSION ON BHOPAL
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Union Carbide Disaster in Bhopal: Building the Struggle, Creating possibilities
Personal Introduction:
My name is Satinath Sarangi [Sathyu]. I have come from Bhopal where I have been ever since the
Union Carbide disaster 17 years ago. I did my M. Tech in Metallurgical engineeing and dropped out
of PhD in my third year. I have been involved with relief, agitation, research, publications,
community organizing, campaigns, legal actions and other actions in support of the struggle for
justice in Bhopal. I am the founder member of two organizations: Bhopal Group for Information
and Action a survivors support organization and Sambhavna Trust that provides free medical care
to the survivors.
What I would like to do today is to share the current condition of the survivors, briefly describe the
lingering medical, social, economic and issues of Bhopal and recount the efforts being made to
confront the principal authors of this continuing disaster.
About the city of Bhopal: Bhopal is the situated almost at the geographical centre of India, at the
heart of our country. A city with about 1.4 million people and it is the capital of the state of Madhya
Pradesh.
Company’s profile: In 1969 as part of its global empire. Union Carbide Corporation set up its
pesticide formulation unit in the northern end of the city. The factory in Bhopal was one of the 14
facilities operated by Union Carbide in India. Initially it mixed and packaged pesticides imported
from USA but was gradually expanded to include production of Methyl Iso Cyanate (MIC) the
main ingredient for Carbamate pesticides. MIC was first imported from the USA in 1973 and in
December 1979 a MIC plant was installed with a capacity of 5000 tones.
About the Disaster: On the night of 2nd - 3rd December 1984, during routine maintenance operations
in the MIC plant, starting at about 10 p.m. a large quantity of water entered storage tank no. 610
containing over 60 tones of MIC. This triggered off a runaway reaction resulting in a tremendous
increase of temperature and pressure in the tank and nearly 40 tones of MIC along with Hydrogen
Cyanide and other reaction products burst past the rupture disc and in to the night air of Bhopal at
around 12:30 a.m. Safety systems were grossly under designed and inoperative. Senior factory
officials knew of the lethal build up in the tank at least one hour before the leakage, yet the siren to
warn neighborhood communities was sounded more than one hour after the leak started. By then
the poisons had enveloped an area of 40 Sq. Kms killing thousands of people in its immediate wake.
Over 8000 people died in the first three days and over 500 thousand people suffered from acute
breathlessness, burning in eyes and vomiting as they ran in panic to get away from the poison clouds
that hung close to the ground for more than four hours.
Hazardous design of the plant, unsafe location, reckless operation and maintenance procedures,
reduction in personnel and deliberate cutting down of vital safety systems are the immediate causes
of the disaster. There is ample evidence of ’’double standards" being followed by the American
multinational, Bhopal's sister plant in West Virginia being far superior in storage, production and
safety systems. There are enough documents to show that Union Carbide and its senior most
officials knew that the factory in Bhopal was a ticking time bomb and did nothing because they did
not want to spend money on a plant that was yet to yield big bucks. It was a directive from the head
quarters of the company, in Danbury, Connecticut, USA that resulted in the retrenchment of
workers and shutting down of safety systems.
Health Impact:
Epidemiological and clinical studies carried out by the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR),
the official research agency, have shown that the toxins crossed in to the blood stream of those
exposed and have caused damage to the respiratory, ocular, gastro-intestinal, reproductive,
neurological, immunological, psychological and other systems. They have also established that the
toxins did indeed cross the placaental barrier leading to faetal poisoning, and caused chromosomal
aberrations among those exposed.
A survey carried out by the International Medical Commission on Bhopal (IMCB), composed of 14
medical specialists from 11 different countries reported significant multi-organ symptoms persistent
among the exposed population 10 years after the disaster. Clinical examination carried out
members of the Commission have shown significant lung impairment, marked reduction in control
over limb movements, reduced memory function and a range of neuro-toxic injuries not studied by
the ICMR
In addition to the host of physical and mental illnesses that have gripped people and never left them,
there are new diseases that are manifesting after so many years. Currently the number of people
with Cancers and Tuberculosis is alarmingly high and rising. Young women who had been exposed
at infancy, have chaotic and painful menstrual cycles on attaining puberty. Many have three to four
cycles in a month and there are those as old as seventeen and eighteen who have yet to have their
periods. The total number of persons in desperate need of appropriate medical care is well over one
hundred and twenty thousand. The current death toll is well over 20,000.
Two studies carried out by Sambhavna, the clinic where I work, recently, show that young males,
who were conceived and born to gas exposed parents within two years of the disaster are currently
much lower in weight, smaller in height and have much smaller cranial circumference. We have also
found that diabetes is at least twice more prevalent in an exposed community compared to national
urban figures.
Environmental Problems: Communities in the vicinity of the Carbide factory continue to be exposed
to heavy metals and toxic chemicals such as Dichlorobenzenes, Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons
and Phthalates that are injurious to the lung, liver and kidneys and can cause cancer. The
international environmental organisation, Greenpeace named the area around the factory in Bhopal
a “Global toxic hotspot” Their report indicates severe contamination of the groundwater and soil
with heavy metals and carcinogenic chemicals. In 1990 the Bhopal Group for Information and
Action (BGIA) reported the presence of at least seven toxic chemicals based on a testing done by the
Citizens Environmental Laboratory, Boston.
Over 10,000 people, the majority of them gas victims, are routinely ingesting toxic chemicals as a
result of the poisoning of drinking water sources in Jaipraksh Nagar, Atal-Ayub Nagar, Annu
Nagar and other communities. Union Carbide Corporation, USA who were in control of the factory
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when these toxic chemicals were recklessly dumped is yet to pay for containing the toxic
groundwater, rehabilitating the degraded land or make arrangements for alternate supply of
drinking water. Dow Chemical the current owner of Union Carbide refuses to accept Bhopal's
environmental liabilities.
Economic and Social Impact: There has hardly been any systemic effort to document the social and
economic impacts of the disaster. Official information on orphaned children and families that lost
their breadwinners in the immediate or long aftermath is scanty, if available at all. Over 70 % of the
exposed population has been in the unorganized sector, with people earning subsistence wages
through day labour or petty trade. A large number of men and women who pushed handcarts,
carried loads, dug soil, repaired scooters and did other jobs can no longer pursue their trades after
being exposed to Carbide's gases.
Gas exposed factory workers in textile and paper mills are more sensitive to occupational hazards
and are absent from work due to illness as much as 15 days in a month. Given the complete
inadequacy of official rehabilitation efforts the loss of regular income has driven tens of thousands
of families to chronic starvation conditions. Loss of income also make people borrow money from
local money lenders who charge up to 200% interest so that chances of paying back are low and
debts keep growing.
Legal Issues:
Subsequent to the disaster the Indian government through the Bhopal Gas Leak Disaster
(Processing of Claims) Act in March 1985 arrogated to itself, sole powers to represent the victims in
the civil litigation against Union Carbide. On behalf of the victims the Indian government filed a
suit for the compensation of more than 3 billion US $ in the Federal Court of Southern District of
New York However, in May 1986 the case was sent to the Indian courts on grounds of forum non
convenience, under the condition that Union Carbide would submit to the jurisdiction of Indian
Courts. On Feb 14, 1989 the Indian Supreme Court passed an order approving the settlement that
had been reached between the government of India and Union Carbide without the knowledge of
the claimants in Bhopal. According to the terms of the settlement, in exchange of payment of US $
470 millions the Corporation was to be absolved of all civil liabilities, criminal cases against the
company and its officials were to be extinguished and the Indian government was to defend the
Corporation in the event of future suits. The settlement sum, nearly one-seventh of the damages
initially claimed by the government, while being far below international standards is also lower than
the standards set by Indian Railways for railway accidents. There were widespread protest by the
Bhopal victims and many organizations and individuals including prominent members of the
parliament who supported the call to oppose the infamous settlement.
Several petitions seeking review of the order on settlement were filed and the Supreme Court
announced its revised judgement on Octobers, 1991. This final judgement upheld the settlement
amount paid by Carbide but directed the Indian government to make good any shortfall during the
distribution of compensation. The criminal cases against the Corporation and its officials were
reinstated in the final judgement
Criminal case against Carbide
A First Information Report for causing death by negligence and a number of other serious offences
was registered on December 3, 1984 at the local police station. On December 1, 1987 the
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government's prosecution agency, the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) pressed charges in the
Bhopal District Court against UCC and its Asian and Indian subsidiaries, namely Union Carbide
Eastern (UCE), Hong Kong and Union Carbide India Limited (UCIL) respectively, as well as nine
officials including the then Chairman, Warren Anderson. The 12 accused were charged (under
section 304 (Part 11) 326, 324 and 429 of the Indian Penal Code] with culpable homicide, grievous
assault, assault, causing death of and poisoning animals and other serious offences. The corporation
blamed a fictitious saboteur and later a disgruntled worker for causing the disaster and organised
public relations campaign to distance itself from criminal liability. The CBI, with the cooperation of
the workers of the factory, presented a strong case linking key managerial decisions to the disaster.
As the proceedings in the Bhopal District Court began in the aftermath of the disaster, Union
Carbide and its officials repeatedly chose to ignore the Court's summons. In early 1992, a nonbailabie arrest warrant was issued against Anderson and the Chief Judicial Magistrate, Bhopal,
attached the shares of Union Carbide in its Indian subsidiary. More than seven years have passed
but the Indian government has yet to take steps towards seeking the extradition of the foreign
accused. Since Union Carbide has de-registered UCE, Hong Kong in 1992, the CBI has exprest
its inability in Court to proceed against it
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On September 13, 1996, in response to an appeal moved by Keshub Mahindra and other accused
officials of Union Carbide India Ltd. (UCIL), the Supreme Court passed an order diluting the
charges of culpable homicide to death caused by negligence (Sec. 304 A of the IPC), thereby
reducing the maximum sentence to two years or fines. Trials of the Indian accused are currently
going on before the Chief Judicial Magistrate , Bhopal but at an extremely slow pace of less than
one hearing per month.
Compensation : The amount paid as compensation (Rs. 715 crores) has multiplied as a result of the
increase in the value of the dollar and the accruing interest Out of this amount, about Rs. 1200
crores have been paid to over 400 thousand claimants and a balance of about Rs. 1100 crores
remains to be disbursed.The procedures for compensation disbursement have been tortuous and
thoroughly unjust More than 95 % of the claimant have been paid a sum less than Rs. 25000 (- 500
US $| as compensation for personal injuries out of which nearly Rs. 10,000 have been routinely
deducted against interim monetary relief paid by the government from 1990. The remaining money
does not half cover the medical expenses borne by the claimants in the last several years let al*
provide for future expenses.Out of the over 21,000 death claims adjudicated a very large number
have been rejected or converted into personal injury cases. Judges at the claim courts are
completely ignorant of the medical consequences of the toxic exposure and administration of
compensation is riddled with corruption so that the claimants' inability to pay bribes often results in
the denial of compensation.
Rehabilitation :
The government programmes for economic rehabilitation have been badly designed and only a few
have been implemented. While as estimated population of 50.000 is in need of alternate jobs
currently less than 100 gas victims have found regular employment under the government's scheme.
Till date there has been no official attention towards the urgent need of life long pension for widows,
orphans chronically ill and disabled survivors. The Supreme Court's direction with regard to
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provision of insurance coverage to about one lakh children likely to suffer delayed effects of the
lethal gases is also being ignored by the Central government
Despite the expenditure of over Rs. 70 crores in environmental rehabilitation basic necessities such
as clean drinking water and sanitary facilities remain unavailable to the majority of the gas affected
communities.
The medical disaster in Bhopal
The industrial disaster in Bhopal was quickly followed by a medical disaster of unmatched
proportions. Suppression of medical information by Union Carbide, absence of treatment protocols,
indiscriminate prescription of potentially harmful drugs, abandonment of research and health
surveillance by the government and a total dependence on hospital based care that has failed to
provide sustained relief are the main elements of this disaster whose principal authors are the same.
The merger of Union Carbide and Dow Chemical
In February this year Union Carbide Corporation, while still absconding criminal charges in India,
merged with The Dow Chemical Company, another US multi national and co-founder of the
military-industrial complex. Dow has thus become the second largest chemical corporation in the
world. Dow produced Agent Orange during the US aggression on Vietnam. Also as the number one
producer of Dioxin Dow is responsible for a large proportion of the dioxin related illness, death, and
deformity worldwide. In June last year Dow was forced to withdraw its main product Dursban from
the American market following a mass of scientific information about this brain damaging
chemical. Today Dow is promoting Dursban in India as a household chemical "safe for humans and
pets" and its setting up factories for production of Dursban.
The struggle for justice in Bhopal
In the immediate aftermath of the disaster over 300 local and regional social and charity
organizations and thousands of individuals provided medical relief and other services to the
survivors of the disaster. International relief organizations, for reasons yet unstated, chose and
continue to choose to remain away from Bhopal Organization initiated and led by the survivors
themselves continue to struggle at Bhopal. Women have played a more active and sustained role in
the survivors* organization. In the last 17 years, organizations have marched on over 200 occasions
on non-violent demonstrations with an average participation of over one thousand people. In
addition to ill-health, poverty, family restrictions and bureaucratic apathy, women survivor activists
have had to face government repression at its crudest These demonstration have been attacked by
policemen with sticks and stones at least 40 times, leading to bleeding heads and fractured limbs on
several occasions. Thousands of survivors activists have been arrested and detained.
Betrayed by the Indian government through the settlement of 1989, survivors and their support
organizations filed a class action suit in the US Federal court in November 1999. In response to the
suit and a subsequent appeal, recently on November 15, the second circuit court of appeals in the
US has held Anderson and Union Carbide liable for contamination of groundwater and health
problems caused by it.
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Through their legal and extra legal interventions, survivors and their support organizations have
gained significant victories in the struggle for justice and a better deaL Most government relief and
rehabilitation measures, withdrawal of criminal immunity for Carbide and its official and some
measure of control over resources allocation have become possible through the efforts of these
organizations.
Fresh impetus to the campaign for justice in Bhopal has come in the form of a new international
coalition of survivors and support organizations. Called Action against Corporate crime and Toxic
terror: Bhopal (AaCcTt:Bhopal] this coalition has two of the survivors organizations and such
support organizations as the National Campaign for Justice in Bhopal, The Other Media, New
Delhi, Greenpeace and BGIA.
About Sambhavna:
As one word ‘Sambhavna’ means ’’Possibility” and if you read as ’Sama’ 'bhavana' it means
‘similar feeling’ or “compassion”. Sambhavna Trust (Bhopal Peoples’ Health & Documentation
Centre) is a registered charitable trust working for the welfare of gas victims since September 1995.
At Sambhavna, survivors are offered free medical care through allopathy, Ayurveda |an indigenous
system of medicine based on herbs] and Yoga. The 20 staff members of the Sambhavna clinic
[among whom 9 are survivors themselves] include five physicians, two yoga and two Panchakarma
therapists and four community health workers who carry out health surveys, health education and
community organisation for better health.
The primary objective of Sambhavna is to contribute to the welfare of the survivors of the Bhopal
gas disaster through medical care, research, health education and information dissemination.
In the last five years over 10,500 chronically ill persons have been registered at our clinic and
everyday between 70 to 100 survivors visit Sambhavna.
We pay special attention to women’s health. The Dominique Lapierre City of Joy Sambha' a
gynecological clinic is the only clinic in Bhopal that provides facilities for regular cervical scree g
to the survivors. We are soon going to start Colposcopy and LLETZ for screening, diagnosis and
treatment of cervical cancer.
We carried out a clinical study in treatment of exposure induced lung problems through Yoga. We
demonstrated that through Yoga practice there was significant increase in lung functions. Medicine
consumption was much reduced and half the people in the study were able to do away with
medicines altogether.
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In order to tackle the problem of tuberculosis, we have developed a community-based program on
TB care. This program consists mainly of health education, identification of persons with TB,
prevention of the disease and supervision of treatment and constant health monitoring.
Through educational campaigns and meetings we have encouraged the formation of health
committees in four communities. The members of these committees voluntarily accept
responsibilities for identification of individuals in need of medical attention, counseling regarding
treatment, organizing meetings and holding health camps in the communities.
The documentation unit of the Sambhavna clinic has a unique collection of documents, books and
articles related to medical, scientific, legal and other aspects of the gas tragedy. These information
are made available to the clinic staff, survivors, researchers, journalists and others. Special efforts
are made to make information accessible to the survivors.
Beside this we also organize local, national and international workshops and seminars on medical
issues of the disaster. Recently on November 28th we organized a one-day workshop on what local
doctors could do to make a difference to the health and health care of the survivors.
The work carried out by the Sambhavna Trust over the last five years has shown that it is possible
to evolve simple, safe, effective, ethical and participatory ways of monitoring treatment and
research for the survivors of Bhopal.
Recently on December 3 Sambhavna staff members demonstrated with masks on and holding
posters and a banner demanding that Dow Chemical and the Indian government assume long term
responsibility for Bhopal and stop the medical disaster in Bhopal.
The global implications of Bhopal
Contrary to its projection in mainstream media the disaster in Bhopal is not an isolated event
There are slow and silent Bhopal’s occurring in a routine manner in almost every part of the world.
Corporate crimes that lead to death and ill health of hundreds of thousands of workers and
community people go unpunished as business goes uas usual”. This has become more
institutionalized, more legitimate and more intense with the advent of globalization. If the agencies
and individuals responsible for the worst industrial massacre are allowed to go unscathed the world
|and in particular countries of the South] is that much unsafe.
The medical issues of Bhopal are also of international relevance. More than 60,000 chemicals are
today in commercial use less than 5% have been tested fully for their toxic effect on living systems.
And each year as the toxic corporate empire spreads several hundred new chemicals enter the circle
of poison threatening our lives, health and the very survival of the planet. In many areas of
environmental and occupational health modern medicine appears to be reaching its limits. The
work of Sambhavna and other such efforts are creating possibilities for non toxic therapy of new
industrial diseases as well as for community involvement in research and health surveillance.
Current demands of Bhopal
DOW must...
1. Ensure that prime accused Warren Anderson, former chairman of Union Carbide, and
the authorised representatives of the company face trial in the Bhopal criminal court.
2. Assume liability for the continuing and long term health consequences among the
exposed persons and potentially their future generations. This includes medical care,
health monitoring and necessary research work. The company must provide all
information on the leaked gases and their short and long term medical consequences.
3. Clean up contamination of the ground water and soil in and around the abandoned
Union Carbide factory
4. Assume liability for the loss of livelihood caused as a result of the disaster. This includes
liabilities for families where the breadwinner has been killed or rendered incapacitated
to earn a livelihood and for persons too sick to pursue their usual sources of livelihood.
The Indian government must
1. Take immediate steps to extradite Warren Anderson and other representatives from
USA and present them in Bhopal court
2. Proceed against Dow Chemical and its Indian subsidiaries to pursue the pending
criminal liabilities of the disaster.
3. Support the class action suit filed in the US courts by survivors’ organisations against
Union Carbide and Warren Anderson by filing a supportive Amicus Curae brief.
4. Revive the special prosecution cell in the criminal case against Union Carbide India
Limited and its Indian officals.
5. Set up a National Commission on Bhopal with the participation of survivors and their
sympathisers for long term health monitoring, research, care and rehabilitation of the
survivors of the disaster. The funds left after distribution of compensation must be
entrusted to this Commission.
6. Take immediate steps to ensure the publication of the results of the 24 research studies
carried out by the Indian Council of Medical Research on the health effects of exposure
to Carbide’s gases.
7. Scientifically assess and claim damages from Union Carbide for the contamination of
ground water and soil in and around the factory.
8. Take note of the indictment of the Comptroller and Auditor General regarding
misappropriation of public money in Bhopal by the MP Government. Institute an
inquiry by the Central Bureau of Investigation on expenditures made and results
obtained in relief and rehabilitation of Bhopal victims in the last 17 years.
9. Declare December 3 as a National Day of Mourning for the Victims of Industrial
Disasters.
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10. The disaster in Bhopal must be made part of text-books in school and university
education in the country.
Support the Bhopal struggle
We appeal to you to support the struggle of Bhopal and the work of rebuilding at initiatives such as
Sambhavna.
Please:
a. Convey your concerns regarding the survivors of Bhopal to Dow offices in your respective
countries.
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SURVIVING BHOPAL: 20 YEARS ON
A FACT FINDING MISSION
A-I/125(FF) Safdarjung Enclave, New Delhi I 10 029
Tel: 51652451/52, Fax: 51013382
Email: admin@del3.vsnl.net.in
9th November 2004
Dear
Greetings !
As we all remember, in the midnight of 2nd December 1984, the world’s worst chemical disaster
unfolded in Bhopal. The corporation Union Carbide’s pesticide plant in Bhopal spewed tons of the
deadly gas- MIC into the air. Half a million people were exposed to the poisonous gas and around
20,000 people have succumbed so far from the exposure. Innumerable people still suffer from
ailments caused by the accident and the subsequent pollution at the plant site. As a result of the
routine and reckless dumping of chemical wastes in and around the factory by Union Carbide, toxic
chemicals and heavy metals have leached into the soil and groundwater and contaminated it.
The abandoned factory site continues to poison the 20,000 odd people residing in the vicinity of the
factory who are forced to drink this contaminated water. Union Carbide after a partial and paltry
settlement with the Government of India washed its hands over the entire incident. Its new owner,
Dow Chemical International Limited has steadfastly ignored and evaded any pending responsibility
or liability of the gas leak. Twenty years hence, the impact of the gas leak continues to linger and
affect the lives of the people and communities in Bhopal. And justice still eludes the victims, the
survivors and their families.
Over the years, he Government of India's stoic apathy and insensitivity has manifested in
numerous forms- from inadequate compensation to insufficient medical and health care to lack of
socio-economic rehabilitation of the survivors to disinterest in pursuing the criminal liabilities of the
fugitive corporation and its employees. This bleak scenario witnessed the coming together of
Bhopal based survivor/support organizations and Delhi based groups to intervene meaningfully in
the ongoing crisis. The mission was to evolve a long term monitoring mechanism of the situation of
the Bhopal gas survivors.
In this backdrop, the Fact Finding Mission (FFM) was launched in 1998 to study and assess the
prevailing situation in Bhopal in the aftermath of the disaster. Fifteen diverse areas were identified
and the studies were sought to investigate, compile and analyze comprehensively all aspects
related to the Bhopal gas tragedy. Eleven reports on the following areas have been compiled Role of Union Carbide Corporation, Mental Health Consequences, Environmental Impacts of
the Disaster, Labour and Economic Rehabilitation, Role of State and Central Governments,
Medical Care and Rehabilitation, Legal Aspects, Media Response, Role of NGOs and
People’s Organizations, Disaster Management and Memorial. Three of the abovementioned
reports- Role of Union Carbide Corporation, Environmental Impacts of the Disaster and Mental
Health Consequences were released in January 2002.
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The findings of these different reports have been envisaged to give a new lease of direction to
those working on Bhopal and to serve as an effective tool to mount pressure on the Government to
remain accountable to the continuing suffering of the people of Bhopal.
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As you are aware, this year marks the twentieth anniversary of the gas disaster. Twenty long years
have elapsed, but Bhopal still symbolizes an unparalleled and unresolved corporate crime. We
need to take forward the struggle against rogue corporations and multinationals and ensure justice
is duly meted out.
In this context, we are organizing a three-day National Convention in Bhopal from 26th to 28th
November 2004 in Bhopal to release the remaining reports of the Fact Finding Mission (FFM) and
also discuss and debate the findings of these different reports. The Convention would focus on
strategies and recommendations to counter the continuing sufferings of the people. The
Convention aims to build pressure on the increasingly apathetic Government for suitable
rehabilitation and monitoring mechanisms.
We cordially invite you to participate in the Convention. We are aware of your struggle and fight
against erring corporations and your involvement in ensuring corporations remain socially and
ethically responsible for their policies and actions. We strongly believe that your involvement and
sharing of experiences and strategies would make the Convention more meaningful.
We would like you to stay for the entire three-day programme. A detailed agenda of the programme
will be forwarded shortly. We are willing to bear the expense of second-class train travel as well as
the costs of a modest accommodation in Bhopal..
Kindly fill up the registration form and send it to us by 16th November 2004.
The details of the National Convention are :
Date ■ 26th, 27th, 28th November 2004
Venue - Mullah Ramuji Sanskrti Bhavan, Baan Ganga, Near 45 Bungalow, Bhopal
We look forward to seeing you at the Convention.
In solidarity
E.Deenadayalan
General Secretary
The Other Media
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Travel Advisory
National Convention, Bhopal
26th-28th November 2004
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Arrival Participants are requested to arrive from 25th noon onwards or 26lh early morning. Most trains to
Bhopal halt at Bhopal Junction. Participants are advised to disembark/get down at Bhopal Junction.
The hotel is a 10-minute drive from the Bhopal Junction station. Participants are advised to hire an
auto rickshaw. It would approximately cost Rs.20/- from the station to the hotel. For those who
disembark at Habibganj station, the hotel is a 30-minute drive and would approximately cost
Rs.50/-.
ClimateIt is winter in Bhopal in November and would be very cold.. It is advised that participants bring
warm clothing and woolens.
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AccommodationArrangements for accommodation have been made from 25th noon to 29th morning.
Accommodation would be on twin-sharing basis. The arrangements would be modest and simple.
The address of the hotel isHotel Banjara
Behind Alpana Takies,
Hamidia Road, Bhopal
Phone- 5255367/2713105
TicketFor reimbursement purposes you are requested to produce original tickets along with their
photocopies and receipts related to your travel expenses.
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FoodVegetarian food would be served. At the hotels, the participants would be served common
breakfast and dinner. Lunch would be provided at the venue of the Convention. Any special dietary
requirements should be intimated to the organizers.
First Aid First aid facilities would be available with the organizers.
Thank you.
Registration Form
National Convention in Bhopal, 26-28 November 2004, Bhopai
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Please send the completed form by November 16th, 2004.
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1. Name of the participant
2. Age
3. Gender
4. Name of the organization
5. Address
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6. Telephone
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7. Fax
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8. E-mail
9. Arrival in Bhopal
Date
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Time
Train number
Station
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10. Cost of Ticket (to and from)
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11. Any special dietary requirements
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Thank you.
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MENTAL HEALTH IMPACT OF BHOPAL
GAS DISASTER*
by
R. SRINIVASA MURTIB
For The Fact Finding Mission On Bhopal
Professor of Psychiatry
Department of Psychiatry
National Institute of Mental Health
and Neurosciences
P.O. Box 2900
Bangalore 560029
India
Ph.91 80 6995250
Fax: +91 80 6562121
e-mail: murthv ^ninihans.kar.iiic.in
FACT FINDING MISSION
ON BHOPAL
C/O THE OTHER MEDIA
B-14 ( Second Floor)
Guhnohar Park
New Delhi - 110049
India
Ph. 91-11-6514847, 6561743
Fax:91-11-6511504
Email: othennediafa^vsnlxom
CONTENTS
1
Summary
1
2
The Setting
2
3
Health Effects
3
4
Impact On Mental Health
3
5
General Health Studies Including Mental
5
Health Aspects
6
Mental Health Studies Mental Health
Interventions
7
7
Mental Health Interventions
10
8
Unresolved Issues
13
9
Lessons From Bhopal Disaster
15
Conclusions
17
Mental Health Impact Of Bhopal Gas Disaster
R. Srinivasa Murthy
Summary
During the night of December 2-3, 1984 the world's
worst industrial disaster took place in the city of Bhopal
in Central India. Large amount of toxic gas leaked from
the plant into the surrounding area, which was densely
populated. More than 2,000 died immediately and over
200,000 populations were directly affected in a city of
700,000 population. The disaster-affected population
have been investigated for the effect of the disaster on
their physical and psychological health.
Community
level studies carried within one month of the disaster to
10 years after the disaster report higher levels of
physical and mental health morbidity.
Though efforts
to provide psychological support to the affected
population were initiated using the primary care
personnel by focussed training programmes, a system of
comprehensive community based health care in general
and mental health care in particular, is still not in place.
In addition there is need for continuing the research
studies into the long-term effects of the disaster and the
morbidity in the affected population. The magnitude of
the Bhopal disaster and the research efforts to
understand the health effects have resulted in greater
awareness in India of the psychological aspects of
disasters and to include psychological support as part of
relief and rehabilitation activities following all disasters.
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
1
R. Srinivasa Murthy
Mental Health Impact Of Bhopal Gas Disaster
The Setting:
Bhopal gas leak disaster is the greatest industrial disaster in human history' .On the
night of 2/3 December 1984, about 40 tons of methyl iso^anate (MIC) from tank 610
of Union Carbide India Limited (UCIL) factory at Bhopal, in central India, leaked
into the surrounding environment. This leak of an " extremely hazardous chemical "
which occurred over a short span of few hours killing more than 2,000 people covered
the cityz of Bhopal in a cloud of poisonous gas.
The Bhopal disaster is of importance from mental health point for a number of
reasons.
Firstly, it is one of the largest man-made disasters in a developing country.
Secondly, the disaster effects w'ere a combination of both the substances inhaled and
the psychological effects of living through a disaster experience.
Thirdly, no formal mental health infrastructure was available to provide post-disaster
mental health care.
Fourthly, a number of innovative approaches w'ere developed to provide mental
health care, especially suitable for use in developing countries.
Fifthly, this disaster was the subject of intensive health research in a prospective
manner for the first five years.
This research included mental health aspects of the disaster on the population.
The scope of the article will be to describe the mental health effects, the interventions
undertaken and identify issues for future research and inten entions. A detailed
description of the disaster is covered by other authors in this \ olume and elsewhere
(Srinivasa Murthy,2002).
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
2
R. Srinivasa Murthy
Mental Health Impact Of Bhopal Gas Disaster
Health Effects:
The immediate impact of the exposure to the toxic chemical affected mainly the eyes,
lungs and the gastrointestinal systems. The health effects have been recorded
systematically by indix idual doctors, researchers from India and abroad as well as the
Indian Council of Medical Research, New7 Delhi (ICMR). The reported effects of the
toxic chemical inhalation involved eyes1, respiratory system2 and general health3.
They7 all report a higher morbidity in the affected population and a gradient of the
adverse effects in relation to the exposure amount. The other health studies included
gynaecological and obstetric problems4, incidence rates of cancer5, chromosomal
variations6, and immunological changes7. These have been extensively review'ed in
this document and elsewhere (SrinivasaMurthy, 2002)
IM PA CT ON M ENTAL HEALTH
Bhopal disaster is the first disaster in India to be studied systematically for the mental
health effects. Information is available about the mental health effects from a number
of sources. These are from studies as part of general health surveys as well as specific
studies on mental health. The direct involvement of the psychiatrists/neurologists at
the field level did not occur till about 8 weeks after the disaster. This delay was
inspite of the recognition of the importance of mental health effects of the disaster
within the first fortnight of the disaster. By coincidence the Fourth Advisory
Committee on Mental Health of ICMR was meeting on December 12-14,1984. The
experts in the meeting recognised the need of the affected population as follows:
"the recent developments at Bhopal involving the exposure of normal' human
beings to substances toxic to all the exposed and fatal to many, raises a
number of mental health needs. The service needs and research can be viewed
both in the short-term and long-term perspectives. The acute needs are the
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
3
R. Srinivasa Murthy
Mental Health Impact Of Bhopal Gas Disaster
understanding and provision of care for confusional states, reactive
psychoses, anxiety-depression reactions and griefreactions. Long term needs
arise from the following areas, namely, (i) psychological reactions to the
acute and chronic disabilities, (ii) psychological problems of the exposed
subjects, currently not affected, to the uncertainties of the future, (ii) effects of
broken social units on children and adults, and (iv) psychological problems
related to rehabilitation ” .
However, in spite of this early recognition of the need for mental health interventions
there was a delay of 6-8 weeks before mental health professionals were involved. An
important reason for this was the lack of mental health professionals in the state of
Madhya Pradesh and the city of Bhopal. At that point of time none of the 5 medical
colleges had a psychiatrist in their faculty.
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
4
R. Srinivasa Murthy
Mental Health Impact Of Bhopal Gas Disaster
General Health Studies
INCLUDING
Mental
Health Aspects:
Andersson et al. (1988) reported the first community survey within two weeks of the
disaster. The survey was conducted in eight exposed areas and twzo non-exposed
clusters of households. There was a two month follow-up. The focus of the survey
w'as eye and lung problems. As part of this study authors note that the pupillary reflex
was normal. Based on this they conclude, "the fact that this reflex was normal in all
groups can not be taken as evidence that neurotoxicity did not occur".
Misra et al (1988) report on 33 adult patients treated during the acute phase at the
Medical College Hospital. The)1 found that symptoms of severe cough and dyspnoea
were follow'ed by fainting in 55% of the patients. The duration of unconsciousness
ranged from 30 minutes to 3 days. One patient who had suffered from prolonged
unconsciousness had myoclonic jerks localised to the right upper extremity and
generalised hyperreflexia, suggestive of encephalopathy. Three patients who had
prolonged unconsciousness and brisk deep tendon jerks and extensor plantar response.
Mild to moderate headache (55%). giddiness (46%). burning sensation in hands and
feet (9%) and hypoanaeslhesia (3%) were also reported. Al the 3 month follow-up of
this group of patients, depression and irritability’ were the commonly reported
symptoms.
Gupta et al (1988) studied systematically 687 affected persons of various age groups
and from different affected areas at two months after the disaster and another 592
persons after the 4 month period. These studies included "behavioural studies". There
was a control population. The behavioural studies were carried out in 350 adults. The
psychological tests used were to "detect non-intellectual personality disturbances,
changes in mood, readiness for affective reactions, neuroticism and the dimension of
extroversion/ introversion. The specific tests administered were digit span test, Benton
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
5
Mental Health Impact Of Bhopal Gas Disaster
R. Srinivasa Murthy
visual retention test, digit symbol test. Bourdon Wiersma vigilance test, simple
reaction time, Santa Ana test. Rorscharch and Eysenck personality inventor}’. The
behavioural
tests
show'ed
that
memory,
mainly
visual
and
perceptual
attention/response speed along with attention/vigilance were severally affected in the
gas-exposed population. Further statistically significant differences w'ere observed
between the controls and the exposed groups on all the parameters tested.
The gas
exposed groups; especially the females had poor scores in the auditor}' memory tests.
The exposed male group showed significant low visual memoiy as compared to
controls and females. The visual memoiy' was more affected than the auditor}'
memoiy. Perceptual motor speed was significantly lower in the gas-exposed group.
All these changes were associated with subjective complaints of lack of concentration
and poor attention. In the manual dexterity tests there were no differences across the
groups.The questionnaire (EPl) results showed that 79.6% had poor scores on general
lability items, whereas 88.6% with poor scores had a tendency to general fatigue with
somatic complaints. Only 4.5% had neurotic tendencies. As a group women were
more affected than men and this difference was statistically significant.
Cullinan et al (1996) carried out an epidemiological stud}' of a representative gasexposed population, nine years after the disaster, in January 1994. The}' studied 474
subjects and a control group. Of this sample, 76 were subjected to detailed
neurological testing which included vestibular and peripheral sensory function and
tests for short-term memory'. In this study a high proportion of subjects reported a
wide variety of neuropsychiatric symptoms like abnormal smell, abnormal taste,
faintness, headache, difficult}' to stay awake and abnormal balance. Headache was
reported by 80% of the subjects as compared to 50% in the control population.
Neurological examination showed that a high proportion w’as judged to have clinical
evidence of central, peripheral or vestibular neurological disease. The mean short
term memory' scores were lowest among those heavily exposed (1.0 Vs 3.0). There
w'as some evidence of impaired ex trap}'rami dal functions. There was also abnormal
vertical drawing test among the exposed.
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
6
R. Srinivasa Murthy
Mental Health Impact Of Bhopal Gas Disaster
In this group the psychological symptoms reported were fatigue (88%),
anxiety (65%), difficulty in concentration (64%). Difficulty in decision-making was
reported in 80% as compared to 35% in the control population.. Irritability was
reported by 33% as compared to nil in the control group. There was a consistent
gradient across the separate exposure groups for all symptoms except depression.
Approximately 25% reported symptoms of depression.
Mental Health Studies:
The initial assessment of in the first week of February' 1985 (about eight weeks after
the disaster). R. Srinivasa Murthy (RSM), of the National Institute of Mental Health
and Neuro Sciences (NIMHANS), Bangalore, and Professor B. B. Sethi (BBS), of
K..G. Medical College (KGMC), Lucknow. The)' visited the City had interacted with
the general population, the patients attending the health facilities and the medical
personnel to understand the magnitude and nature of the mental health problems in
the affected population. Their observations, over a week's time, w'ere based on
clinical and unstructured interviews. These initial observations led to an estimate of
the magnitude of mental health needs of the population at 50% of those in the
community and of about 20% of those attending medical facilities (SrinivasaMurthy,
1990).
Immediately following these observations, during February-April 1985, a K.GMC
team carried out systematic studies. As a first step, ten general medical clinics in the
disaster-affected area were chosen. A team consisting of a psychiatrist, a clinical
psychologist, and a social worker visited one clinic a day, by rotation in a randomized
fashion, on three occasions and screened all the newly registered adult patients with
the help of a self-reporting questionnaire (SRQ). Subjects identified as probable
psychiatric patients were then evaluated in detail by the psychiatrist with the help of a
standardized psychiatric interview, the Present State Examination (PSE)9 Clinical
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
7
R. Srinivasa Murthy
Mental Health Impact Of Bhopal Gas Disaster
diagnoses were based on the International Classification of Diseases (9th revision)
(ICD-9)(WH0, 1975).
During a period of 3 months (February-May 1985), of the 855 patients
screened at the 10 clinics, on the basis of their SRQ scores, 259 were identified as
having a potential mental disorder. Of these potentially mental 1}' ill people, 44 could
not be evaluated, and 215 were assessed using the PSE. The confirmed number of
psychiatric patients w'as 193, yielding a prevalence rate of 22.6%. Most of the patients
were females (8.11%) under 45 years of age (74%). The main diagnostic categories
were anxiety neurosis (25%), depressive neurosis (37%), adjustment reaction with
prolonged depression (20%), and adjustment reaction with predominant disturbance
of emotions (16%). Cases of psychosis were rare, and the}' were not related to the
..
o
disaste .
During the same period, in the third month of the post-disaster period, neurological
studies were carried out10. This was a survey of the gas-affected patients admitted to
the various hospitals in the Bhopal City. A total of 129 adults and 47 children were
studied for neurological problems. Evidence of involvement of the central nervous
system was present in three patients in the form of stroke, encephalopathy and
cerebellar ataxia. Affection of the peripheral nervous system was observed in 6
patients. Vertigo and hearing loss occurred in 4 patients. Man}’ patients reported
transitory symptoms like loss of consciousness (50%), muscle weakness, tremors,
vertigo, ataxia and easy fatigability. Most of these symptoms cleared up after varying
periods of time. Of the 47 gas affected children, loss of consciousness at some lime or
other occurred in half of the patients. Fits occurred during the course of the illness in
3 children. Mental regression was observed in one child who had commenced
speaking in sentences but stopped talking after the disaster
There were no
abnormalities in the neurological examination in all of the children. An important
observation by the doctors who had examined the children during the early phase of
illness was generalized hypotonia and weakness. Two children were noted to be
"floppy" with weakness of limb movements and had difficult}' in getting up from the
ground. Of the 3 patients who had central nervous system involvement, the patient
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
8
R. Srinivasa Murthy
Mental Health Impact Of Bliopal Gas Disaster
with stroke died. His autopsy showed intense congestion and petechial hemorrhages
of the gray and white matter with frank hemorrhage in the circle of Willis area,
perhaps indicating the sustained microvascular damage by the circulating MIC.
Subsequently, from June 1985, the Lucknow team with the funding from ICMR, New
Delhi team conducted a detailed community-level epidemiological study, along with
the community level epidemiological study for other health effects. This study
included recording of the complaints of subjects, and the record of illnesses and
deaths in 100 000 population in the different areas of Bhopal .A fresh census of the
total population was undertaken prior to the study. The sampling frame was drawn in
such a manner that populations variously exposed to the disaster were included along
with a control group located far away from the gas-exposed area, but from the City
itself.
The methodology' used for screening of the households w'as interview^ with the head of
the household for the presence of symptoms from a standardized checklist. Those
found to have symptoms were further seen by a qualified psychiatrist who
administered a detailed mental status examination instrument (PSE-9U‘ version) and
arrived at the ICD- 9lh Version diagnosis. Each year a new' set of families w'ere
sampled and studied in addition to follow-up of the patients diagnosed in the previous
years.
The results of the first-year survey' involved 4,098 adults from 1,201 households. A
total of 387 patients were diagnosed to be suffering from mental disorders, giving a
prevalence rate of 94/1,000 population. Most of the population consisted of females
(71%); 83% were in the age group 16-45 years. Ninety-four percent of the patients
received a diagnosis of neurosis (neurotic depression, 51%; anxiety state, 41% and
hysteria, 2%) and had a temporal correlation with the disaster. For the next three
years, the team repealed the annual surveys and follow-up of the initial patients
identified by the community survey. Detailed case vignettes and descriptive accounts
of the patients from the Bhopal disaster w'ere prepared.
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
9
R. Srinivasa Murthy
Mental Health Impact Of Bhopal Gas Disaster
These general population psychiatric epidemiological studies show that the gas
exposed population were having significantly higher prevalence rates for psychiatric
disorders in comparison to the general population. The gradient relationship of higher
rates of psychiatric morbidity with severity of exposure to the poisonous gas was
maintained throughout the 5 years of the survey period. At the end of the five-year
period the number recovering fully recoxered was small and large numbers continued
to experience the symptoms along with significant disability in functioning.
Mental Health Interventions
One of the challenges faced by the team of psy chiatrists was the provision of
psychiatric serxices to the affected population. For a total population of
700,000 and the affected population of about 200,000, there was no
psychiatric help available in the city.
A number measures were taken to meet this challenge.
Firstly, the senior psychiatrists (RSM and BBS) worked to prepare clinical vignettes
of patients to sensitize the medical professionals and the administrators. Because of
the issues of compensation, majority of the administrators and medical professionals
considered that the complaints, especially the psychiatric symptoms were imaginary
and compensation related. This misconception was corrected by demonstrating the
real nature of the symptoms and the universality of the disaster aftereffects on the
mental health of the affected population.
Secondly, starting from February 1985, teams of psychiatrists, clinical psychologists,
psychiatric social workers from Lucknow were located in the city for periods of 2-4
weeks to provide psychiatric care to the affected population. This was a short-term
measure (Sethi et al, 1987).
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
10
R. Srinivasa Murthy
Mental Health Impact Of Bhopal Gas Disaster
Third measure was to take up the training of the general medical officers working
with the affected population with the essential skills for of mental health care. This
was indeed very challenging but was a rapid way of increasing the mental health care
in the city.
In viewz of this importance and it was carried out for the first time in India, and
possibly in a developing country, it is described in detail.
Soon after the disaster, additional medical officers were moved to the city and located
in the different gas affected areas to provide general medical care to the population. In
April 1985, about 50 medical officers were working in the various health facilities in
the gas-affected areas. Most of the doctors had no training in mental health as part of
their initial medical training, as there were no teachers of psychiatry in the State
medical colleges. This lack of training was reflected in their poor perception of the
emotional needs of the disaster-affected population. The basic orientation of these
doctors was highly' medical/biological. In the pre-training interviews most of them
expressed the view that distribution of monetary compensation would solve the
physical complaints of a large number of their patients. Some expressed the view that
the free rations (food grains and other essentials) provided by the state was the reason
for the complaints of weaknesses and inability to work reported by most patients. The
medical officers believed that the “lethargy” of their patients would disappear not by
treatmeit from doctors or by the use of drugs but by "stopping the free rations and
distribution of compensation money".
The basic aim of the training was to enhance the sensitivity of the medical officers to
the emotional needs of individuals and to provide the skills to recognize, diagnose,
treat and refer (when required) the mental health problems11. The period of initial
training was six working days. It was decided that the training should be as practical
as possible and should be imparted to groups not exceeding 20 persons. The
methodology of training took into account principles of 'adult learning" viz., an open
learning environment in which participants were free to share their needs and
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
11
Mental Health Impact Of Bhopal Gas Disaster
R. Srinivasa Murthy
experiences, with greater stress on interactive learning. The predominantly lecture
approach was changed to case studies and group discussions facilitated by audiovisual,
audio taped
material
of affected population with
maximum learner
invohement.
The actual training was carried out in two batches by two consultant psychiatrists (i.e.
the authors). A manual was prepared for this training on the basis of our experience of
training on the basis of experience of training primaiy care physicians medical
officers at National Institute of Menial Health and Neurosciences (N1MHANS),
Bangalore. (Issac, Chandrasekar & Srinivasa Murthy, 1984). Additional sections on
"emotional reactions to sudden severe stress'; "emotional reactions of children to stress
and emotional reactions to physical problems' were written and incorporated in the
manual. The manual in its draft form was used for the training. A revised manual
incorporating the experience of the training and the needs of the medical officers was
prepared subsequently and distributed to all the doctors working with the gas affected
population (Srinivasa Murthy et al. 1987). For the purpose of the evaluation of the
existing pre-training psychiatric knowledge, video presentation of 10 cases was
utilized. These included video inlerx iews of the gas-affected population and standard
interviews with those having different psychiatric problems.
Each day in the morning, the two faculty members visited the different health
facilities and worked with the medical officers to help them learn the interview
techniques and counseling methods. Tins 'live' experience was considered to be very
useful by the medical officers. Post-training evaluation of the training was carried out
by a simple questionnaire. A total of 38 medical officers took part in the training.
Some of the comments of the participants in the post-training evaluation supported the
usefulness of the training. Most of them felt that with the training, they could be of
much more capable of treating psychiatric illness and other patients having medical
problems as well. Some doctors expressed that earlier, they used to give the patients
only symptomatic treatment, but after the training they were able to think and
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
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R. Srinivasa Murthy
Mental Health Impact Of Bhopal Gas Disaster
diagnose the condition in terms of a psychological approach. Some doctors mentioned
that earlier to the training, they were not aware of any psychiatric problems and were
of the opinion that the patients were malingering and giving vague symptoms to
evoke sympathetic response and get more medicines. All the doctors who took part in
the training agreed that there was need for privacy for interviews support from
psychiatrists for difficult cases and there should be a regular supply of psychotropic
drugs.
Unresolved Issues:
There are a number of unresolved issues of the Bhopal disaster. Bhopal
disaster continues to occupy the public space and the people cry out for relief
and rehabilitation.
Three of them are of importance.
Firstly, there is an international level debate about the right to know. The Bhopal
disaster jolted activist groups around the world into renewing their demands for right-
to-know legislation granting broader access to information about hazardous
technologies .
Secondly, the need for continuing stud}’ of the health effects on the population. This
need has been voiced by a number of researchers and human rights activists.
However,
except for limited efforts, large-scale systematic studies are not
forthcoming. Long -term monitoring of the affected community has to be done for at
least the next 50 yeais. Formal studies of ocular, respirator}; reproductive,
immunologic, genetic and psychological health must be continued to elucidate the
extent and severity of long-term effects1'.
Thirdly, the need to provide appropriate medical services to the affected population.
17 years after the disaster, thousands and thousands of men, women and children are
still suffering from respirator}' illnesses, precocious blindness, cancers and so many
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
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Mental Health Impact Of Bhopal Gas Disaster
R. Srinivasa Slurthy
other related ailments for which they receive no treatment14.
The efforts to date are to set up specialized centers15 without a clear link to
community services.
Il has been repeatedly emphasized that a health-care-pyramid
approach be adopted to deal with health problems resulting from the gas leak.
Community-level health units should be developed to serve only a maximum of 5000
people. Local hospitals with specialised departments may be used provide secondary
care. A specialised medical centre should be established, dedicated to treatment of
research into the more serious problems arising from the gas leak. There is clearly an
urgent need to develop standard protocols of treatment for the unique problems of the
gas-affected population.
(The International Medical Commission on Bhopal, 1990,
Srinivasa Murthy, 2001).
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
14
R. Srinivasa Murthy
Mental Health Impact < )f Bhopal Gas Disaster
Lessons from Bhopal Disaster
i.
Iniportance OfMental Health:
One of the big challenges for a mental health professional is the low priority given
to mental health. This is mainly because it is thought of as marginal affecting a
small proportion of people without any voice. However, the recognition of mental
health of disaster affected populations' switches the value of mental health, from a
deviant model to a normalcy model. The recognition that each and even' person
has a potential risk for menial health problems, following severe stress, makes
mental health important to everyone both in terms of its importance as well as
community level interventions. For example, in India in the stale of Madhya
Pradesh, with a population of over 60 million, there were less than a handful of
psychiatrists al the lime of lhe disaster. Following the disaster, there w'as greater
aw'areness of menial health. There has been a significant improvement in lhe
menial health infrastructure; most of it created as a consequence of lhe disaster.
Currently all lhe medical colleges have psychiatrist in their faculty.
This innovative approaches to utilize stud}' the mental health effects of disasters
and to utilize the existing health personnel provide mental health care, initiated at
Bhopal, has become the accepted pattern in the country to meet the mental health
needs of the subsequent disaster-affected populations16. The populations affected
by the Orissa supercyclone and the Gujarat earthquake have received attention to
mental health and psychosocial needs more promptly than in the eai’ier
disasters17.
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
15
R. Srinivasa Murthy
2.
Mental Health Impact Of FShopal Gas Disaster
Integration Of Mental Health With Other Services*.
It is important to recognize the mental health needs and interventions as part of the
other needs of the disaster population. The integration has significant advantages
in terms of utilizing the available resources, providing psychiatric care without
stigma, and as well as harmonizing the physical, social and psychological
services. This requires training of all personnel who are working with disaster
populations in menial health care.
3.
Simplification Of Knowledge And Skills:
The mental health professionals have the challenge of simplifying the information
as well as the intervention skills suitable to the affected population, community
level helpers, school, teachers, primary care health workers, primaiy- care doctors
and other developmental personnel. These programs have to be short, focused and
practical rather than theoretical. In addition, they have to be routed in the local
cultural ethos of the affected population. Already a number of examples are
available in this area.
4.
Training Of Non-Professionals
As noted above non-professionals particularly from the local area should be the
primary care providers. In this approach the professionals will have to accept this
partnership with the people so that there is no conflict between professionals and
nonprofessionals. The training should be located in the field area, should include
lot of practical work and the professionals should be able to demonstrate the
interventions in the actual communit)' situation.
5.
Evaluation
Mental health professionals have a very important role in e\aluating interventions.
Currently most of the interventions are based on face validity.
Short term and
long term evaluations have not been done beyond evaluation of the training
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
16
Mental Health Impact Of Bhopal Gas Disaster
R. Srinivasa Murthy
progranis. Such exaluation should not only look at clinical symptoms but the
quality of life of the affected population. There is also need for developing simple
tools for evaluation that can be used by non-professionals.
6.
Research
There is a need to study various aspects of the psychiatric problems in disaster-
affected populations. Recent reviews of literature in this area have identified the
variables like family support, kinship help, and subsequent exents in the affected
populations as being important in the long-term outcome1 s.
The cross-cultural
aspect of disaster is only recognized as being important19.
Conclusions
Disasters are a challenge everywhere for the
affected populations as well as the professionals.
However,
they
represent
special
challenges
and
opportunities in India. Bhopal disaster is a milestone in
understanding the mental health aspects of disasters.
The research has shoxvn the high physical and mental
morbidity in the general population and the continuing
need for longitudinal health studies. Using a public
health approach in priority setting, identification of
interventions
and
training
of existing
personnel,
utilizing the community resources the needs of the
population can be addressed. Such situations offer
mental
health
professionals
both
challenges
and
opportunities for innovation.
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
17
R. Srinivasa Murthy
Mental Health Impact Of Bhopal Gas Disaster
End notes and references:
1 Anderson,Muir & Mehra, 1984,, (Andersson, Muir, Ajwani, Mahashabde, Salmon &Vaidyanathan,
1986; Maskali, 1986,Raizada and Dwivedi, 1987)
c
2 (Kamat, Patel, Kolhatkar, Dave & Mahasur, 1987; Bhargava, Vanna, Batni, Misra, Tivvari, Vijayan
& Jain, 1987; Weill, 1987; Rastogi, Gupta, Husain, Kumar, Chandra & Ray, 1988,Vijayan’ Pandey,
Sankaran, Mehrotra, Darbari & Misra, 1989; Vijayan, Sankaran, Shanna & Misra, 1995; Vijayan &
Sankaran, 1996,Cullinan, Acquilla ADhara, 1997; Beckett, 1998)
3 (Naik, Acharaya, Bhalerao, Kowli, Nazareth, Mahas, Shah, PotnisA Mehta, 1986; Andersson, Muir,
Mehra ASalmon, 1988; Misra, Nag, Nath, Khan, Gupta ARay, 1988; Gupta, Rastogi, Chandra, Mathur’
Malhur, Mahendra, Pangtey, Kumar, Kumar, Seth, DwivediARay, 1988;Laxmipuram and Srivatsa,’
1987, Sainani, Joshi, MehlaAAbraham, 1985; Misra, 1986,Cullinan, Acquilla and Dhara, 1996)
4 (Bhandari, Syal, Kambo, Nair, Behar, Sexena, Dar, Agganval A Saxena, 1990; Bajaj, Misra
RajalakshmiAMadan, 1993,Kapoor, 1991)
5 (Dikshit A Kanhere, 1999)
0 Goswami, Chandorkar, Bhattacharya, Vaidyanatli, Par, SenGupta, Patidar, Sengupta Goswami A
Shanna, 1990
7 Saxena, Singh, Nag, Gupta, Ray, Srivatsav, Tewari A Singh, 1988, Goswami cl al 1990
8 SrinivasaMurthy, Issac,Chandrasekar ABhide, 1987
9 Wing, Cooper A Sartorius, 1975
10 Bharucha ABharucha, 1987
11 (Srinivasa Murthy A Issac, 1987).
12 Bhopal Working Group, 1987, Bader, 1987, Levcnslein A OzonofT, 1987, Walker, 1987
13 Dhara, 1992, Dhara A Kriebel, 1993, Dhara A Dhara, 1995,Delvin Ng, 1996,The Lancet, 2000
Dhara R.V., Acquilla, S., A Cullinan, P, 2001, SrinivasaMurthy, 2001).
14 Lapierre, 2001
15 Percival, 2001
Shanna, Chaudhury, Kavathekar ASaxena 1996,Juwa A Rajendran, 2000, Acharya, 2000, Pande,
Phadke, Dalal, AAgashe, 2000, Pande, Phadke, Dalal, Gadkari, Nagapurkar A Agashe 2000 Joseph’
2000,Gandevia,2000,Patel,2000, Al A Jaswal,2000,Parasuram AUnnikrislinanan,2000
Srikala, Chandrasekar, Kishorekumar, Choudhury, Parthsarathy, Girimaji, Sekar, A Srinivasa
Murthy, 2000, Kishorekumar, Chandrasekar, Choudhury, Girimaji, Sekar A SrinivasaMurthv 2000
SrinivasaMurthy,2000
18 Bromet and Dew, 1995
19 WHO, 1992, Patel, 2000
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
18
b. Write to the Indian Ambassador in your respective countries about the unresolved issues of the
Bhopal disaster and ask why the Indian government is neglecting the task of extraditing
Anderson.
c. Publicize the issues of Bhopal through the media.
d. Support the work of the Sambhavna Clinic through financial contribution, donation of
equipment and voluntary work.
For more information please visit: wwwtbhQpaLnet and ww\v.bhopalTQi-g
ate * * ifc x * *
Satinath Sarangi
Sambhavna Trust
Bhopal Peoples’ Health and Documentation Center
44, Sant Kanwar Ram Nagar,
Berasia Road, Bhopal 462018
INDIA
Phone: 91-755-743157
Fax: 91-755-730914
Email: sambaviia@bom6.vsnLneLin
Web Site: www.bh<>pai.org
-^ wi.,.
a -
oh
I A.
BHOPAL GAS DISASTER AND MENTAL DISORDER:
NARRATIVES FROM THE SURVIVORS
t
by
Amit Ranjan Basu
for the Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
I
Amit Ranjan Basu, MBBS
Doctoral Student,
Centre for Historical Studies
Jawaharlal Nehru University,
New Delhi - 110 067
amitbasu55@hotmail.com
FACT FINDING MISSION ON BHOPAL
C/o B - 14, (SF) Gulmohar Park,
New Delhi - 110 049
Tel: 91-11-656 1743/651 4847
Fax: 91-11-6511 504
Email: othermedia@vsnl.com
Report on Mental Health
BHOPAL GAS DISASTER AND MENTAL DISORDER:
NARRATIVES FROM THE SURVIVORS
“As time passed, Sunil became more and more withdrawn and uncommunicative. Slowly,
almost imperceptibility, he found something cracking up within him He was frequently
depressed, and became obsessed by thoughts of suicide. He heard voices call out to him He
would not stir out of his home, would not wash himself or talk to people. The neighbours
took care of his brother and sister and fed Sunil ... There were times when he ran out of the
house without clothes, feverishly roaming the streets night and day, running for kilometers on
the railway track into the forest.”
(‘After Bhopal9 by Harsh Mander in Unheard voices: Stories offorgotten times. Penguin,
2001, p. 10-11)
Sunil -who was eleven- on 3rd December 1984, was left with his younger brother and sister
to cut across his path of survival. He did cut through, but the cost it took on a growing child’s
mind, was heavy. What I would like to say at this moment is, there are many such stories in
Bhopal when we moved around in the city and collected some.
We wanted to listen to stories from the individuals and their families who, according to the
popular motion are known to have suffered or are still suffering from mental distress,
problems or say disorders, after the gas disaster. Our investigations relied on what people in
locality talked about such an individual or individuals, whom they considered to become
‘mad’ (paagal ho gaya) after the disaster.
Let me not get into the discourses on qualitative research methods and its validity, as this is
not a forum for methodology workshops. However, curious and interested readers may
consult these materials (Bogdan & Taylor 1975, Clifford & Marcus 1986, Denzin & Lincoln
1995, Filstead 1970, Geertz 1973, Johnson 1987, Kapur 1999, Kleinman 1988, Strauss &
Corbin 1990,Williams 1984). Rather, this is a forum where we express our serious concern
on various aspects of Bhopal gas disaster through our engagement with a systematic study
from our area of expertise/ activity. “Fact Finding Mission (FFM)”, as we have named it,
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made us aware that our report must reflect ‘facts’ about what had been happening at the time
our enquiry. However, there are many ‘facts’ though sometimes ‘fictions’ such as the one
quoted from Harsh Mander’s book are stronger than many everyday facts that try to dissolve
or dispute crucial experiences.
For me, in search of narratives of mental illness in Bhopal led me to this assertion that my
‘fact finding mission’ acknowledged ‘fiction’ in a sense that, mental illness was not an object
of my study. It was an engagement, a pro active one perhaps, with the discourse of mental
disorders as mediated by the survivors and their families, which tries to recover a narrative
that seriously question whatever happening in the realm of mental health for Bhopal gas
Victims. So the facts I present, is consciously coloured subjectivity acknowledging its
contribution in the construction of anyform of knowledge.
Let me share from our research process, which will outline the methods of our data
collection. First we organised an orientation workshop to train up investigations on the
techniques of open-ended interviews, the basic distinction between major and mental
disorders, and knowledge on some problems, which are more common. This was a full day
workshop and the next day they were asked to visit the field and comeback with a recording
sample. The day next we found many people have dropped and we discussed with the rest on
refining the techniques of interview. Finally, six investigators and two volunteers, total eight
persons fanned out in those areas of Bhopal, which were known as moderate to severely
affected. Though we provided a list to them from the larger survey that was done, but we
relied more on popular information and checked them out. Most of the twenty-six people we
have interviewed were reached through their community teashops, paan-dukaan etc.
The investigators were asked to get the individual’s life-stories in two hours. They were
instructed not to ask any diagnostic question but to elaborate on illness narratives and to see
what are the storyteller's concepts of linking gas tragedy to mental illnesses. Many times
family members helped when the person concerned could not or would not speak. Three
interviews were done with professionals, one Clinical Psychologist, one Psychiatrist and an
Ayurvedic practitioner. Both the psychologist and psychiatrist worked in an NGO besides
their private clinics. The Ayurvedic practitioner worked in a Govt, hospital and in her private
clinic.
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From the Hindi transcriptions a processed and translated material was filtered through. This
was an important step, where translations were done from the transcripts according to the
questions I wanted to focus on, which acted as filters. Thus the voluminous transcriptions
were reduced to narratives, crucial to our research question/s.
Gas Disaster and Mental Disorder:
R. Srinivasa Murthy’s review research, which one can see is not an exhaustive one on mental
health studies that has gone through since the disaster. Yet, it still brings out the major
observations that make sense nty data. His paper shows clearly that in the early post-disaster
phase, studies indicated how gas disaster is linked with mental disorders. This is the reason
for which I avoid writing a ‘literature review’ and this paper should be seen as a
complimentary one to Prof. Murthy’s review.
Also, the common questionnaire conducted during FFM had some questions on mental
health. Out of 3881 respondents 21.2% showed symptoms of anxiety, 21.8% suffered from
‘sleeplessness’, 10.2% from ‘lack of concentration’ and 16.8% from ‘lack of motivation’.
58.8% of them showed problems of memory in 1984-85, which still remains among 3.5%
after 1996. 9.5% of them describe themselves as ‘depressed’ after the incident.
Veena Das, in her through study (1995) on the suffering of the Bhopal gas victims
conceptualized two orientations of suffering, internal and external. First one, constructs on
elaborate discourse on the meaning of suffering, essentially in order to legitimize the
producer of the discourse rather than the victim. For the Bhopal case she has noticed how this
internal orientation was embodied in the judicial and medical discourse and provided
legitimacy to the producers (The scientific profession, the law court) of the discourse.
The second orientation, termed external, did not make the sufferer internalize his/her
suffering, neither it posited a meaningful world or a just god or a comprehensive scientific
discourse within which suffering can be made comprehensible.
A recent study on disaster mental health (Juvva & Rajendran 2000:532) also comments that,
‘at the individual level, post-disaster psychosocial trauma can be manifested in the form of
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psychiatric disorders such as, major depression, generalized anxiety disorder, substance abuse
disturbances, family violence, acute stress disorder and post traumatic stress disorder.’
Our survivors’ narratives also show the same pattern with addition of cases of major mental
disorders and some mental retardation cases. However, though important, and knowing that
alcoholism has increased significantly in Bhopal with liquor-shops and bars everywhere, we
did not look for cases of substance-abuse.
Satish (this one and all the names used in case studies are pseudonyms), in his fifties, despite
managing job in the state police wanders around and collects junks like old battery cells and
takes it to his home and hides it in different places. One of his family members said: when we
got him admitted in the hospital he used to collect clothes women use for their menstruation
and talked in a language to the doctors without showing any respect to him.
Before the disaster he was a responsible person and got his sisters married off, put his brother
into a job and took care of the family. After the disaster, his behavior changed. He became
more religious and kept referring to morals and ethics of life in a language, which was not so
coherent. However, during interview he said: people who has made the gas-kaand have
flourished when [victims] are still asking for death from god... those who are neither living
or dead... logon ne Kursi ka gaand maar diya (people have fucked up the arse ofthe chair)!
It is not clear from his narrative whether he had ever visited a psychiatrist apart from the
usual symptomatic treatments for the effects of MIC, which many people received. But this is
clear from his interview (and also from his brother’s and wife’s comments) that he showed
symptoms of flight of ideas with grandiosity and loss of self-care. The family felt that he has
lost the understanding of social obligations and the normal association a person normally has
with his family.
Naveen is a twenty eight year old young man studied upto the matriculation level. He helps
his brother to run a flour-mill (aata chakki\, his father is in his sixties and mother in late
forties. It appeared to the interviewer that the whole family is suffering from the trauma,
which is manifested with milder psychological problems. Naveen was a teenager when the
gas leak happened. According to him:
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“ I used to live in Ibrahimganj and my childhood went offvery well... but since the gas-kand
I have been facing so many problems and will continue to face these problems... there is no
surity in my mind... I say anything to anyone. Earlier my memory was good but since the gas
tragedy my memory has become weak, I can’t recollect events two days old! I have no
concentration or interest. I get angry and irritated by small, little things.... I lie down but
cannot sleep whether its day or night. I keep forgetting things... I have to leave my studies
because of this. I abuse and I myself do not remember what I said... once I had been in a
[police] lockup because of this. It seems my present living is not living... but this problem
hasn't just happened to me... it has happened to everyone... everyone has mind related
problems... many people see my behaviour and say that this person is a little loose... what to
do with him? ”
It is not very difficult to see that Naveen suffers from a probl an of neurosis with perceived
memory dysfunction. One can also presume that growing young was not psychologically
smooth for him and he tries his best to rationalize with the thought that ‘every one is
suffering from psychological problems after thzgas-kaand. ’
Let us now listen to the tale of Amina who was only an adolescent during the gas leak. Her
father died later due to a gas related illness. Her mother is old and brother is married and
suffers from a health problem Amina, at present in her early thirties suffers from a major
mental disorder. She was married but deserted first and then divorced. This family belongs to
a lower income group and barely manages to survive by selling various things. Amina’s
mother told us that:
(<She wasfine in her childhood and studied tillfifth standard andpassed each year... but after
the gas tragedy she started showing abnormality. She abused, did not take herfood properly
and got into fights. She started having fits initially then her speech became incoherent, she
used to tear up clothes and we started her keeping locked up and tied”.
When the interviewer tried to talk to her Amina said:
[My name is] Hema Mahni- Hema Malini... people say I am paagal, I look like a paagal... if
you have come to befriend me will you tear clothes with me? What have you come for? You
look like awara, you look like a slut... I don't want to be friends with you... have you got
anything to eat like apple, grapes. I like those.
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Throughout the interview she carried on talking like this and at times threatening the
interviewer to throw her out of the room Her brother said that initially she responded to the
treatment and she was married off but soon the problem started at her in laws place and she
was brought to our house and later divorced. He said, doctors have said it has happened
because of the gas. She was taken to shamans many times and perhaps to a psychiatrist once
without any improvement. One can suspect that, due to their low socio-economic status
psychiatric treatment could not be continued.
Vimala, now in her mid forties is otherwise a strong person who is fighting out her anxiety
and mild, episodic depression through her social commitments as an Anganwadi worker. For
her, it was not a straightforward case of psychological disorder linked to the gas disaster. And
may be, this point out to another fact that many like her must be suffering out of a complex
problem where the impact of disaster played an indirect but critical role.
She was bom in a place near Itarsi and came to Bhopal after her marriage. She was nostalgic
while remembering her childhood and adolescence, particularly about her paternal uncle who
still remains an ideal man for her. He was a freedom fighter and died as a bachelor. It was he,
who induced her into social work in and a love for poetry. She studied till graduation but her
marriage was with a man who was interested in cultivation (kheti-baadi). However, it was she
who persuaded him to come to Bhopal and start some business. She was energetic too and
managed a work in Anganwaadi and ran a centre for women where training on literacy and
sewing etc. were given.
Somehow her relationship with husband was not good and he kept going to his village and
she also had a miscarriage. After the gas tragedy, she saw all kinds of problems started
accumulating altogether. Her husband became sick and could hardly do much and their
relationship never became better. The family grew bigger as they started living with her elder
sister, her husband and their children . She had a boy by this time and her uncle also lived
with them. Apart from meeting all the ends in the family becoming difficult, her worries and
anxiety about future become intense. She said:
‘"now... the moment I think something seriously my mind becomes restless.... lam surrounded
by problems... life has become a tough struggle, big crises keep coming up’\
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She also lost her speech for a short time (functional aphonia) years back and recalls with
panic that:
“I wonder whether I will become deaf and dumb one day... at times I have pain in stomach
which carries on...headache...I get anxious and feel tingling sensations all over my
body... sleep gets disturbed. I can’t wok halfthe amount I used to do before the gas tragedy".
Throughout her intemew her mood fluctuates, sometimes she is in tears and at times she is
exasperated when she fishes out plenty of papers related to claims for compensation. The
ideals she had set in her late adolescence seems to be shattered with a fatalistic hope
represented in one of many of her poetries:
Who will come
hum my pyre?
Who will come?
Who will come?
Who will come?
The one who has love in his heart?
He will come
He will come
He will come
Vimala’s story would attract any psychoanalyst with her strong identification with bachelor
uncle as the ideal man and a father figure who virtually brought her up, which explains the
indifferent attitude towards her husband. The gas disaster has become more a metaphor than
an actual event, which turned her life into a bundle of problems. She is not a paagal in the
popular sense, neither her doctor could interpret that much of her physical problems were
psychosomatic. Yet she represents one of those few, who cope with her mental maladies by
engaging herself in social work and also by writing poetries.
Leela, according to her elder sister:
Was very fine. She could do all the work at home and was regular at school. She was
eventually married and started doing well at her in-law’s house. Then the gas-kaand
happened and she lost her mental balance. The in-laws left her in our house and never took
back saying she is a paagal and what will we do with her? ”
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Leela told the interviewer that, she went for nursing training after her graduation and was
enjoying her work in the villages. But this was not true according to her sister and other
family members. After the gas disaster she become withdrawn, spoke less and did not show
any interest in work. If someone pursued her to do something she starts —screaming. When
situation became worse, she was taken to the Hamidia Hospital but nothing changed much.
But the doctors tried ECT (Electro Convulsive Therapy), which did not improve her
condition. Sometimes she went out of the house and disappeared for few days. Neighbours
complained that she comes out in the mid night and starts knocking at their doors. Once she
returned home naked. Her sister does not know how a proper mental health care can be taken
of Leela as treatment is expensive and there is hardly any recognition by any Govt, agency
that all this happened due to die impact of gas disaster.
If psychiatric researchers are looking for a late onset psychotic disorder, then, Hasina.can be
an excellent material for them:
Hey girl (to the interviewer)... go away from here... get up and go away...why did you come
here? If my husband sees you he will scream.... I have twelve children; they are all in
America.... I am very beautiful, more beautiful than you are ...lam not mad.
Hasina's husband said, before the gas (when she was in her mid thirties) she was absolutely
okay talking charge of the domestic work and care of their children. It all started after the gas
disaster and even after admission to the hospital twice. She never attained her premorbid
personality.
Hasina intervenes and starts talking that she is a heroine of Hindi films and she has to rush off
to Bombay for shooting and again express her anger toward the interviewer. Her husband
said:
'Ifeel much troubled... she throws stones or anything that is handy... talks incoherently and
all the burden offamily care is on me... I wanted to get her treated but there is no proper
treatment for this
In addition to these five cases, rest of the twenty-one cases (including two mental
retardations) told us the stories how the disaster had tom up their mental world, sometimes
into a split and sometimes into a painful path of coping with minor psychological disorders.
This otherwise small number of twenty-six mentally distressed individuals came from an age
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
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group of 23-56 years and ten of them are women formed the representative world of our
study. They belong to the lower socio economic strata to the middle class and accessing
psychiatric treatment and continuing them was not possible.
Another interesting feature is that there is a range of mix up with typical physical complaints
like fatigue, weakness, breathlessness, watering of the eyes that has been repeatedly shown in
various medical studies. One can (if one wishes to) listen to each of the narratives and arrive
at a psychiatric diagnosis, which can be categorized under schizophrenia, bipolar disorder,
depression, generalized anxiety disorder and somatoform disorders. However, none of our
stories give us a single classical case of part traumatic stress disorder or PTSD. Or I would
say that when you listen to the narratives of mental trauma unhinged with a diagnostic code,
you can experience how the balance is broken when all the elements that constitute a ‘sane’
world, gets badly complicated with the gas disaster playing the central role.
In many interviews we were told with a punch of sarcasms that why now, after so many
years, our interest grew to listen to their talks of mental suffering when we have no power to
either fight for their claims or to provide better treatments? It is obvious that we had no
answers. However, each inter lew also provided a therapeutic space to let out their repressed
negative emotions, perhaps for some cases for the first time. This relates to two issues. One is
with the treatment facilities for psychological disorders. None has given us a story where
treatment had been proper and continuous. Not a single narrative informed us that despite the
continuity of the problems they were heard with empathy and care, which probably were
more needed from the viewpoint of their expectations. The second issue relates to the
psychosocial care and each family appears to be suffering from some sort of isolation or the
other. Listening through all the recordings one wouldn’t be making an overstatement that as
if the whole of Bhopal is suffering from a kind of emotional bluntness toward the survivors
affected with mental illnesses! So let us now look at what the professionals told us.
Professional’s Narratives:
(<Sorry I can ’t share anything on gas disaster and mental illness to you u
This is what Dr. Bhiman, a Govt, psychiatrist working in a hospital, said to me when I
reached his plush private clinic after setting an appointment! I tried to argue that when today
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
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mental health professionals are urging to recognize mental health problems as an important
public health agenda, then this silence will contribute to only vested interests! But he only
offered me a mysterious smile.
I felt, his silence voiced many things that had already been
hinted upon by the survivors.
However, responses from mental health professionals working in the NGOs were very
different. They shared openly and eagerly their experiences with gas-affected mental patients.
Dr. Samit Ray worked both in a private clinic and in a NGO called Sambhavna, which is
providing health care sen ices to the survivors who stay in and around J.P. Nagar, which is
close to the Union Carbide factory. Scimbhavna is unique in the sense that they provide both
traditional and modem health care services. Dr. Ray helps to run a weekly psychiatry clinic
for the survivors. He found a difference between the clients he treats in his private chamber at
new-Bhopal and at Sambhavna:
‘"The difference basically is that in my other practice [in new-Bhopal] - what I call my
normal practice, I see a whole range of mental illness ... but whereas, when I go to
Sambhavna, a very stereotyped pattern ofsymptoms are seen over there... And I think, in the
last two years, I have seen only two cases of psychosis... not that they are not there, but
somehow, they are not coming to me. And the people who are coming, they are coming with
minor psychiatric disorders, by that I mean these dysthymias and anxiety disorders and
somatoform disorders. So that is the difference
For Dr. Ray the key' word for this difference is Ghabrahat,_which he thinks he has
encountered only here. It appeared to him as a very peculiar term
For instance everybody uses the term and when they really go into it, people have different
meanings. Now, what they actually mean by Ghabrahat? Some people use this for anxiety,
like bechainy, darr. Some people use it for peculiar feelings-say somatic feelings, physical
feelings... including nausea, including palpitation and all that. So it seems to be like an
umbrella term, which encompasses lot of different, other problems. But usually, it seems to
deal with a feeling of restlessness, anxiety, and tension. I think most people feel that when
they say Ghabrahat
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Given the chance to use the American classificatory system called the Diagnostic &
Statistical Manual (DSM), he categorized his cases under anxiety disorder, mild depressive
disorder, and a lot of somatoform disorders. He finds it difficult to relate the disaster with this
stereotypical pattern of mental illness as many years have passed. Looking at it from an
objectivist, ‘scientific’ angle he faces problems of methodology to separate and isolate the
present problem from many adhesions that grew up from the ‘past’ to show that it has a direct
link with the disaster. But when he takes up the disaster as a complex process, which plays
the role of a crucial metaphor that destabilized many peoples mental world, this link becomes
a possible reality.
Kakoli Ray, a clinical psycholcgist, provides mental health services wdth her husband Sumit
Ray (also a clinical psychologist) through their NGO called Digdarshika, shared similar
viewpoints while linking the gas tragedy with mental disorders. But she recognized that as far
as mental retardation is concerned, there are strong correlations. As most of her clinical work
is with disabled children, she has found that lot of mothers who were pregnant during the
time of disaster or just had delivered, their children presented with development disorders.
Particularly mothers who came from Muslim community and from the old city showed this
pattern of brain damage, which led to mental retardation. It would be relevant to note have
that her husband, who once worked in an I.C.M.R. (Indian Council for Medical Research)
project that studied gas-affected children, saw in the initial phase that a strong relationship
was emerging with brain damage and gas disaster. However, for strange and unknown
reasons this study was taken off mid way!
She talks in detail about cases where the causes of disability were ascertained through routine
assessment procedures to be the gas leak She observes a strong lack of awareness on this
issue in Bhopal and feels that for better rehabilitation programme for such children
community based programmes can be an effective intervention. She also laments that
resources on mental health (both human and other) is poor in a state capital like Bhopal and
that too after such an unparallel disaster.
Dr. Rashmi Jha is an ayurvedic practitioner and also does acupuncture therapy apart from
ho* job in the Govt. Ayurvedic Hospital. She came to Bhopal in 1984 March. She said:
”No one can forget the tragedy. I got many patients affected with that - mainly women, who
have lost their children, husbands - could notforget those deadly memories... in the days they
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remain occupied with their work but in the night the memories start haunting as ifsomeone
has started a film on ”.
She talked about a different kind of mental stress in women linked with the problems of
menstruation, particularly those who had miscarriages after the disaster. They constantly
suffer from an anxiety that whether the same sort of gynecological problem will happen to
their children or not.
She has observed another interesting phenomena among her women clients that, they
complained of their husbands becoming more irritated and violent after the gas tragedy,
which made their mental distress more complex to copc with. Despite her explanation that,
men are like that in a patriarchal society who are potentially violent, her clients repeatedly
said that:
[No] didi, mian (husband) was more loving and caring before the gas-kaand, but now he has
become different, always irritated and without any reason get violent.
She interprets this as a kind of generalized social psychopathology that has occurred in
Bhopal but also says: ‘I have not collected data on this systematically and analyzed, so my
statement is more experiential and impressionistic that scientific.’
She herself has suffered from the disaster both physically and mentally and gives a classical
description of episodes that we call posttraumatic stress disorder. It even happened to her in
China when she was taking an advanced training in acupuncture. Perhaps, this has made her
more empathetic to her women clients and also led her to think strongly that much of her
patients who came with mental complaints have a link with the impact of disaster. In her
therapy for that she combines counselling with acupuncture therapy and some relaxation
exercises. She has repeatedly said in the interview that: because w make our diagnosis
mostly based on our patient's history so it is necessary to believe in those 'which correlates
the gas tragedy with their psychosomatic illness. Also I have gone myself through similar
processes, so I never thought that my patients were talking me lies.
Rashmi Jha’s opinion is both crucial and unique in the sense that, she did not formulate from
an objectivist view point by giving subject hood to her patients and drew on her own
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subjectivity. Her narrative brilliantly show’s the spilt in a professional discourse where reality
does not lie only on verifiable positivistic Tacts.’
Our Realisation:
It is now possible to argue based on the synoptic representations of brief life story narratives
of those twenty-six individuals from Bhopal and also from the interviews of professionals
that, the Bhopal gas disaster had indeed, made an impact on the mental health which still
carries on after seventeen years. Despite the problems of a well designed, thorough, and so
called scientific research with finer and sensitive tools that may prove in one way that the
disaster has caused mental iK.iesses among the population, our brief cultural anthropologica’
endeavour is a major e\ e opener to a forgotten reality.
The disaster, as it appear from our exploration is not constructed with the centrality of MIC.
The ‘gas’ has been transformed into a collective metaphor. As described in a recent text
(Mehta, 2000:164-165):
Bhopalis have very personal relationships with the ‘gas'...People know the gas like a
member oftheir family-they know its smell, its colour, its favourite foods, its predictions.
It has percolated into words, symbols and narratives, which makes and breaks the mental
world of the survivors. So. it is necessary to question the relevant authorities and agencies
with their singular, omnipotent views of the scientific fact, which does not allow the
survivors to fight with their narratives that point out the quality of their survival.
As I have commented before, that some of ‘fictions’ on the gas disaster are more real than
many bland, stereotype, objective facts. I can not resist my temptations to pick up a few
sentences by Suketu Mehta who, while his remarkable narrative on ‘Bhopal lives’ said
(Mehta, 2000:163):
A lot has been 'written about the bare facts of the Bhopal gas disaster: how it night have
happened, how many died,'how many were injured. What has rarely been portrayed is the
complexity ofpeople’s individual responses to disaster. Not all in Bhopal passively accepted
their victim hood. Many fought, and continue to fight, alone or in groups. And not all the
people working for the giant corporation that caused this disaster erased the incident from
their consciences. Ultimately, Bhopal is a tragic story, bitter and bloody, a tragedy that has
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brought out the worst in some people, yet offered the possibility ofredemptionsfor others.
Suketu tells us with his ‘stories’ how the pain of survival repeatedly point out to a reality that
asks for a radical reconstruction of ‘facts’ that is gathering dusts in the cabinets of the
scientist and policy makers.
The most crucial realisation we have richer through there narratives that, in spite of major
surveys and training on mental Health for doctors and even the recent lessons drawn by Prof.
Murthy, the mental health aspect of the survivors of Bhopal remains a neglected area. One
wonders what happened to the trained doctors and why the responsible Govt, psychiatrists
take a happy refuge in their plush chambers and bypass their tall claims on community
mental health? Why mental health services remain limited to few outdoor clinics and some
hospital beds where dispassionate clinicians keep swiftly writing the names of innumerable
anti-psychotics, anti-depressives and anxiolytics (that too not available free of cost!) without
looking into what actually this happens in the lives of these faceless clients? Isn’t it relevant
to ask, when endless meetings have happened in the chambers placed at the end of Govt,
corridors on the urgency to develop mental health services, which those quantitative
researches indicated? Since mid 1980’s why no mental health social work could be initiated?
Why self-help groups could not be developed?
We also realise that with a strong apprehension, when this small qualitative study points out
to the fact that, without intervention-research made on emergency footing the mental health
scenario will remain unchanged. If figures and tables with sophisticated statistical tools are
for some esoteric exercises to be built on survivor’s mental trauma, then the scientific
community needs to be hit hard with narratives, which has been termed by them as ‘fiction’
or non-science. As Veena Das has said aptly while working on Bhopal that (Das, 1995:196):
The healing force of social anthropology can come if the experiences ofsuffering we have
encountered.... do not become cause of consolidating the authority of the discipline, but
rather an occasion forforming one body, providing voice, and touching victims, so that their
pain may be experienced in other bodies well.
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
14
IS; A A .1
Report on Mental Health
Post-Script:
Is it at all possible to make a closure of this text that I have constructed? If not, then the
future research activities on mental health of Bhopal survivors is needed to be done on the
line of what we call participatory action research, which will change not only the mental
distress of the survivors but also (and more crucially) the lives of the researchers.
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
15
a.x-afc -.-a
.'f .TJO.
Report on Mental Health
Acknowledgement:
This study would not ha\ e been possible without the warm, energetic, friendly and active
support from Tamjit Birdi (popularly known as TJ) who stood beside strongly during
moments of despair and frustration that were put forward by different individuals and
agencies. Thanking formally would minimise the quality of comradeship she provided.
Tutul Biswas from Eklavya, Bhopal, not only volunteered and managed time from her busy
schedule as an intern ewer, but also shared my anxiety and concerns during the research
process as a listener with empathy. I thank her with gratitude.
Sumit & Kakoli Roy. the founder psychologists of Digdarshika, Bhopal, came to help us
when we had almost lost hope to make this study feasible. They provided infrastructural
support and helped in training investigators who were students of their institution. In
addition, as good consellors they wa-e always with us. This is the moment to fondly
remember how indebted I am to their friendly yet professional support.
Among the investigators my first thanks must go to Madhumita Dutta of Srishti, who
volunteered as an interviewer. Thanks are also due to other interviewers who did a good job
despite this was the first time they were doing this kind of interviews. They are: Anita
Sharma, Mohini Shukla. Khyati Bhatanagar, Sarita Singh, Nimesh Malviya, and Johra
Khatun of Digdarshika.
Charanjit Kaur helped us to transcribe an interview and Satnam Kaur typed the manuscript
with care. Both of them are from Delhi and need to be thanked.
Parvinder Singh, a fellow Ph.D student from Centre of Historical Studies, JNU, New Delhi,
braving his novice-ness helped me to process the Hindi transcriptions into English narratives.
I thank him for doing a good job, which he did for the first time.
Deena and his wonderful staff at The Other Media had been always supportive till this report
had gone for printing. They withstood all my idiosyncrasies and shortcomings with a smile
and an active hand in fulfilling my mission.
Finally, the most important help came from those individuals who talked to us openly about
their mental disorders and in the process changed me
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
16
Report on Mental Health
References:
Bogdan, R & Taylor, S.J (1975) Introduction to qualitative research methods: A
phenomenological approach to social sciences. N.Y. John Wilev
Clifford, J & Marcus, G.E.eds. (1986) Writing culture: The poetics and politics of
ethnography. Berkeley. University of California press
Das, Veena (1995) Critical events: An anthropological perspective on contemporary
India. OUP, Delhi
Denzin, N. K & LincoIn,Y.S ^.(1995) Handbook ofqualitative research. Sage
Filstead. W.J. ed. (1970) Qualitative methodology. Chicago. Markham
Geertz,C (1973) The interpretation of cultures: Selected essays. New York. Basic
Books
Juvva,S & Rajendran. P (2000) Disaster mental health, Indian J. Social Work, 61(4) pp.
527-41
Kapur, R.L. Ed. (2000) Qualitative research in mental heath. National Institute of
Advanced Studies. Bangalore, India
Mehta, Suketu (2000) Bhopal lives, in Kai Friese ed. Unusual tales on India,Penguin
Kleinman. A.M. (1988) The illness narratives: Suffering, healing and the human
condition. New York, Basic Books
Williams, G (1984) The genesis of chronic illness: Narrative reconstruction. Sociology
ofhealth and illness, Vol.6,pp. 175-200
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
17
CH
A ni it Ranjan Basil, M.B.B.S
Doctoral Student,
Centre for Historical Studies,
JNU, New Delhi
( A-
Mental Health Impact Of Bhopal Gas Disaster
BHOPAL GAS DISASTER AND MENTAL DISORDER:
NARRATIVES FROM THE SURVIVORS
Executive Summary:
This is a qualitative study on the impact of the Bhopal gas disaster on the mental
health of survivors, twentysix people were identified by the investigators from the
community by asking a key question “tell us who are the people you think have gone
mad after the disaster?” These people lived in areas which were moderate to severely
affected by the gas.
Investigators, recorded the brief life-histories of the affected individuals, which
described in detail, how the disaster has brought mental
suffering in their lives
ranging from major to minor mental disorders. These narratives also tell us the
pathetic state of mental health services generally in Bhopal and particularly for the
disaster survivors.
To suppliment the findings, interviews of a clinical psychologists psychiatrist and an
ayurvedic practitioner were also conducted.
Together with the review research done by Prof. Srinivasa Murthy, this report
exemplifies the severity of the situation and the pain, suffering and trauma of the
survivors that are still waiting to be healed. It proposes for intervention research on
mental services for the survivors on an urgent footing
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
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Surviving Bhopal
Toxic Present - Toxic Future
4
A Report on Human and Environmental Chemical
Contamination around the Bhopal disaster site
by
Srishti
January 2002
4
I
For the Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
SRISHTI
H-2, Jangpura Extension,
New Delhi - 110 014
Tel:
(011)432 8006/432 0711
Fax: (011)432 1747
Email: ravig@del6.vsnl.net.in
FACT FINDING MISSION ON BHOPAL
C/o B-14, (SF) Gulmohar Park,
New Delhi - 110 049
Tel: (011)651 4847/656 1743
Fax:(011)6511504
Email; othermedia@vsnl.com
The Bhopal Fact Finding Mission was set up to investigate the current state of
the people and environment at the Bhopal disaster site. The mission focused
on different aspects namely medical and mental health, environmental,
economic, legal and social status of the people living in and around the UCIL
plant. Specialist coordinators working on a voluntary basis headed each area
of work. This report relates to the environmental aspect of the work.
Environmental Coordinator
Environmental Investigation
Inputs by
: Ravi Agarwal, Chief Coordinator, Srishti.
: Dr. Amit Nair
: Kishore Wankhade, Toxics Link.
Period of Study 1999-2000
Acknowledgements:
Mr. E. Deenadayalan, Ms. Taranjit Birdi, Mr. Satinath Sarangi, Sambhavana Clinic,
Mr' Diwakar. K. Sinha and Mr. Ramesh Mishra, Dr. Padma Vakar & Dr. Rashmi
Sanghi, Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur (IIT-K), Mr. Nityanand Jayaraman,
Ms. Leena, Ms. Sunita Dubey, Ms. Madhumita Dutta, Mr. R.S. Sharma, and Jaya Nair.
A
This report was made possible by a grant from HIVOS.
CONTENTS
1.
1.1
1.2
1.3
2.
2.1
3.
3.1
3.2
3.3
4.
4.1
4.2
4.3
5.
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
6.
7.
7.1
7.2
7.3
8.
8.1
8.2
8.3
9.
10.
10.1
10.2
10.3
11.
11.1
11.2
12.
12.1
12.2
12.3
13.
13.1
13.2
13.3
13.4
14.
Page Nos.
Bhopal- The Toxic Noose
Toxics Entrenched
..........................................................................
Cleanup
Corporate Responsibility
Policy and Legislation
Legislative Frame Work
Industrial Siting
EIAs
Siting Process
Public Participation
The Reality of Implementation of Laws in India
The case of India's hazardous waste
Disposal of hazardous wastes
Present situation in Bhopal
Summary of Findings
Soil samples
Ground water
Vegetables
Breast Milk
Discussion
Toxicology of Chemicals found in the Residential Areas, Drinking
water. Vegetables and Breast Milk
Chloroform
Chlorobenzenes
Heavy Metals
Understanding the dynamics of chemicals in the environment
Process of Contamination of the Ecosystem
Waste treatment in the Factory
Health Implications of Chemical Pollutants
Some Previous Studies
Current Study
UCIL Production Process
Limitation of the present study
Future study for assessment
Survey on Human and Environment Contamination around UCIL
Chemicals dumped within the factory premises
Dumping of Chemical
Materials, Methods and Results
Sampling Sites
Samples
Sample Collection
Chemical Analysis of Samples
Metals
Chlorinated Compounds
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC)
Halo-organics
Summary of the analysis of chemical contamination (ppm) around
UCIL Factory and adjoining residential areas in Bhopal
1
1
1
2
2
4
8
8
9
10
12
12
12
14
15
15
16
17
17
18
20
20
20
21
23
23
24
24
26
29
30
31
31
32
33
34
35
35
36
36
37
37
40
44
47
50
References
51
Annexure
52
Tables
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
Graphical Representation
Page Nos.
State-wise Hazardous Waste Disposal Options
13
A few of the projects undertaken by ICMR after the Bhopal Disaster
26-27
Chemicals Dumped in the factory site
43
Metals detected in Sevin and Alpha-Napthol Waste
33
Orginic Chemical detected in Sevin and Alpha-Napthol tar
33
Chemical done by UC management between 1969 & 84
34
The operating conditions of ICP-OES
3B
Concentration (mg/L) of Heavy metals in soil sample in residential
samples around UCIL factory, Bhopal
38
Concentration (mg/L) of Heavy metals in soil sample in residential
samples within UCIL factory
39
Concentration (mg/L) of Heavy metals in hand pump water
39
Concentration (mg/L) of Heavy metals in a few vegetable samples
grown at a residential area opposite to the UCIL factory
40
Concentration (mg/L) of Heavy metals in breast milk samples collected
from residential areas adjoining UCIL factory
40
Pesticide HCH (BHC) in soil samples (mg/Kg) around residential areas
adjoining UCIL factory premises
4.
Pesticide HCH (BHC) in soil samples (mg/Kg) within UCIL factory
premises
42
Pesticide HCH (BHC) in vegetable samples (mg/Kg) around residential
areas adjoining UCIL factory premises
43
Pesticide HCH (BHC) in groundwater samples (mg/Kg) around
residential areas adjoining UCIL factory
43
Pesticide HCH (BHC) in water samples (mg/L) from the UCIL factory
premises.
43
Pesticide HCH (BHC) in breast milk samples (mg/L) in residential
areas around the UCIL factory
44
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC's) in soil samples (mg/Kg) in
residential areas around UCIL
44
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC's) in vegetable samples (mg/Kg) in
residential areas around UCIL
45
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC's) in soil samples (mg/Kg) in the UCIL
45
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC's) in groundwater samples (mg/Kg) in
residential areas around UCIL
45
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC's) in water samples (mg/L) from the
UCIL factory ^remise
46
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC's) in breast milk samples (mg/L) in
residential areas around UCIL
46
Dichloromethane and Chloroform in soil samples (mg/Kg) around
residential areas adjoining UCIL factory premises
47
Dichloromethane and Chloroform in soil samples (mg/Kg) collected from
UCIL factory premises
47
Dichloromethane and Chloroform in vegetable samples (mg/Kg) around
residential areas adjoining UCIL factory premises
48
Dichloromethane and Chloroform in water samples (mg/Kg) around
residential areas adjoining UCIL factory premises
48
Dichloromethane and Chloroform in breast milk samples (mg/Kg) around
residential areas adjoining UCIL factory premises
49
Dichloromethane and Chloroform in SEP dumping site samples (mg/Kg)
around residential areas adjoining UCIL factory premises
49
Overall Contamination
50
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
1.
Bhopal - The Toxic Noose
What should one do if the food, the soil, the water, and ones own body is
contaminated with toxics? Where does one turn, how does one cleanse oneself, just
to be able to live healthily and support a livelihood? Where does one turn if there is
no access to any resources, and no one is prepared to even believe in your
suffering? Can human rights be more violated, than through the slow everyday
creeping of poison in ones body, through processes unleashed by a powerful
corporate, which is now nowhere to be seen? To protect the citizen is not the reason
why we have a Constitution, laws, to be able to have a Right to Life and a healthy
one? Should not any environmental and health policy basically attempt to ensure just
this? The ongoing saga of the Bhopal tragedy and this report confirms that this is
exactly what is not happening.
As the following report once again evidences, Bhopal did not just happen on
December 3rd, 1984, it is continuing to happen to those who were unfortunate to live
in its vicinity on that fateful day. Not only this generation but the next generations
too stands to be contaminated and poisoned by the disaster. Not only is the soil, but
also groundwater, vegetables as well as mother's breast milk has found to be
contaminated.
1.1
Toxics Entrenched
All media, soil, ground water, vegetables, breast milk investigated were found
contaminated by heavy metals, and organochlorines to various degrees. The
evidence suggests that the toxics had not only moved across various mediums but
had also become part of body burdens. As is well known, some of these toxics
accumulate in human fat, and are passed onto the next generation through mother's
breast milk. The effects on the infant are traumatic, not only in terms of the amount
of toxics, which it receives, and it can exceed a lifetime supply, but also in their
nature. Current toxicological knowledge shows that there may be no acceptable
level, which can lead to health effects. In children this is especially true since low
dosage toxicity can lead to endocrine disruption and hormonal malfunctions, effects
of which may only emerge at puberty in some cases.
1.2
Cleanup?
Post contamination clean up is often used as a safety valve when a toxic hotspot has
been created through corporate misendemours. However the reality is very different.
Can these sites ever be cleaned up? The polluter pays principle is cited in this case.
However, more often than not polluters do not pay, and resist attempts to make
them do so. Or the amount the polluter may have to pay to clean up the soil and
groundwater, even if it were possible, of all the multiple types of toxics there may
be, the cost could threaten the existence of the polluter itself. It is hardly likely that
such a drastic annihilation for the sake of a mere toxic site would be allowed, or if
State laws would push enough to make this happen.
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
1
In the US, where clean up has been legislated through their superfund
provisions, already there are more than 85,000 known or suspected
hazardous waste sites across the country, and the worst 1,300 are listed
as Superfund sites. According to the US based NGO PIRG, "Ever since Superfund
was created, insurance companies, polluters like DuPont, General Electrsc, and Union
Carbide, and industry trade associations including the Chemical Manufacturers
Association (CMA) and the American Petroleum Institute (API), have lobbied
Congress to roll back the polluter pays principle and weaken cleanup standards at
the nation's worst toxic waste sites. In addition, these groups have fought efforts to
expand the public's right to know about toxic chemicals used in the workplace,
consumer products and communities."
" Companies seeking to roll back Superfund, the nation's toxic waste cleanup law,
gave nearly $100 million dollars to congressional candidates between 1991 and
1997, according to a report released today by U.S. PIRG. The report. Polluter PayOff: The Multi-million Dollar Campaign to Roll Back Superfund, detais the money
given to congressional candidates by 188 political action committees (PACs) of some
of the nation's largest oil, chemical and insurance companies as well as trade
associations for their industries."
1.3
Corporate responsibility
The post Bhopal era saw the industry coin new terms: Responsible Care is one of
them. However, as can be seen time and again Responsible Care or similar corporate
responsibility statements are lip service. How does one explain then the dumping of
mercury in South India by one of India's largest corporate, Hindustan Lever, also an
arm of the international giant Unilever? Or the fudging of EIAs by some of the best
known consultants in the world? It increasingly seems that corporates will be as
responsible as will be permitted by the community. An unaware disempowered
community cannot negotiate a corporate to be responsible.
2.
Policy and Legislation
The Bhopal disaster was a watershed in the area of environmental policy and
legislation worldwide. Suddenly the horror of the industrial model of development
became very stark and real. How and where industries were sited, haw they dealt
with the dangers which they posed to the communities around them became real
questions. After the Love Canal saga, Bhopal probably was one incident, which led to
worldwide regulation on chemicals and toxicity. Intertwined with all the information
was the fact that communities needed to know and be provided information, besides
being participants in industry siting decision making.
Later in 1990, an EPA analysis compared U.S. chemical incidents in the early to mid1980s to the Bhopal incident. Of the 29 incidents considered, 17 U.S. incidents
released sufficient volumes of chemicals with such toxicity that the potential
consequences (depending on weather conditions and plant location) could have been
more severe than in Bhopal. As a result of this, the Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSKA) was asked to develop programs to prevent chemical
incidents, and the US Congress authorized EPA to promulgate the Risk Management
Program Rule (40 CFR 68) for protection of the public, and OSHA to promulgate the
Process Safety Management Standard (29 CFR 1910.119) to protect workers. The
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
2
Amendments also established the independent U.S. Chemical Safety and Hazard
Investigation Board.
While in India too, the post Bhopal scenario realigned thinking on the impacts of
chemicals on human health and the environment is in many way, however this it has
not translated into practice. The Bhopal disaster led to a political environment where
the State had to act, or at least seen to act against such a horror story being
repeated. India enacted the wide seeping Environment Protection Agency in 1996,
which became the basis of the various laws over time, which deal with toxics effects .
of chemicals. On the face this Act led to a new framework of legislation to ensure
that Bhopal is not repeated.
Yet the focus on all the laws was to manage the toxicity and the waste. The titles of
the Rules enacted under the Act, also said as much. Management and Handling
became the key words for environmental and human health protection in their
intentions. Even though the first Indian policy statement on pollution abatement
clearly marked out pollution prevention as the primary intent of the State, this has
never translated into practice. The laws lead automatically to the technical path of
regulation, and end-of-pipe solutions, without examining the processes, which led to
the generation of these hazards themselves.
The inefficacy of this approach was revealed when the Supreme Court started
investigating the matter of hazardous waste, prompted by a PIL. The ground
situation was disastorous. There were probably many more Bhopal's waiting to
happen. In some senses the laws have provided a sense of security, and legitimized
the continuance of a toxic legacy. There has been a reluctance to take stern action
on a non-complying industry, and the matter of reporting becomes a private affair
between the polluter and the regulator since there is no provision for any public
disclosure of information. Not only is the regulator incapable of regulating but also in
many cases, owing to political interferences or just mere corruption is unwilling to do
so.
The common person has little rescourse in such a situation. People are not only
alienated through the language of science but also not allowed access to any
documents, which may threaten their safety. Industrial siting too has not improved.
Industries continue to come up in urban centres and lead to concentrations of large
communities around their periphery. Accident preparedness in non existent and the
designated local officers entrusted with the tasks of responding in an Bhopal like
emergency often are not even aware that they have this responsibility leave alone
how to react.
Also the State refuses to act on the basic requirement of better environmental
governance that of public information and disclosures, which are almost non-existent
in our laws. While the world moved onto legislation such as Toxics Release
Inventories (TRI), forcing industry to release data on its emissions, the Indian citizen
does not even have the right to know what is going on in next door. In fact there is
very little pressure on the corporate to comply with any emission law. Industry siting
too has been garbed in ineffective processes such as the Public Hearing processes
where Environment Impact Assessments (EIAs) are routinely put up for public
comments, and cleared despite any objection that may have been received. The
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
3
'4
process of information, and public involvement has been totally obfuscated and
made mockery of. Consultants are known to ensure that their corporate clients will
not only receive an EIA for a proposed project but will also get clearance for them.
Industry at any cost is the State line, and anything which stands in the way is quickly
overcome, either through a perfunctory and meaningless process, geared to rubber
stamp approvals, or through even enacting amendments to existing laws. For
example this has recently happened in the new EIA laws, which remove the need for
an assesment to be carried out if the project is a small scale one. It is open to
question how the scale of operation changes the possible environmental impact of a
process, especially if it my entail highly toxic chemicals and wastes.
Recognising the impact of such chemicals on human health then is a far cry. In fact
there is such a dearth of data on health impacts, which has been made public, that
one would assume that there is no harm being done. The truth is of course far from
that. Human health concerns have driven environmental policy round the world, and
is the basis of the rejection of the risk assessment approach by many environmental
groups worldwide in favour of a precautionary approach.
Such is the state of affairs more than 15 years after the worst industrial accident
took place. One can only place the blame on a complete lack of will of the State to
act in favour of the citizen. Instead of venturing down a path of clean development
and attract the best process in the world, we have set our minds to development at
any cost. People have become mere statistics, especially if they are marginalised,
poor and voiceless. The Bhopal disaster, and its ongoing human tragedy have not
taught us any lessons. In fact we have just not wanted to learn.
2.1
Legislative framework
There are various legislation pertaining to the prevention and control of pollution i^i
India. Even Constitution's 42nd amendment under the Article 48 A, the provision
which deals with the protection and improvement of environment reads: "The State
shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the
forests and wildlife of the country". The Courts through various judgements (Kinkri
Devi, L.K Koo/waf) have also taken a note of provisions of Article 21 and held that
environmental degradation violates the fundamental right to life.
There are various laws governing the environment and labour protection and set
reasonably good standards, but the implementing machinery is weak and funding of
facilities poor. There is too much emphasis on government and its machinery but
little or no scope for workers or the community to intervene effectively. The various
related laws are:
•
•
•
Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of1972;
Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1981;
The En vironment (Protection) Act, 1986,
This Act was enacted to implement the decisions taken at the UN Conference on
the Human Environment held at the Stockholm in June 1972. This is the first
comprehensive law, which covers air, water and noise pollution as also other matters
relating to industrial and environmental hazards, including the handling of hazardous
material. But this gives a very little right for workers or the community to take action
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
4
against the polluting units. There is no provision for right to information, no right to
take samples, monitor and sue the industry under EPA, unless the government and
its authorities co-operate.
• Hazardous Processes & the Factories Act, 1948:
The Bhopal Gas Tragedy and the Oleum gas leakage from Shriram Foods and
Fertilisers, lead to the amendment in the 1987 to the Factories Act, 1948. The
amendment has introduced special provisions related to the hazardous industrial
processes in an effort to tackle the risks and dangers not only to the workers but
also to the general public residing in the in the vicinity of the factory.
• The right to information:
The law makes it compulsory for the occupier of the factory to disclose all the
information regarding dangers, health hazards and the measures to overcome such
hazards, in case of hazardous processes to the workers, Chief Inspector of factories,
the local authority and the general public.
> Worker's Right:
Under the Sec. Ill- A of the factories Act, the workers have a right to:
•
•
•
Obtain from their Employer information relating to their health and safety
at work;
Get trained within the factory or get sponsored by the employer for
getting such training.
Represent to the Inspector directly or through union representatives in
the matter of inadequate provision for the protection of their health or
safety in the factory.
Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemicals Rules of1989:
The main purpose of this rule is to regulate handling and storage of hazardous
chemicals and to prevent and contain accidents from the industrial activities and
storage involving such hazardous chemicals. Rule 14 requires the Authority specified
under the under the column 2 of the schedule 5 to prepare and keep up-to-date an
adequate off-site management plan detailing how emergencies relating to a possible
major hazard on the site would be dealt with.
•
•
Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991:
The Act was passed to provide public liability insurance for the purpose of
providing immediate relief to the person affected by an accident occurring while
handling any hazardous substance and for matters connected therewith or
incidental thereto. It also provides for liability to give relief in certain cases on
principle of no fault. It will be the duty of the owner to take out insurance
policies.
The Rules provide the list of chemicals with quantities for application of public
liability insurance act.
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
5
Authority (ies) with legal backing
1. MoEF under the EPA -1986
2. Chief Controller of Imports and Exports
under the Import and Export (Control Act),
Duties and corresponding rule__________
Notification of the hazardous chemicals as per
rule 2(e) (i), 2(e) (ii) and 2 (e) (iii)
Import of Hazardous chemicals as per rule 18'
Enforcement of directions and procedures in
respect of isolated storage of hazardous
chemicals like: • Notification of major accidents as per rule
5(1) and 5(2)
• Notifications of site as per rules 7 and 9
• Safety reports in respect of isolated stcraces
as per rules 10 and 12
• Preparation of on-site emergency plans as !
per rule 13
Enforcement of directions and procedures in
Chief inspector of Factories appointed under respect of industrial installations and isolated
the Factories Act, 1948
storages covered under the Factories Act, 194L,
dealing with hazardous chemicals and pipelines
• Notification of sites as per rules 7 to 9
• Safety reports as per rules 10 and 12
• Preparation of of-site emergency plans as per
rule 13
• Preparation of off-site emergency plans in
consultation with District Collector or DistricEmergency Authority.
3. CPCB and State Pollution Control Board
under EPA- 1986.
District Collector or District Emergency
Preparation of off-site emergency plans as per
Authority
designated
by
the
State rule 14
Government.
plarnin3, Preparedness and Response to Chemical Accident
Rules (EPPRCA)
|
rhfmiS not’fie<J in August 1999 provide specific focus on the management of
Arridl6!
ntLemergenc,es-1116 regulation requires the management of chemical
accident and the key requirements/provisions are.
•
•
Formation of a Central Crisis Group and Crisis Alert system (by the Central
Government) with defined functions and roles.
Formation of State Level, District Level and Local Level crisis groups by State
Governments with defined roles and responsibilities in the planning.
Under the Environment Protection Act (1986), "The Manufacture, Storage and Import
of Hazardous Chemicals" rules were passed in 1989 to ensure that chemical
handlers appropriately warn employees, maintain a safe workplace and are prepared
if an emergency situation should occur. The rules also places responsibility in the
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
6
hands of different government bodies, called Authorises. These laws are applicable
depending on the type and quantity of chemical that one is handling.
Some basic responsibilities of Authorities include':
• Inspect the industrial activity at least once in a calendar year (Rule 3a).
• Prepare and keep current an adequate off-site plan containing details of how
emergencies relating to a possible major accident on that site will be dealt with
(Rule 14).
• Ensure that a rehearsal of the off-site emergency plan is conducted at least once
a year (Rule 14).
• Make a full analysis of accident reports and channel them appropriately (Rule 5).
Some basic responsibilities of handlers include":
• Gain approval from the appropriate authority before undertaking any activity.
This information must include data on the chemicals that will be handled and the
maximum that may be found on site at any given time (Rule 7).
• Notify the appropriate authority if there are any applicable changes in the
operation such as the quantity or type of chemicals handled (Rule 8).
• Prepare and update annually, a safety report containing information on the
industrial activity, identification of all possible hazards and description of how an
emergency will be handled, at least 90 days before commencing that activity
(Rule 10).
• Identify the major accident hazards (Rule 2a).
• Take adequate steps to prevent such major accidents and to limit their
consequences to persons and the environment (Rule 2b-i).
• Provide to the persons working on the site with the information, training and
equipment including antidotes necessary to ensure their safety (Rule 2b-ii)
• Take appropriate steps to inform persons outside the site who are likely to be
affected about the nature of the major accident and the actions, which should be
taken in the event of an accident (Rule 15).
• Prepare and maintain a safety data-sheet to be accessible upon request. This
should identify characteristics, health hazards and safety precautions for each
chemical (Rule 17).
• Properly label every container of a hazardous chemical clearly. This should
identify the contents of the container, the manufacturer and the physical,
chemical and toxicological characteristics of the chemical (Rule 17).
• Prepare and maintain an on-site emergency plan containing details on how major
accidents will be dealt with and conduct a mock drill of the plan every six months
(Rule 13).
• Notify the concerned authority within 48 hours should a major accident occur and
furnish a report to the concerned authority with required information (Rule 5).
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
7
3.
Industrial Siting
Siting is another key issue from an environmental perspective. Siting has many
dimensions in India, and has been a key reason for conflict. Often siting is not given
adequate importance, as can be seen in the haphazard growth of urban centres in
India, as well as the distribution of industry in and around towns. Till date there are
no siting laws, only guidelines, though there is now a proposed law.
Siting problems have also been the reason for very active Supreme Court action in
the recent past. Some of the key judgments have related to relocating industry or
pushing it to use cleaner fuel, such as natural gas. For example, industry has been
asked to shift from Delhi as well as the Taj Trapezium, leading to immense human
trauma to those working in it.
Poor siting has also led to the growth of cities such as Delhi, Mumbai and Kanpur,
owing to the location of Industry here. Such cities are now centers of industry and
commerce, leading to high level of pollution. The Bhopal gas disaster of 1984, was
an outcome of poor siting, leading to a high death toll following to the'high
population density adjoining it. Such a trend is being increasing observed in the
growing towns of India, and is a worrying feature, since industrial areas have not
been clearly defined or located.
There have been numerous responses to decongest such cities from such industrial
activity in the recent past. Amongst them is the massive proposed location of over
90,000 industrial units in Delhi, and the relocation of polluting industry near the Taj
Mahal. Such relocation has a high human cost, further leading to strife and conflict.
It was in response to one such trend in the capital city of Delhi, that in a case filed
by NGOs to prevent an infrastructure hotel's complex form being built in the city, the
Supreme Court of India set up a special Environmental Impact Assessment Authority
in October 1996, to examine all infrastructure projects in the National Capital Region
Delhi, and which has not been transformed into the Environment Protection and
Prevention of Pollution Protection Authority since January 1998. This Authority has
the powers to reject any infrastructure project in the area on the basis of its
environmental impact, which includes siting.
3.1
EIAs
All industrial projects involving an investment amount o' Rs 50 crores need to carry
out an environmental impact assessment. The Assessment, which is mandated in law
under the EIA notification, has a strong component of siting, guided by the Industrial
Siting guidelines of 1985. However, of late many projects have been proposed in
hitherto inviolate zones such as protected areas, coastal zones, and there is a
general pressure on previously agricultural land to be converted to industrial zones.
In fact some of the hazardous industry asked by the SC to shift out of Delhi has
relocated in the periphery nearby town of Alwar, on agricultural land.
The location of industry is hence slowly changing the face of cities as well as what
was earlier rural and agricultural India. There are also local demands from those
residing in rural areas to locate industry since these provide jobs and livelihood, to
those who were earlier agriculturally based, or were hitherto landless. In Gujarat'for
example, sugarcane factories are dispersed amongst agricultural land, and share
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
8
water and air resources with them. In many senses the rural economy is becoming
industrialized, since both the crops being grown as well as those employed have
either urban market linkages or are part of the extended industrial resource base,
such as sugarcane for sugar factories.
Expectedly then, industrial siting is a very political issue. Both the Industry as well as
various state governments, see industrialization as key to prosperity, and do not wish
to be hampered by any environmental constraint such as siting.
3.2
Siting Process
The first emphasis on industry siting was brought about by the publication of the
'guidelines for industry siting' almost fifteen years ago in 1985. Subsequent to these
guidelines the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Notification in 1995 lay down
the basic procedures to be adopted for the siting of Industry. However the guidelines
were not mandatory, and only served, as inputs to the EIAs which were required for
certain Industries for obtaining Central clearance for siting.
There have been a number of related efforts to make industry siting a more scientific
and ecologically sound process. Amongst these are sections of the CRZ Act (Coastal
Regulatory Zone), which prohibits the setting up of industry (amongst other activity)
from within 500 m of the high tide line, the Zoning Atlas for Industries project of the
CPCB wherein a detailed district wise plan for industry siting based on CIS systems is
being developed, and the inadequate Public Hearing Notification April 1997, which
makes it mandatory for any EIA presented to the Government to be publicly debated
in the area of siting before it is finally cleared.
An experts committee evaluates all EIAs submitted to the Centre. However the
experts advice is not taken seriously. Projects are often cleared with recommended
changes, which are not implemented especially if the project proponent is a State
Body. In the case to the TEHRI dam the experts committee recommended the
dropping of the large dam project owing to it not meeting environmental
requirements. However a subsequent Committee of secretaries cleared the project
irrespective of the advice, and even though it had no environmental expertise. The
decision was a political one.
The new proposed Environmental Siting Rules had a series of reactions to the
proposal, before they were notified. The Industry felt that those areas with low
pollution potential should be taken off the list, as also the 25 Km band should be
reduced to 10 Km, stating that the maximum ground level of pollutants rarely occur
beyond 7 Km form their sources.... And that 10 Km would provide adequate safety'1
It also felt that these restrictions should only be applied to mega-cities of population
more than 2.5 million, and that pushing a 25 Km band law would locate industries in
rural areas per force.
The Government of Gujarat reacted particularly strongly. In a letter to the Secretary
MOEF, the Chief Minister declared the draft as "rigid and draconian,' stating that the
circle approach to protecting the "so-called" ecologically sensitive area as not
1^9edlla Prabllu’ lndustly protests against siting norms. The Economic Times, New Delhi. August 29,
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
9
A
acceptable, since it would seriously "hamper industrial growth, virtually placing the
development on a Procrustean growth." Citing specific instances the letter says that
it would adversely affect investment plans such as the new Indian Oil Corporation's
refinery project, the Indian Petroleum Corporation's petrochemical complex, the
Gujarat State Fertilizer and Chemical Complex, the Surat based KRIBHCO fertilizer
plant, the Reliance Petrochemical complex and Essar Steel plant and the National
Thermal Power Corporation's thermal power plant being amongst them
The new law will tend to shift the focus of Industry to rural and small town areas
which will have the potential to have a greater impact on agriculture. However, this
has not been considered. Unfortunately, there is no specific focus on agriculture for
the purposes of Industrial siting.
3.3
Public Participation
Public participation in industry siting is inadequately facilitated. Though all EIAs
before they are cleared, need a public hearing through the Public Hearing
Notification of April 1997, public information on siting is hard to access. Documents
relating to EIAs and siting, as well, as the existing public hearing process does not
require that decision reasons be made public, or that issues raised in the public
hearing be addressed and made public.
In practice the public hearing process does not involve participatory decision making.
The EIA is presented ’ after the fact' and does not call for participation, till it is too
late. Often at this stage there is tremendous pressure and lobbying form the
industrial group to have the project cleared irrespective.
Access to information is denied through various means. The law only provides for the
availability of a summary of the EIA, but not the EIA itself and it has to be obtained
at the State Pollution Control Board office, and even then cannot be photocopied.
Often is too technical and not in a local language for the community to make much
sense of it.
Information, even if available, is often too technical for it to be used by the
community. Often those whose areas the project is slated to come up in are illiterate
or unaware of the real impact that the projects might cause. Hence the questions
which are posed at the public hearings, often relate to employment opportunities and
the ability of the project to provide schooling for children, rather than on other
impacts such as on their livelihoods, agriculture, waste dumping etc.
The law itself is silent on the mechanism of redressal of the questions raised in the
public hearing. There is no mechanism to ensure that the questions raised are taken
account of or the decision of siting changed. The proceeding of the hearing itself are
not made public, and the addressal of the queries not documented. Often the Public
Hearing is attended by middle of low level functionaries in the State Pollution Control
Board, and other local bodies and the process is often perfunctory.
Very rarely have projects been relocated as an outcome of this process, though in
more high profile and visible siting, there is an effect. (See EIAA in Urban Planning
and Land Use chapter). Some NGOs such as Toxics Link in Delhi are producing
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
10
----
---------- u
information, which can help community groups to evaluate complex projects and to
aid them in making the public hearing exercise more effective.
However public hearing implies a people's power to influence a decision. Even
though the formal notification came only recently, and that too in a very incomplete
way, there has been a tradition of ’peoples tribunals' being held on environmental
issues in India.
One such series of IPTs which were held recently in end 1998 and early 1999, were
by the Human Right's Law Network a Mumbai based NGO which is legally oriented.
Normally such tribunals have a public hearing by a panel consisting of lawyers and
retired judges. The report is then published, and is used by the media as well as the
community as a testimony to their grievances. These also result in public interest
litigation.
Another IPT was held by the Mazdoor Kisan Shakti Sangathan a landless agricultural
labourers group for outsees of the Bilaspur dam in Tonk district, Rajasthan, in
February 1999.
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
11
4.
The Reality of Implementation of Laws in India
4.1
The case ofIndia's hazardous waste - Bhopais in waiting
The High Powered Committee (HPC) on hazardous wastes constituted by the
Supreme Court of India in 1997 under the Public Interest Litigation filed by the
Research Foundation for Science, Technology and Ecology (1995) recently submitted
its report to the apex body, highlighting the state of India's hazardous waste
management. In the Chairman's foreword, Prof MGK Menon noted that the "situation
in regard to hazardous wastes in the country is grim. It particularly affects the
groundwater systems of the country and remediation is very difficult and expensive.
It affects a large numbers of innocent people, workers as well as community who
have to pay for the sins of others."
Government apathy towards managing hazardous wastes is apparent from the fact
that there is no reliable data available on the quantum and nature of hazardous
wastes generated in the country. In the last three years, the Ministry of Environment
and Forests have reported four different figures on the quantum of hazardous
wastes generated - 0.7 million tones (MT)/ annum in 1997, 9 MT/annum in Jan'2000
8 MT/annum in Feb'2000 and 4.4 MT/annum in May 2000.
'
Though the figure is incomplete, the approximate number of hazardous waste
generating units in the country is 13,011, out of which 11,138 are authorised and
1873 are illegal according to the HPC report.
4.2
Disposal of hazardous wastes
The situation is alarming as far as the disposal of these wastes is concerned, to say
the least. Due to lack of any infrastructure, both due to government's negligence and
industry's lack of concern, hazardous wastes is finding its way:
> Along the roadside
> In low lying areas
> Along with the municipal refuse
> On river/canal beds
> In empty spaces within industrial estates2
The HPC found hazardous waste being dumped along with municipal wastes. The
leachates from such areas may be toxic or infectious, seriously contaminating both
agricultural land and groundwater aquifer.
As per the HW Rules, 1989, and the MoEF's 'Guidelines' (1991), hazardous waste
generated by industries has to be disposed of in Secured landfill Facilities. The
responsibility for identification of sites under the HW Rules, 1989, for the disposal of
hazardous waste rests with the respective State Department of Environment The
sites must be located after carrying out EIA’s.
' Report of the HPC on Management of Hazardous Wastes, vol.l, page: 97, 2001.
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
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Mt
The MoEF, in 1992, formulated a scheme, and thereafter provided financial
assistance of Rs 5-15 lakhs tol5 states for identification of disposal sites conducting
EIA studies. Despite this, till 1997, there was not a single Secured Landfill Facility
(SLF) available in the country to dispose of hazardous waste. Only recently three
common disposal facilities have come up in the state of Gujarat and one in Andhra
Pradesh.
Infart, State
Control
■Lilian,
jiauc Pollution
rwiiuuwii k-uiiuui
Boards or
of uujdrdi
Gujarat and
Andhra
oudfub
ana Ananra
Pradesh,
on
a
preliminary listing, have reported that they have "more than 40 illegal hazardous
wastes dump sites in each state". The cost of remediation of these sites, which have
severely contaminated the ground water and soil, will run into millions of rupees,
which will be borne by innocent citizens in the form of taxes. As a case in point, the
rehabilitation of 350 hectares of contaminated area from toxic effluents in Bichhri
Rajasthan is expected to cost Rs 44 crores.
Table (1)
State-Wise (Available) Hazardous Waste Disposal Options3
State
Andhra Pradesh
Assam
Bihar_________
Chandigarh
Delhi__________
Goa________ __
_Gujarat________
Haryana_______
Himachal Pradesh
Karnataka______
Kerala_________
Maharashtra
Madhya Pradesh
Orissa _______
Jammu & Kashmir
Pondicherry_____
Punjab_______ _
Rajasthan
Tamil Nadu______
Uttar Pradesh
West Bengal
Total
________ Disposa Options_________________
No. of Incinerators________ No. of eng. Landfills______
20 In Ida
2 TSDFS are planned______
Nil
All units have their own onsite disposal sites_________
Nil
2 proposed______________
Nil
Nil
1
Nil__________________
12 are operational_____
IfFaridabad site notified)
30
7
6
5
16
8
4 (On-Site)_______
16 (On-Site)______
8 sites are being
16 sites identified
notified
3
Nil
1
9
6
10
9
i1 23+2 under construction
! 11 identified, 1 acquired,
I EIA for 8 districts done
! Nil
I
As indicated in the above tables there are about 116 industrial incinerators in the
country, mostly in Maharashtra, Gujarat, Tamilnadu and Andhra Pradesh. According
3
Report of the HPC on Management of Hazardous Wastes, Vol.l. page: 103.
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
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~
j 23
Nil
116
&
13
A
to the HPC, most of these are merely "combustion chambers or industrial boilers
where the maximum temperature is around 500-550° C". This is of particular
concern since dioxins and furans, two most deadly toxins produced during burning of
chlorinated compounds, ideally form between the ranges of 400-600° C. The type of
wastes being burnt in these incinerators includes wastes from oil refineries
pesticides, drugs, petrochemical. All of these wastes contain chlorine.
4.3 Present situation in Bhopai
According to the newspaper reports, people living in the vicinity of the Union Carbide
Ltd in Bhopal are scared of the 'Hazardous Waste' lying in the factory compound.
There is a growth of high grass and bushes in the compound, if it catches fire then
the toxic fumes and gases will be emitted out of the waste.
There is also probability of Toxic Waste leaching to the ground and polluting the
groundwater acquifers.
According to Shri Chauhan, a former employee of Union Carbide and currently with
District's Industrial Area Depts, says that in the compound of the UCL about 25
chemicals and 'hazardous wastes' lying in there. They are Methyl Isocyanate, Methyl
Chloride, Carbon Tetra chloride, Methanol, Phosgene, Chlorine, Tar coal, Mercury,
Naphthalene etc and many more.
There is thus an urgent need for a right to information and citizen's action: Citizen
action is one of the most effective ways of ensuing long-term change. In order to
adequately act however, people must be able to access information in an efficient
manner. The Bhopal tragedy spurred the passage of several community right-toknow laws in several countries in the mid 1980's. The idea behind the right-to-know
is that if someone is being exposed to a chemical, he has the right-to-know about it.
As a result, community members can now access information about contaminated
sites and about pollutants being emitted into their neighbourhoods. In India,
however, community struggles have had little success in winning the "right-to-know"
for ourselves. People should be able to identify any contaminated sites in their area
and chemical emissions to the air and water. Giving individuals the resources with
which to fight will help keep industry in line and will produce a better-informed
citizenry.
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
14
5.
Summary of Findings
5.1
SOIL SAMPLES
Heavy metals
Among the four heavy metals analysed in the soil samples in residential areas around
UCIL, nickel was the most prevalent one. Five of the six soil samples showed nickel
contamination, while chromium, mercury and lead were present in three each and
two samples, respectively.
The soil samples in the UCIL factory were analysed from four different sites, as
different types of chemical reactions were confined to different areas within the
factory. Soil samples mostly showed the presence of chromium and nickel.
Mercury was detected in higher levels in the samples collected from the alphanapthol site and below the Pan filter site. Nickel was present in four of the five sites
within the factory premises, while mercury was present in two sites at almost similar
quantities, but their levels were comparatively high.
Pesticide HCH (BHC)
The total HCH (BHC) pesticide concentrations in the six soil samples were 9 mg/Kg.
The average value of its concentration was 1.60 ppm. Among the six residential
areas, IP Nagar had the highest level of the pesticides HCH with a level of 5.038
mg/Kg, while Nawab Colony, Atul Ayub Nagar had almost similar levels, exceeding
slightly over 1 ppm. Among the HCH isomers, the proportion of gamma- HCH
exceeded those of beta- HCH.
Among the four sites in the factory premises, the HCH levels were highest at the
Sevin Shed. The total HCH in this area was slightly over 8 mg/Kg, which was five
times more than those were present in Sevin plant site-I. The Solar Evaporation
Pond, which was dumping site outside the premise, showed very low levels of the
HCH isomers.
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC's)
Among the residential areas, J.P. Nagar showed the highest contamination of Volatile
Organic Compounds (VOC's) followed by Kanchi Chola, which showed 7.5 times
lower than tha<- of J.P. Nagar. Dichlorobenzene was the predominant conraminant in
most of the cases. The total VOC level found in the soil samples were 5.86 mg/Kg
while their average was slightly lower than 1 mg/Kg. Among the six soil samples,
Dichlorobenzene, 1,3,5-Trichlorobenzene and Tetrachlorobenzene were present in all
the samples.
All the soils tested for VOC's in the UCIL factory showed positive results. All the soils
from the factory site showed Dichlorobenzenes, 1,3,5-Trichlorobenzenes, 1,2,4Trichlorobenzenes and Tetrachlorobenzenes. Among the four sample sites, the Sevin
Shed showed the highest concentration of VOC's. The amounts of VOC's at the other
three sites were more or less similar. The total VOC content in the samples was
1.855 mg/Kg while the mean levels in the factory premises was 0.463 mg/Kg. The
total VOC content in soils from the Solar Evaporation Pond was found to be 0.268
mg/Kg.
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
15
Halo-organics: Dichloromethane and Chloroform
amounting to 0.103 mg/Kg. The soil samples from Kanchi Chola showed maximum
concentration of Dichloromethane, which was almost twice as compared to the other
areas. The other residential areas showed more or less similar amounts of this
contaminant.
S'nf p -n,WlthM thfe factory Premises showed both dichloromethane and
chloroform The chloroform in the samples in the factory exceeded those of
dichloromethane. The chloroform and dichloromethane levels were almost similar at
all soil sampling sites in the factory. The average level of chloroform in the soil was
6.40 mg/Kg, which was 50 times more than dichloromethane.
5.2
GROUND WATER
Heavy metals
Among the ten ground water samples collected from the residential areas around
UCIL, all samples contained chromium and nickel, while mercury was present in six
and lead in eight water samples. Nickel was the predominant contaminant in water
with an average of 1.0990 ppm, followed by mercury, chromium and lead whose
average levels were, 0.567, 0.026 and 0.122 ppm, respectively.
Pesticide HCH (BHC)
concentratlon of: the pesticide HCH in the ground water samples from the
residential areas was 0.0898 mg/L. The mean level detected in water was 0.011
es.frlom Anu Nagar and shakti Nagar were most contaminated with
the pesticide HCH, while the other areas had almost similar levels.
urtWTHer
from the factorv premises toowed 0.115 mg/Kg of the pesticide
around the factory 160
m°re
th°Se present are in the residential areas
VOC's (Volatile Organic Compounds)
The concentration of VOC's was highest in Kanchi Chola, while a marginally lower
Srvnr'°f thS res'dential areas were found t0 be 0.050 mg/Kg. Table 21 indicates
the VOCs in ground water samples from the UCIL factory premises.
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
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Water samples from the factory premises contained 0.0331 mg/L VOC's while those
from a water pond adjacent to the Solar Evaporation Pond contained 0.008 mg/L
VOC's.
Halo-organics: Dichioromethane and Chloroform
All the eight ground water samples contained both dichioromethane and chloroform.
However, the dichioromethane levels in water were almost 2 times more than
chloroform. Water samples from Rajgarh colony had the highest level of
dichioromethane. The average concentration of dichioromethane was 1.63 mg/L. The
water samples from Atal Ayub Nagar showed maximum concentration of chloroform.
The average concentration of chloroform in water was 0.85 mg/L.
5.3
VEGETABLES
Heavy metals
All the three vegetable samples grown at IP. Nagar, showed chromium and nickel,
while palak showed chromium, nickel, mercury and lead. The levels of heavy metals
were found highest in palak than any other vegetables.
Pesticide HCH (BHC)
The total levels of HCH isomers in Brinjal and Palak were almost similar. The gammaHCH isomer exceeded those of beta-HCH isomer.
VOC’s (Volatile Organic Compounds)
Both the vegetables were found to contain VOCs. The dichlorobenzene was the
predominant contaminant in the samples. The mean concentration of VOCs in the
vegetable samples was found to be 0.132 mg/Kg. The concentration of VOC’s was
almost similar in both the vegetable samples analysed.
Haio-organics: Dichioromethane and Chloroform
All the three vegetable samples analysed showed the presence of both
Dichioromethane and Chloroform. In palak, the dichioromethane levels were almost
30 times more than those present in either radish or brinjal. The average levels in
the vegetable samples were 0.0284 mg/Kg.
Chloroform content was more in radish and brinjal when compared to palak. The
average chloroform content in the vegetables was 7.51 mg/Kg, which was 264 times
more than the mean levels of dichioromethane.
5.4
BREAST MILK
Heavy metals
The predominant metal detected in the breast milk samples
was lead, which was
found in seven of the eight samples analysed. Chromium was absent in the breast
milk, while nickel and mercury were present in two and three samples, respectively
The mean levels of lead were marginally higher than mercury, although mercury was
detected in fewer samples compared to lead.
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
'TW'iTB rr WniiwwMiFn-—
17
Pesticide HCH (BHC)
All samples of breast milk showed the presence of pesticide HCH. The average level
of the pesticide in the breast milk was 2.39 mg/Kg while the levels ranged from
?
U
n?9/K9’ The breast milk sample from shakti Nagar had highest levels
for both beta and gamma - HCH when compared to the other samples.
VOC's (Volatile Organic Compounds)
All samples of breast milk contained VOC's. The total VOC content in breast milk
samples was 17.12 mg/Kg. The 1,3,5 Trichlorobenzene was the predominant VOC
and was present in all the samples. The sample from Shakti Nagar contained 9.52
mg/L and VOC was highest when compared to other samples. The average level of
the VOC in the breast milk was 2.85 mg/Kg while the levels ranged from 0 588 to
9.52 mg/Kg.
Halo-organics: Dichloromethane and Chloroform
All the breast milk samples contained dichloromethane and chloroform. The amounts
of chloroform were 3.2 times more than those of dichloromethane levels. The breast
milk samples from IP. Nagar showed highest levels of dichloromethane, while
maximum concentration of chloroform in breast milk samples, were from New Arif
Nagar. The average concentrations of dichloromethane and chloroform in breast milk
were 0.359 and 1.154 mg/L.
6.
Discussion
The objective of the present study was to establish the:
1. Presence of toxic contaminants in the factory premises and at dumping sites
of the factory away from premises.
2. Quantitative estimations of the toxic chemicals.
3. Mobility of the chemicals.
4. Ascertain the presence of the chemicals in areas adjoining residential areas.
5. Trophic transfer of these chemicals, which essentially is through food chain to
humans.
6. Exposure of human infants through breast milk.
The study clearly indicates that the factory is a source of chemical contamination
since most of the chemicals used in the factory, are still nresent in factory and its
adjoining residential areas.
The heavy metal nickel constituted up to 35% contamination, while mercury
contamination was 21%. The heavy metal distribution was not uniform in different
areas in the factory. Mercury was found at very high levels near the Pan filter area,
Chromium was present at the Solar Evaporation pond and it constituted 7% of the
various toxic chemicals detected at this site. The factory samples still showed almost
4% contamination of volatile organic compounds. The pesticide HCH constituted
40% of contamination near the Sevin Shed, was a point for the formulation of the
pesticide Sevin with Lindane
(gamma-HCH). Among the halo-organics, the
Dichloromethane was fairly consistent amounting to 1% in all the factory samples.
The most significant contaminant was chloroform amounted as high as 85% at SEP
site, while at the factory it constituted 73% among the various contaminants at the
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
t«b------
18
[S
alpha-napthol site, 65% at Pan filter site, 59% near the Sevin plant and 32% near
the Sevin Shed.
The samples from the residential areas showed all the toxic chemicals present in the
factory and its acquired premises. Among the toxic chemicals analysed in the soil,
56% constituted chloroform, 14% HCH isomers, 8% VOC's and 20% heavy metals.
Among the heavy metals nickel constitutes 9%, while mercury and chromium
amounted to 5 and 6%, respectively. The groundwater samples showed the highest
concentration of dichloromethane, which amounted to 44% of the total toxic
chemicals. The water also contained 23% chloroform and 30% nickel. In the
vegetable samples, 77% comprised chloroform, while 20% constituted heavy metals.
Mercury accounted to 9% while nickel and chromium amounted to 5 and 6%>,
respectively. The major contaminant in the breast milk was VOC's, which accounted
to 40% of the total toxic chemicals detected. The pesticide, HCH formed 34% of the
total toxicants, while chloroform constituted 16% of the contamination.
Results of the survey clearly indicate mobility of the toxic chemicals from the
emanating source, the UCIL factory to the adjoining residential areas. Further there
are no other chemical industries within the radius of 3-5 km from the factory, which
have used the chemicals mentioned in UCIL inventory.
Chloroform, HCH, chlorobenzene, nickel and lead are the major contaminant in the
residential areas. The UCIL factory was the source for presence of these chemicals in
these areas. Chloroform was used as a solvent in the manufacture of methyl
carbomyl chloride, an intermediate in Sevin production. Mercury was used s a
sealant, while chromium and nickel were from corroded processing equipments and
storage facilities. The pesticide, Lindane (gamma-HCH), was used in making a
formulation with Sevin. The plant stored chlorinated benzenes; dichlorobenzenes and
it had also manufactured these compounds on a small scale, before beginning with
Sevin production. The trichlorobenzenes may have produced from isomers, produced
during the manufacture of HCH.
The results clearly establish that there has been a serious environmental
contamination due to UCIL factory. Although, it has been 16 years since it ceased to
function, still, a number of chemicals are present and are making its way to other
areas. It is evident, that many of organisms normally thriving in soil would have been
wiped out from the contaminated areas. The vegetables grown in the interior of a
residential area opposite to the front gate of the factory had the ability to absorb
these toxic chemicals and transfer to the next trophic level of a food chain, which
may be either herbivore or an omnivore, like human beings. Another very significant
aspect is that the human breast milk showed maximum concentrations for VOC's and
a higher concentration of the pesticide HCH. It is evident that these carcinogenic
toxics are bio-concentrated in the breast milk. Hence, this poses a serious concern to
infants, as it is the easiest and shortest route of exposure of number of these
suspected carcinogenic chemicals.
No studies were conducted to see MIC in environmental and human samples, since
MIC has a very short-life, although extremely toxic. In human autopsy tissues, MIC
trimer was found in blood samples (Heeresh Chandra et al., 1991)
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
19
7.
Toxicology of Chemicals found in the Residential Areas, Drinking
water, Vegetables and Breast Milk.
7.1
Chloroform
It is a heavy colourless liquid with a pleasant odour. It had been extensively used in
the past as an anesthetic. It evaporates into air where it breaks down to phosgene
and hydrogen chloride; both of these products are toxic. It does not remain tightly
bound to soil, hence easily percolates to the ground water, where it can persist for
years.
Toxicological effects: Chloroform has specified as a Group 2B as a possible human
carcinogen. Animal studies have shown that liver, kidney and intestines are the main
target organs that could be induced to cancerous growth by chloroform exposure.
Also, chloroform is known to cause reproductive and birth defects in rats and mice.
According to ERA, the Maximum Contaminant Level of 100 jig/L in drinking water is
considered safe for total trihalomethane (THM) content in water (chloroform is one
of the THM)
7.2
Chlorobenzenes
1. Dichlorobenzenes- these are colourless liquids. These are used as intermediates
for rubber chemicals, antioxidants, dyes, pigments, pharmaceuticals and
agricultural chemicals. It enters the environment, while it is used as a solvent.
The major route of human exposure is through inhalation. Dichlorobenzenes
causes depression of central nervous system, respiratory tract and eye irritation,
anemia, skin lesions, vomiting, headaches, anorexia, weight loss, atrophy of the
liver, blood dyscrasias, porphyria and chromosomal disorders in blood samples.
2.
Truch/orobenzenes-l, 2,3 and 1,2,4- Trichlorobenzenes. Human exposure to this
group of chlorobenzenes is mainly through inhalation while other routes include
drinking water, food and breast milk. These compounds have the ability to
damage the thyroid, liver and kidney.
3.
Tetrach/orobenzenes- Exposure of the general population is thought to be
through food. The group has the ability to damage the thyroid, lungs, liver and
kidneys. Workers exposed to tetrachlorobenzenes have shown an increase in
chromosomal aberrations. There is large difference in the behaviour of
tetrachlorobenzene isomers. 1,2,4,5- tetrachlorobenzenes tend to remain in
water and evaporates very little from it. Hence, many aquatic organisms bio
accumulate this isomer, when it is present in water.
4. Hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH): k pesticide still widely used in many developing
countries. The technical grade comprises of five isomers-alpha, beta, gamma,
delta and epsilon. The gamma-HCH referred to as Lindane has the insecticidal
activity. Alpha, beta and gamma-HCHs have serious environmental impact. These
isomers are very stable, persistent and lipophillic. Once introduced in the
environment, they persist for years, which is more especially for the beta-isomer.
Human consumption is through food, particularly dairy products, oils and cereals.
The HCH moves through the food chain and gets progressively magnified while
passing from one trophic level to the other. Human beings, which occupy the
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
20
highest trophic level, are the sinks for these toxic chemicals. The chemical gets
bio-concentrated in the human milk and infants are exposed to concentrated
amounts of the HCH pesticides.
Chronic exposure leads to liver, lung, endocrine and other types of cancer in
animals. In addition, toxic effects include shortened lifespan, lower fertility, and
behavioral and reproductive changes.
7.3
Heavy Metals
Nickel: the metal is one of the essential metals required in extremely small
quantities for normal growth and reproduction in plants and animals, including
human being. However, a few nickel compounds, especially, oxides, carbonate,
acetate and few more, are well known carcinogens. Metallic nickel and its alloys are
listed as Group 2B- possible human carcinogens.
It has been observed that workers in nickel refining plants show higher incidence of
respiratory tract cancers compared to normal populations. In nickel exposed women
workers, pregnancy complication have been observed which include spontaneous
abortions, higher incidence of birth malformations, musculo-skeletal and
cardiovascular defects. Long-term chronic exposure to nickel has associated with
chronic bronchitis and impaired lung functions.
The European Council Directive sets a maximum permissible limit of 50 ^g/L nickel
for human consumption.
Mercury: It is the only metal that can exist as both liquid and vapor from at
ambient temperatures. Mercury is an extremely toxic with no biological functions.
There are no mechanisms in the body to remove mercury once it enters the living
system. Hence, the metal gets bio-concentrated and biomagnified within the food
chain.
Chronic exposure of mercury affects the nervous system, causing tremors, spasms
and loss of memory, severe depression, and increased excitability, delirium,
hallucination and personality changes. Renal damages have been observed in
chronically exposed workers.
The European Council Directive sets the maximum permissible limit of 1 pg/L
mercury for human consumption.
Chromium: It is present in two chemical states. Chromium (III) is an essential trace
micronutrient required for carbohydrate, protein and fat metabolism. The other,
Chromium (IV) is the non-essential and the toxic form. These are corrosive and
allergic to the skin. Long-term exposure, particularly air-borne chromium is
associated with lung cancers. Chromium (IV) compounds are enlisted as carcinogens
by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC).
The European Council Directive sets a maximum permissible limit of 50 ^g/L
chromium for human consumption.
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
21
Lead: The elevated presence of Lead in our environment has been issue for decades
chiefly because of lead based gasoline products. It is ubiquitous in the environment
as a result, in many parts of the world, a significant level of lead turns into human
body.
Ingestion of lead may pose great risks to human health. Once free in the eco
system, lead may cause nephorotoxicity, neurotoxocity and hypertension.
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
22
8.
Understanding the dynamics of chemicals in the environment
When chemicals enter water and air, they are transported thousands of miles from
their point of application. In places where there has been no history of chemical
use, still chemicals have been detected in soil, water, animals and human. In the
North Pole penguins and seals contained chemicals like DDT, Hexachlorobenzene
(HCB), Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) and heavy metals. It is quite obvious
that Eskimos would also be exposed to these xenobiotics. Similarly, water and
animal samples collected from Antarctica showed a wide spectrum of chemicals that
were never used in these continents.
Chemical
Pollutants in
Soil, Water
Air
>
Chemical
Pollutants
in Plants
Chemical
Pollutants in
Humans
In the Union Carbide Plant at Bhopal, the manufacture of few pesticides in addition
to carbaryl (Sevin) involves the use of a wide range of chemicals followed by the
release of intermediates and its final products. All these at some point of time would
get released into the environment form where it would move into the three
environmental sinks viz. soil, water and air and would eventually find itself entering
into terrestrial ecosystems that include plants, herbivores, carnivores and omnivores
(humans) or in aquatic chains.
In the manufacture of Sevin, the Union Carbide Plant at Bhopal used chloroform,
carbon tetrachloride, chlorine, phosgene and a number of catalysts. In addition the
UCIL manufactured formulations of sevin and aldicarb as well. The manufacture of a
wide spectrum of chemicals would involve the use of a wide range of chemicals as
well. The Table 6 lists the chemicals that were found in the factory premises.
Hence it is quite evident that chemicals and its intermediates depending upon its
chemical structure, stability, mobility, half-life, and degradability would contaminate
soil, water, air vegetation and humans.
8.1
Process of Contamination of the Ecosystem
The fate of a chemical depends upon its inherent chemical structure and its ability to
react in the various environmental compartments.
The three environmental
compartments include soil, water and air. Chemicals once released enter either of
the compartments and further movements to other compartments depend upon its
chemical interaction within these compartments.
Chemicals are differentiated into persistent and non-persistent chemicals. Persistent
chemicals are those that tend to remain for extremely long periods without further
degradation. Hence, once such a group of chemicals are released they pose a lot of
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
23
problems since these have the ability to enter from any of the other compartments
to plants, animals and finally human bodies.
The non-persistent chemicals are those that biodegrade once they are released into
the environment. Soil microorganisms degrade these chemicals through a process of
co-metabolism into products that may or may not be toxic.
Hence, most chemicals once released into environment are dynamic and move from
one compartment to the other from where these enter trophic chains and finally end
up in human bodies. If chemicals are present in soil they may undergo the process
of biotransformation reactions depending upon their chemical stability. The parent,
terrestrial and aquatic animals and finally into human beings.
Further, most
chemicals undergo bio-magnification as it moves from one trophic level to the other
level. Also, within the body they store and get bio-concentrated.
8.2
Waste treatment in the factory
The Union Carbide factory was in the heart of Bhopal and residential areas adjoining
the factory was exposed to emissions or effluents released from the factory. All
though the Air Act and Water Act existed prior to the disaster, the UCIL did not
comply, as the enforcements were not taken seriously. If the factory had complied
with safety norms the disaster would never have occurred. Further, after the post
disaster era, chemical monitoring both by the Government and independent agencies
indicated contamination within the factory premises. It is quite clear that
mechanisms such as Effluent Treatment Plants (ETP) to minimize water pollution due
to chemical waste were not installed.
Although evaporation ponds were present to collect chemical wastes, the possibility
of overflowing during rainfall and contaminating surrounding areas was high.
8.3
Health Implications of chemical pollutants
It is extremely difficult to pinpoint the effect of a single toxic chemical since we are
exposed to a wide range of chemical toxins simultaneously. Studies indicate that
exposure to chemicals pollutants would show multiple effects that include fever,
dairrhoea, respiratory and nervous disorders and cancer.
However, there chemical structure could be used as an invaluable tool to suggest the
type of response it would elicit once it is present in the human body.
The health implications of chemicals depend entirely upon its toxicities. A few
chemicals are extremely toxic and a single exposure leads to the death or exhibits
toxic symptoms to an individual. The exposure of Methyl isocyanate is an example
of acute toxicity.
In the case of few other chemicals toxicity symptoms are
exhibited due to exposure over a period of time. This happens when individuals
consume food and food products or is occupationally exposed to chemicals above
certain tolerance limits. Although, humans are continually exposed to a wide
spectrum of toxic chemicals through food, water and air, it is only when the levels
exceed Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) create health problems.
Fact Finding A fission on Bhopal
24
Chemicals act upon the following systems and alter the normal physiological and
biological process in the human bodies: 1. Reproductive system: k few chemicals mimic hormones and elicit those
reactions that result in the onset of female cycles. The group of chemicals is
referred to as Endocrine Disruptors. The pesticide DDT mimics the estrogen
hormone and results in altering the timing of female cycles. Many chemical
pollutants reduce sperm count in males.
2. Immune System: A number of chemicals alter the immune system rendering
the individuals vulnerable to a host of infections. Most of the pesticides affect
the immune systems. Infants and children are the most affected lot since their
immune systems are still in developmental stages and most chemical pollutants
inhibit immune system generating an immuno-compromised state.
3. Nervous System: Most chemical pollutants have a significant impact on the
nervous system. The pollutants bring about neuro-behavioral changes. Long
term exposures result in motor neuron defects that would result in trembling of
fingers, numbness, irritability and loss of memory.
4.
Other effect of chemical pollutants includes genotoxicity, tertatogenicity,
mutagenicity, and carcinogenicity resulting in disorders in the fetuses.
In India, the Central government had sanctioned major projects to study various
aspects of the disaster. The Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR), report was
not made public. Those who had managed to get their hands to the report, found it
an extremely poor designed, inferior quality research output, meant more to
somehow use the grant rather than see the whole issue for the benefit of the
existing survivors (see Table 2).
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
25
9.
Some Previous Studies
The Indian Council of Medical Research conducted major research projects to study
the impact of the gas disaster on human health (ICMR, Report - 1990,92). A total of
25 projects on human health impacts were initiated from 1985. In 1991, sixteen of
these were being continued and the remaining concluded.
Table (2) A few of the projects undertaken by ICMR after the Bhopal disaster
Budget
(Rupees)
65,23,00
0.
Time
frame
Febl985,
and
completi
on March
1994.
26,57,63
2.77
Feb
1985, till
Sept
1991.
3.
Establishment
of 14,52,55
based 3
population
cancer registry at
Bhopal.
Oct 1985
for
rupees
till 1991
4
Follow up to see
Corneal opacity in
gas-affected areas.
S.No.
Name of the projects
1.
Long
term
epidemiological
studies on the health
effects of toxic gas
through
exposure
health
community
clinics
Studies on clinical
and
forensic
toxicology of Bhopal
Gas Disaster.
2.
22,39,16
7.00
March
1986 to
Sept
1991.
5
Studies
on
lens
proteins in cataract.
9,55,566
6
Studies on Broncho
Alveolar lavage
2,04,110
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
Nov
1986 to
Sept
1991
Febl985
to Sept
1991
Outcome
Abortion rates
are still higher
in
exposed
areas;
Morbidity
is
still on the
rise.
has
Project
been
stalled
because
of
problems
between
Principal
Investigator
and
Administrative
head________
No evidence to
suggest or rule
out role of gas
in
exposure
causation
of
cancer.
Corneal
was
opacity
more
in
affected areas.
not
Methods
sensitive
for
enough
studies
Macrophagic
alveolitis after
3 years of gas
exposure.
of
Cases
Chronic
Status
Recommend
ed
for
continuation
till
March
1992 review
committee.
Recommend
ed
for
continuation
March
till
1992
by
review
committee.
Staff gone
to court.
Extension
requested
Review
committee
terminated
work
26
bronchitis is on
the rise______
Feb 1985 Pathogenic
to Sept abnormalities
observed_____
1991
No results as
April
1986 to frequent
in
changes
Sept
Principal
1991
investigator.
Most
work
June
contributed
1985
from
outside
the country
Augl985 Recovery with
passage
of
time
Radiological
spectrum of lung
chambers_________
Chromosomal
aberrations
in
Individuals exposed
to MIC
17,02,53
9
9
Immunological
parameters
31 lacs
10
Mental
health
studies
in
MIC
exposed population
15,44,80
0.00
11
Organic
damage
study
brain
a pilot
1,49,140
.00
Decl989
to Sept
1990
Localisation of
brain damage
observed
12.
risk 35,98,22
Genetic
on 6.00
evaluation
pregnancy
outcomes.
mucosal, 5,16,210
Oral,
and .00
gingival
orodental anomalies
in children whose
mothers
were
exposed__________
Study of pulmonary 23 lakhs
effects of toxic gases
to children
Feb 1985
to June
1991
Sample
size
was too small
for
interpretation
7
8
13.
14
60,67,68
0
Nov
1986 to
June
1991.
Sept
1985
June
1991
Obstructive
to lung diseases
in 15.4% in
affected
children
as
compared
8.3% control.
Review
recommends
termination
Review
committee
recommends
termination
Review
committee
recommends
termination
Review
committee
recommends
termination
Review
committee
recommends
termination
Review
committee
terminated
the work
Review
committee
the
asked
team
to
submit fresh
proposal.
Review
committee
terminated
the work
A few institutes under the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), for
instance National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), Nagpur and
Indian Institute of Toxicological Research (ITRC), Lucknow, carried out
environmental and human health. ITRC dispatched a team of experts immediately
after the gas disaster as a relief team to treat the gas exposed victims. NEERI
conducted environmental surveys around the UCIL premises (NEERI-Report, 1995).
NEERI investigated the impact of indiscriminate disposal of wastes by UCIL on the
land and water environments. The work was initiated in 1993 and the NEERI
executive summary which was available on Nov. 1995, focused upon contamination
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
27
in the UCIL premises and had no mention on contamination at the residential areas
around the UCIL. This was only the first phase of the work, while the second phase
could only begin after the Madhya Pradesh Pollution Control Board get legal
permission from the court.
It is well known that Madhya Pradesh Government, had licensed the Union Carbide
India Limited, and permitted it to be located within a crowded neighborhood.
In 1999, Greenpeace International carried out surveys in order to gain an insight into
the nature and severity of chemical contamination (Greenpeace, 1999). Greenpeace
analysed samples of solid wastes, soils and groundwater within UCIL and its
surrounding areas. Greenpeace found samples to be contaminated with volatile
organic compounds and heavy metals. However, the survey did not include human
samples.
There is paucity of data on environmental monitoring around the areas within the
factory premises of the UCIL.
Most studies focused upon health impacts and were conducted by Indian Council of
Medical Research (Table 2). The Post Exposure Mortality Rates were studied by
Andersen et al (1985), Patel et al, Banerji et al (1985) and Sathyamala et al (1985).
In addition, studies by International Medical Commission (R. Bertell and G. Tognoni,
1996) and Long-term morbidity in survivors in the 1984 Bhopal gas survivors by P.
Cullinam (1996) were published in The National Medical Journal of India.
Environmental monitoring studies included those of NEERI and IICT were done to
investigate a few pollutants in the premises, contain and remediation measures to
prevent further problems. However, these studies lacked follow-up studies. In
addition studies by Gary Cohen, The Greenpeace studies were done to estimate
levels of a few contaminant in tube-wells around the areas adjoining the factory
premises and in soils within factory premise. The Industrial Toxicology Research
Centre (ITRC), Lucknow has studied the impact of MIC on plants. However, no other
studies were reported since then.
An organisation by the name of Bhopal Group for Information and Action (BGIA),
contacted different research organisations to test the water samples, but their
request was turned down since, the testing of sample, required clearance from the
State government.
The Citizens Environmental Laboratory, Boston, USA agreed to test the water and
soil samples from J.P. Nagar. The report indicated high levels of dichlorobenzene and
phthalates in the samples. The toxicological effects of dichlorobenzene include
damage to liver, kidney and respiratory system while phthalates are toxic to liver.
The studies clearly indicate that there is a definite contamination problem around the
residential areas surrounding the factory.
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
28
10.
Current Study
The objective of the present study was to assess the extent of chemical
contamination of environmental and breast milk samples around residential areas
adjoining the Union Carbide Factory. The focus is on movement of chemicals from
soil, water, vegetable and finally to human beings. The study would be useful
indicator of chemical contamination of infants.
In the present study a few selected chemicals were chosen primarily on the basis of
its extensive use in the factory and its toxic effects. For instance, chloroform a
carbon tetrachloride were used in the process of manufacture of carbaryl. The heavy
metal mercury was considered since it was used extensively as a sealent. Other
heavy metals like chromium, nickel and lead were identified in the survey conducted
by IICT. A few other chemicals were considered for analysis after running a mass
spectrum and identifying the presence of few compounds in the spectra.
None of the previous studies including those by Greenpeace have shown the
movement of chemical pollutants from one level to another, through the food chain.
The present study shows build-up of pollutants i.e. bioaccumulations of toxicants
move from one level to another level of the food chain.
Hence, the study around residential UCIL is first of its kind to show the transfer of
chemical pollutants through food chain i.e. drinking water and vegetables till it
reaches the human infants via the breast milk.
There are three sinks in the environment through which chemical contaminants enter
into living forms. These are soil, water and air. The soil is the major sink, followed by
water that transfers contaminants through different continents while the air is
responsible for a rapid long distance transmission of most of these chemicals.
Further, chemical contaminants present in the different compartments can easily
migrate from one compartment into another;
The soil is a niche for a diverse type of living forms from microbes to plant parts and
animals. When the soil is contaminated with chemicals, it is very likely that chemical
toxins transfer into the living components of the soil system. All types of living
organisms that thrive in the soil, such as earthworms; plant parts such as root,
tuber, bulbs, etc and further reptiles, birds and human beings are exposed to these
chemicals through the food chain transfer. In case of water contamination, aquatic
living forms such as mollusks (snails), fishes, amphibians, reptiles and water
mammals show different levels of contaminants. Similarly, living organisms receive
contaminants from atmosphere too, due to absorption, adsorption and inhalation. In
the present survey, emphasis is placed tracing the links between contamination of
environmental components and human being. With this in view, a pilot study was
undertaken to assess the type and level of contamination in soil, water, food and
human milk around UCIL factory.
A suitable indicator for human exposure to chemical contamination is to analyse the
contaminants in breast milk. The survey would not only indicate the type and levels
of toxins within mothers but also show the immediate exposure of toxins to infants
through breast-feed.
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
29
What exactly poisoned so many lives is still a matter of conjecture. The plant was
undoubtedly manufacturing carbaryl (Sevin), a formulation of it with lindane (gamma
HCH), small quantities of aldicarb (Temic) and butaphenyl methyl carbamate, all
destined for use in the Indian market. However, there has been confusion
surrounding the nature of the poisonous gas that took so many lives. Was the gas
MIC or phosgene, or a mixture of both or some other deadly toxic gas? The
examination of the residues from the faulty tank, revealed twelve compounds. These
were MIC, its timer called MICT, Dimethyl urea, Trimethylurea, Trimethylbiuret,
Dimethyl isocyanurate, Cyclicdione, Monomethyl amine, Dimethylamine and
Trimethyl amine, HCN and Nickel salts. Interestingly, the parent carbide factory is
still tight lipped about the nature of the gas.
UCIL had a large stockpile of phosgene when the disaster had occurred.
10.1 UCIL Production Process
The parent Union Carbide Corporation (UCC), West Virginia, USA, proposed the
design for the plant at Bhopal, India. The UCIL manufactured the pesticide carabaryl
(Sevin), (Union Carbide, Oct, 1978). In the manufacture of Sevin, two lethal
compounds available- Methyl Isocyanate (MIC) and Carbonyl Chloride (Phosgene)
are required. Initially, MIC was imported to manufacture Sevin, but in 1977, the UCIL
plant obtained the technology for the production of MIC from the parent UCC, and by
1980 the UCIL commenced the production of MIC.
Manufacture of the carbamate pesticide, Sevin (Carbaryl).
To manufacture Sevin, there is a need to initially use three ingredients.
They are: 1. Phosgene - (COO2)
2. Monomethylamine (MMA) - CH3-NH
3. Methyl Isocyanate (MIC)- CH3N=C=O
Phosgene also known as carbonyl chloride is manufactured by reacting chlorine with
carbon monoxide. The chlorine for this reaction is brought to the plant in a tanker
while carbon monoxide was produced from petroleum coke when it was made to
react with oxygen. The UCIL had a facility to produce carbon monoxide.
The monomethyl amine was also brought in by a tanker, and was allowed to react
with phosgene in the presence of chloroform to produce methyl carbamoyl chloride
(MCC) and hydrogen chloride gas. The process is called phosgenatation.
The methyl isocynate (MIC) is produced when Monomethylamine (MMA) is heated.
An Overview of the chemical reactions are: -
1). COCI2
+
+
CH3NH2 ------------ CH3NHCOG + HCI + Heat
Phosgene
MMA
MCC
Hydrogen Chloride
In step 1, the reaction proceeded in the presence of chloroform (CHCI3).
HCI
2). CH3NHCOCI------------------ CH3N=C=O +
MCC
MIC
The MIC was collected and stored in stainless steel tank while the remaining HCI,
Chloroform were collected recycled for use once again.
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
30
3). CH3N=C=O + alpha napthol ---------------- * OCONHCH3 Carbaryl (Sevin)
In step 3, the reaction proceeded in the presence of carbon tetrachloride (CCI4).
Note: The MMA and chlorine gas was brought in by tank truck from other parts of
India and stored in tanks and used whenever MIC was needed to produce Sevin
Other pesticides: Although Sevin was the major pesticide; smaller amounts of other
carbamate pesticides were also manufactured using MIC. These were aldicarb
(Temic) and butyl phenyl methylcarbamate and a formulation of Sevin-lindane was
also made at UCIL.
10.2 Limitation of the present study
The environment survey around adjoining residential areas around UCIL shows
substantial evidence of chemical contamination.
The present study although
undoubtedly indicates extensive chemical pollution, however increasing sample size
and sample types could highlight chemical pollution by showing translocation at
various levels of the food chain. For instance a link between soil - earthworm birds (including chickens) could establish how birds were getting poisoned and its
possible linkage to humans; similarly aquatic food chains involving water and aquatic
organisms like Daphania, mussels and fish and humans could have given transfer in
a more sequential pathway. Here, the link between soil, ground water, vegetables
and human breast milk has been established. The increase in sample size would also
enable incorporation in statistical analysis to show correlation between different
pollutants with respect to different sample types. Hence the present study lacks
diverse sample types and sample numbers. The paucity of funds in the present
study in responsible for reducing sample size and types.
10.3 Future study for assessment
The present study has indicated without any doubt the chemical contamination of
human samples. It would be essential now to continue studies on epidemiological
surveys and chromosome analysis. It would be worthwhile to study the chromosome
aberration in children born after the Bhopal gas tragedy.
Fad Finding Mission on Bhopal
31
11.
Survey on Human and Environmental Contamination around UCIL.
The most important task prior to assessment of human and environmental
contamination would to be scrutinise the UCIL's inventory for toxic chemicals.
Ascertain if, few of these chemicals they would still exist in the environment.
The fate and behaviour of a chemical in an environment is its intrinsic property. It
depends upon the constituting elements and the bonds that exist between them and
the nature. The physical property like solubility, volatility, boiling point, melting point
as well as chemical properties such as reactions in air, water and in different
environmental factors depends upon the intrinsic property, characteristic to it.
The UCIL inventory indicates a wide spectrum of compounds that were reactants,
catalysts, byproducts or the end products. It would be a futile task to test for each of
them since; many would not be present because of their short half-lives or would be
transformed into other harmless products by natural environmental conditions. It
would be worthwhile to consider those chemicals, which are toxic and also persistent
i.e., remain over long periods of time in the environment.
In the present environmental and human contamination survey, the presence of a
few Heavy metals, Pesticides and Volatile Organic Carbons (VOC's) in samples were
investigated.
1. Heavy metals: A total of four heavy metals were tested in the samples. These are
a) . Mercury (Hg)
b) . Lead (Pb)
c) . Chromium (Cr)
d) . Nickel (Ni)
2. Pesticides: HCH (BHC) isomers, like gamma-HCH (Lindane), alpha- HCH, betaHCH were considered.
Note: Sevin (carbaryl) and Temic (aldicarb) were not considered because of their
short half-lives in the environment.
Dichiorobenzene,
1,3,5-trichlorobenzene,
1,2,4-trichlorobenzene,
3. VOC's:
1,2,3-trichlorobenzene and tetrachlorobenzene.
4. Halo-organics: Chloroform and Dichloromethane
The factory started operating from 1969 and till 1977 it used dump all effluents in an
open pit near the eastern wall of the factory. Then onwards most but not all,
effluents used to be discharged into the two solar evaporation ponds (SEP), behind
and outside of the factory. The solar evaporation ponds were spread in an
approximate area of 22 acres. The lime pit effluents and other organic wastes were
discharged into the evaporation ponds. The evaporation ponds were lined with a film
of polythene to prevent seepage. However, one should not overlook the fact that
polythene sheet are not corrosive proof and a wide spectrum of chemicals present in
the effluents, like acids can easily destroy their structure.
The UCIL had two lime pits 28 feet in length X 12 feet breath X 12 feet D* each
having two compartments. The primary neutralisation pit of a size 22 feet X 12 feet X
12 feet and the secondary neutralization pit of 6 feet X 12 feet X 12 feet were
separated by a concrete wall. Hydrochloric acid is pumped to the lime pit for
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
32
neutralisation and the effluents from here go to the evaporation pond. Although, the
UCIL management insists that the spent lime is replenished, that after every time
acid is neutralised, some lime is used up in the process, this cannot be ascertained.
In rainy season, these effluents used to overflow and enter into sewages that used
to pass through J.P. Nagar, a slum cluster opposite the main gate of the factory.
It has been 17 years since the closure of the factory, but still the hand pump and the
community water have a strong stench of organic solvents.
11.1 Chemicals dumped within the factory premises.
The UCIL workers with more than 10 years experience of working in the factory
reported that the following chemicals (Table 3) have been dumped within the factory
premises by the factory management.
Table 3: Chemicals dumped in the factory site.
Use________________
As slurry and dust
Solvent in MIC plant
Solvent in Sevin plant
Solvent in Temic plant
Solvent in Temic plant
Sealant in Pan filter
Solvent in Napthol plant
As slurry and dust
Chemical__________
Alpha-napthol_______
Chloroform_________
Carbon tetrachloride
Methanol___________
Methylene chloride
Mercury___________
Ortho-dichlorobenzene
Sevin
Dumped amount in MT
50.00_________________
100.00_________________
200.00_________________
10.00__________________
50.00_________________
1.0____________________
250.00_________________
50.00
In April, 1996, the Indian Institute of Chemical Technology (IICT), Hydria and
National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), Nagpur, presented
their report on the basis of analysis of 2.5 kg sample collected from drums, bags and
trolleys near cycle stand godown and soap stone godown.
Table 4: Metals detected in Sevin and alpha-napthol waste*
Metals
Cadmium
Chromium
Copper
Lead_____
Manganese
Nickel
Zinc
Sevin waste (mg/Kg)
1.247____________
26.8_____________
40.64____________
22.26____________
487.25___________
20.85____________
28.73
Alpha-napthol waste (mg/Kg)
Below detection limit
42.3
__________________
7.35
_________________
4.88 ___________________
67.66 __________________
31.44 __________________
17.05
Table 5: Organic chemicals detected in sevin and napthol tar*
Organic chemicals
Volatile matter
Napthol content
Sevin tar (mg/Kg)
3.07__________
12.1
Napthol tar (mg/Kg)
2.83_____________
23.18
* Analyses conducted by Indian Institute of Chemical Technology (IICT), Hyderabad.
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
33
It is worthwhile to mention that none of the analytical surveys conducted post
Bhopal disaster, have shown the presence of the pesticides like Sevin and aldicarb
were the final products of the factory. Both, carbaryl and aldicarb is non-persistent
compound, unlike organochlorines such as DDT and BHC (HCH), and have short half
lives in the environment. Hence, testing for these chemicals would be a futile
exercise unless data for this and a few other chemicals had been made available
before the disaster (see Table 6).
Table 6: Chemicals dumped by Union Carbide Management around the
factory from 1969-84.
S.No.
Chemicals
1.
2.
Aldicarb___________
Alpha-napthol_______
Benzene Hexachloride
Carbaryl___________
Carbon tetrachloride
Chemical waste tar
Chlorobenzoyl chloride
Chloroform_________
Chlorine___________
Chlorosulphonic acid
Hydrochlroic acid
Methanol___________
Methylene chloride
Methyl Isocyanate
Mercury
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Quantity
(MT)
2.0_____
50.0
5.0_____
50.00
500.00
50.00
10.00
300.00
20.00
50.00
50.00
50.00
100.00
5.0_____
1.0
in
Use
factory
Product
Ingredient
Ingredient
Product
Solvent
Waste
Ingredient
Solvent
Ingredient
Ingredient
Ingredient
Solvent
Solvent
Ingredient
Sealant pan
filter_______
Ingredient
Ingredient
Ingredient
Solvent
Monochloro toluene
10.00
25.00
Monomethyl amine
50.00
Naphthalene_____
500.00
Ortho
dichlorobenzene
Ingredient
5.0
20.
Phosgene________
Catalyst
50.00
Tri
methylamine
21.
Ingredient
20.00
______
22.
Toluene_________
Source: Satinath Sarangi, Sambhavana Clinic, Bhopal
16.
17.
18.
19.
Nature of pollution
Air, water & soil
Air & Soil_______
Air, water &. soil
Air, water &. soil
Air & water_____
Water & soil
Air, water &. soil
Air & water_____
Air____________
Air & soil_______
Air & soil_______
Air & water_____
Air & water_____
Air, water and soil
Water and soil
Air, water and soil
Air____________
Air____________
Air
Air__________
Air__________
Air, water & soil
The factory became operative in December 1969 and since then till 1984, a major
amount of chemical substances like pesticides formulated in the factory, initial
reactants, byproducts, catalysts and other substances used, were dumped in and
around factory premises. These toxic contaminants in the form of solid, liquid and
gaseous products caused pollution in the soil, water and air in and around the
factory. Till date, the soil and water around the factory are polluted.
11.2 Dumping of chemicals.
Many toxic chemicals are still remained dumped within the UCIL factory site (see
photograph) while others are dumped at the solar evaporation pond (see
photograph) that is across the railway track. The UCIL had acquired land for the
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
34
purpose of a landfill that lay across the railway track. It is understood that toxic
wastes were pumped from the factory to this landfill. In fact, this waste dump is
present in the other side of the railway track, across the factory. To pump the
effluents, it would require pipes to be laid under the railway track, which means it
has to be done with prior permission of the railway ministry and technically
unfeasible to put anything under the railway track.
12.
Materials, Methods and Results
12.1 Sampling sites.
The sampling sites were selected on the basis of their proximity to the UCIL factory
and the dumpsites near the factory. In addition, different directions were also
selected for sample collection to know the spatial variations in contamination (see
figure - 2).
The following sites were selected in the residential areas:
4). Atal Ayub Nagar
1). IP. Nagar.
2). Kanchi.
3). Nawab colony.
5). Anu Nagar.6). Arif Nagar. 7). Ramgarh Colony. 8). Factory premises
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35
12.2 Samples.
In order to investigate the environmental transfer of a chemical toxin, it would be
imperative to first detect and quantitate a few of these suspected chemical toxins in
the environment and then ascertain if there is a route for human exposure.
In this study, the following samples were tested for contamination: 1) . Soil: The levels in the soil would indicate availability of chemical toxins for living
forms of the soil.
2) . Water: Its contamination further indicates the easy transfer of chemical toxins to
life forms, depending upon the particular water.
3) . Food samples: Chemical toxins are absorbed from soil in to vegetables grown in
contaminated areas and thus becomes a contaminated link in the food chain.
4) . Breast milk: - Contaminant levels indicating toxins present, which can pose
danger to next generation.
12.3 Sample Collection.
Soil samples: A total of 14 samples were collected for the analyses, out of which 5
samples were from the factory site, while the remaining from the residential areas
surrounding the factory site.
The residential areas include Anu Nagar and Nawab colony at the northern side of
the factory, Atal Ayub Nagar at the northwest; Kanchi at the northeastern side; IP.
Nagar at the southern side; Rajagarh colony at the eastern side and Shakti Nagar at
the south eastern side.
The soil samples from the factory premises include two samples very close to the
Sevin plant side, one from the cycle stand site, one close to the alpha napthol plant
site and one from the solar evaporation tank which lies across the railway track.
The collections were based on random sampling method where five core sub
samples i.e. from four comers and a central point of a selected site represented a
sample for a given area. An auger was introduced 3 inches deep from the surface of
the soil to collect the soil sample from each sampling point. All soil samples were
collected in transparent polythene bags, labeled and sent to the place of analyses.
These samples were stored at -20° C, until extraction for contaminant was done.
Water samples: A total of eleven water samples were collected from the same areas
of soil collection. In residential areas, water sample were collected from hand pumps
used by the local population for drinking, bathing and washing purposes. The water
samples were collected in Teflon capped 2.5 L brown bottles, to minimize the
photolyis of light sensitive compounds in the water samples. In addition, water
samples were also collected within the factory premises i.e. within the Sevin plant
area and from an open pond adjacent to the solar evaporation pond. Samples were
transported to the laboratory, and stored in a deep freezer maintained at -20° C.
Food samples: In one of the residential areas, local population grows seasonal
vegetables for their consumption. These include radish, brinjal and palak and methi
(spinachs). Samples of vegetables were wrapped in foil and sent to the laboratory,
where it was stored at -20° C.
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
36
Breast milk: A total of eleven milk samples were collected from residential areas
adjoining the UCIL factory. All relevant details of the donor like age, number of
previous deliveries, socio-economic conditions, etc were collected prior to collection
of the samples.
Samples of breast milk were manually collected in 5ml Teflon screw cap Borosil vials
and stored immediately at 0° C and transported in an ice box to the laboratory to
keep at -20° C until extraction of contaminants was done.
Note: The most difficult part of the survey was the collection of breast milk samples.
All efforts at three major government hospitals to acquire breast milk samples proved
futile, since, according to the medical superintendent, the government had given
strict instructions not to permit any individual/s or from private institutions, other
than government agencies, to collect samples related to Bhopal gas disaster. Mr.
Sathyu Sarangi, from the Sambhavana Trust provided the milk samples with help of
his staff.
13.
Chemical Analysis of Samples
13.1
Metals
The sample preparation depends to a large extent on the sample, its matrix and
sample treatment which finally determines the accuracy of the procedure. All the
samples were thawed prior to extraction. The analysis of metals from the sample,
involves sample drying, digestion, extraction and finally the analysis.
Sample drying: Soil samples were dried prior to weighing and dissolution. Air
drying at room temperature was done for soil as substantial loss of volatile elements,
such as mercury can occur at elevated temperatures. The water samples (10 ml.)
were taken as such without further processing. The plant materials were dried at
80°C till the complete drying as per standard recommended procedures for plant
materials.
Digestion and Extraction: The total element in the sample requires complete and
vigorous digestion with acids (Aqua regia a mixture of Nitric acid and Hydrochloric
acid at a ratio of 3:1) for soil samples. For the soil difestion and extraction of metals
0.1 gm of the sample was mixed 5 ml Aqua regia. The mixture was heated on a
hotplate for 30 minutes, and later cooled and filtered. This final volume is made up
to 100 ml in a standard flask.
In the case of plant materials, the most satisfactory and universal digestion
procedure adopted is the use of concentrated HNO3 for digestion.
The breast milk samples were totally dried, using a lyophilizer (this process milk is
totally dried) used to make infant formulae and later 0.2 gm of the sample was
dissolved in 5 ml of dilute HCI and the mixture was heated for 20 minutes and
filtered through Whatman no 42 filter paper. This 2000 ppm solution was used for
actual analysis. The results are reported for 1000 ppm.
Analysis: The analysis was carried out in a Perkin Elmer model Inductively Coupled
Plasma Spectrometer (ICP-OES).
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
37
In the present survey, Inductively Coupled Plasma Spectrometer (ICP-OES) carried
out the analysis of Chromium (Cr), Nickel (Ni), Mercury (Hg) and Lead (Pb) directly
from the extract solution.
Standard preparation: Commercial standards of 10000 ppm concentration from
Perkin Elmer were purchased. Multi element standards for ICP-OES analysis were
freshly prepared keeping in mind that the elements to be analysed are compatible
and are grouped together to avoid precipitation in the mixed solution.
Operating conditions for aqueous solutions: Machine used Integra XL single and dual
monochromator. The Integra XL is a fully computerized Inductively Coupled Plasma
Optical Emission Spectrometry (ICP-OES).
Table 7: The operating conditions of ICP-OES.
ICP - OES.____________
Power
____________
Nebulizer type_________
Plasma gas flow_______
Auxiliary gas flow (Argon)
Sample gas flow_______
Viewing height________
Pump speed___________
Specifications
1000 Watts
Concentric
10 l/min
0.7 l/min
0.4 l/min
8.0 mm
9.0 rpm
Results
Among the four heavy metals analysed in the soil samples, nickel was the most
prevalent one. Five of the six soil samples showed nickel contamination, while
chromium, mercury and lead were present in three each and two samples,
respectively. The table 8 indicates the concentration of heavy metals in the soil
samples collected from residential localities.
Table 8: Concentration (mg/L) of heavy metals in soil samples in
residential samples around UCIL factory, Bhopal.
Location______
Anu Nagar
Atal Ayub Nagar
IP. Nagar_____
Kanchi Chola
Nawab Colony
New Arif Nagar
Chromium
Nickel
1.628
1.131
0.7845
1.958
0.2143
0.5779
2.3700
1.3990
Mercury
0.9798
2.429
Lead
0.4667
1.2650
0.3533
The soil samples in the UCIL factory were analysed from four different sites, as
different types of chemicals reactions were confined to different areas within the
factory. Soil samples mostly showed the presence of chromium and nickel.
Mercury was detected in higher levels in the samples collected from the alphanapthol site and below the Pan filter site. Nickel was present in four of the five sites
within the factory premises, while mercury was present in two sites at almost similar
quantities, but their levels were comparatively high. The table 9 indicates the
Fact Finding A fission on Bhopal
38
concentration of heavy metals in the soil samples collected from the premises of the
factory.
Table 9: Concentration (mg/L) of heavy metals in soil sample within the
UCIL factory.
Location______
Pan filter area
Sevin Cycle shed
Sevin Plant Outside -1
Sevin Plant Outside - II
Alpha-napthol
plant site______
Solar
Evaporation
Pond
Chromium
0.0206
0.1520
Nickel
Mercury
1.1090
4.7660
1.8160
Lead
3.9350
4.6820
1.8980
0.5269
0.2767
0.0065
Among the ten ground water samples collected from the residential areas, all
samples contained chromium and nickel, while mercury was present in six and lead
in eight water samples. Nickel was the predominant contaminant in water, with an
average of 1.0990 ppm, followed by mercury, chromium and lead whose average
levels were, 0.567, 0.026 and 0.122 ppm, respectively. The table 10 indicates the
concentration of heavy metals in the ground water samples.
TablelO: Concentration (mg/L) of heavy metals in hand pump water
Location______ '
Anu Nagar
Hand pump -1_____
Anu Nagar
Hand pump - 2_____
Atal Ayub Nagar
J.P. Nagar
Hand pump - 2
Kanchi Chola______
Nawab Colony_____
New Arif Nagar
Rajgarh Colony
Solar
Evaporation
Pond- Pond Water
Shakti Nagar______
Chromium
0.0056
Nickel
0.9036
Mercury
0.2576
Lead
0.0107
0.7804
0.2939
0.0013
0.0117
0.0149
1.8750
0.7447
0.0210
0.9417
1.8000
1.0800
0.0497
0.0143
0.0116
0.7932
0.1197
0.0264
0.1861
0.0343
0.0548
0.0117
0.0398
0.0413
0.0321
0.0126
0.7155
0.0317
0.0113
0.0095
0.0057
All the three vegetable samples grown at J.P. Nagar, showed chromium and nickel,
while palak showed chromium, nickel, mercury and lead. The levels of heavy metals
were found highest in palak than any other vegetables. The table 11 indicates the
concentration of heavy metals in the vegetable samples collected from J.P. Nagar
site.
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
39
Tablell: Concentration (mg/Kg) of heavy metals in a few vegetable
samples grown at a residential area opposite to the UCIL factory (J.P.
Nagar)
Chromium
0.1541
0.1130
1.1370
Vegetables
Brinjal
Radish
Palak
Nickel
Mercury
Lead
0.3869
0.1169
1.2840
2.5100
0.5733
The predominant metal detected in the breast milk samples was lead, which was
found in seven of the eight samples analysed. Chromium was absent in the breast
milk, while nickel and mercury were present in two and three samples, respectively.
The mean levels of lead were marginally higher than mercury, although mercury was
detected in fewer samples compared to lead. The table 12 indicates the
concentration of heavy metals in the breast milk samples.
Table 12: Concentration (mg/L) of heavy metals in breast samples
collected from residential areas adjoining UCIL factory.
Location______
Atal Ayub Nagar
IP. Nagar
J.P.Nagar_____
J.P. Nagar_____
Kanchi Chola
New Arif Nagar
Rajgarh colony
Shakti Nagar
Chromium
Nickel
Mercury
0.0581
0.0550
0.0550
0.6665
0.5235
Lead
0.0380
0.0454
0.0801
0.3135
0.1517
0.0643
0.2830
13.2 Chlorinated Compounds.
Pesticide analysis was carried out through a Gas-Chromatograph (GC), (Perkin Elmer
Autosystem XL). Each sample was analysed twice and the reproducibility of results
was almost 90% by the above methods. Recovery studies were performed separately
for two soil samples and the results showed recoveries exceeding 90% for all the
twelve pesticides. Recovery percentage for HCH was around 87-90%.
The pesticides chosen for study were obtained from RDH Laborchemikalien GmbH &
Co. KG D-30918 Seelze via Promochem India Pvt. Ltd, Bangalore India. p-BHC was
99% pure and all the other pesticides were above 99.6% purity level.
The following organochlorine pesticides were analysed.
1. Beta- BHC (1,2,3,4,5,6-hexachlorocyclohexane)
2. Gamma- BHC (1,2,3,4,5,6-hexachlorocyclohexane)
3.
Dichlorobenzene
4.
5.
6.
7.
Trichlorobenzenes 1,2,3-, 1,2,4-, & 1,3,5-Trichlorobenzenes.
Tetrachlorobenzenes
Chloroform
Dichloromethane
Fad Finding Mission on Bhopal
40
Temperature programming of GC:
1. BHC: 220 to 270°C at a ramp of 2°C per minute
2. Chlorinated compounds: 40 to 70°C at a ramp of 2°C per minute,
Soil
For the pesticide analysis, each soil sample size taken was approximately 500g, out
of which representative sub-samples in triplicate (35g) were randomly taken for the
analysis. The pesticides were extracted for 8-10 hrs at the rate of 4-5 cycles per
hour, in 150 ml of 50%(v/v) acetone in hexane in a Soxhlet extractor (Thao et
al. 1993b, EPA method 3540). The extract obtained was cooled, filtered and
concentrated in a rotary evaporator. The concentrate was again extracted in
hexane/water with the help of a separating funnel and dehydrated by passing
through sodium sulphate. The solution thus obtained was filtered and concentrated
to approximately 5ml. The fractions obtained on with 20%(v/v) dichloromethane in
hexane were analysed for the presence of twelve pesticides by GC equipped with a
split - split less injection port and selective electron-capture detector (ECD). This
detector allows the detection of contaminants at trace level concentrations in the
lower ppb range in the presence of a multitude of compounds extracted from the
matrix to which these detectors do not respond. The column used was PE-17, length
30m, ID 0.25mm, and film 0.25mm with a 2ml/min flow. The carrier gas and the
makeup gas was nitrogen employing the split mode. The oven temperature was
kept at 190°C to 280°C with a ramp of 5°C/min. The samples were calibrated
(retention time, area count) against 1 to 10 ppm standard solutions of all twelve
pesticides. Each peak is characterised by its retention time and the response factors
in ECD. Sample results were quantitated in ppm automatically by the GC software.
The detection limit was 0.001 mg/Kg for organochlorine and 0.01 mg/Kg for
organophosphate pesticides.
Recovery studies were performed separately for three original sample types by
spiking the samples with known quantities of different pesticides and subjecting
them to similar analytical procedures. The average recovery was almost 92.8% for
organochlorines and 89.1% for organophosphates. The reproducibility of results for
all the pesticides was 95.8% and above for all the samples. However, the mean
average reading of a particular type of sample analysed in duplicate, was considered.
One GC injection (30 min) of 5pl covered all twelve pesticides included in the
analysis. Hamilton micro syringe injection of the pesticide dissolved in hexane as
solvent were made directly onto the coated silanized column solid support, thereby
eliminating the possibility of catalytic degradation by metallic surfaces. Pesticides
were identified according to their retention times. The actual relative retention times
for the different pesticides were compared with unknown samples. The multi-residue
method that can detect twelve pesticides in one analytical run was preferred. This
method is characterised by a broad scope of application, good recoveries and
sensitivity and low solvent consumption, coupled with good analytical quality control.
Milk, Water and Vegetable extraction
Weighed milk sample was extracted with 5-6 drops of 10% Sodium chloride solution
and 15% Dichloromethane (DCM) in hexane. Organic layer was collected and the
aqueous layer was extracted twice. The three organic layers were mixed and sodium
sulphate was added to it, filtered and evaporated the solvent. In order to evaporate
the residual DCM, some hexane in the RB was added and evaporated twice. Finally
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
41
the volume was made to 5 ml with n-hexane. Pesticides in milk and vegetable were
extracted by the method followed by Kumari and Kathpal, 1995; Nair et al, 1996 and
Madan et al, 1996.
Results
The total HCH (BHC) pesticide concentrations in the six soil samples were 9 mg/Kg.
The average value of its concentration was 1.60 ppm. Among the six residential
areas, IP Nagar had the highest level of the pesticides HCH with a level of 5.038
mg/Kg, while Nawab Colony, Atul Ayub Nagar had almost similar levels, exceeding
slightly over 1 ppm. Among the HCH isomers, the proportion of gamma- HCH
exceeded those of beta- HCH. The table 13 indicates the concentration of pesticides
in residential areas around the factory.
Tablel3: Pesticide HCH (BHC) in soil samples (mg/Kg) around residential
areas adjoining UCIL factory premises.
Location______
IP. Nagar
Kanchi________
Nawab Colony
Atal Ayub Nagar
Anu Nagar
New Arif Nagar
Beta - HCH
0.2263
0.3697
0.0555
0.0014
0.0180
0.0404
Gamma -HCH
4.812________
0.2208_______
1.7181_______
1.0633_______
0.0770_______
1.0265
Among the four sites in the factory premises, the HCH levels were highest at the
Sevin Shed. The total HCH in this area was slightly over 8 mg/Kg, which was five
times more than those present in Sevin plant site-I. The Solar Evaporation Pond,
which was dumping site outside the premise showed very low levels of the HCH
isomers. Table 14 indicates the concentration of pesticide HCH in the factory
premises.
Table 14: Pesticide HCH (BHC) in soil samples (mg/Kg) within UCIL factory
premises.
Gamma -HCH
Beta - HCH
Location_____
8.2814_______
0.0035
Sevin Shed
1.3777_______
0.3101
Sevin Plant -1
0.0359_______
0.0897
Sevin Plant - II
0.0663
0.0041
Alpha-Napthol
Site_________
0.0358
Nil
Solar
Evaporation
Pond *_________
* Acquired by the UCIL factory outside the premises of the factory
The total levels of HCH isomers in Brinjal and Palak were almost similar. The gammaHCH isomer exceeded those of beta-HCH isomer. Table 15 indicates the pesticide
HCH in vegetable samples grown close to the UCIL premises.
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
42
L
TablelS: Pesticide HCH (BHC) in vegetable samples (mg/Kg) around
residential areas adjoining UCIL factory premises.
Vegetables
Brinjal
Palak
1
Beta- HCH
0.0033
Nil
Gamma- HCH
0.0294
0.0215
The total concentration of the pesticide HCH in the ground water samples from the
residential areas was 0.0898 mg/L. The mean level detected in water was 0.011
ppm. Water samples from Anu Nagar and Shakti Nagar were most contaminated with
the pesticide HCH, while the other areas had almost similar levels. Table 16 indicates
the pesticide HCH in ground water samples adjoining the UCIL factory premises.
Table 16: Pesticide HCH (BHC) in groundwater samples (mg/Kg) around
residential areas adjoining UCIL factory.
Location______
Anu Nagar - II
Atal Ayub Nagar
IP. Nagar
Kanchi Chola
Nawab Colony
New Arif Nagar
Rajgarh Colony
Shakti Nagar.
Beta - HCH
0.0256
Gamma -HCH
0.0016
0.0146_______
0.0011_______
0.0003
0.0005
0.0015_______
0.0027_______
0.0001
0.0016
0.0012_______
0.0014_______
0.0004_______
0.0031
0.0005
0.0336
The water tested from the factory premises showed 0.115 mg/Kg of the pesticide
HCH. This level is ten times more than those present in the residential areas around
the factory. Table 17 indicates the pesticide HCH (BHC) in water samples within the
UCIL premises.
Table 17: Pesticide HCH (BHC) in water samples (mg/L) from the UCIL
factory premises.
Location______
Sevin Plant Site
Solar
Evaporation
Pond - Water*
Beta - HCH
0.1050
0.0010
Gamma -HCH
0.0104_______
0.0175
* Acquired by the UCIL factory outside the premises of the factory
All samples of breast milk showed the presence of pesticide HCH. The average level
of the pesticide in the breast milk was 2.39 mg/Kg while the levels ranged from
0.179 to 11.44 mg/Kg. The breast milk sample from Shakti Nagar had highest levels
for both beta and gamma - HCH when compared to the other samples. Table 18
indicates the level of pesticide in breast milk samples from the UCIL factory
premises.
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
43
Table 18: Pesticide HCH (BHC) in breast milk samples (mg/L) in residential
areas around the UCIL Factory.
Location______
Shakti Nagar
Kanchi Chola
Rajgarh Colony
J.P.Nagar_____
New Arif Nagar
J.P.Nagar_____
J.P.Nagar_____
Atal Ayub Nagar
Gamma -HCH
6.3345_______
Beta - HCH
5.1367
0.0376
0.1912
0.6947
0.0684
0.3271
0.0232
0.2317
0.1414_______
0.0915_______
0.0154_______
1.3580_______
0.6388_______
0.2343_______
0.1160
13.3 Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC's)
Among the residential areas, IP. Nagar showed the highest contamination of Volatile
Organic Compounds (VOC's) followed by Kanchi Chola, which showed 7.5 times
lower than that of IP. Nagar. Dichlorobenzene was the predominant contaminant in
most of the cases. The total VOC level found in the soil samples were 5.86 mg/Kg
while their average was slightly lower than 1 mg/Kg. Among the six soil samples,
Dichlorobenzene, 1,3,5-Trichlorobenzene and Tetrachlorobenzene were present in all
the samples. Table 19 indicates the VOC's in soil samples adjoining the UCIL factory
premises.
Table 19: Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC's) in soil samples (mg/Kg) in
residential areas around UCIL.
Location
Dichloro
benzene
J.P.
2.4961
Nagar
Kanchi
0.1096
0.1304
Nawab
Colony
0.1294
Atal
Ayub
Nagar
Anu
0.1419
Nagar
New Arif 0.1637
Nagar
Trichloro
benzene
(1,3,5)
0.7447
Trichloro
benzene
(1,2,4)
0.6070
Trichloro
benzene
Tetrachloro
benzene
(1,2,3)
0.1701
0.1073
0.4149
0.1678
0.0156
0.0063
Nil
Nil
0.0053
0.0060
0.0102
0.0127
0.0117
0.0339
0.0135
Nil
Nil
0.0161
0.0140
0.0150
Nit
0.0463
Both the vegetables were found to contain VOCs. The dichlorobenzene was the
predominant contaminant in the samples. The mean concentration of VOCs in the
vegetable samples was found to be 0.132 mg/Kg. The concentration of VOCs was
almost similar in both the vegetable samples analysed. Table 20 indicates the VOC's
in vegetable samples collected adjoining the UCIL factory premises.
Fact Finding A fission on Bhopal
44
Table 20: Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC’s) in vegetable samples
(mg/Kg) in residential areas around UCIL.
Location
Dichloro
benzene
Brinjal
Palak
0.2653
0.2354
Trichloro
benzene
(1,3,5)
0______
0
Trichloro
benzene
(1,2,4)
0.0082
0.0073
Trichloro
benzene
(1,2,3)
Nil_____
Nil
Tetrachloro
benzene
0.0124
Nil
All the soils tested for VOC's in the UCIL factory showed positive results. All the soils
from the factory site showed Dichlorobenzenes, 1,3,5-Trichlorobenzenes, 1,2,4Trichlorobenzenes and Tetrachlorobenzenes. Among the four sample sites, the Sevin
Shed showed the highest concentration of VOC's. The amounts of VOC's at the other
three sites were more or less similar. The total VOC content in the samples were
1.855 mg/Kg while the mean levels in the factory premises was 0.463 mg/Kg. The
total VOC content in soils from the Solar Evaporation Pond was found to be 0.268
mg/Kg. Table 21 indicates the VOC's in soil samples from the UCIL factory premises.
Table 21: Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC’s) in soil samples (mg/Kg) in
the UCIL
Location
Sevin
Shed
Sevin
Plant-I
Sevin
Plant -II
Alpha
Napthol
Tetrachloro
benzene
Trichloro
benzene
Trichloro
benzene
(1,2,4)
(1,2,3)
0.1613
Trichloro
benzene
(1,3,5)
0.1974
0.0065
Nil
0.4711
0.1292
0.1883
0.0044
Nil
0.0233
0.1124
0.2143
0.0073
Nil
0.0046
0.1212
0.2081
0.0056
Nil
Nil
0.1215
0.1389
0.0074
0.0006
Nil
Dichloro
benzene
Site
SEP -Soil
The concentration of VOC's was highest in Kanchi Chola, while a marginally lower
level was found in Anu Nagar. In the other areas, it was almost two to ten times
lower than these areas. The mean concentrations of VOC's in the ground water
samples of the residential areas were found to be 0.050 mg/Kg. Table 22 indicates
the VOC's in ground water samples from the UCIL factory premises.
Table 22: Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC’s) in groundwater samples
(mg/Kg) in residential areas around UCIL.
Location
Dichloro
benzene
Anu Nagar
Atal Ayub
0.0104
0.0008
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
Trichloro
benzene
(1,3,5)
Nil_____
Nil
Trichloro
benzene
(1,2,4)
Nil_____
Nil
Trichloro
benzene
(1,2,3)
Nil_____
Nil
Tetrachloro
benzene
0.0007
0.0007
45
Nagar
J.P.Nagar
0.0094
Kanchi
0.0147
Chola
0.0012
Nawab
Colony
New Arif Nil
Nagar
Nil
Rajgarh
Colony
Nil
Shakti
Nagar
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil___
0.0002
0.0002
Nil
Nil
Nil
0.0003
0.0006
Nil
0.0029
Nil
Nil
Nil
0.0015
Nil
0.0002
Nil
0.0060
0.0001
0.0005
Water samples from the factory premises contained 0.0331 mg/L VOC's while those
from a water pond adjacent to the Solar Evaporation Pond contained 0.008 mg/L
VOC's.
Table 23: Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC's) in water samples (mg/L)
from the UCIL factory premise.
Trichlorobenzene
(1,2,4)
0.0025
Trichloro
benzene
(1,2,3)
0.0008
Tetrachloro
benzene
Nil
Trichloro
benzene
(1,3,5)
Nil
Nil
Nil
0.0058
0.0002
0.0007
Location
Dichloro
benzene
Sevin
Plant-ditch
S.E.P
0.0298
All samples of breast milk contained VOC's. The total VOC content in breast milk
samples was 17.12 mg/Kg. The 1,3,5 Trichlorobenzene was the predominant VOC
and was present in all the samples. The sample from Shakti Nagar contained 9.52
mg/L and VOC was highest when compared to other samples. The average level of
the VOC in the breast milk was 2.85 mg/Kg while the levels ranged from 0.588 to
9.52 mg/Kg. Table 24 indicates the VOC's in breast milk samples from the UCIL
factory premises.
Table 24: Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC's) in breast milk samples
(mg/L) in residential areas around UCIL.
Location
Dichloro
benzene
2.2693
Shakti
Nagar
Kanchi
Nil
Chola
Rajgarh
0.4580
Colony
J.P.Nagar
0.3380
New Arif Nil
Fact Firuling Mission on Bhopal
Trichloro
benzene
(1,3,5)
0.6226
Trichloro
benzene
(1,2,4)
5.8984
Trichloro
benzene
(1,2,3)
0.4690
Tetrachloro
benzene
1.5986
0.4120
Nil
0.0386
0.2041
Nil
0.1354
0.0601
0.1993
2.1718
Nil___
Nil
Nil
Nil___
0.7450
02573
0.1094
46
L
Nagar
J.P.Nagar
IP.Nagar
Atal Ayub
Nagar
13.4
>
0.1800
0.5221
0.3514
0.7016
0.0369
0.3826
Nil___
0.0327
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
0.0473
0.0574
Nil
Halo-organics: Dichloromethane and Chloroform.
Among the six soil samples from the residential area, Dichloromethane was present
in all the samples. The levels ranged from 0.082 to 0.170 mg/Kg with an average
amounting to 0.103 mg/Kg. The soil samples from Kanchi Chola showed maximum
concentration of Dichloromethane which was almost twice as compared to the other
areas. The other residential areas showed more or less similar amounts of this
contaminant.
Chloroform was present in all samples and most of the soil samples contained this
compound at fairly similar levels. The average chloroform level in the soil sample was
found to be 6.55 mg/L. The highest concentration of chloroform found at Atal Ayub
Nagar was 6.77 mg/L, while the minimum found at Kanchi Chola was around 6.27
mg/L. Table 25 indicates the Halo-organics in soil samples from the UCIL factory
premises.
Table 25: Dichloromethane and Chloroform in soil samples (mg/Kg)
around residential areas adjoining UCIL factory premises.
4
Location_______
J.P.Nagar______
Kanchi Chola
Nawab Colony
Sevin Cycle Shed
Atal Ayub Nagar
Anu Nagar_____
New Arif Nagar
Dichloromethane
0.0901______
0.1700______
0.0909______
0.1790______
0.0815______
0.0995______
0.0877
Chloroform
6.5129
6.2668
6.5327
6.6593
6.7204
6.6237
6.6174
Soil samples within the factory premises showed both dichloromethane and
chloroform. The chloroform in the samples in the factory exceeded those of
dichloromethane. The chloroform and dichloromethane levels were almost similar at
all soil sampling sites in the factory. The average level of chloroform in the soil was
6.40 mg/Kg, which was 50 times more than dichloromethane.
Table 26: Dichloromethane and Chloroform in soil samples (mg/Kg)
collected from UCIL factory premises.
Location_______
Sevin Cycle Shed
Sevin Plant-1
Sevin Plant-2
Alpha Naphthol
Pan filter area
Dichloromethane
0.1790______
0.0809______
0.1595______
0.1177______
0.1023
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
Chloroform
6.6593
6.6299
6.4971
6.6826
5.5204
47
All the three vegetable samples analysed showed the presence of both
Dichloromethane and Chloroform. In palak, the dichloromethane levels were almost
30 times more than those present in either radish or brinjal. The average levels in
the vegetable samples were 0.0284 mg/Kg.
Chloroform content was more in radish and brinjal when compared to palak. The
average chloroform content in the vegetables was 7.51 mg/Kg, which was 264 times
more than the mean levels of dichloromethane. Table 27 indicates the Halo-organics
in vegetable samples from the UCIL factory premises.
Table 27: Dichloromethane and Chloroform in vegetable samples (mg/Kg)
around residential areas adjoining UCIL factory premises.
Sample
Spinach
Radish
Brinjal
Dichloromethane
Chloroform
0.0797______
0.0027______
0.0027
6.1843
8.2929
8.0403
All the eight ground water samples contained both dichloromethane and chloroform.
However, the dichloromethane levels in water were almost 2 times more than
chloroform. Water samples from Rajgarh colony had the highest level of
dichloromethane. The average concentration of dichloromethane was 1.63 mg/L. The
water samples from Atal Ayub Nagar showed maximum concentration of chloroform.
The average concentration of chloroform in water was 0.85 mg/L.
Table 28 indicates the Halo-organics in water samples from the UCIL factory
premises.
Table 28: Dichloromethane and Chloroform in water samples (mg/L)
around residential areas adjoining UCIL factory premises.
Location______
Anu Nagar
Atal Ayub Nagar
IP. Nagar
Kanchi Chola
Nawab Colony
New Arif Nagar
Rajgarh Colony
Shakti Nagar
Dichloromethane
Chloroform
0.2580______
0.1065______
0.1235______
1.7250______
0.3377______
4.2690______
4.6035______
1.6660
0.9901
1.3591
0.8013
0.3792
0.8544
0.8673
0.8650
0.6710
All the breast milk samples contained dichloromethane and chloroform. The amounts
of chloroform were 3.2 times more than those of dichloromethane levels. The breast
milk samples from IP. Nagar showed highest levels of dichloromethane, while
maximum concentration of chloroform in breast milk samples, were from New Arif
Nagar. The average concentrations of dichloromethane and chloroform in breast milk
were 0.359 and 1.154 mg/L. Table 29 indicates the Halo-organics in breast milk
samples from the UCIL factory premises.
Fact Finding A fission on Bhopal
48
<
Table 29: Dichloromethane and Chloroform in breast milk samples (mg/L)
around residential areas adjoining UCIL factory premises.
t
Location______
Shakti Nagar
Kanchi Choi a
Rajgarh Colony
IP. Nagar
New Arif Nagar
Atal Ayub Nagar
Dichioromethane
0.4109________
0.0928________
1.0896________
0.1631________
0.0864________
0.3080
Chloroform
0.9598
1.3965
1.1541
1.1337
1.4005
0.8785
The soil from the Solar Evaporation Pond, a dumping site for UCIL factory, showed
both dichioromethane and chloroform. The chloroform levels were almost similar to
those present within the factory premises. The pond water samples adjacent to the
Solar Evaporation Pond, showed dichioromethane and chloroform and their average
concentration were 0.714 mg/L and 0.917 mg/L, respectively.
Table 30: Dichloromethane and Chloroform in SEP dumping site samples
(mg/Kg) around residential areas adjoining UCIL factory premises.
Location
Solar
Evaporation
Pond - Soil
Solar
Evaporation
Pond - Water
Chloroform
Dichioromethane
0.0972
6.6141
0.7140
0.9165
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
49
Table 31: Summary of the analysis of chemical contamination (ppm) around
UCIL Factory and adjoining residential areas in Bhopal.
Heavy Metals
Samples
SoilResidential
Areas
Chromiu
m
Nickel
Lead
Halo-organics
Chlorobe
nzenes
Dichlor
ometh
ane
0.103
Chloroform
HCH isomer
6.546
1.605
(0.0815
(6.2688
6.7204)
0.932
0.647
1.032
(0.021 to
1.96)
(0.0074.77)
SoilFactory
0.233
Ground
waterResidential
Vegetables
Breast milk
Mercury
0.568
(0.1715 4.1252)
to
(0.095 -5.0383)
0.1700)
0.277
0.467)
2.90
1.857
0.277
0.012
1.099
0.057
0.026
(0.0057 to
0.021)
(0.7155
1.875)
(0.0264 to
0.2758)
(0.0013 to
0.0548)
0.475
(Oto
1.137)
0.596
(0.9721 to
1.284)
0.837
(Oto
2.510)
0.191
(0
ND
0.097
(0.0581 to
0.129
(0.0550 to
0.6665)
0.149
(0.0380 to
0.3135)
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
1
0.137
(0.980
2.43)
0.5235)
Pesticides-
VOC
0.425
0.006
(0.0015 0.0149)
0.132
0.128
(0.0809
-0.179)
1.636
6.4
(5.5204
6.6826)
0.849
(0.1065
to
4.6035)
0.028
(0.3792
1.3591)
(0.0027
to
0.0890)
0.359
(6.1114
8.2929)
(0.0772
to
1.0896)
(0.8755
1.4005)
2.041
to
0.011
(0.0009
0.0402)
0.021
7.506
to
0.5733)
2.854
(0.5883 9.5166)
to
2.392
(0.179- 11.471)
1.594
to
50
References
4
I
1. Delhi Science Forum Report, 1985. Bhopal Gas Tragedy, pp.1-48.
2. Indian Council of Medical Research 1990. Annual Report-1990. Bhopal Gas Disaster
Research Centre, Gandhi Medical College, pp. 1-201
3. Indian Council of Medial Research 1990. Annual Report-1992, Bhopal Gas Disaster
Research Centre, Gandhi Medical College.
4. Operating Manual, Part -1, Methyl-Isocyanate Unit. Union Carbide, 1998.
5. National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, 1990. Assessment of
pollution damage due to solar evaporation pond at UCIL, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh
Pradushan Niwaran Mandal, Bhopal, 1990.
6. Greenpeace, 1999. The Bhopal Legacy, pp.1-110.
7. David Weir, 1985. The Bhopal Syndrome, pp.1-117.
8. Environmental Protection Agency -1983. Manual of analytical methods for analysis of
pesticides residues in human and environmental samples. Health Effects Research
Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA.
9. B. Kumari and T.S.Kathpal, 1995. Levels of contamination of milk with DDT and HCH
in Haryana, Indian Journal of Animal Science. 65 (5); 576-582.
10. V.K.Madan, et al. 1996. Monitoring of pesticides from farm gate samples of
vegetables in Haryana. Pesticide Journal. 8(1); 56-60.
11. A. Nair et al.1996 DDT and HCH load in mothers and their infants in Delhi, India.
Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. 56(1); 58-64.
12. Heeresh Chandra et al; 1991. GC-MS identification of MIC trimer: a constituent of
tank residues in preserved autopsy blood of Bhopal gas victims.
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
51
Annexure
Some Available Standards
Drinking
Water
(mg/L)
(UAEPA)
Ground
Water
(pg/L)
(USEPA)
Chromium
Nickel
Mercury
0.1
0.1
0.002
0.05
0.02
0.001
Soil
(maximum
acceptable
level) mg/Kg
(EU Std)
100_______
50________
1
Lead
0.015
0.01
100
Heavy metals
Pesticides
Beta HCH
Gamma HCH
VOC's__________
Dichlorebenzene
Trichlorobenzene
(1x3,5)__________
Trichlorobenzene
(1,2,4)__________
Trichlorobenzene
(1,2,3)__________
tetrachlorobenzene
0.004
0.2
0.6
5
0.1
mg/Kg
USSR
Vegetables
(maximum
residue limit)
I
Breast
milk
(USFDA)
mg/Kg
4
1.0
ppm
(USFDA)
5.0 ppm
(USFDA)
0.02
mg/Kg
EEC legislation
0.5
to
3
mg/Kg (FAO,
WHO)
0.1
1.0
2.5
0.07
Halo-Organics
(USEPA)
Chloroform_____
Dichloromethane
80_____
5
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
5
52
oh i a *
Tomas Mac Sheoin
Union Carbide Corporation (UCC)
THE REPORT ON UNION CARBIDE CORPORATION (UCC)
Union Carbide Corporation (UCC) was formed by the merger of 5 separate US
companies in 1917, one of a wave of mergers that consolidated the US chemical
industry. In the 1920s and 1930s it became a world leader in research on and
production of petrochemicals, becoming the leading producer of basic chemicals such
as ethylene and polymers such as PVC. UCC received'a great stimulus to growth from
World War 2, emerging from the war as the largest US petrochemical producer, while
also running major industrial gas and metal alloys operations. By 1963 UCC had
become the world's second largest chemical company. In the 1960s UCC diversified
into new areas, but it failed miserably as a conglomerate and in the mid-1970s
returned to its core products, by 1979 still ranking as the seventh largest chemical
company in the world and the third largest in the US. That year UCC also began
licensing production technology, which was to become a nice little earner.
UCC internationalised early, moving into Canada in 1924 and England in 1939. In the
1950s UCC set up polyethylene plants in countries as diverse as Brazil, Holland, India
and Sweden, by 1957 operating in 27 countries By 1975 a quarter of UCC's sales
were foreign In 1985 of a worldwide salaried workforce of 50,000, 23,000 worked
outside North America.
UCC's involvement in India grew out of its internationalisation strategy, becoming
India's first petrochemical proder. In 1974 it announced plans to set up a pesticides
factory in Bhopal, intending to pick up on markets created by the Green Revolution.
After the Bhopal massacre, UCC responded by attempting to distance itself from the
Bhopal operation, thereby insulating the US parent company from liability. Following
an attack from US corporate raider Samuel Heyman. UCC undertook a major
restructuring operation which vastly increased debt and slashed its asset base
Following this UCC entered a period of decline, epitomised by its continued slide
down the Fortune 500, dropping from 65 in 1990 to 284 in 2000.
Despite this decline, UCC is still a considerable venture, operating factories
throughout the US and internationally in Argentine, Belgium, Brazil, Canada,
England, Indonesia, malaysia, PRC, Philippines, Thailand and the United Arab
Emirates, while also participating in joint ventures in France, Germany, Italy, Japan,
Malaysia and South Korea
UCC has a long history of responsibility for various toxic outrages, including
involvement in two of the greatest industrial disasters of the twentieth century'. While
its responsibility for the Bhopal massacre is well-known, its involvement in the death
of hundreds of workers and injury to hundreds more from silicosis on the Gauley
Bridge tunnelling project in West Virginia in the 1920s is much less well-known
Throughout its history UCC has shown a consistent disregard for the health of the
environment and human beings. Acccording to the US Public Interest Research Group
(PIRG) UCC is in the top four of companies responsible for toxic waste dumps in the
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
Tomas Mac Sheoin
Union Carbide Corporation (UCC)
US, being responsible for waste at 51 sites on the Superfund National Priority List of
toxic dumps requiring clean-up. UCC's involvement in the Manhattan Project and
continued nuclear weapons production for the US government has also led to the
creation of radioactively contaminated wastelands.
As well as these outrages, UCC's ordinary day-to-day operations represent a hazard to
safety and the environment. The company's factories suffer fires and explosions, some
resulting in death and injury, others resulting in releases of toxic chemicals.In a recent
example over a thousand people sought hospital treatment after a leak from a UCC
plant in Sri Lanka in October 2000.
As well as these accidents, UCC's day-to-day operations release large amounts of
various toxic chemicals to the environment. The following information is confined to
the US, where freedom of information regulations (introduced in response to Bhopal)
make this information available. In 1987 UCC's factories in the US emitted some
69,556,343 lbs. of various toxic chemicals into air, water and the ground. By 1999
that figure had dropped to 6,063,839 lbs. The amount of waste generated by UCC in
the US has not seen such a significant decrease: in 1991 UCC generated 185,494,608
lbs. of waste, in 1999, 164,247,503lbs.
UCC ceased to operate as a separate corporation in 2001 when it was taken over by
Dow, creating the largest chemical corporation in the world. The merger is expected
to decimate UCC's workforce and will increase Dow's annual sales to $24.4 bn. The
new company will operate in 168 countries and employ 49,000 people. Dow has a
long record of criminal behaviour, including supplying napalm and other chemical
warfare agents (such as defoliants) to the US war in Vietnam, as well as a long history
of involvement in environmental controversies and outrages. The company now
claims however to operate to a new philosophy, 'the triple bottom line of
sustainability -economic, social and environemntal needs', according to its CEO. It is
time for the international community to call on Dow in the strongest manner possible
and by all means neccessary to adhere to this philosophy by taking responsibility for
Bhopal.
Tomas Mac Sheoin
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
OIV IFV-
Mental Health Impact Of Bhopa! Gas Disaster
R. Srinivasa Murthy
Summary
During the night of December 2-3, 1984 the world's
worst industrial disaster took place in the city of Bhopal
in Central India Large amount of toxic gas leaked from
the plant into the surrounding area, which was densely
populated. More than 2,000 died immediately and over
200,000 populations were directly affected in a city of
700,000 population. The disaster-affected population
have been investigated for the effect of the disaster on
their physical and psychological health.
Community
level studies carried within one month of the disaster to
10 years after the disaster report higher levels of
physical and mental health morbidity. Though efforts
to provide psychological
support to the affected
population were initiated using the primary care
personnel by focussed training programmes, a system of
comprehensive community based health care in general
and mental health care in particular, is still not in place.
In addition there is need for continuing the research
studies into the long-term effects of the disaster and the
morbidity in the affected population. The magnitude of
the Bhopal
disaster and
the research
efforts to
understand the health effects have resulted in greater
awareness in India of the psychological aspects of
disasters and to include psychological support as part of
relief and rehabilitation activities following all disasters.
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
OH- I A.
SURVIVING BHOPAL: 17 YEARS ON
A FACT FINDING MISSION
B-14 (SF) Gulmohar Park, New Delhi - 110049
Tel: 651 4847.656 1743. Fax: 651 1504
Email: othemicdiatfwsnl.coin
January 15, 2002
To: All Coordinators of FFM
Sub:
REPORT ON THE ONE DAY SEMINAR ON ENVIRONMENT, MENTAL
HEALTH AND UNION CARBIDE CORPORATION
Dear Friends,
This note is with regard to a day long seminar conducted at the Constitution Club, New
Delhi on the 12th January 2002 where The Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal presented
its findings on environment, Mental health and Union Carbide Corporation. The findings
focused on the continuing damage to physical, mental health and the environment of
the survivors along with rising profile of corporation involved.
At the first session on Environment, Mr. Ravi Agarwal of Srishti and Dr. Amit Nair a
Toxicologist specialising in pesticide contamination who did the survey and the study
presented their report. The report focussed on the evidence of contamination of soil,
ground water and mothers' milk by a range of toxic chemicals in alarming
concentrations. The findings were based on samples collected by Dr. Amit Nair and
analysed at the Laboratory of the Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur. The study
was coordinated by Srishti, a Delhi based NGO specialising in Industrial Wastes
issues. This report is likely to have a significant impact on the ongoing class action suit
on Bhopal in the U.S. court. We are also hoping that this report would trigger off
discussions and debates on the continuing environmental impact of the 1984 gas
disaster and the need for urgent action and monitoring of the situation. One of the
recommendation of the group is to demand from both state as well the concerned
corporation, clean water supply to the affected people in Bhopal as an immediate
measure and demand clean up of the toxic site in Bhopal.
The second report was on Mental Health by Prof. Srinivasa Murthy of International
repute of the National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, (N1MHANS),
Bangalore and Dr. Amit Basu of Jawaharlal Nehru University. Both the reports
underlined and reconfrmed that the long term damage done to the psyche of the
survivors of the disaster is yet to be dealt with by the state. The report based on both
qualitative and quantitative studies carried out in Bhopal found a pattern of mental
illness specific to the survivors of the disaster.
Both of them lamented the
discontinuation of monitoring of the situation as well as periodic assessment and study
on the mental health problems on Bhopal. They were also shocked about the lack of
concern and mechanisms in health care programmes of the state to deal with the
mental health situation in Bhopal. Their report emphasised an urgent need to set in
place monitoring mechanisms and systematic long term care for the people mentally
affected by the gas disaster.
.p
-
The report on the Union Carbide Corporation was compiled by Tomas Mac Sheoin,
Ireland, internationally acclaimed writer of one of the best books on the Bhopal gas
tragedy. His report was based on the study and research on the company s records
and its filings to the US Environmental Protection Agencies, Security rxchange
commission and other regulatory agencies. The findings indicate that the Corporation
remains unscathed and in fact in the subsequent years of the disaster grew in its
assets and had world wide access through a series of mergers and spin offs. The
report also documents Union Carbide’s unhealthy track record in terms of occupational
and environmental safety worldwide.
These three reports form part in a series of reports on the aftermath of 1984 Union
Carbide gas disaster, envisaged by the Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal after 17 years
which was launched in the 14th year of the disaster (1998) with survivors groups and
their supporters.
Though the survivors and support organisations have for years demanded for a
National Commission on Bhopal there was absolutely no response from the
government. Hence initially, it was decided to constitute a “People's Commission on
Bhopal” composed of experts, eminent people, survivors and supporters to assess,
monitor and respond to the issues concretely. However, it was realised that this
proposal would be premature if an analysis of the current situation on different aspects
was not comprehensively investigated. Hence, it resulted in identification of 15 themes
that would be investigated to evaluate the full impact of the disaster through inter
disciplinary research that would reconstruct the history and assess the current situation
in Bhopal. The 15 groups which were constituted while launching the FFM on 30th
November 1998 in Delhi were as follows:
(1) Medical care (2) Medical Research (3) Mental Health consequences and cultural
impact (4) Legal issues (5) Economic rehabilitation (6) Labour (7). Social Rehabilitation
(8) Environment (9) Union Carbide (10) Scientific Institutions (11) Role of state and
Central Governments (12) Non Government organisations and People’s organisations
(13) Memorial on the Disaster and its people (14) Disaster Management (15) Media’s
Response.
The basic objectives of the FFM through study and investigation on the 15 areas was
to provide :
i)
a reconstruction of facts ‘lost or forgotten’, Analysis of the continuing
impact of the disaster on different aspects of the lives of survivors, Assess the
work of the many agencies involved over the years and Outline larger policy
changes as a result of the disaster. Explore future, long term, self sustaining
critical interventions that directly work with and for the people of Bhopal to
implement the recommendations of the FFM.
To compile documentation on all the various aspects related to the
Bhopal gas disaster.
To compel an otherwise indifferent government/s and corporations to remain
accountable to the continuing sufferings of the people of Bhopal while
simultaneously taking responsibilities for setting up a national commission on
Bhopal towards implementation of the recommendations of the mission jointly
with the survivors organisations and their national and international supporters.
FFM has drawn up resources and research of more than 30 experts and professionals
around the world. The plan is to release 10 other reports dealing with legal, economic,
medical, social and other aspects of the continuing disaster in Bhopal by June this
year.
You will find along with this note the first part of the report of the FFM which consists of
the following:
1. Report on Environment, (2) Report on Mental Health & (3) Report on Union Carbide
Corporation.
You will also find Executive Summaries of these 3 reports. We would appreciate if you
could use these material either to write articles in newspapers and journals or to
dessiminate the information as widely as possible. Kindly inform us as to what you are
doing with the reports at the following address:
Surviving Bhopal - 17 years on
A Fact Finding Mission
B-14 (second floor),
Gulmohar Park
New Delhi 110 048
E-mail othermedia@vsnl.com
E. Deenadayalan & D. Leena
On behalf of the Fact Finding Mission
Encl: 3 Reports, Executive Summaries
OH-lA-
SRISHTI
Bhopal - Toxic Noose
A Summary of the Report on Human and Environmental
Chemical Contamination around the Bhopal disaster site
More than 17 years, and the toxic legacy of Bhopal continues like a noose around
those who were exposed on the fateful day.
As the following report once again evidence, Bhopal did not just happen on December
3rd, 1984. It is continuing to happen to those who were unfortunate to live in its
vicinity on that fateful day. Not only this generation but the next generations too
stands to be contaminated and poisoned by the disaster. Not only is the soil, but also
ground water, vegetables as well as mother” breast milk has found to be contaminated.
All media, soil, ground water, vegetables, breast milk investigated were found
contaminated by heavy metals, pesticide- HCH and organochlorines to various
degrees. The evidence suggests that the toxics had not only moved across various
mediums but had also become part of body burdens. As is well known, some of these
toxics accumulate in human fat, and are passed onto the next generation through
mother’s breast milk.
Though the Bhopal disaster was a watershed in the area of environmental policy and
legislation worldwide yet today in India, the common person has tittle rescourse in
such a situation. People are not only alienated through the language of science but
also not allowed access to any documents, which may threaten their safety. Industrial
siting has not improved too. Industries continue to come up in urban centres and lead
to concentrations of large communities around their periphery. Accident preparedness
in non existent and the designated local officers entrusted with the tasks of responding
in an Bhopal like emergency often are not even aware that they have this
responsibility leave alone how to react.
Such is the state of affairs more than 15 years after the worst industrial accident took
place. One can only place the blame on a complete lack of will of the State to act in
favor of the citizen. Instead of venturing down a path of clean development and attract
the best process in the world, we have set our minds to development at any cost
People have become mere statistics, especially if they are marginalised, poor and
voiceless. The Bhopal disaster, and its ongoing human tragedy have not taught us any
lessons In fact we have just no wanted to learn.
Findings
The objective of the present study was to establish the:
1. Presence of toxic contaminants in the factory premises and at dumping sites of the
factory away from premises.
2. Quantitative estimations of the toxic chemicals.
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
SRISHTI
Bhopal - Toxic Noose
3. Mobility of the chemicals.
4. Ascertain the presence of the chemicals in areas adjoining residential areas.
5. Trophic transfer of these chemicals, which essentially is through food chain to
humans.
6. Exposure of human infants through breast milk.
The study clearly indicates that the factory is a source of chemical contamination
since most of the chemicals used in the factory, are still present in factory and its
adjoining residential areas.
The heavy metal nickel constituted up to 35% contamination, while mercury
contamination was 21%. The heavy metal distribution was not uniform in different
areas in the factory. Mercury was found at very high levels near the Pan filter area.
Chromium was present at the Solar Evaporation pond and it constituted 7% of the
various toxic chemicals detected at this site. The factory samples still showed almost
4% contamination of volatile organic compounds. The pesticide HCH constituted
40% of contamination near the Sevin Shed, was a point for the formulation of the
pesticide Sevin with Lindane (gamma_HCH). Among the halo-organics, the
Dichloromethane was fairly consistent amounting to 1% in all the factory samples.
The most significant contaminant was chloroform amounted as high as 85% at SEP
site, while at the factory it constituted 73% among the various contaminants at the
alpha-napthol site, 65% at Pan filter site, 59% near the Sevin plant and 32% near the
Sevin Shed.
The samples from the residential areas showed all the toxic chemicals present in the
factory and its acquired premises. Among the toxic chemicals analysed in the soil,
56% constituted chloroform, 14% HCH isomers, 8% VOC’s and 20% heavy metals.
Among the heavy metals nickel constitutes 9%, while mercury and chromium
amounted to 5 and 6%, respectively. The groundwater samples showed the highest
concentration of dichloromethane, which amou9nted to 44% of the total toxic
chemicals. The water also contained 23% chloroform and 30% nickel. In the
vegetable samples, 77% comprised chloroform, while 20% constituted heavy metals.
Mercury accounted to 9% while nickel and chromium amounted to 5 and 6%,
respectively. The major contaminant in the breast milk was VOC’s, which accounted
to 40% of the total toxic chemicals detected. The pesticide, HCH formed 34% of the
total toxicants, while chloroform constituted 16% of the contamination.
Results of the survey clearly indicate mobility of the toxic chemicals from the
emanating source, the UCIL factory to the adjoining residential areas. Further there
are no other chemical industries within the radius of 3.5 km from the factory, which
have used the chemicals mentioned in UCIL inventory.
Chloroform, HCH, chlorobenzene, nickel and lead are the major contaminant in the
residential areas. The UCIL factory was the source for presence of these chemicals in
these areas. Chloroform was used as a solvent in the manufacture of methyl carbomy|
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
SR1SHTI
Bhopal ■ Toxic Noose
chloride, an intermediate in Sevin production. Mercury was used as a sealant, while
chromium and nickel were from corroded processing equipments and storage
facilities. The pesticide, Lindane (gamma-HCH), was used in making a formulation
with Sevin. The plant stored chlorinated benzenes; dichlorobenzenes and it had also
manufactured these compounds on a small scale, before beginning with Sevin
production The trichlorobenzenes may have produced from isomers, produced during
the manufacture of HCH.
The results clearly establish that there has been a serious environmental
contamination due to UCIL factory. Although, it has been 16 years since it ceased to
function, still, a number of chemicals are present and are making its way to other
areas It is evident, that many of organisms normally thriving in soil would have been
wiped out from the contaminated areas. The vegetables grown in the interior of a
residential area opposite to the front gate of the factory had the ability to absorb these
toxic chemicals and transfer to the next trophic level of a food chain, which may be
either herbivore or an omnivore, like human beings. Another very significant aspect is
that the human breast milk showed maximum concentrations for VOC’s and a higher
concentration of the pesticide HCH. It is evident that these carcinogenic toxics are
bio-concentrated in the breast milk. Hence, this poses a serious concern to infants, as
it is the easiest and shortest route of exposure of number of these suspected
carcinogenic chemicals.
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
ch-
REPORT ON UNION CARBIDE CORPORATION
by
TOMAS MAC SHEOIN
For the Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
TOMAS MAC SHEOIN
7, St. Antony’s Road
Dublin - 8,
Ireland
Email: tomas.x@ireland.com
FACT FINDING MISSION ON BHOPAL
C/o B-14, (SF), Gulmohar Park,
New Delhi-110049
Phones: 91-11-6561743/6514847 Fax: 6511504
Email: othermedia@vsnl.com
CONTENTS
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Acknowledgements And Some Warnings
1
1
Bhopal - A Crime Of Globalisation
3
2
Bhopal - A Result of Globalisation
4
3
Union Carbide History
5
3.1
Origin and Growth
5
3.2
Union Carbide’s Internationalisation
7
3.3
Union Carbide in Bhopal
8
3.4
Union Carbide after Bhopal-Decline until Disappearance
9
3.5
Union Carbide’s Decline
11
4
Union Carbide - Current Situation
12
4.1
Products and Markets
12
4.2
4.3
Directors
Union Carbide Factory Locations
14
16
4.4
Union Carbide - New Projects
17
4.5
Union Carbide Licensing Activities
18
4.6
Union Carbide and Dow - The Merger
20
5
Union Carbide -Toxic History And Present
22
5.1
Union Carbide’s Polluted History
23
5.2
Union Carbide’s Political Action
24
5.3
Toxic Releases and Waste Generation
24
5.4
Accidental Releases Of Chemicals
28
5.5
Air Pollution from Union Carbide Factories
30
5.6
Toxic Waste Sites
30
6
Union Carbide and The Nuclear Industry
33
6.1
Occupational Safety And Health
34
Some Conclusions
36
-----
Appendices
One
Form 10-K, including annual report, downloaded from SEC
website
Two
UC history
Three
Docket list of EPA legal actions against UC regarding waste
disposal
Four
List of accidental chemical spills
Five
Chemical releases into the US environment and waste arising
at UC plants in the US (Downloaded from www.rtk.net)
Six
Profile by Mine watch/Roger Moody. Reprinted from the Gulliver
file
Tomas Mac Sheoin
Report on the Union Carbide Corporation
Acknowledgements
and
Some
Warnings
I would like to thank Deena of the Organizing Committee
for inviting me to contribute this report to the Fact Finding
Mission. Thanks are due to Nicola Yeates for assistance in
obtaining material.
The remit of the report set out in the Fact Finding Mission
was to provide an overview of Union Carbide in terms of
assets, annual profits,
facilities, products, board of
directors, number of employees, number of countries, new
projects, rating as corporation, other disasters and health
and safety records. When I enquired about length
constraints, I was informed what was important was that
the report be comprehensive.
To satisfy the desire for
comprehensive coverage, yet to avoid overtaxing the reader
with every detail, I have divided the report into two, the
report itself and various appendices which provide
comprehensive details on many issues fleetingly mentioned
in the report.
Some further caveats have to be entered here. The first and
most basic is that the corporation of which this report treats
no long°r exists. In February 2001 Union Carbide was
merged with Dow Chemical. Faced with this situation, and
with the criminal history of Dow being so voluminous as to
require a report in itself, the report confines itself to Union
Carbide, with a short note on the merger, and Dow itself
dealt with rather summarily in an appendix.
Another failing is the skewed balance in the report between
information on Union Carbide’s operations in its home
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
i
Tomas Mac Sheoin
Report on the Union Carbide Corporation
country and elsewhere. Here the balance simply reflects
the availability of information. It is one of the bitter ironies
of Bhopal that its major reformist effects were felt in Union
Carbide’s home country. Inspired by the massacre and the
public response to it, the US state increased regulatory
activities. One major step forward came through the setting
up of the Toxic Releases Inventory and other freedom of
information measures that greatly increased public access
to information on toxic chemical releases and waste arising.
Thus the following report will provide detailed material on
Union Carbide’s operations in the US and their
environmental impact, while it is unable to provide such
information on Union Carbide operations and joint ventures
outside the US.
Given the limited time available to
compile the report, it seemed best to concentrate on
available information.
Another point that must be made is that some of the report
provides raw data, without interpretation. The section on
routine releases simply provides poundage of various
chemicals currently released routinely into the environment
by Union Carbide plants in the US, without providing
details of the media into which these toxics are released or
an interpretation of damage caused. Thus much of the
report is materialfor analysis rather than a fully formulated
position.
Finally, a note, as to the structure of the report. The first
section provides details of Union Carbide as a capitalist
enterprise, the second deals with the effect of Union
Carbide on the environment, including human beings,
throughout the world.
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
2
Tomas Mac Sheoin
1.
Report on the Union Carbide Corporation
Bhopal: A Crime of Globalisation
The Bhopal massacre has been described as a crime of globalisation. Speaking in Genoa
in July 2001 Satinath Sarangi of the BGIA said “The double standards of Union Carbide
and Dow, the death and destruction caused by them in war and peace, the impunity they
enjoy with regard to the Indian government and the utter failure of international relief or
judicial agencies to respond to Bhopal - all characterise it as a glaring example of the
evils of Globalisation. Indeed, in its timing and in the composition of the principal actors,
Bhopal is a curtain raiser to the sordid drama of Globalisation. Bhopal is a window to
what lies at the end of Globalisation.”
The results of the disaster exposed the dark side of global inequality. In India people
were killed and maimed, while the major safety measures taken in response to the
disaster resulted from government action in the core countries. A small number of
chemical companies reformed their operations globally, but most cleaned up only when
they had to. Some companies got out of producing toxic chemicals in core countries,
either by subcontracting production to a chemical company in a peripheral country or by
getting out of the market entirely, while some companies moved whole production
processes from the metropolitan heartlands to peripheral countries in Asia and Latin
America.
If Bhopal was a local crime, it also was a global crime. The deal UNION CARBIDE cut
over Bhopal with the Indian government was the go-ahead to the chemical corporations
to return to business as usual: with the costs of chemical disasters set at Third World
standards, corporations can easily afford the odd massacre.
These toxic corporations operate globally, endangering people throughout the world,
whether in peripheral countries like India or among those people and places considered
expendable in metropolitan countries, places like Louisiana or Texas in the USA. While
there has been some cleaning up done on a (highly) selective basis, as long as the price
for mass murder is set as cheaply as it was in Bhopal, 48 cents a share, no-one and
nowhere is safe.
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
3
Tomas Mac Sheoin
2.
Report on the Union Carbide Corporation
Bhopal: a Result of Globalisation
More generally we can see the Bhopal story as showing the intersection of various
globalising strategies at different stages -that of UNION CARBIDE first through Foreign
Direct Investment, and later through such new forms of investment as joint ventures and
licensing -that of the Indian state first isolating itself from the global economy and later
attempting to insert itself into the global economy -and later still (though not covered in
this report) the strategies of transnational NGOs like Greenpeace seeking to expand into
peripheral country markets now the core country markets have become saturated.
Here the useful insight Bhopal offers to globalisation theories is the depiction of the
changing nature of the relation between the Indian state and the US multinational, which
was in no way as one-sided as strong globalisation theorists proclaim, but which varied
over time. On a macro level we can see Bhopal as a direct result of globalising strategies
involved in the development of the Green Revolution, which allowed capital to expand its
reach into what were previously at least partially subsistence and peasant economies.
Here we should note that the Green Revolution was a co-production of state and capital.
The factory in Bhopal was a direct result of the implementation in India of the Green
Revolution and here (on a micro level, if you wish) local peculiarities are important. At
the time of the Green Revolution India had greater autonomy in relation to multinational
capital then had Latin American countries and not only was not dominated by US capital
but was able to indulge in playing off the US and the USSR for the benefit of the local
ruling elite. Through control of access to the Indian market India was able to exert
control on foreign capital, which, if it was unhappy, could always leave. By the time of
the Bhopal massacre the balance of power between state and capital had shifted, with the
collapse of the command economies and India’s desire for economic modernisation and
liberalisation.
Let us now turn from these more general questions to practicalities relating to Union
Carbide(UC).
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
4
Tomas Mac Sheoin
3.
Union Carbide History
3.1
Origin and Growth
Report on the Union Carbide Corporation
Though its history can be traced back to 1898, the present form of Union Carbide
appeared in 1917 when five individual American chemical companies joined forces to
create one of the world’s leading industrial gas producers. The companies which merged
were Union Carbide (calcium carbide, acetylene) with plants at Niagara Falls and Sault
Ste. Marie, Michigan, National Carbon (carbide electrodes and Ever ready batteries),
Prest-O-Lite (headlights and welding/cutting equipment), Linde Air Products (liquid
oxygen) and Electro-Metallurgical Co (metal alloys). Thus from the beginning UNION
CARBIDE was a heavy manufacturing and raw materials company. Noble presents the
merger as the result of a technical fit between the five companies: ‘The formation of
Union Carbide and Carbon Corporation in 1917 followed logically from the technical
interdependence of five companies. The oldest, national carbon, processed coke to make
carbon products of importance to the growing electrical industry: carbon electrodes for
arc lamps, brushes for electric motors and dynamos, and batteries.
In addition, it
produced carbon electrodes for electric furnaces, which were used in the production of
metal alloys. Union Carbide employed electric furnaces to produce calcium carbide, and
Electro-Mettalurgical (Electromet) needed them to manufacture metal alloys. Prest-OLite produced acetylene, which was generated in a calcium carbide reaction, and Linde
extracted oxygen from air, which, together with acetylene, made possible oxyacetylene
welding and cutting equipment’. (Noble: 17) Noble also presents the formation of Union
Carbide as one of the wave of mergers (500 in all during the 1920s), which consolidated
the American chemical industry after World War One.
Union Carbide’s history shows the increasing importance of scientific research in
capitalist development in the 20th century. Research by George Curme and others at the
Mellon Institute, funded by UNION CARBIDE, by 1920 had led to the synthesis of a raft
of ethylene derivatives, ethylene oxide, ethylene glycol, eythylene dichloride, diethyl
sulphate, ethanol and isopropanol. This research seemed so promising that UNION
CARBIDE set up a new division to develop it. Thus Union Carbide can lay claim to a
significant part in the origin of the petrochemicals industry when, as a result of research
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
5
Tomas Mac Sheoin
Report on the Union Carbide Corporation
work funded by Union Carbide, the first significant production of ethylene and propylene
took place. Union Carbide set up a pilot plant to crack petroleum fractions in Clendenin,
West Virginia, in 1920, which produced a series of ethylene derivatives, including
ethylene oxide, ethylene glycol, dichloroethane and ethyl alcohol.
Chandler describes how this research and development was used by Union Carbide to
become a leading petrochemicals producer. Tn the late 1920s, by setting up plants next to
Standard of Indiana’s largest refinery at Whiting and another at Texas City, Texas, that
division became the most focussed pioneer in petrochemicals. In the 1930s the division
led the way in such basic chemicals as butadiene and ethylene (from grain alcohol) and
polymers including polyvinyl chloride (PVC), vinyl chloride monomers, ethyl vinyl
chloride and polystyrene. By 1936 Union Carbide began production of Vinylite for
flooring, phonograph records and fabric coatings and then in 1939 a synthetic fabric
Vinyon’. (Chandler: 421)
The first commercially produced ethylene glycol was produced at Union Carbide’s
Charleston, West Virginia plant in 1924 -this was sold as a substitute for glycerine in the
production of dynamite before it was marketed as antifreeze for car engines. Within four
years production of ethylene glycol had reached close to 6000 tpa. Between 1929 and
1939 Union Carbide pushed ahead with its groundbreaking reserarch at the Mellon
Institute and was the first to market synthetic ethanol, ethylene oxide, glycols,
ethanolamines, acetones and acetic anhydride. Through its Niacet subsidiary, set up in
1924 with Canadian company Shawinigan Chemicals, it produced acetaldehyde, acetic
acid, vinyl acetate and -from 1936- vinyl copolymers To pursue its interests in the latter
products, Union Carbide bought the Bakelite Corp in 1939, which also gave it access to
the British market.
World War 2 gave a tremendous impetus to the development of the US petrochemicals
industry, which massively increased production of toluene for TNT and various other
chemicals for aviation fuel and other aviation uses, as well as developing synthetic
rubber. Production of synthetic material for the war effort boomed and Union Carbide,
along with other US corporations, benefited. ICI passed on its method for making
polyethylene (PE), which was important for making insulating cables for radar, to both
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
6
Tomas Mac Sheoin
Report on the Union Carbide Corporation
Union Carbide and DuPont. By 1943 Union Carbide was making a low-density PE that
was superior to Id’s product. Union Carbide also played a major part in the Manhattan
Project. After the war, Union Carbide was the US’s largest producer of petrochemicals,
the leading producer of butadiene, stryrene, ethylene and polyethylene and a major player
in industrial gases and alloys. With such a wide variety of product areas, Union Carbide
began to lose focus, falling behind Dow and DuPont in the 1960s and facing increased
competition in industrial gases and metals. It was here that Union Carbide made a fateful
mistake. Rather than facing competitors and fighting them as what it was, a low-cost
producer of chemicals and plastics, it began abandoning markets it knew and suffering
from conglomerate fever, diversifying into various new ventures, none of which covered
the corporation in glory, “branching off more and more into new businesses about which
management knew little. There were ventures in salmon farming, synthetic gemstones, in
integrated circuits and diaper manufacturing” (Forbes 18/5/87) In the mid-1970s Union
Carbide abandoned these ventures, and also pulled out of PVC, styrene, polystyrene and
out of petrochemicals produuction in Europe (due to an overcapacity crisis) and turned to
concentrate on core products such as polyethylene, ethylene oxide and industrial gases. In
the late 1970s Union Carbide developed a new process for synthesising polyethylene,
which sharply reduced the production costs of HDPE. Union Carbide began licensing
this technology in 1979 and also began selling engineering services. In 1978 Fortune
reported that Union Carbide operated more than 350 plants in the US. In 1979 Union
Carbide owned some 500 plants, mines and mills in 37 different countries. That same
year it lost its position as second largest chemical company in the US to Dow, though it
was still ranked as 7th largest chemical company in the world.
3.2
Union Carbide’s Internationalisation
After the war Union Carbide continued its production of plastics and began to expand
internationally. It had long had its Canadian operation along with its factories in
Charleston and Institute in West Virginia, moved into England through the purchase of
Bakelite and set up its first Belgian factory after WW2. During the 1950s Union Carbide
expanded its production of PE internationally, setting up factories in Sweden, Antwerp,
India and Brazil. In 1957 Union Carbide operated in 27 countries through 42 wholly-
owned and partly-owned subsidiaries. Its international operations also grew in the area of
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
7
Tomas Mac Sheoin
Report on the Union Carbide Corporation
graphite electrodes, industrial gases, ferro-alloys, batteries and anti-freeze; creating an
industrial giant whose turnover exceeded $1.5
bn by 1960. In 1961 Union Carbide
commissioned a 25,000 tpa low density PE plant in Antwerp, with further expansions
inceasing capacity to 130,000 tpa in 1975. By 1963 Union Carbide had become the
world’s second largest chemical company.
As part of its internationalisation, Union Carbide became India’s first petrochemical
producer, setting up a wholly-owned subsidiary in Bombay to build and operate an
ethylene plant of 10,000 tpa, later expanded to 20,000 tpa. In a review of the industry by
the OECD, it was noted ‘Union Carbide is the only member of the US “first league” to be
involved in all regions, but this is due to its recent shift to a systematic use of arms-length
licensing for its LLDPE Unipol process.’ The OECD noted its involvement in Brazil and
India by operating subsidiaries and in Argentina, China, Korea,, Saudi Arabia and Libya
through technology transfer (licensing) only.
By 1975 25per cent of Union Carbide’s sales were foreign. In 1980 Union Carbide was
ranked 5 largest thermoplastic producer in the world with overall capacity of 1626000
tpa, following Hoechst (1687000tpa), Shell (1705000tpa), BASF (1847000) and DovV
(2865000tpa) In 1985 Union Carbide had a worldwide salaried workforce of just under
50,000, 23,000 of whom worked outside North America. Of Union Carbide’s total
international workforce of 47,000, 38% were based in the Far East and 34% in Latin
America. Union Carbide employed 6679 workers in Europe and 2,883 in Africa and the
Middle East. At the beginning of the 1990s, Union Carbide was still in the top 30 US
exporters -along with DuPont, Allied-Signal, Dow and Monsanto.
3.3
Union Carbide in Bhopal
Rather than search for some unnecessary conspiracy involving chemical warfare, Union
Carbide’s arrival in Bhopal should be seen as the result of two types of globalisation, not
only the internationalisation of Union Carbide we have already detailed, but also the
globalisation of pesticide use that accompanied the global restructuring project called the
Green Revolution.
Union Carbide’s arrival in Bhopal was part of this
internationalisation. On February 25, 1974 Chemical and Engineering News reported
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
8
Report on the Union Carbide Corporation
Tomas Mac Sheoin
Union Carbide India would build a plant at Bhopal with 10 million lb capacity for Sevin
and 5 million lb capacity for Temik. Similarly the overcapacity of the plant can be easily
explained by over-optimistic estimates of the Indian market. (Such over-estimation is
common to the petrochemicals industry, which is generally recognised to suffer from
periodic overcapacity crises).
3.4
Carbide After Bhopal: Decline Until Disappearance
Its response to Bhopal showed Union Carbide’s ruthlessness when faced with the victims
of its operations. Union Carbide followed a series of strategies that sought to distance the
US corporation from the Bhopal operation with the intention to insulate the US
corporation from liability.
While loudly proclaiming its moral responsibility, Union
Carbide took care to remain distant from legal responsibility. We should not see Union
Carbide’s strategies only as revealing the evil nature of Union Carbide staff but also as an
expression of the evil of market forces. A study of investor reaction to Union Carbide
management responses to Bhopal found that accommodative positions were punished by
the markets, with investors reacting sharply and negatively, while defensive positions
resulted in market approval.(Marcus)
One successful result, from the point of view of the market, was the way that Union
Carbide was able to get its capital out of danger. In December 1985 Union Carbide set
out a major restructuring programme, which led to a massive reduction in the assets
Union Carbide Corporation possessed from which to pay eventual Bhopal claims. While
this restructuring was finally forced on Union Carbide by its battle for management
control with the GAF corporation, the net result was the same. A large part of Union
Carbide’s capital ba^e was sold off, major assets such as the consumer products division
were divested and the proceeds distributed as a special dividend to Union Carbide
shareholders. Union Carbide also bought back stock from its shareholders.
While Union Carbide had planned this restructuring, it was the December 1985/January
1986 battle with GAF that forced it into the major restructuring it finally undertook. This
take-over bid and the jockeying for control of Union Carbide added a bitter twist to an
already bitter story. It provided us with a sickening example of the vile perversity of the
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
9
Tomas Mac Sheoin
Report on the Union Carbide Corporation
owners and controllers of toxic capital in the US. While two vultures fought over the
carcass of Union Carbide, one was playing tough in its negotiations with the Indian state
over Bhopal and the other had no compunction about using the Bhopal issue as part of its
takeover strategy. Thus Samuel Heyman, who headed the GAF takeover bid, held up to
Union Carbide shareholders the illusory scenario that he would move quickly to resolve
the Bhopal suit as part of his take-over strategy. Though Heyman was reported to have
put a high priority on settling the Bhopal suits, he had previously shown himself to be an
extremely tough litigator. In December 1983 GAF had 12,000 asbestos-related suits
pending against it and fought them to the bitter end. Business Week pointed out ‘it would
be to Heyman’s advantage to have Carbide’s shareholders think he would move towards
settlement more quickly’.
During the battle with GAF, Union Carbide handed out golden parachutes to its golden
boys far more lavishly than it gave relief to Bhopal victims. Union Carbide directors had
allowed, in the event of a successful hostile takeover $28 million for some 42 top
executives, $8.7 million of which was for its top five officials. Neither result of the battle
boded well for the victims of Bhopal: Heyman intended funding his bid with high-risk
junk bonds and intended selling off choice assets to pay for the take over. Union Carbide
finally defeated Hayman by pursuing his strategy themselves, announcing their intention
of selling off their consumer sales division, which accounted for $1.9 billion of Union
Carbide’s $9.5billion 1984 sales, a particularly profitable part of total sales. The cost of
compensating the victims of Bhopal pales compared with the debts incurred in fighting
the takeover, the legal and banking fees and golden parachutes.
Beating off GAF doubled Union Carbide’s debt to $4.5billion and slashed its equity value
to a quarter of what it had been. The new, highly leveraged, Union Carbide was reliant
on ‘highly cyclical industrial businesses’ with a ‘low-growth mix of industrial gases,
chemicals and plastics.’ GAF came out of the battle with a $200 million gain. After the
battle GAF’s lawyers and merchant bankers were owed $60 million. Union Carbide’s
bankers took at least $14 million, while Anderson complained ‘Wall Street is becoming a
casino rather than an investment organisation.’
The result of Union Carbide’s restructuring was a company whose base had been
drastically curbed and which seemed fated to face a future of decline.
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
10
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4.
Union Carbide -Current Situation
4.1
Products and markets
At 31 December 2000, Union Carbide employed 11,346 people around the world. In
essence Union Carbide is a bulk chemicals and plastics manufacturer of both speciality
and commodity chemicals, with a sideline in licensing technology. Its speciality and
intermediate chemicals sales accounted for 68% of revenues in 2000.
This sector’s
products includes water-soluble and performance poymers, acrolein and derivatives,
emulsions, speciality polyolefins,
ethylene oxide derivatives, glycols,
solvents,
intermediates and monomers for the print industry. This sector of Union Carbide also
licences Union Carbide proprietary technology for the production of PE and PP. The
Basic Chemicals and Polymers division produces ethylene, propylene, ethylene oxide,
ethylene glycol, polyethylene and polypropylene, all bulk or commodity chemicals
(greater details on products can be found on pp.3-5 of Union Carbide 10-K form;
reprinted as Appendix 1)
The chemical industry is a highly competitive one. In the speciality and intermediate
chemicals sector, Union Carbide estimates 24 other major speciality chemical companies
are in competition with Union Carbide, while in basic chemicals there are at least 12
other major competitors. Union Carbide has a functional split internationally “Products
that the corporation markets are largely produced in the US, while products marketed by
the corporation s joint ventures are principally produced outside the US” (10-K form, p.7)
The range of markets, which Union Carbide supplies, may be seen in the next table,
which gives end markets as a percentage of Union Carbide annual sales for 2000
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
12
Tomas Mac Sheoin
Report on the Union Carbide Corporation
1.
END MARKET AS PERCENTAGE OF SALES
Packaging and consumer plastics
23
2,
Paints, coatings, adhesives
21
3,
Wire and cable______________
11
4,
Textile
7
5.
Households and personal care
7
6.
Car industry, including anti-freeze
7
7.
Agriculture, food
4
8,
Oil and gas_________________
2
9.
Industrial cleaners
|2
While the majority of Union Carbide sales are within the US, foreign sales are a major
source of income. The following table details the geographical breakdown of Union
Carbide sales for the year ended 31 December 2000
S.No.
LOCATION
Million $
J__
US and Puerto Rico
3951
2___
Canada_____________
272
3
Europe and Middle East
841
4
Latin America
456
2
Far East and others
1006
6
Net sales
6526
Research and development costs were $152 million in 2000 and $154 million in 1999.
Capital expenditure in 2000 was $459 million, compared with $764 million in 1999. For
these two years capital expenditure divided into spending on new capacity (68 per cent)
cost reduction and replacement (27%) and environment health and safety (5 per cent).
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
13
Tomas Mac Sheoin
4.2
Report on the Union Carbide Corporation
DIRECTORS
C. Fred Fetterolf
^^CoZany'or^^
the Health,
^n^r^ental
serves on the Audit, Compensation z
Executive and NominatingPcommittees.
OP!rating °ff-(HsX
ChairS
Committee and
9en,ent Development,
Rainer E. Gut
Chairman of Credit Suisse Group, Credit Suisse First Boston and
Credit Suisse, all of Switzerland. A UCC board member since 1994,
he chairs the Finance and Pension Committee and is.a member of
the Compensation & Management Development and Nominating
Committees.
Vernon-E. Jordan, Jr.
Senior managing director of Lazard Freres & Co. He is chairman of
the Nominating Committee and a member of the Executive, Finance &
Pension and Public Policy Committees. He has been a board member
since 1987.
William H. Joyce
.
Chairman, president and chief executive officer of Union Carbide
Corporation. A director since 1992, he is chairman of the
Executive Committee.
Robert D. Kennedy
Retired chairman and chief executive officer of Union Carbide
Corporation. He serves on the Audit, Executive, Nominating and
Public Policy Committees and has been a director since 1985.
Ronald L. Kuehn, Jr.
Director and chairman of El Paso Energy Corporation. A UCC board
member since 1984, he chairs the Compensation & Management
Development Committee and serves on the Executive, Finance &
Pension and HS&EA Committees.
Rozanne L. Ridgway
Former assistant secretary of state for Europe and Canada. A
director since 1990, she chairs the Public Policy Committee and
is a member of the Audit, HS&EA and Nominating Committees.
James M. Ringler
Vice-Chairman of Illinois Tool Works Inc. He has been a director
since 1996 and is chairman of the Audit Committee and a member of
the Compensation & Management Development, Finance & Pension and
HS&JA Committees.
Paul J. Wilhelm
President of the U.S. Steel Group of USX Corporation and a
director of that corporation. Elected a director in 1998, he
serves on the Audit, Finance & Pension, HS&EA and Public Policy
Committees.
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
14
Tomas Mac Sheoin
Report on the Union Carbide Corporation
specialties t« intermeuiaieb
1
<TABLE>
<CAPTION>
Millions of dollars, except as indicated
<S>
Segment revenues
Cost of sales, exclusive of depreciation and amortization
Gross margin
Depreciation and amortization
Partnership income
Operating profit
Income (loss) from corporate investments carried at equity
Customer volume (millions of pounds)
Unit variable margin (cents/pound)
Fixed cost per pound of products sold (certs/pound)
Capital expenditures
Investments, advances and acquisitions
Segment assets
1999
<C>
$4,182
3,100
1,082
262
6
$ 607
$ (1)
8,946
22.5
13.9
$ 291
64
$4,603
1998
<C>
$4,139
3,007
1,132
247
27
$ 833
1
$
8,101
24.3
14.7
$ 438
42
$4,403
<C>
$4
3
1
$
$
8
$
$4
Specialties & Intermediates Joint Ventures
<TABLE>
<CAPTION>
Millions of dollars
<S>
Net sales
Cost of sales
Depreciation
Income from operations
Interest expense
Provision for income taxes
Net Income (Loss)
UCC share of dividends & distributions
Total assets
Total third-party debt
Net Assets
$2,000
1,334
104
92
40
61
S
(7)
Combined
1998
1997
<C>
<C>
$2,060
$2,246
1, 345
1,395
119
90
231
340
43
42
48
76
$ 141
$ 224
$2,086
786
$ 606
$1,981
616
$ 474
1999
UCC
199
<C>
$99
65
4
5
1
3
$
$ 6
$92
33
$31
$1,837
588
$ 451
Basic Chemicals & Polymers
<TABLE>
<CAPTION>
Millions of dollars, except as indicated
<S>
Segment revenues
Cost of sales, exclusive of depreciation and amortization
Gross margin
Depreciation and amortization
Partnership income
Operating profit (loss)
Income (loss) from corporate investments carried at equity
Customer volume (millions of pounds)
Unit variable margin (cents/pound)
Fixed cost per pound of products sold (cents/pound)
Capital expenditures
Investments, advances and acquisitions
Segment assets
1999
<C>
$1,976
1,765
211
146
5
$ (21)
3
$
7,817
1998
<C>
$1,802
1,550
252
142
6
$ 20
$ (67)
6,614
7.2
5.8
$ 473
85
$3,137
9.6
7.5
$ 344
69
$2,686
1
<C>
$2
1
$
$
6
$
$2
Basic Chemicals & Polymers Joint ^'entures
<TABLE>
<CAPTION>
Millions of dollars
<S>
Net sales
Cost of sales
Depreciation
Income from operations
Interest expense
Provision for income taxes
Net Income (Loss)
UCC share of dividends & distributions
Total assets
Total third-party debt
$2,135
1, 649
244
155
157
26
$ (27)
Combined
1997
1998
<C>
<C>
$1,996
$2,078
1,597
1,661
253
102
50
219
206
70
27
49
$ (182)
$ 100
$3,548
1,241
$3,724
1,474
1999
$3,980
1,595
UCC’S
199
<C>
$1,04
81
9
10
7
1
$
$
1
$1,50
58
$
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
41
15
Tomas Mac Sheoin
4.3
Report on the Union Carbide Corporation
UNION CARBIDE FACTORY LOCATIONS
Union Carbide’s geographical reach can be seen in the following lists of
manufacturing locations. For Union Carbide’s manufacturing sites within the US, the
Specialities and Intermediates division operates at Torrance, California: Tucker, Georgia;
Alsip, Illinois; Greensburg, Norco and Taft, Louisiana; Bound Brook, Edison and
Somerset, New Jersey; Bayamon, Puerto Rico; Garland, Seadrift and Texas City, Texas
and Institute and South Charleston in West Virginia, while the Basic Chemicals and
Polymers division operates plants at Norco and Taft, Louisiana and Seadrift and Texas
City, Texas.
Internationally, Union Carbide’s Specialities and Intermediates division operates plants at
San Lorenzo, Argentine; Vilvoorde and Zwijndrecht, Belgium; Aratu, Cabo and Cubatao
in Brazil; Sarnia, Canada: Wilton, England; Jakarta, Indonesia; Seremban, Malaysia;
Guangdong and Shanghai in the PRC; Batangas, Philippines; Rayong, Thailand and
Dubai in the United Arab Emirates, while the Basic Chemicals and Polymers division
operates plants at Wilton in England and at Joffre and Prentis in Canada.
Union Carbide also maintains an international presence through the manufacturing
operations of the various joint ventures and partnerships Union Carbide has contracted.
The following are the principal joint ventures with their major manufacturing sites
In the Specialities and Intermediates sector, Union Carbide is involved in the following
joint ventures
1 UOP LLC -joint venture with Honeywell Has manufacturing plants in Mobile, Alabama; Des Plaines and McCook, Illinois;
Shreveport, Louisiana: Tonawanda, New York; Brimsdown, England; Leverkusen,
Germany and Reggio di Calabria, Italy.
2 UOP itself has participated in further joint ventures with manufacturing sites at
Shanghai, China and Hiratsukaa and Yokkaichi, Japan
3 NIPPON UNICAR CO LTD joint venture with Tonen Chemical Corp
Has manufacturing plants at Kawasaki and Komatsu, Japan.
4 ASPELL POLYMERES SNC -partnership with subsidiary of TotalFinaElf S.A.
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Report on the Union Carbide Corporation
Has manufacturing plant at Gonffeville, France
5 WORLD ETHANOL COMPANY -partnership with Archer Daniels Midland (ADM)
Has manufacturing plants in Peoria, Illinois and Texas City, Texas.
6 UNIVATION licensing joint venture with ExxonMobil
Has manufacturing facilities at Mont Belvieu, Texas.
7 ASIAN ACETYLS CO LTD -joint venture with BP Chemicals and Samsung Fine
Chemicals Co
Has manufacturing facility at Ulsan, South Kores.
8 OPTIMAL CHEMICALS MALAYSIA SDN BHD joint venture with Petronas
Currently building world-scale ethylene and propylene derivatives plant at Kerteh,
Terengganu, Malaysia.
In the Basic Chemicals and Polymers sector Union Carbide is involved in the following
joint ventures
1 POLIMERI EUROPE SRL -joint venture with ENIChem SPA
Has manufacturing plants at Dunkirk, France: Oberhausen, Germany and Brindisi,
Ferrara, Gela, Priolo and Ragusa; Italy.
2 EQUATE PETROCHEMICAL CO KSC -joint venture with Petrochemical Industries
Co and Boubyan Petrochemical Co
Operates worldscale ethylene, PE and ethylene glycol plants at Shuaaiba, Kuwait.
3 PETROMONT AND CO -partnership with Ethylec Inc
Operates manufacturing plants at Montreal and Varennes, Auebec, Canada.
4 ALBERTA AND ORIENT GLYCOL CO LTD -joint venture with Mitsui and Far
Eastern Textile
Operates a manufacturing facility at Prentiss, Alberta, Canada.
5 OPTIMAL OLEFINS MALAYSIA SDN BHD and OPTIMAL GLYCOLS
MALAYSIA SDN BHD
4.4
Union Carbide - New projects
With the chemical industry currently in the trough period of its economic cycle. Union
Carbide has announced very few new projects over the last few years. In the main, the
few new projects that have been announced have been by joint ventures -an example of
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Report on the Union Carbide Corporation
the recent tendency of consortia, rather than single companies, to undertake construction
of new plant, due to increasing size and financing requirements of new plant. In 1996
Union Carbide announced that a 20,000 tpa latex polymer emulsions plant would be built
by it and Shanghai Petrochemicals at Jinshanwe, PRC to be completed by 1997. (ECN
27/5/96 p25 and CMR 20/5/96 p 5) In 1997 Union Carbide announced a 300 MMlb
butanol plant for Taft, Louisiana, due online in June 1999. (HP Aug 97). In 1998 Equate
-Union Carbide’s joint venture with Kuwaiti Petrochemical Industries Companyannounced a $2 billion worldscale plant at Shuaiba Industrial Area, Kuwait, involving
650Mtpy ethylene, 450 Mtpy polyethylene and 350 Mtpy ethylene glycol. (HP Jan 98) In
July 1998 Union Carbide announced 65MMlb glycol ethers plant for Seadrift, Texas and
55MMlb glycol ethers plant for Wilton, England. (HP July 98) In 1999 Union Carbide
announced plans for a joint venture with Tosco to build a 352,000 tpa polypropylene
plant in New Jersey, intended for start-up in early 2001. It also announced expansions of
9000 tpa of speciality polyolefins-based compounds at Seadrift, Texas and 4500 tpa at
Kawasaki, Japan were under construction. In 1999 also Union Carbide finally started its
90,000 tpa ethylene-propylene rubber plant at Seadrift. In 1999 also Union Carbide
announced plans in another joint venture with Petronas for 385,000 tpa ethylene oxide
and 360,000 tpa ethylene glycol at Kerteh, Malaysia, due on-line in 2001. In the year
2000 a Nova/Union Carbide joint venture was reported to be bringing a new worldscale 1
Mmton ethylene plant in Canada on-line. (HP Mar 00) Also in the year 2000 Union
Carbide announced plans to double latex capacity at its plant in the Jebel Ali Free Zone in
Dubai intended to start up in 2002 (ECN 18/12/00 p33) In June 2001 Union Carbide
announced that Optimal Olefins -a joint venture between Petronas (64 percent), Union
Carbide (24percent) and Sasol Polymers (12percent)- would build plants with capacity of
600,000 tpa of ethylene and 90,000 tpa propylene at Kerteh in Malaysia. (ECN 18/6/01
p58)
4.5
Union Carbide - Licensing Activities
Union Carbide s involvement in licensing technology provides another example of
globalising strategies. Here what Union Carbide is selling is knowledge, proprietary
information on chemical plant and process technology. The chemical industry is a major
licensor of technology globally. The overall process licensing industry was worth $3.5
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
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Report on the Union Carbide Corporation
Tomas Mac Sheoin
billion in 1997, but was expected to drop to $2.8 billion in 1998. Here again
globalisation’s pattern of inequality is reproduced. The knowledge belongs to companies
in the core countries and is most commonly licensed to companies from the peripheral
countries. In markets where multinationals are prevented from operating, or which they
do not wish to enter, corporations can obtain income from licensing their technology to
companies alsready operating in the market. We may see this in the increase of
technology licensing fees paid by Indian chemical producers in the early 1980s..
FOREIGN CHEMICAL COLLABORATION PAYMENTS APPROVED f$M)
1981
12
1985
76
1984
118
1983
49
1982
25
1986
240
Union Carbide’s major licensing assets are its UNIPOL technology for polyethylene and
polypropylene production.
At one stage, Union Carbide held about 50% of the PE
licensing business. Since April 1997, much of Union Carbide’s licensing takes place
through a joint venture with ExxonMobil called Univation. Through Univation, Union
Carbide’s Unipol polypropylene technology is licensed, as well as Unipol polyethylene
technology, chrome catalysts and mettalocene technology.
31 Unipol polypropylene
plants have been built and 5 more are in design or construction. (Uc’s interest in PP are
mainly licensing ones; it is only a minor producer, with capacity of 400,000 tpa spread
between two American plants) Since Univation was formed, it has licensed PE processes
to
ExxonMobil
for
Singapore,
DSM
in
Germany,
Polimeros
in
Brazil,
ExxonMobil/Pequivan in Venezuela, Chempetrol, in the Czech Republic and China
Petrochemical in China. The other joint venture for Union Carbide licensing is UOP, a
joint venture with Allied Signal which holds more than 65 processes in petroleum
refining, aromatics, olefins and gases.
Recent announcements on licensing include SABIC licensing UNIPOL process
technology for 400 Mtpy Hdpe/hdpe plant due for start-up in 2002 at Al-Jubail, Saudia
Arabia (HP Aug 2000) and Chempetrol from the Czech Republic taking a UNIPOL PE
license for 2000 Mtpy HOPE plant at Litvinov in the Czech Republic due 2001. (HP Oct
98)
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Tomas Mac Sheoin
4.6
Report on the Union Carbide Corporation
Union Carbide and Dow-the merger
Depictions of corporate mergers and acquisitions by corporate critics and anti
globalisation activists tend to describe the increasing number of mergers as involving an
increase in corporate power and control through everincreasing concentration, both of
wealth and productive capacity. While this is obviously true, it tends to create a simple
picture of mergers which ignores the fact that some mergers are indications more of
corporate weakness than of corporate strength, defensive mergers forced on corporations
by the need, for example, to increase scale to face new competition in the industry. The
merger between Dow and Union Carbide is indeed a defensive merger, with cost savings
reported to be the main driver, intended to integrate their commodity chemical operations
to face new competition from Middle East producers.
Secondly, the example of the Dow/Union Carbide merger also illustrates the shifting
balance of power between state and capital and corrects the often oversimplified vision of
TNCs walking roughshod over nation states espoused by some analysts.
When
announced in August 1999 Dow confidently expected the merger would be completed in
the first quarter 2000. Unfortunately it was not to be and only in February 2001 did the
merger finally pass all the regulatory hurdles erected by regulators in the US and the EU.
The need for regulatory intervention is exemplified by the impact of the merger on the
octene-based HdPE market where the combined Dow/Union Carbide/Polimeri Europa
would have held 80% of the European market. Here the emphasis by the regulatory
authorities in both the U.S. and Europe was on possible monopoly peoblems while the
issue of criminal liability for the Bhopal massacre was totally ignored.
An attempt was made by Green Caucus in European Parliament to raise the failure of the
merger proposal to deal with the issue of criminal liability and issue was raised with EC
in U.S but to no avail.
As a result of the merger with Union Carbide, Dow, with sales of $24.4 billion, will
become the largest chemical company in the world, if pharmaceutical interests are
excluded. (If they are included Dupont and Bayer would be larger then Dow) The new
corporation will have operating income of $3bi 11 ion, a combined market capitalisation of
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
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Tomas Mac Sheoin
Report on the Union Carbide Corporation
nearly $35bn and assets of over $30billion. It will operate in 168 countries and will
employ 49,000,
Dow’s share of the North American lldPE market is expected to be 36 to 38 percent.
Dow will also become the world’s second largest manufacturer of HDPE, second only to
Exxon Mobil. Dow is also currently global leader in low density PE and linear low
density PE and maintains its position against challenge by Exxon Mobil by the purchase
of Union Carbide. Dow is also expected to become the world s largest producer of
ethylene, as the following table indicates________________________________________
GLOBAL ETHYLENE PRODUCERS 2003
<
S.No.
Company
Capacity 000 tonne
Market share percent
1
Union Carbide/Dow
10,753
9.40
2
Exxon Mobil______
8,359
7,31
3
Royal Dutch Shell
5,771___________
5,05
4
Equistar__________
5,112
4.47
2
Sabie____________
3,920
3.43
6
BP Amoco
3,801
3.32
2
Nova Chemical
2,960
2.59
8
Formosa Plastics
2,845
2.49
BASF
___ 9
Source: ECN Supp Sept 1999; p 26
2,602
2.27
Some indication of the strength of the merged company can be seen from the following
capacity figures for the year 2000_____________________________
S.No.
Chemical
DOW
J
Ethylene
2
3.8
Union Carbide
2.4
6.2
LDPE_________
0.6
0.2
0.8
3___
Ethylene oxide
0.4
1.0
1.5
4
EB/Styrene
0.2
0.0
0.2
5
EDC/VCM
1.1
0.0
11_______
Combined
Source: DeWitt & Co Inc.
Another predictable result of the merger will be job cuts In May 2001 Dow announced
its intention of cutting 8% of its work force by firing 4,500 workers as part of its plan to
cut costs by $1.1 billion. Predictably also most of the job cuts will affect Union Carbide,
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Report on the Union Carbide Corporation
with administration jobs losses of 80%; sales and marketing 45%; research and
development 35% and manufacturing 25%. These workforce reductions, expected to be
completed by February 2002, should account for 55 percent of Dow’s intended savings.
In addition Dow is taking a charge of $1.4 billion for merger-related costs, including
employee severance and write down of duplicate plant and other assets.
s.
Union Carbide’s Toxic History and Present
This second section of the report attempts to examine Union Carbide’s health and safety
and environmental record. It does this by looking both at the current reality of pollution
from Union Carbide plants in the US and the company's shameful record across many
areas that have effected the environment and public and worker safety.
5.1
Union Carbide’s polluted history
If Union Carbide was strongly identified with some US activities, in particular the
military/industrial complex, it has also struggled against state in other ways, in particular
in opposition to state regulation of health, safety and environmental impacts and thus
achieved for itself in the early 1970s the status of Environmental Public Enemy Number
One. Most famously Union Carbide was involved in ‘one particularly embarrassing
public fiasco in the late 1960s and early 1970s. For the better part of four years, Carbide
stone-walled public and government efforts to make it clean up several plants that were
polluting the air over large areas of West Virginia. By the time Washington prevailed,
the imbroglio had earned the company the reputation of a reactionary ogre obsessed with
profits and disdainful of the environment.’ (Fortune 25/9/78:87)
By the 1980s Union Carbide had become less radical in its opposition to government
regulation, or at least more prepared to compromise when forced to. This has been
illustrated in the chemical industry response to the introduction of Superfund legislation
to deal with abandoned toxic waste dumps in the US. At the beginning of 1980 Union
Carbide was a strong proponent, with Dow, Allied-Signal and Dupont, of resistance to
Superfund but, as the legislative process went ahead, Union Carbide moved from total
opposition, arguing if legislation was inevitable, it was best to have a voice in shaping it.
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
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)
Report on the Union Carbide Corporation
Tomas Mac Sheoin
According to Jerry Kenney, then UC’s representative in Washington, ‘I think society will
demand some level of federal effort to clean up waste sites like Love Canal. Politically
the chemical industry is not going to escape without paying a fee’ (Mahon: 160) Thus
Union Carbide began distancing itself from outright rejection of Superfund and by
September 1980 had moved to a collaborative position, which it finally made public in
November 1980 when Union Carbide Chairperson William S. Sneath announced his
support of compromise Superfund legislation.
As to its spending on environmental areas, Union Carbide notes “in 2000, worldwide
expenses related to environmental protection for compliance with Federal, state and local
laws regulating solid and hazardous wastes and discharge of materials to air and water, as
well as for waste site remedial activities, totalled $104 million. Expenses in 1999 were
118 million ’’(and in 1998 were 91 million). In addition worldwide capital expenditures
relating to environmental protection, including those for new capacity and for cost
reduction and replacement, in 2000 totalled $34 million compared with 35 million in
1999”. (10-K, pp.16 and 46) Union Carbide estimates anticipated average annual
expenses of $100 million and capital expenditures of $65 million over the next five years.
5.2
Union Carbide’s Political Action
While more restrained than before, Union Carbide still tries to influence the US state.
One of the most obvious ways in which Union Carbide seeks to gain political influence is
through donations from its Political Action Committee (PAC) to various Republican and
Democratic Party candidates. The following table shows figures for Union Carbide PAC
donations from 1978 to 2000, illustrating relative donations to Republican and
Democratic parties.
UCC PAC CONTRIBUTIONS
S.No,
Election Cycle
Republicans
Democrats
Total
J
1978
18,950
7,900
26,850
2
1980
21,350
8,150
29,500
3
1982
30,850
6,600
37,450
4
1984
25,500
5,312
30,812
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Tomas Mac Sheoin
5
1986
7,189
3,300
10,489
6
1988
16,350
8,650
25,000
7
1990
10,000
19,350
29,350
8
1994
20,500
9,800
30,300
9
1996
3,000
12,000
15,000
10
1998
11,000
17,201
18,201
n
1999
7,500
17,950
25,450
J2
2000
1,000
2,000
3,000
Sources from ymnv. tray, com, figures for 1978 and 1980from Abuse ofpower, p.114
Of course this is only the most obvious example of Union Carbide’s spending money to
obtain political influence. Union Carbide also spent over one million dollars lobbying the
US Congress from 1997 to 1999 on nuclear energy, hazardous waste, consumer product
safety and labour issues.
In 1998 the Union Carbide Charitable Fund gave out
approximately $9.8 million in charitable contributions.
5.3
Toxic releases and waste generation
We are in a position to provide basic information on Union Carbide’s environmental
impact, but mainly within the US.
There, right-to-know laws, introduced in
partial
response to Bhopal, have forced corporations to publish details of (some) toxic chemicals
emitted into the environment and, since a later date, of waste arisings. The following
table gives gross poundage of emissions from Union Carbide’s American and Puerto
Rican operations from 1987 to 1999 and of waste arisings from 1991 to 1999.
Releases of selected toxic chemicals and waste generation (in lbs)
Year
Total releases
Waste generated
1987
69,556,343
1988
16,679,484
1989
20,235,351
1990
16,832,351
1991
13,925,039
185,494,608
1992
12,966,749
227,302,200
1993
11,992,854
212,892,945
1994
6,915,755
183,338,996
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
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Tomas Mac Sheoin
Report on the Union Carbide Corporation
1995
6,898,579
195,773,274
1996
6,949,052
193,240,191
1997
5,733,087
195,011,636
1998
6,830,939
150,495,645
1999
6,063,839
164,247,503______________
The following table gives more detailed accounting, by location and chemical emitted,
for the most recently reported period, 1999, in lbs.:
S.No,
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
Chemical
Propylene
Releases
698128
Waste
39636791
Ethylene
2110943
30815735
Ethylene glycol
4482531
15438646
Glycol ethers
392739
12867385
Acetaldehyde
74356
8150282
Acrylic acid___________
Vinyl chloride
69312
5959342
461
510468
4230469
2545650
Methanol
72116
1049395
1892927
1868247
Nitrates
172200
1617200
Ammonia_____
2-ethoxyethanol
96762
1287347
Butyraldehyde
106707
5247
1242408
1230357
Vinyl acetate
807817
954901
Hydroquinone
36499
739499
Chlorobenzene
1,3-butadiene
729157
734088
Dicyclopentadiene
80412
34342
662195
643905
Diethanolamine
296840
578143
Ethylene oxide
43299
464167
Ethyl acrylate
92019
462140
StvTene
432936
455356
Allvl alcohol
10348
419321
Benzene
147101
405630
Formaldehyde__________
Hydrochloric acid aerosols
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Tomas Mac Sheoin
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
58
59
Report on the Union Carbide Corporation
Formic acid
7129
362129
Butly acrylate
328757
350557
Dimethylamine
n-hexane
292444
292444
Acrolein
56681
3790
277079
229730
Methyl ethyl ketone
94576
209731
Cyclohexane
36196
208149
Naphthalene
169159
195304
Nitrate compounds
175207
175207
Chloroethane_______
2-methoxyethanol
161700
161700
4370
40161
143370
137087
36350
88940
136751
135616
1590
38217
113589
80747
70636
79813
Zinc compounds
25192
52402
67266
52484
Phenol
15693
49873
Xvlene
18559
48404
Methyl methacrylate
42950
36218
Biphenyl
22130
32935
Silver
29773
29773
Nitric acid
28537
28537
Titanium tetrachloride
265980
26600
Silver compounds
85175
24025
Copper compounds
20792
20792
Propylene oxide
Decabromodiphenyl oxide
6777
19732
Chlorodifluoromethane
19484
18023
19484
18023
Phenathrene
11968
11968
Peracetic acid
7891
11891
Anthracene
____
3985
10854
Antimony compounds
n-butyl alcohol______
Toluene____________
1.2-dichloroethane
Ethylbenzene
Methyl isobutyl ketone
1,4-dioxane_________
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Tomas Mac Sheoin
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
Report on the Union Carbide Corporation
7912
7910
2493
6478
6882
6482
4548
5734
Chromium compounds
4082
4852
5072
4880
Cresol
4440
4441
Chlorine
4364
4367
Nickel compounds
3752
3752
Benzoyl chloride
2470
2470
Methyl acrylate
2463
Sodium nitrite
1561
2241
2241
Acrylonitrile__________
873
2159
Di isocyanates__________
4,4-isoproplyideneiphenol
Ethyl methacrylate
1815
1815
Isobutrylaldehyde
1725
31__
339
1724
722
339
Styrenee______________
251
256
Pyridine
47
224
Ozone
43
76
Acrylamide________
n-methylolacrylamide
6
6
5
1
5
1
Sulphuric acid aerosols
Butyl acrylate
Benzvl chloride
Polycyclic aromatics
L2,4-trimethylbenzene
Acetamide
For Union Carbide s plant at Wilton, England Friends of the Earth England’s Factory
Watch reports the following air emissions in 1999. in kilograms__________________
1,4 dioxane________________
2220.0
2,2,4,6,6-pentamethylheptane
7500.0
acetaldehyde_______________
93100.0
carbon dioxide_____________
153290000.0
carbon monoxide
13400.0
ethylene glycol____________
71.2
ethylene__________ _______
567200.0
ethylene oxide
3870,0
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
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. 1 A"
Tomas Mac Sheoin
formeldehyde
methane
Report on the Union Carbide Corporation
720.0
340400.0
For waste disposal at Wilton, Friends of the Earth reports non-special waste to landfill of
15,500.0 kg and reuse of non-special waste at 22,400.0 kg. As to its treatment of special
waste, 75.0kg was land-filled, 16500.0 kg was ‘recovered as fuel’, 975.0 was ‘recovered’
by other means and 1054.0kg was disposed of by other means.
5.4
Accidental releases
Along with the routine emission of toxic chemicals, Union Carbide also releases
chemicals accidentally into the environment through spills, leaks and explosions. Before
looking at the details it should be noted that, aside from its responsibility for the Bhopal
massacre, Union Carbide is not a particularly bad actor in terms of public safety, being
neither the best nor the worst in the industry. The following is a list of larger accidents at
various Union Carbide factories from 1973 to 1993.
1969
October 23 Explosion and fire at Texas City plant resulted in no serious injuries
but damaged nearby houses as well as causing $9million damage to the plant.
1973
1973
1973
1975
1978
1979
Three workers killed at Penuelas, Puerto Rico complex
Worker at Penuelas killed by benzene leak
1980
1982
1984
1985
Worker at Institute, West Virginia killed by propane fumes
February 10 Six workers killed by explosion at Antwerp, Belgium PE plant
Worker electrocuted at the Everready battery plant in Jakarta, Indonesia.
January 9 Five supervisors were killed by an accident at a strike-bound
ferromanganese plant operated by Union Carbide at Beauharnois, Quebec.
1982 July Several hundred residents were evacuated and some were treated at
hospital when hydrogen chloride leaked from a tankcar at Union Carbide Massed
yard in South Charleston, West Virginia
December 11 17,1000 people were evacuated when a tank containing acrolein
exploded at the Taft, Louisiana plant
December 2-3 BHOPAL MASSACRE
January 400 people were evacuated from Taft, Louisiana plant after a sharp rise
in temperature in a peracetic acid and ethyl acetate storage tank. The same week
an explosion and fire was reported in the ethylene unit.
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
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Tomas Mac Sheoin
1986
March Dozens of residents became ill after exposure to acetone and mesityl
oxide leak from Union Carbide’s South Charleston, West Virginia plant
August 11 Six workers were injured and over a hundred residents received
hospital treatment when methylene chloride and aldicarb oxime leaked from the
Institute, West Virginia plant
June Worker injured at Institute, West Virginia by explosion
1988
August 13 Fire and explosion of 4300 pounds of ethylene oxide at institute plant
1990
February 2 Seven workers were injured when MIC leaked at the Union
Carbide/Rhone-Poulenc plant at Institute, West Virginia.
March 12 One contract worker was killed and 26 other workers injured by
explosion at Seadrift, Texas plant
June 27 Eight contract workers were injured when ammomnia spilled at Seadrift,
Texas plant.
August 28 Two workers were injured in a leak of ethylene oxide at South
Charleston, West Virginia
June 22 One person was injured by a leak of anhydrous ammonia at South
Charleston, West Virginia
Union Carbide’s Responsible Care Progress Report listed the number of fires
and explosions per year as 6 in 1988, 3 in 1989, 3 in 1990 2 in 1991 and 2 in
1992.
1985
1985
1991
i
Report on the Union Carbide Corporation
1991
1991
1993
1993
These are major incidents. A more realistic account of these accidental releases is
provided by the following table which lists numbers of spills by Union Carbide in the US
from 1985 to August 1994.
Year
Number of spills
1985
_8____________
1986
3
1987
12
1988
10____________
1989
14
1990
95
1991
134
1992
120___________
1993
89
1994
94
Fact Finding Mission on Bhopal
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Report on the Union Carbide Corporation
We may flush out this picture by reprinting a compilation relating examples from Union
Carbide s health and safety record in West Virginia.
5.5
We are lucky to have information on reported health impact of routine emissions from
one Union Carbide plant in Puerto Rico. In a survey conducted in 1982 among residents
of Yabucoa, a neighbouring community to Union Carbide’s graphite plant, 44% of
residents reported skin problems, 21% respiratory' problems, 21% asthma attacks, 36%
throat problems, 44% eye problems and 21% ear problems.
More recently a Union Carbide plant manufacturing emulsion paint resins and synthetic
adhesives in the Ekala Industrial Estate near Colombo, Sri Lanka was closed by the local
authorities after ethyl acrylate fumes leaked from the factory in October 2000, causing
more than 1000 people to seek medical treatment. The factory was blamed for the
widespread incidence of respiratory problems, chest pain, stomach trouble and headaches
locally. Drinking water had been polluted by effluent discharged by the Union Carbide
factory. People have to go a long way to fetch drinking water’ reports said.
Local
environmentalists claim all eleven factories at the Industrial Estate have been polluting
air and water and for the previous five years residents have been complaining of health
effects from this contamination. Prof. Carlo Fonseca of the Medical Faculty, Kelaniya
University, has warned that continued exposure will result in skin diseases, kidney failure
and mental illness.
5.6
Toxic Waste Sites
Bhopal of course is not the only place where Union Carbide has abandoned toxic waste.
For the US, Union Carbide itself estimates that there are 105 hazardous waste sites where
it may be liable for investigation and/or remedial costs. By March 2001 Union Carbide
had set aside $180 million to deal with its expected responsibilities for environmental
remediation. ‘These accruals have two components, estimated future expenditures for
site investigation and cleanup and future expenditures for closures and postclosure
activities. In addition the corporation had environmental loss contingencies of $67
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Report on the Union Carbide Corporation
million.’ (10-K form, 31/3/01, p.9) Union Carbide estimates that it is solely responsible
for 40% of the waste sites for which it has established accruals.
Appendix 4 lists toxic waste sites where Union Carbide has been sued by the US
government to obtain clean up costs. According to the PIRG Union Carbide is in the top
four for ‘potentially responsible parties’ at Superfund National Priority List sites, with
Union Carbide being considered a party responsible for dumping at 51 sites, trailing
General Motors (64 sites), Dupont (81 sites) and General Electric (86 sites).
Certainly Union Carbide waste has been dumped at some of the worst toxic waste sites in
the US. In May 1979 Science reported that Nicholas Fernicola contracted with Union
Carbide to dispose of 4,500 55-gallon drums of distillation residues, organic wash
solvents and other organic wastes. Fernicola dumped the chemicals on a farm he leased
near Tom’s River, New Jersey, telling the owner the drums were empty. Chemicals
leaked from the drums and polluted the aquifer that supplies local wells. The site was
placed on the National Priority List on 9/1/83. From 1972 to 1974 Union Carbide
removed drums, trench waste and contaminated soil from the site and later ‘in response to
concerns regarding potentially elevated childhood cancer cases in Tom’s River, Union
Carbide agreed to further treat [groundjwater using a carbon adsorption unit.’ (EPA NPL
Site Fact Sheet)(SczeHce 25/5/79:821) Union Carbide was also one often corporations
whose waste was dumped at Price’s Pit, which in January 1982 was reported to be
threatening the water supply at nearby Atlantic City, New Jersey. Pollutants at Price’s Pit
included berrylium, chloroform, VCM, ethylene chloride, mercury, cadmium, lead, zinc,
1,2-dichlorobenzene, toulene, nickel and arsenic. (CMR 4/1/82:7,61) Union Carbide
waste was also found in the infamous Chem-Dyne waste site in Hamilton, Ohio, which
was reported in 1982 to presnet an ‘imminent and substantial danger to human health’.
(WSJ 27/8/82:20; CMR 30/8/82:, 5,48.) In July 1983 Union Carbide was asked to clean
up dioxin contamination at its Marietta, Ohio site. (NYT 28/7/83 :A12) In September 1983
Union Carbide was one of 246 companies which entered into a settlement agreement to
clean up the Environmental Conservation Chemical Corporation dump at Zionsville,
Indiana. (CA/2? 26/9/83:7,18; CEN 26/9/83:15) In June 1987 Union Carbide was one of
twenty companies that agreed to pay for the cleanup of the Motco toxic waste site near La
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Marque, Texas, which ranked 27th on the list of most dangerous waste sites in the US.
(CMR 28/6/87:7,25)
Some indications of Union Carbide’s zeal in cleaning up after itself can be seen in the
case of the contamination of the Columbia Slough in North Portland, where Union
Carbide had operated a calcium carbide and ferroalloys processing plant until 1982. In
the 1980s official investigations found toxic substances -including metals, PCBs and
persistent pesticides like DDT- in soil, sludge ponds and a drainage ditch. Union Carbide
agreed to a cleanup in February 2000.
Nor is it only in the US that Union Carbide has abandoned waste. In 1997 Greenpeace
began a campaign for the cleanup of dioxin in Homebush Bay, near Sydney Harbour,
Australia. Greenpeace reports:
Tn 1957 the multinational giant Union Carbide purchased Timbrol Ltd. and
continued chemical production at the site until 1985. From 1957 to 1976 Union
Carbide continued production of the chlorinated herbicides 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T, the
two chemicals that make up the infamous Agent Orange used in the Vietnam war.
Union Carbide abandoned Australia and its toxic legacy in the early 1990s.
‘Polychlorinated dioxins and furans (often simply referred to as dioxin) are
produced as byproducts during the production of organochlorines such as 2,4-D
and 2,4,5-T. Large areas of the Rhodes Peninsula were reclaimed from the bay
using solid wastes from the Union Carbide factory as the primary fill material.
The waste was heavily contaminated with a wide range of persistent organic
pollutants (POPs), including dioxins, organochlorine pesticides (DDT,DDE,DDD)
and chlorinated phenoxy and aliphatic compounds. Together with the very real
likelihood of direct discharge of pollutants via the Union Carbide stormwater
system over decades, Homebush Bay is now one of the most contaminated
waterways in the world.’
Tn June 1997 Greenpeace investigations revealed an orphaned stockpile of thirtysix 50-litre drums of highly dioxin contaminated waste adjacent to the former
Union Carbide factory site.’
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6
Report on the Union Carbide Corporation
Union Carbide and The Nuclear Industry
Before concluding this section on Union Carbide criminal history by examining the
Gauley Bridge massacre, it’s necessary to examine Union Carbide’s responsibility for
radioactive contamination, both as a member of the military/industrial complex and as a
supplier to the nuclear power industry. Union Carbide’s history as a mining and resource
extraction company will not be dealt with here but is covered in the Mine watch company
profile reprinted in Appendix 6. Multinational Monitor reports lying on Union Carbide’s
toxic and radioactive history:
‘Carbide got its start in nuclear power during World War II. Indeed, it was one of the
pioneers. Working under US government contracts, Carbide ran the Oak Ridge
National Laboratories for most of the lab’s existence, losing the contract to Martin
Marietta corporation in 1984.
After World War II, Carbide consolidated all the
contracts for Oak Ridge operations, replacing Monsanto, Eastman, Kodak and Dow
Chemical. For the next 41 years. Carbide produced nuclear weapons components,
enriched uranium for Pentagon needs, as well as for fuelling commercial nuclear
power plants and conducted other nuclear energy research. ’
‘The Y-12 plant at Oak Ridge, built in 1943 as part of the Manhattan project, is the
main nuclear weapons factory for the US government. In 1977, a declassified
Department of Energy report revealed that 2.4 million pounds of mercury had been
released into the ground, water and air between 1950 and 1963, a time when the plant
was still under Carbide management.’ (Summa:23)
Of course Union Carbide’s radioactive history goes even furthei back than the 1940s, as
shown by the case of the Uravan Uranium waste site in Montrose County, Colorado,
which was placed on the Superfund National Priority List on June 10, 1986. Set up
originally to recover radium in 1915, it expanded to vanadium in 1935 and in the 1940s
began recovery of uranium, first for national defence and later for nuclear power. The
EPA reports on the site: ‘Federal and state agencies have inspected this facility many
times and have brought action against Union Carbide for numerous violations and
hazardous materials spills. These efforts have established that ground water and air at the
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site are contaminated with process wastes, including uranium, from the milling
operations’.
Multinational Monitor also reported on contamination in Colorado:
‘In Colorado, the Carbide subsidiary Umetco Minerals has operated uranium mines
and mills for decades, often with little regard for the health of area residents or the
environment. According to Melinda Kassen of the Environmental Defense Fund, there
were no specific regulations governing uranium mining and milling until 1978 because
Carbide and other uranium mining outfits had long resisted such government action.’
‘The industry is fighting with the state of Colorado over the cleanup of the toxic waste
it has generated for decades. To settle a suit brought under the Superfund law.
Carbide in 1986 agreed to a $50 million cleanup plan for a uranium site where
Umetco, along with other companies, had dumped tons of uranium tailings.’
(Summa:24)
Union Carbide was also responsible for radioactive contamination in New York. In
February 1981 a report by the New York State Assembly Task Force on Toxic
Substances charged that highly caustic and slightly radioactive waste was pumped into
the ground in Tonawanda, New York, by Linde Air Products Company, now a
division of Union Carbide, from 1944 to 1946. The 37 million gallons of liquid waste
came from a Manhattan project uranium refinery. The study claimed the disposal
method was chosen so that the pollution could not be traced back to the Army and its
contractors. (CMR 9/2/81:5,27)
6.1
Occupational Safety and Health
The other major industrial crime in which Union Carbide was involved is what has been
described as the Hawk’s Nest scandal, when to quote the Wall Street Journal Europe
(3/1/85:2) ‘in a Depression-era scandal in West Virginia, 476 workers died of the lung
disease silicosis while building a diversion tunnel for a Carbide-sponsored hydroelectric
project. Hundreds of others suffered and died later from the disease in what labour
experts call the worst incident of its kind in US history’ others sources claim the figure of
victims was as high as 1200. What the Journal finds too delicate to mention is the racist
nature of the Hawk’s Nest massacre. Some 80% of the tunnel workers were black. A
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critical account of the massacre reports ‘it is apparent that the illnesses and deaths that
resulted were not only known to them, but expectedly them. For as the purchasing agent
for the contractor candidly stated “I knew we were going to kill these niggers, but I didn’t
know it was going to be this soon.” Sen Holt of West Virginia reported that the company
further stated openly that “if we kill off those, there were plenty of other men to be had.”
‘More important than these off-the-cuff remarks, however was the fact that early
in the project Rinehart and Dennis contracted with a nearby undertaker to bury the
dead at $55 apiece. Asked why he had accepted the job at a price so low that the
local Gauley Bridge undertaker had apparently refused, H. C. White declared that
the “company had assured him there would be a large number of deaths”
‘Mr White performed his tasks with great efficiency -the standard time between
death and burial was three hours. In this manner the company was able to avoid
both the filing of a death certificate and the performance of a possibly
incriminating autopsy.’(Healkth/PAC: 12)
Here we may see operating two tactics the company later utilised in dealing with the
Bhopal massacre, racist discrimination and presenting itself as the victim. In those cases
brought by exposed workers or their surviving families, settlements ranged from $80-250
for blacks and from $350-1000 for whites. One observer noted: ‘Because there were
black workers on the job the company tolerated far worse conditions than they would
have if the workforce had been all white’ (Health/PAC: 15)
When the Gauley
Bridge massacre was investigated by the US House Labour
Committee, not only did Union Carbide deny the negligence charges brought against it, it
claimed itself to be the true victim of the disaster. A Union Carbide spokesperson
declared that the company was ‘very proud of its safety record everywhere’ and denied
that there had been a single death from silicosis. As the Industrial Medical Assocxiation
history notes of the time silicosis suits were widely seen as an organised racket and a
fraud. ‘Industry was portrayed as the true victim of enterprising lawyers and workers out
to make a quick buck’ (Health/PAC. 13)
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Some Conclusions
From the evidence presented in this report it’s possible to arrive at some tentative
conclusions. To begin with. Union Carbide now is not the same Union Carbide that was
responsible for the Bhopal massacre. While Union Carbide survived the crisis Bhopal
posed, it fell victim to a deeper and more general crisis in the chemical industry which
led to its merging with (or, more accurately, takeover by) Dow Chemical. The report
shows a consistent pattern of disregard by Union Carbide for health of the environment
and humans (both workers and residents exposed to pollution from its operations).
However Union Carbide is not unique in this: the vast majority of corporations operate in
a similar fashion. Union Carbide is unique only in its participation in two of the worst
industrial disasters of the twentieth century.
And is escapingfrom both of them nearly scot-free.
If Union Carbide survived the crisis Bhopal posed and escaped with the light cost of 48
cents a share, it was not due to superb company management but rather to the mendacity
of an Indian government anxious to demonstrate to foreign capital how prepared it was to
sacrifice its population on the alter of economic development. With the buzzwords in the
early 1980s being economic liberalisation and economic modernisation, amid visions of
the Indian elephant transforming into an Asian tiger, the Indian state wished to attract
foreign capital, not scare it away. This combined with the desire of the local and national
political elite, compromised by its own involvement in the genesis of the disaster, to close
the case with the minimum of dirty laundry on public display. Here again we may note
there is nothing unusual about this.
Due to lack of time it hasn’t been possible to adequately position Bhopal in the context of
globalisation but I believe that Bhopal shows that the picture is more complicated than
enthusiasts of strong globalisation theories such as Mr. Stavoapoulis of Dow claim and,
as such, is more amenable to revisionist criticism of strong globalisation which sees
globalisation as a political strategy rather than a fait accompli. In this view not only is
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the victory of capital not inevitable, but the unity attributed to capital by strong
globalisation theorists and its control of the state are questioned.
Here Pearce and Tombs’ position seems most useful:
‘Everest, for example, overestimates both the freedom of individual enterprises
and their overall unity of interest. He tends to invoke a unitary class subject
variously called ‘foreign capital’ ‘foreign investment’ or ‘foreign multinationals’.
This unitary class subject operates within both Third World countries and within
the US. Thus, Everest represents UCC’s arguments that the Bhopal court case
should be heard in India as an expression of the view of corporate capital. A
more convincing interpretation is that the corporation was trying to mobilise the
support of other corporate and governmental personnel. However basic the
capital/labour relation, both capital and labour exist as differentiated entities -as
‘many capitals’ which may be organised fictionally and as individual workers
who may be organised in different kinds of trade unions, may work part time and
so on. The capitalist class should not be assumed to be a ‘class subject’ with the
state as its instrument, nor should it be assumed that capitalistic social formations
automatically function (however complexly) to reproduce capitalistic domination.
There are both conflicts that unify the capitalist class -for example, those against
the working class, rival imperialistic powers, or rival social systems- and others
that divide it such as competition between corporations for markets and for
capital. Neither nation state, capital as a whole, nor individual; capitalists and
corporations are guaranteed victory. The unity of the capitalist class can be real
enough but it is often fragile.’ (Pearce and Tombs p. 207)
With all due respect to the great work and spirit that went into them, the transnational
campaigns against UC showed the limits of anti-corporate campaigns. The predominant
form of anti-corporate campaign has been one which has attempted to mobilise
consumers to boycott the corporation while also attempting to pressure the corporation
via a general publicity campaign and particularly by attending AGMs and attempting to
mobilise dissident shareholders to place pressure on corporations by passing resolutions.
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The most successful of these campaigns have been the calling of consumer boycotts. In
its current manifestation UC appears immune to this tactic, as it sells nothing directly to
the public, its market being other corporations whose purchasing policies are not
normally ethics-driven. At the time of the massacre UC had a large consumer products
division. In response to the attempted takeover by GAF in 1985 UC sold this off.
Conveniently this also insulated Union Carbide from a consumer-based campaign.
Despite this, tribute must be paid to the success of the international campaign in the
following ways:
1. That Bhopal still remains and issue, despite Union Carbide’s attempt to close the
books on it.
2. In scuttling the attempted out of court settlement 1987.
3. The reinstigation of the criminal charges, which had been quashed in the February
1989 court settlement.
4. Through raising the issue via shareholders at Union Carbide AGMs forced Union
Carbide to acknowledge continued water and soil contamination in Bhopal.
5. While Dow initially refused to have any dealings with victims of Bhopal, the
demonstration of 28th February 2001 forced Dow to enter negotiations.
Unfortunately appealing to Union Carbide’s shareholders will similarly prove to be
fruitless. The problem with reformist appeals to the better side of corporations is that, in
the final analysis, the large shareholders (the market, in all its glory) will vote for
increased profit above all. While some shareholders may be motivated by ethical
concerns, they are always in a minority. And while management may spin green wash
about the triple bottom line -financial, environmental and social- in the final analysis, the
greatest of these is financial.
Some possibilities do exist, with the Dow merger, to again strategically target corporate
rhetoric.
With Dow currently espousing rhetoric of the ‘triple bottom line of
sustainability -economic, social and environmental needs’ (see Appendix 7) it is time to
call their bluff loudly and publicly
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The recent growth of an anti-globalisation movement in core countries presents a possible
new course. We need to insert Bhopal into the concerns of this new movement, with the
glorious object of encircling a Dow/UCC AGM just as the WTO was encircled at Seattle.
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Aftalion, F 1991, CA history of the international chemical industry ’ Philadelphia
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Business Week 6I2H 1:52-56
Chandler et al(1998) in 'Chemicals and long-term economic growth9 edited by A
Arora. Wiley
European Chemical News 12/2/01 pl6-17; 7/5/01 p.7; 15/1/01 p. 16-17
European Chemical News Supplement September 1999, pp24-26
Fortune 25/9/78:86-89
Garcia-Johnson, R 2000 Exporting environmentalism US multinational chemical
corporations in Brazil and Mexico Cambridge, Mass MIT Press
Hindustan Times 24/10/00
Jones T 1988 Corporate killing Bhopals will happen Free Association Books
Marcus A A and R Goodman 1989 Corporate adjustments to catastrophe: a study
of investor reaction to Bhopal Industrial Crisis Quarterly 3. 213-234
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firm responses to Superfund legislation. Research in Corporate Social
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Abuse ofpower New York: Apex Pr.
Nobel, D F (1977) America by design. Oxford: OUP
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Pearce, F and S Tombs 1998. Toxic capitalism: corporate crime and the chemical
industry. Dartmouth
• Summa, J (1988) Union Carbide corporate profile. Multinational Monitor October
1988: 23-24
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community in Puerto Rico International Journal ofHealth Services 15-4- 561583
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