A REPORT ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC & HEALTH SURVEY
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CONTENTS
Page No.
Preface
Acknowledgement
Introduction
1
Purpose of the study
4
Methodology
4
Data collection and Analysis
7
Limitations
8
Situational Analysis
10
Demography
10
Education
19
Occupaton
22
Physical Environment
24
General Health Conditions
33
Women and Children
34
Children and Health
43
Economic Conditions
47
Social Problems
62
Socail Organisation
67
Findings
68
Suggestions
73
List of Tables
List of Figures
Bibliography
5
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INTRODUCTION
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With respect to the general economic and social indicators, Karnataka can be
considered an average state in India. Inclusion of areas with earlier traditions of
different socio-economrc system has given the state certain amount of regional
diversity with respect to socio-economic characteristics and culture patterns.
The northern region consisting of Bidar, Gulbarga and Raichur districts, is by
and large less devloped. Per capita income is quite low. Female literacy rate is
very low.
In all these districts females marry at very young age.
Child
mamages are relatively more common and child work particiapation rates are
high m Gulbarga and Raichur.
Infant and child mortality rates are high in
northern districts. The pattern of population growth m Karnataka during the
past Several decades is generally similar to that of many other states.
Slow
growth during the first four decades of this country, followed by an acceleration
in growth is due to declining death rate.
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In addition to natural mcrease,
immigration into Karnataka could be an important factor today.
In rural Karnataka, nearly 50 percent of households subsist on a per capita daily
expenditure of about Rs. 3/- or less. Bare statistics alone would not adequately
reflect the human aspects of poverty. Poverty is closly related to various types
of nutritional disorders and health hazards.
Women and children are more
vulnerable to the severity of povery. The conditions of the poor become worse
during drought and flood situations. The worst victims are the agricultural
labourers, in particular the women and children in these families.
45
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The situation of Women and Children is closely related to the economic
conditions, the demographic features, the social characteristics particularly the
status of women, educational and health infrastructure facilities, and the nature
and quality of various programmes meant for the welfare of women and
children. This chapter presents the overview of these aspects.
The consequences of the low status of women and children have found
expression in several forms like female foeticide, female infanticide, higher
female infant mortality, a higher death rate among women, lower life
expectancy, lower literacy level, lower levels of employment, and an adverse
sex ratio. The status of a woman in the society or in a given community is
intimately related to its value system, its philosophical and cultural traditions
and its social, economic and political organisations.
To examine from the historical, religious and legal perspectives, the patriarchal
attitudes have helped to determine the role of women in the family and m the
society.
History shows that the women in the Vedic age enjoyed greater
equality and freedom and gradually they fell to the position of being things of
pleasure and mere commodities. The astonishing fact of human history is that
all religions in themselves seem to justify and promote women’s inferiority to
men. The Police, Public Prosecutors and the Judges who are the products of
patriarchal society, are by and large biased against women and they help
perpetuate and preserve the oppression of women through religious and family
laws. The real source of women’s oppression and exploitation, and the analysis
of women’s problems from the legal point of view is that the women become
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victims of the lengthy and complicated legal procedure. Women in India have
faced miserably under the law despite progressive legislation. Yet we cannot
ignore the law because it affects our daily life.
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As far as the Education for women is concerned, women have less access to
education than men..
The hard fact of the educational situation lies in the
massive inequalities still prevailing between men and women as well as
between the general population and the disadvantaged groups such as the SCs
and STs and the economically poor.
Regional imbalances, urban and rural
disparities are also oftenmentioned.
In most of these sectors
substantial
progresses have been made but “we still have a long way to go”. The studies
reveal that there is a glaring dispanty between men and women with regard to
literacy and enrollment. There are still twice as many men literate as women.
The inequality between male and female literacy is also considerably more
prevalent m rural areas than urban areas.
Even with regard to their health, they are not properly nourished according to
their requirement. Malnuonshment is a major problem m spite of the fact that
food production has increased over the decades. A majority of Indian women
and children belonging to lower socio-economic strata are undernourished.
Women in general and pregnant women in particular have special nutritional
needs.
In this context, we need to know and understand the emerging trends about the
socio-economic characteristics of women and children more scientifically, for
5
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any developmental programmes to be implemented for their welfare. The
Bellary Diocese Development Society (BDDS) has been very active in working
with the disadvantaged people of the area for their development for the past 10
years.
The BDDS realized that it needs more concerted, scientific and
organised approach to work with the rural mass in order to help them attain
better living conditions. As a result, the idea of conducting a study to find out
the impact of a few programmes offered by BDDS and evolve new strategies
which would help the Diocese in its ongomg Social Apostolate Ministry.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The study as mentioned earlier, was
proposed and undertaken with the
intention of gaining a better understanding of the people in relation to their
Socio-economic conditions. More precisely, it is aimed at studying the Social
status and Health hazards pertaining to women and children.
This
understanding of the situations/conditions of the people was not merely for any
academic purpose or theoretical enrichment. It was with the specific objective
of chalking out more relevant and meaningful approaches and programmes for
the improvement m the living standard of the rural mass.
METHODOLOGY
The pattern of population growth in Karnataka during the past several decades
is similar to other states. The total population of the state as per 1991 census
(provisional figure) was 44.8 million and would be around 47 million in 1991
5
and 55 million in 2001. The population of Bellary and Raichur was 1.9 million
and 2.3 million respectively (1991 census). Different socio-economic systems
have given the two districts certain amount of regional diversity with respect to
socio-economic characteristics and culture patterns.
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The study was conducted m the 28 villages of Raichur District and 5 areas m
Bellary. Stratified disproportionate simple random sampling was followed to
make the study scientific. Five hundred (families) samples were selected by
following the above mentioned sampling method. These families were selected
from the universe keeping in mind the beneficiaries and disadvantaged people
of the Bellary and Raichur districts. Majority of the respondents (425) were
selected from Raichur district and the remaining samples (75) were from
Bellary.
The study being on the understanding of the Socio-economic and Health
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conditions of the people m rural area, it is descriptive in nature. Smce quite a
majority of the respondents was illiterate, interview schedule has been used as
the tool to collect the data. The whole schedule thus had 10 sections namely
Family
constellation.
House
hold
property,
Housing
conditions
and
surrounding, Health status of the family especially Women and Children, Land
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holdmg. Agriculture and cultivation. Animal husbandry. Nutrition, Economic
conditions and Leadership.
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Sample size
Table 1.1 - Parish Wise Distribution
Parishes
Sl.No.
■>>
Frequency
Percentage
1
Kavithal
94
18.8
2.
Harapur
90
18.0
3.
Naganoor
90
18.0
4.
Bellary
75
15.0
5.
Maski
65
13.0
6.
Manvi
45
9.0
7.
Jawalegere
16
3.2
8.
Smdhanoor
15
3.0
9.
Lingasagoor
10
2.0
Total
500
100.0
Four hundred and twenty five families (85.0%) are selected for the study as
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Raichur district is declared as a drought prone district of North Karanataka.
Moreover, the women m Bellary have access to all the basic infrastructure
facilities when compared to those who are living m remote villages of Raichur
district. From the Parishes namely Kavithal (94 families), Harapur (90), and
Naganoor (90), higher number of samples were taken for the study because
these parishes are the most remote areas of all the remaining parishes.
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DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS
The data collection began with a selection and training of the survey teams.
The survey team consisted of 25 members which includes 9 males and 16
females. The team gathered together in B.D.D.S. office for three day framing
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on interview techniques, recordmg and collection of data.
The educational
level of surveyors was from High school to post graduation. Since interview
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schedule was prepared in regional language (Kannada) the team had no
difficulty in filling up the schedule.
During the training, the purpose of the study was explained to them and they
were made to feel part of a grand enterprise undertaken for the rural people of
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the diocese. The schedule then was studied and explained. They were taught
how to approach the rural women folk and build a rapport with them before
beginning the interview. The team members interviewed one another, while
the others observed and gave their feed back. In 3 days when the team felt that
they were ready for their first interviews, the team was taken to their first village
for a field test.
Each member interviewed two people each before coming
together to share their experience and for feed back. Later, the whole team was
divided into 4 groups with a team leader. The team members were asked to
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keep a log book, describing their experiences, the difficulties they met with, and
how they overcame uhem and what they observed about those whom they
interviewed and other relevant observations. These were read and noted by the
team leader each day.
experiences.
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The team met together every evening to share their
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The schedule was prepared in the regional language (Kannada). It was then
checked by some of the experts m the field of Social Science Research. The
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data collection was earned out by a selected and tramed team consisting of 25
members. The purpose of the survey was explained to them and they were
trained how best they can approach the people and collect the data. Then the
collected data was processed and analysed by using the SPSS (Statistical
Package for Social Sciences).
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The Modality of Data Collection
In most of the villages the data collection had to be done in the evenings, when
every one would be back home from work.
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On most of the days the data
collection would go on till quite late m the night. Smce most of the respondents
were illiterates they were interviewed and responses marked. The schedule was
quite long.
So an average of an hour and a half was needed to fill in the
schedule. But, once the purpose of the survey was explained, the respondents
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did not really mind the time they had to spend.
LIMITATIONS
One initial problem that had to be faced was to make the villagers understand
the nature of the survey.
The surveyors found it difficult to make them
understand why not everyone in the village is given the schedule to fill up, and
why no marks and ‘results’ would be given to them personally. Some even
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wrongly thought that some sort of assistance would be extended to them
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immediately.
In some areas, certain groups refused to allow the team to interview their
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women. The interview schedule had not included certain questions and hence
the surveyors bought the information in the observation sheet.
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SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS
This chapter gives an analytical account of the vanous factors affecting the
living conditions of the people in relation to their socio-economic levels,
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environment and health conditions, and status of women and children.
It
enables one to view and comprehend the situations m which the people are
living.
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DEMOGRAPHY
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Table -2.1 No. members in a family
No. of Members
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No. of families
Percentage
2
18
3.6
3
55
11.0
4
66
13.2
5
92
18.4
6
111
22.2
7
57
11.4
8
47
9.4
9
17
3.4
10
11
2.2
11
10
2.0
12
16
3.2
500
100.0
Total
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Table 2.1 shows that the average number of members in a family is 6 i.e. 22.2
percent. The mean is 5.862 and the Median is 6.000 and the mode is also
6.000. It can be noted from the table that as the number m a family mcreases
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from 2 to 6 there is a increase in the percentage. After the 6th member in a
family there is a steady decline of percentage i.e. from 11.4 to 3.2.
Table - 2.2
Type of Families
Members
No. of families
Percentage
1 to 4 (Small Nuclear family)
139
27.8
5 to 8 (Nuclear family)
307
61.4
9 to 12 (Joint family)
54
10.8
Total
500
100.0
When the same has been analysed in the form of class-intervals, a majority of
3
families, (307) 61.4 percent, fall under the class interval of 5 to 8. 27.8 percent
or 139 families have family members upto 4 m a family which can be labeled as
a small nuclear family.
A small percentage of families 10.8 percent (54
families) represent a large family having its members from 9 to 12.
This
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analysis also signifies about the importance of having a small family and its
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advantages.
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Figure - 1
FAMILY MEMBERS BY GENDER
E] Male
a Female
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Sex Ratio
Sex Ratio of population (No. Females per 1000 Males) is often used to mdicate
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the health status of women m relation to that of men. From the Pie chart it is
observed that out of 500 families taken as sample size for the study, the total
2
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number of male members in the sample size aggregated to 1482 and the total
number of female was 1455.
The male and female comprise the total
population of 2937 from 500 families. The figure clearly mdicates that male
outnumber the female and the sex ratio is 982 females per 1000 males. It must
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be noted, however, the sex ratio of population is affected by sex differentials in
mortality and sex selective migration. The Karnataka sex ratio is 963, higher
than the 1961 and 1971 figures. Changes m future, m the number of children
and m the number of women in reproductive ages are important form the point
of view of programme coverage.
The age structure of the population in
specified age group is determined by changes in mortality and high fertility.
Age of the Family Members
It is observed from the table that the two extreme age groups m the area of
study are 0-5 (24.0 %) and above 55 (2.4%). The number of children in the age
□
group of 0-5 constitutes one fourth of the total population. It is also observed
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that as the age increases the number of members in the families m the area are
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on the decrease. The children between the age group of 0-15 is 54 percent of
the total population.
Out of which 44.1 are in the age group of 0-5. This age-
wise analysis enables us to identify the school going children and the children
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below 5 years who need special care and attention in the course of their
physical, intellectual and emotional development. The study recommends the
younger generation to take care of the family members in the age group of
above 55 who are physically incapable of earning their livelihood.
Table - 2.3
Age Wise Distribution of Respondents
Age
No. of members
Percentage
(t <
0-5
704
24.0
<v
6-10
585
19.9
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11-15
308
10.5
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16.20
236
8.0
21-25
271
9.2
26-30
288
9.8
31-35
160
5.4
36-40
144
4.9
41-45
52
1.8
46-50
80
2.7
51-55
40
1.4
56-60
21
0.7
60 and above
48
1.7
Total
2937
100.0
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It is observed from the above table that there are two extreme types of members
in a family. The highest percentage (11.7%) form 704 members in the families
15
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belonging to the age group of 1 - 5 yrs. The next category of percentage (9.8)
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fall under the age group of 6 - 10 yrs followed by 308 family members i.e. 5.1
percentage comes in the age group of 11 to 15 yrs. Another 23 members 3.9
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percent were in-the age group between 16 -20 yrs. There are about 4.5 percent
or sizable member of 271 characterized themselves as adolescent.
A good
number of members of the family (4.8 percentage of 288) fall under the age
group of 26 to 30 yrs. It may be noted from the table was that there is steady
decline m the no. of members in the families from the age 1 to 60+ yrs. This
age-wise analysis enables to spot the school going children and the children
below 5 yrs who need special care and attention in the cause of their physical,
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intellectual and emotional development. The study reveals that there are about
69 members who are in the age group of 56 to 60 yrs in the famihes and
reminds the moral obligation of the grown up children to take care of the aged
with love and provide them the social and economic security.
Religion and Caste
Out of the total population (500), 69.2 percent is Hindus, 4.0 percent is
Muslims and Christians account for 26.8 percent.
With regard to the
distribution of population in relation to the Caste, SCs constitute 68.9 percent
followed by STs forming 20.3 percent. Whereas BCs constitute only 10.8 per
cent.
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Figure - 2
DISTRIBUTION OF FAMILIES BY RELIGION
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60 50
40
30 20 -
10
0
Scheduled
Caste
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10.8
1
Scheduled
T ribe
Figure -3
DISTRIBUTION OF FAMILIES BY CASTE
Backward
Class
1
18
Table - 2.4
Mother Tongue
Language
Frequency
Percentage
Kannada
470
94.0
Telugu
13
2.6
Urdu / Hindi
17
3.4
Total
500
100.0
The majority of the respondents’ (94.0) Mother Tongue is Kannada
It also
shows that due to immigration of people from other neighbouring states,
especially Andhra Pradesh 2.6 percent of the people have Telugu as their
Mother Tongue. The rest of the population’s (3.4 percent) Mother Tongue is
Hindi mixed Urdu.
Status of Members
Age at marriage of families in Karnataka has been rising at the rate of about an
year per decade. The mean age at mamage of females increased from 16.5 in
1961 to nearly 18 in 1971 and 19 in 1901.
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Table - 2.5
Members by status
Status
•0
3
No. of Members
Percentage
Children
1611
54.9
Married
1082
36.8
Unmarried
158
5.4
Widow
83
2.8
Widower
3
0.1
2937
100.0
Total
For the purpose of the study here the variable ‘children’ has been defined as
those who are of the age between 0 to 17 years. ‘Mamed’ and ‘Unmamed’ are
applied for those who have attained the age 18. From the above table, it is
known that children and those who have not attained the age for mamage
□
constitute more than half of the population.
Married people form the next
highest percentage of population followed by unmarried, widow and widower.
3
Education
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Literacy and Education, like Health and Nutrition, are the basic needs of the
people. The future welfare of the society depends on how well the children are
educated today. Karnataka has made rapid progress m providing educational
infrastructure and in implementing a variety of programmes for improving the
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56.9
50
40
30
23
20
10.4
▲___________
10
0.5
*2.6
------
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Children
< 3 yrs
1.8
I------------
Illiterate
Balwadi
Lower
Primary
Higher
Primary
Figure - 4
EDUCATIONAL LEVEL
High
School
College
(
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educational level. However, the progress achieved so far is not adequate and
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there are certain areas need to be improved.
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The overall level of literacy is still low in the area of study.
And what is
disturbing is that along with an increase in the number of literates, the number
of illiterates has also increased. Secondly, the literacy programmes appear to be
.0
failing miserably since their achievements show rather uneven. It is also the
fact proved in the area of study. The Literacy levels of the people are relatively
low among females. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
With the Socio-economic and political evolution of mankind and its growth in
consciousness, education has been gradually recognised as a “human right”.
The 1948 UN “Declaration of the rights of the child” is still more specific “The
child is entitled to receive education, which shall be free and compulsory at
least m the elementary stages. The Line diagram reveals that 56.9 percent of
the total population is identified as illiterates and which is different from those
who had education up to primary level and they constitute 10.4 percent.
followed by those who reached up to higher primary forming 4.9 percent.
Those who have studied up to high school constitute 2.6 percent. Whereas very
few had the privilege of entering in to the portals of the college and they are 1.8
percent.
o
Out of 500 famihes children attending the Balwadies is only 0.5
percent.
■
The best interest of the child shall be the guiding principle of those responsible
for his education and guidance. That responsibility lies in the first place with
-o
"5
$
<2
i
41
Age
No Occupation
Agriculture
Labour
0-5
704
(100)
521
(89.1)
191
(62.0)
95
(40-2)
60
(22.1)
9
(2.7)
8
(5 0)
5
(3-4)
3
(5-7)
1
(1-2)
4
(10-0)
16
(76.1)
38
(79.1)
1649
0
0
0
52
(8-8)
73
(23.7)
117
(49.5)
198
(73.0)
253
(87.8)
132
(82.5)
119
(82.6)
15
(28.8)
43
(53.7)
22
(55.0)
2
(9-5)
2
(4.1)
1023
11-15
16-20
21 -25
26 - 30
31 - 35
36 - 40
41 -45
46 - 50
51 - 55
56 - 60
x61 & above
Total
0
6
(2-5)
8
(2.9)
9
(2.7)
3
(18)
12
(8-3)
15
(28.8)
29
(36.2)
7
(17.5)
2
(9.5)
0
91
< ‘
s' ,
V J
Occupation By Age
Tabic - 2. 6
6 - 10
iJ <J o
€
»
Bonded
Labour
0
Business
Others
Total
0
0
704
12
(2-1)
44
(14-3)
18
(7-6)
8
(2.9)
2
(06)
0
0
585
0
0
308
0
0
236
5
(1-8)
7
(2-4)
4
(2.5)
6
(4.1)
13
(25.0)
4
(5-0)
2
(5.0)
0
3
(1-1)
8
(2-7)
7
(4-3)
4
(2-7)
6
(H-5)
271
1
(0-6)
3
(2.0)
0
0
0
0
0
88
1
(2.0)
42
288
160
144
52
80
(3-7)
5
(12.5)
1
(4.7)
7
(14.5)
44
40
21
48
2937
( v
J
0
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24
PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
The home environment plays a crucial role in the prevention of diseases, not
merely by providing physical surroundings such as a house, and access to
0
potable dunking water etc.
o
0
Housing / Shelter
Poor housing condition are invariably part of a poor living environment. In
j)
changing a poor living environment, it is not sufficient to change the materials
with which the house is constructed. Instead the housing condition should be
part of a more sustainable environment in which the living space, its site and
location and access to facilities are seen with reference to the local
environment.
In rural areas the Government’s programme is mainly m the nature of
constructing Janatha houses and distribution of sites. Up to March 1984 about
12 lakh sites had been distributed to rural poor and 4 lakh houses had been
constructed under Janatha Housing Scheme(Kamataka 1985).
The pie chart indicates that houses owned by the families form 86 percent and
□
the families living in rented houses is 24 percent.
'0
according to the type of houses owned and rent, more than half of the families
When it is analysed
(52 percent) live m houses made up of Mud Roof. The families living in RCC
houses constitute only 5.0 percent.
It, thereby, shows the poor economic
conditions and living standard of the people.
0
A
I
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[
C I
. I
> '0 <
<
'>
o <•
<
BOwn
Rent
Figure - 5
FAMILIES BY OWNERSHIP OF HOUSE
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0
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0
•t)
■0
o
o
o
o
^ss»
<4- -•■
o
°2
00®
o
s--=»
x::H-.^S':Qr-:
ET ^PD“
oi
co
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cc
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uo
CM
CM*
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27
Sanitation
Sanitation is one of the weakest links of development m both rural and urban
n.
areas.
There was hardly any progress towards better sanitation.
At the
■'W
beginning of the 1980s only 6.47 percent of the total population i.e. 0.5 percent
and 26.9 percent of the rural and urban population respectively were served by
reasonably adequate facilities for excreta disposal. Though much progress has
been achieved in providing safe drinking water, improvements in sanitation and
’’
public health are rather meager. As against a target to cover 25 percent of
villages under sanitation by 1990 but only about 2 percent coverage has been
achieved.
Toilet Facilities
In an inquiry into the availability and utilization of the toilet facilities, it was
found that a good percentage of the families (95.4) have no toilet facility and
they prefer to go to open area for excreta disposal. Only a small percentage
(4.2) have toilets and out of which 1.2 percent of them are having toilets
attached inside the house and 3 percent outside the house.
In rural areas the basic problem is lack of demand from individual households
for the improvement of sanitary condition. Though there are community &
government toilets built m some of the villages the people tend to go out in
open places rather than using them.
There is also a problem of lack of
maintenance. Poor mamtenance of public toilets could inhibit the desire to use
them and force people to revert back to unhealthy practices.
L
4
i
In addition to
)
•Q
28
educational campaign, low cost sanitary latrines and proper maintenance could
0
improve the situation. This study also reveal that 75.8 percent of the families
0
0
throw the waste in the open area and only 25.2 percent of the families use
dustbin.
0
Drinking Water
O
Safe drinking water is clearly related to diseases prevention and health
promotion avoid especially in the case of children. In the mid 1980s as many as
360 million Indians did not have safe drinking water.
Indian villages are
moreover notorious for a special form "of social injustice, their low caste and
poorest inhabitants are often denied access to some of the areas of water that
exist. Almost 70% of our inland water is polluted. As a consequence, water
related diseases continue to be the leading killers of infants and children. India
Q
thus accounts for about 1.5 of 5 million under five children who die every year
O
O
in the world on account of diarrhea. According to W.H.O. 80 % of India’s
health problems are indeed water-prone diseases. The sources of water within
the home is closely related to the state’s policy with regard to water use and
management.
Although there is sufficient amount of drinking water available the Indian
population consumes only 1 to 2 percent of total water supply. Water scarcity is
a sterling reality. While open wells exist, the water resources is not sufficient to
meet the people’s need. Same as the case in construction of bore wells which is
making tremendous head way, but much of the generated water is not adequate
i
i
29
'T1
to the growing population m the villages. Besides, the break down of the bore
’X
’’v-
wells, and negligence of the Gram Panchayat or the concerned government
officials m setting them right the people suffer from acute water scarcity. Thus
'W
the both ground and captive surface water resources have been exploited in
such a manner that they only minimally serve the existing rural population and
will do so even less in future. With fewer water source available, people have
to allocate it according to their several needs - feeding livestock, washing,
'‘•V
'Mr
drinking, watering the kitchen garden etc.
Invariably, environmental and
personal hygiene are related to the background, scabies, leprosy, trachoma and
conjunctivitis are some of the diseases commonly associated with water
scarcity, as also with lower caste households which are denied access to safe
water sources by the monopoly of the higher castes.
The Karnataka state has made impressive strides during the 1980s in providing
safe drinking water sources in rural areas. However, available data indicate
w
32.2 percent of 161 families in the villages still use water that is not potable and
safe.
For maintenance of bore well hand pumps a two-tire system was in
operation consisting of a voluntary care taken per hand pump at village level
and a mobile team at the taluk level. How efficiently this system functions
requires to be evaluated.
Breakdowns in the system and not attended to
immediately may force people to fall back upon unprotected sources of water.
It is also necessary to monitor water levels in the sources, overall changes in the
rain fall and in the echo systems. Further, much of the advantage in providing
safe dnnking water can be lost if people are not educated about the
■r n
3
30
eppidemeology of water prone diseases, the need for hygienic handling, storing
of water and the significance of using boiled water for consumption.
Table-3.1
Distribution of families by their usage of water
3
Source
O
Table - 3.2
Frequency
Percentage
Protected
147
29.8
Unprotected
347
70.2
Total
500
100.0
Frequency
Percentage
Open well
225
45.0
Bore well
129
25.8
Pool
114
22.8
Tap
32
6.4
Total
500
100.0
Source of Drinking water
■V
a
Means
As seen from the table 45.0 percent of the families depend upon the open well
‘0
for their use. 25.8 percent draw water from the bore wells. The percent (6.4) is
'0
very less with regard to those families, who fetch water from the available taps.
□
The study also reveals that 95.6 percent of the people do not filter the water
before use.
J
e'
'5
V
31
Table - 3.3
Distribution of families by accessibility water
Distance
Frequency
Percentage
Up to 100 feet
89
17.8
101 to 200 ft.
241
48.2
Above 200 ft.
163
32.6
No Response
7
1.4
Total
500
100.0
"V
It is vivid from the above table that a significant percentage of families (48.2)
fetch water form a distance between 100 to 200 ft while 32.6 percent of them
walk a distance of above 200 ft for drinking water. The families able to get
water from a 100 ft distance is 17.8 percent.
I
0
e*
Air Pollution
It was reported that among 30 percent of patients, half of them are children who
suffered from respiratory ailments. It was noted here that air pollution is a key
problem.
’X
Type of Fuel
a.
The passive smoking, ill-ventilated homes made worse by indoor cooking with
use of dung or wood fuel. The survey indicates that nearly 95 percent of the
05501
iA*a<s
y
2>
)
0
32
house holds do not have separate kitchen and only 5.0 percent have separate
■0
kitchen. With regard to the type of oven used by the people, it is found that a
0
great majority' of them (96.0 %) use traditional chulahs and only 3.0 percent of
□
them use smokeless chulahs.
Kerosene stoves are used only by a small
percentage (0.4). None of the people have the privilege of using Bio-gas.
o
A major source of air pollution is the cooking of food in houses with madequate
3
ventilation.
The burning cooking fuel indoors causes heavy smoke in the
atmosphere, exposing the women to those toxic fumes. As over 96.0 percent of
the households use wood and dung as fuel, the scale of the problem is immense,
Researches prove that ill-effects of wood smoke are clearly evident from the
heart disease. Among the pregnant women there is additional demand on the
hemoglobin level. This exposure could also affect the child leading to reduced
birth weight and increased prenatal death rates. It was estimated that in India
40 to 60 percent of women m the reproductive age suffer from chronic lung
Q
diseases. Respiratory diseases often prove fatal in the case of young girls and
women in India.
The health workers and planners of the health have to educate the people and
making them more aware of their own environment.
The process of
“objectifying” their environment or putting it within a context to which the
□
□
people themselves can relate will have its own impact on their health. Apart
form this, the people need to be motivated and encouraged to use the smokeless
chulahs.
O
V
33
GENERAL HEALTH CONDITIONS
v
1. It is learnt that a vast majonty of the families (99.2%) have members
suffering from common ailments.
2. A Great majonty of the families (98.6%) do not have anyone affected by
Tuberculosis.
Only a small percent (1.4%) of the families, have members
affected by TB The treatment taken by the TB patients form these families is
always allopathic.
3. Thirty people i.e. 6.0 percent of the families have symptoms of leprosy.
4. There were only 2 people identified as physically less abled.
tv
5. People form 5.0 percent of the families suffer from blindness. Blindness due
to vitamin ‘A’ deficiency is found to be common in rural areas especially
prevalent among children and pregnant women as per the researches show.
5
Researches also reveal that this health hazard is due to under utilization of
green leaves, fruits and vegetables, and also due to inadequate supply and non
availability of vitamin ‘A’ oil.
Added to this, awareness or knowledge of
people to go in for vitamin c A’ is lacking.
4
1
o
o
34
WOMEN AND CHILDREN
Women raise more than half of the world’s food grams.
Statistics of the
Women and Population Division, the UN Food and Agriculture Organisation
(FAO) show that women in Sub-Saharan Africa produce 60 - 80 % of the basic
o
o
food needed for the entire population. In Asia they grow 50 to 60 % of the
basic food consumed. 45 % of food needed m the Caribbean is produced by
women.
‘Q
’Q
■Q
To produce these food, a great number of women go to work in farms. As men
are migrating to urban areas for work, rural women are forced to run the farms.
Besides crop cultivation, women handle allied activities like looking after the
live stock, rearing poultry etc. Though they are major food gram producers,
A
women consume only a minuscule of what they produce.
I
Low levels of
maternal nutrition combmed with frequent child birth harm the entire family.
Nonetheless, when food is scarce, it is often men who get it first, then the boy
children before girls. Women’s own quality of life is the lowest prionty. It is a
societal norm to underestimate activities traditionally performed by women and
*
to overlook the magmtude of burden on them as compared to men.
Women in general and pregnant women in particular have special nutritional
needs. They need three times more iron than men to replace iron lost during
■Z)
menstrual period. Pregnant and breast feeding women need twenty tunes more.
Pregnancy also demands an extra 150 calories per day in the first three months
and extra 350 calories per day in next six months and much more during breast
4
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/
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35
feeding.
Women also need sufficient calcium, especially during childhood,
pregnancy and after menopause. Women also require more iodine for their own
health and that of their children. Insufficient iodine especially in an already
deficient mother can result in poor foetal brain development which leads to
birth of cretins, deaf mutes, mentally abnormal children - children with speech
defects and defects m coordination and movement.
Special Food during Pregnancy
Women from a great majority of famihes (427 / 84 %) do not receive special
food during Pregnancy. Only 8.2 percent of the total famihes were able to
provide special food to the pregnant women. With regard to diet during Anti
Natel Care, women from a good majonty of the families (95.1 %) take normal
diet while women from 1.6 percent of the famihes take bland diet. Since, the
intake of adequate diet is veiy poor among the women, the increase of infant
mortality and low life expectancy are more prevalent.
Breast Feeding
It was learnt that women in 377 (75 %) families, who have small children,
presently breast feed their children.
Whereas women from only a small
percentage (17.4 %) of the famihes do not breast feed the children
J
"J
J
J
36
Table 4.1
Initiation to Breast Feeding
•0
□
Duration
Frequency Percentage
Between 1 to 8 hours
148
32.3
Between 9 hours & 2 days
115
25.1
After 2 days
195
42.6
No response
28
Missing
Not applicable
14
Missing
Total
500
100.0
To assess the knowledge and practice of women with regard to initiation to
breast feeding it is found from the table that a good number of women from
32.3 percent of the families breast feed the infant after the confinement between
1 to 8 hours. 25.1 percent of them breast feed the infants between 9 hours to 2
days. A significant number of women constituting 42.6 percent account for
breast feeding the infant after two days of delivery.
It may be noted that the rural women influenced by the traditional practice and
lack of knowledge about value of colostrum and its capacity to resist the
diseases.
37
Table - 4.2
•v
•P
Children’s Age at which Breast Feeding Stopped
Age in Years
Frequency
Percentage
Below 1
10
12.5
1 to 2
42
52.5
Above 2
28
35.0
Total
80
100.0
J
'\y
Quite significantly, it is known from the table that the women from 51.2 percent
of families stop breast feeding their babies when they are between 1 and 2 years
of age. Women constituting 34.2 percent of the families stop breast feeding
then children after completing 2 years. Mothers of 12.2 percent of the families
stop breast feedmg even before the children complete the age 1 year. Most of
'V
the families have no infants and a few have not responded to the qestion.
It is to be noted that there is a tendency of persistence m breast feeding the
infant and child. And also the lack of knowledge on the part of parents about
the weaned diet which stunts the physical growth of the infants. Besides, a
‘W
female infant might receive less milk and is fed at longer intervals than a male
infant that causes malnutrhon among the females. Hence, it is vivid that a
majority of the women are still inclined against their own gender, and therefore,
gender bias is very much reflected in rural areas.
z
1ft.
y
38
Table - 4.3
O
Age at which Weaned Food Initiated
Period
Frequency
Percentage
Between 4 to 6 months
197
51.2
7 months to 1 year
181
47.0
1 to 2 years
7
1.8
Total
385
100.0
Valid cases:
385
Number of missing observations:
115;
With regard to initiation to weaned food a great majonty of them (51.2 %) feed
the infants between 4 to 6 months, followed by 47.0 percent of the women
initiate weaned food between 7 months to 1 year. Only a small percent of them
(1.8) women begm feedmg between the age of 1 to 2 years. It is clear that the
first category of respondents shown in the table are aware of the period at which
the weaned food has to be initiated, however, it is doubtful, how far they
practice. Because as it appears in the previous table showing the period at
which the breast feeding was stopped, a great majority of the respondents are
inclined to the period between 1 to 2 years and above. Therefore, an inference
can be drawn that due to taboos in food habits the women folk m the villages
are still persistently breast feedmg the children.
o
..
3
39
Tetanus Texoid
A question related to pregnant women receiving Tetanus Texoid, it was
'..v
•Xi
revealed that a great number of women in 327 families (65.4 %) receive
Tetanus Texoid where as women m 150 families i.e. 30.0 percent have not
received T. T. at all. The 65.4 percent of women receiving the T. T. have been
attributed to intervention of B.D.D.S. in educating women about the advantages
of receiving T.T. Regular visits were under taken by the health workers m
order to facilitate promotion of the health of the pregnant women and arranging
for immunization programmes in the villages or in a centre. More importantly,
vv
’"•X
the acceptance and willingness of women to receive the T.Ts and the right
motivation from the elders in the village etc.
"'v
Thirty percent of the women, who have not received T.T. injections, their
access to this service may be constrained by several factors. First, the time they
spent on child care, household work and in the occupational sphere, which
leaves them with little time to think about their health, this often resulted in
■X
neglecting their illness in the early stages. Second, the clinics offer women no
privacy. Third, the expenses and time incurred in traveling long distances and
I
in meeting clime and drug fees are also the constraining influences. Finally,
women’s awareness of available facilities even if they were to use them is lower
than that of men. There are instances where women are reluctant to have
medical services and discouragement received from the elders also block the
women going for health services.
The failure of ANMs’ visits at regular
intervals can also be accounted for this failure. Even if the ANM visits take
5
J
'0
-0
40
Q
■O
•0
0
place the non availability of most of the women as they set out for work early in
the morning. Hence the ANMs odd hours visits also is constraint to women’s
access to health services. When asked about ANMs’ visits, 82.0 percent of the
families positively replied, 12 percent remarked ‘No’ and 2.2 percent remained
silent.
Table 4.4
Frequency of ANM Visit
ANM Visit
No. of Families Percentage
Once a month
191
50.1
Twice a month
159
41.7
3 times a month
nil
4 times a month
19
5.0
5 times a month
12
3.2
No Response
53
missing
Not applicable
66
missing
Total
500
100.0
Valid no. of cases:
381
According to the above table, the frequency of the visit by ANM is negative.
As the frequency of the ANM visit increases the number of the families
favoured of the visit is on the decrease.
“3
O
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e
41
To ensure the women those who have received the health services during the
pregnancy an investigation was made to find out whether the women have the
Green Card issued by the Local Medical Officer during the resot. It was found
that women from more than the half of the 500 families (53.8 percent) have no
Green Cards with them and, whereas only 44.0 percent own them. The women
form rest of the families, according to their statement, had received the health
services but due to shortage of cards they were not provided with cards.
Despite the fact that women are seen primarily in the role of mothers, the study
revealed that few pregnant women were actually registered at health centres.
As women access to health services is vital.
Because a woman has the
responsibility of caring for the health of her entire family. Her knowledge of
nutrition and health is important both for herself and the health of the family.
A
Available studies have shown that household discriminate against girls in terms
of health care. Hospital records show there are more male admissions than
female.
Food Consumption and Habits
Malnutrition or nutritional deficiency in quantity and quality of food-intakes
affects the health of the mother as well as children. The nutritional monitoring
bureau of the National Institute of Nutrition has been conducting studies on
several aspects relating to diet and nutrition.
<!
/
•'5
0
•0
42
•0
Table-4.5
•>)
Food intake
Food-intake per day
Families
Percentage
Upto 3 Kg
171
34.2
4 to 6 kg
232
46.4
7 to 9 kg
67
13.4
above 9 kg
17
3.4
No response
13
2.6
Total
500
100.0
According to this table 34.2 percent of the families’ intake of food is upto 3 kg
per day. Majonty of the families’ intake of food is 4 to 6 kg. When the quantity
of intake of food shoots up the percentage of families consuming food becomes
less. As regards to consumption of fruits 100 percent of families take fruits
occasionally, which are seasonal fruits.
During the 1970 National survey in 10 states have shown that there had been an
3
increase in average consumption of calories at the household level among the
5
rural people. This increase was to a certain extent reflected among the school
children as well (Nutrition news, 1986). The intake was highest in Karnataka
3
as compared to other states. The percentage of population with protein, caloric
3
deficiency according to age and sex in rural Karnataka, on an average, the
□
percentage of population consuming inadequate calories was found to be more
5
than those consuming madequate amount of protein.
3
/
II
“
4
43
>
CHILD AND HEALTH
Infant & Child Mortality
Among children aged less than 5, incidence as well as causes of mortality vary
according to age, and hence these data are generally tabulated and analysed for
3
■M
specified penods since birth.
Infant deaths are those occurring before the
completion of 12 months, while deaths after 1 year and before the completion of
5 years are called childhood deaths. Infant mortality is again desegregated into
’V.
neo-natal (before 28 days) mortafity. Prenatal deaths mclude late foetal deaths
(after 28 weeks of pregnancy). Still births and deaths among infants less than 7
days old. In the developed countries, data on the various components of infant
and childhood mortafity could be obtamed with a fair amount of accuracy. In
the developmg countries, however, the situation is entirely different because of
K5
the illiteracy, ignorance and many other factors.
The infant mortality rate has declined during the past 15 years and so from 101
per 1000 five births in 1970 to 82 in rural areas. During late 80s the mortality
rate decreased from 73 to 47 in urban areas. Lower mortality in urban areas is
Vf
due to better availability and utilization of medical facilities, higher literacy and
greater awareness about health and hygiene. In 1986 Infant Mortafity Rate was
much lower in Karnataka when compared to the country as a whole. 74 and 96
was the rate m urban and rural areas respectively.
y
0
0
o
44
Table-5.1
Infant Mortality Age by Sex
SEX
AGE
-O
Below 1 year
1 to 2 years
Above 2 years
TOTAL
TOTAL
Male
Female
21
12
33
63.6
36.4
31.1
15
14
29
51.7
48.3
27.4
17
27
44
38.6
61.4
41.5
53
53
106
50.0
50.0
100.0
It is observed from the survey that infant deaths and childhood deaths have
■Q
taken place in 6.6 and 14.6 percent of 500 famihes respectively. The leading
causes of those deaths were Premature, Gastro-enteritis and Respiratory
disorders of various types, reported by the respondents.
It is estimated by
researches that Vaccme preventable diseases such as Tetanus, Measles,
Pertussis, Tuberculosis, Diphtheria and other poliomyelitis account 68.8 percent
o
o
o
of the total number of infant deaths. These causes of death are closely related to
maternal health and nutritional status, mother’s age at pregnancy and anti-natal
care, medical attendance at birth, child rearing practices and general health and
hygiene.
These characteristics vary according to mother’s literacy and
education, caste, housing conditions, source of drinking water supply, better
3
45
availability and utilization of medical facilities, lack of awareness about health
V
and hygiene etc.
The sex wise infant mortality rate shows that there is a proportionate death rate
among female and male children. It is also notable here as the age increases the
death rate among the female children is also on the increase.
Immunization
By and large the universal immunisation programme has been successful in the
State, though there is a scope for improvement in the programme. Generally,
the reasons for low coverage are lack of information about time and place of
immunization* fear of pain and possible side effects, child s sickness at the time
of immunization etc.
"<af
□
-s
Table - 5.2
Type of Vaccination given to children
Vaccination
Frequency
Percentage
Not known
61
12.2
B.C.G.
13
2.6
D.P.T. & polio
75
15.0
B.C.G., D.P.T. & Polio
285
57.0
None of the vaccination
6
1.2
No response
3
0.6
Not applicable
57
11.4
Total
500
100.0
/
4w<
£__ iHSHWHlJiUaWUHBL-C
-------
■D
46
-0
• >>
The 12.2 percent of the families are not aware of the immunization. B.C.G
has been given to children of only 2.6 percent and D.P.T & Polio to the children
o
of 15 percent of the families. Majority of the Children from 285 families (57%)
received B.C.G., D.P.T. & Polio. Children of 1.6 percent of the families were
not given any of the vaccine. Here ‘Not applicable’ refers to those families who
do not have children of 0 to 5 years.
3
I
47
ECONOMY
Agriculture
The importance of agriculture to our country cannot be over looked. Though it .
is steadily decreasing from around 40% at the end of 1990s, the contribution of
agriculture to the national income still consntuted 31.7 percent in 1996.
Agriculture moreover provides livelihood to about 60 percent of the labour
force. The performance of agriculture is therefore crucial for economy and also
well-being of the people who are involved in agricultural sector.
It is observed that 48.6 percent of the families have their own land and a
significant percent (51.4) of the families are landless.
Table - 6.1
Families holding Land
■\v
Land in acres
Frequency
Percentage
Up to 2
106
21.2
3-4
83
16.6
5-6
21
4.2
Above 6
33
6.6
Land less
255
51.0
No Response
2
0.4
Total
500
100.0
4
/
j 0 O ii J J J o o d d d u U v
Ij
u U o
L'
Table - 6.2
TYPE OF LAND BY CROPS CULTIVATED
CROPS
Rice
Land
Bajara
Jawar
Dryland
50
26.9
131
70.4
Wetland
3
4.3
4
5.8
62
89.9
Total
53
20.8
135
62
24.3
52.9
Wheat / Dhal /
Jawar
Jawar &
Bajara
Total
2
1.1
3
1.6
186
72.9
69
27.1
2
0.8
3
1.2
255
100.0
ii
iJ O Q V
’ ‘1 o e
< i
Table - 6.3
TYPE OF LAND BY CROPS CONTROLLING FOR TYPE OF SOIL
LAND
WET
DRY
CROPS
Black Soil
Red Soil
Mixed Soil
Total
Black Soil
Red Soil
Mixed Soil
Total
Bajara
41
33.9
0
9
27.3
50
27.2
3
23.1
0
0
3
4.3
Jawar
77
63.6
30
100
24
72.7
131
71.2
4
30.8
0
0
4
5.8
Rice
0
0
0
0
6
46.2
56
100
0
62
89.9
Jawar & Bajara
3
2.5
0
0
3
1.6
0
0
0
0
Total
121
65.8
30
16.3
33
17.9
184
100.0
13
18.8
56
81.2
0
69
100 0
i
•v)
50
•0
0
0
The families owning land up to two acres constitute 21.2 percent. 16.6 percent
of the families having land holding is 3 to 4 acres. Another 4.2 percent of the
Above 6 acres account for 6.6
0
families own between 5 to 6 acres of land.
0
percent. It is evident that the families holding land up to 2 acres form major
0
percent, the viability of cultivating crops in such a small portion will not be
o
possible with modern technology. Even if the modem technology of cultivation
is adopted the output will not be able to meet at least the input invested. It also
■0
0
shows that majonty of the people are marginal farmers and whose mcome will
not be sufficient to maintain the families.
•0
•0
Type of land and Crops grown
One of the factors that determine the yielding depends on the nature or type of
the soil and its fertility. It is found that out of 255 families owning land 72.9
percent of them have Dry Land in which 70.4 of the families cultivate Jawar.
The rest of the families 69 (27.1%) possessing Wet Land and out of whom, a
great majority of them (89.9 %) cultivate Paddy.
As far as the analysis is
concerned, it is found that Dry Land is not suitable for cultivating Paddy and
other Cash Crops. Where as Wet Land has the rich fertility to produce Paddy
3
2
and other similar Crops.
Water Resource for cultivation
Water is one of the components for cultivation. The study reveals that 71.2
3
□
percent of the people depend upon rain to irrigate the land.
I
27.4 percent of
s
j
'j
'3
51
them irrigate the land through pond and canal water. Another 7.4 percent of
them utilize waler through pump sets. The people lack knowledge m storing
i)
and managing the rain
water and hence they are badly affected when the ram
•Q
fall is scanty or there is no ram fall at all
It is observed that among those families who own land, 89.7 percent of them
cultivate by themselves. A small percent (3.8) have leased out their land. A
similar number of the families had pledged their land. An 1.6 percent of the
lt*r
families cultivate in their own land and leased land as well. As per the 1991
census, the contribution of the primary sectors (agriculture, forestry and mining)
towards the developing economy to national income and labour force is
gradually declining with corresponding mcreases m secondary sectors.
'tv
'AL
Financial conditions
Family Income by Members’ Age
The earning members of the families whose income is above Rs. 9000/- per
'V
year, fall into the age group of 35 to 40 for which the percentage of families is
15.4. Those who belong to the age group of 26 to 30 years, generate an income
of Rs. 6000 to 9000 per year form 10.8 percent of the families. The significant
•3
portion of the members, whose age is between 26 to 35 years, contribute
maximum to their family income. It could be due to their physical fitness to
work and earn more.
It is also noted that as the people grow older by age their
earning capacity also declines. See the table number 6.4.
____________
05501
j
by
Zf
d U U V
d d C u o 6 <J d t>
V
v v c
o u
u o
Table - 6.4
FAMILY INCOME BY MEMBERS’ AGE
INCOME
AGE
n
Up to Rs. 3000
Rs. 3001 - 6000
Rs. 6001 to 9000
Above Rs. 9000
16-25
5
8.6
27
46.6
23
39.7
3
5.1
58
11.6
26-35
12
5.8
67
32.7
76
37.1
50
24.4
205
41.0
29
26.8
33
30.6
46
42.6
108
21.6
36 - 45
46 - 55
6
7.5
9
11.25
24
30.0
41
51.25
80
16.0
56-65
4
12.1
10
30.3
3
9.1
16
48.5
33
6.6
12
75.0
2
12.5
2
12.5
16
3.2
154
30.8
161
32.2
158
316
500
100.0
Above 65
Total
27
5.4
5
0
0
53
Wages of Women
Table - 6.5
Women and their earnings
Frequency
Percentage
Rs. 8/2304
115
23.0
Rs. 10/2880
161
32.2
Rs. 15 /4320
103
20.6
Above Rs. 15 / 4320
43
8.6
Women without work
50
10.6
No Response
25
5.0
Not applicable (Widower)
3
0.6
Total
500
100.0
Wage
Women earning 10 per day are more m the area then other categories of women
earning 8, 15 and above.
I
This table also shows that as the earning of the
women increases there is a steady decline in the number of families supported
by the wage of the women.
*
It is ironic that the section of the population which contributes most
significantly to agricultural production, landless agricultural labourers is the
most severely afflicted by the problems of poverty and malnutrition. It is more
3
in the case of women labourers. Unorganised and at the mercy of employers
the women have no bargaining power. Seasonal work and low mobility further
heighten their dependency on the employer.
3
&
Q
L) V
100 fTthI
90
o"I
I
u
4j
79.7
so -q® I
70 B8
Expenditure per Year
— tvma
==S
60-^8 ft
50
40
30
20
10
0
O
4J
■
—e—I
——h—at
50.6
A
—■ ■■■■ w<—
39.3
—
-SS
—■'■■■ I——
7 7 1 SSS gS
1
—
sa 18.6
=sg
%
%
/I’
is
T
Upto
3000
I
3000
to
6000
8.8
■ I 1.7 1.3.
IS
6001
to
i
B Upto 3000
= 3001 to 6000
■ 6001 to 9000
Above 9000
—-■■■■am
s
Above
9000
9000
Income per Year
Figure - 7
FAMILY INCOME BY EXPENDITURE
55
Income by Expenditure
v
nJ
It is seen from the Bar diagram that the Income of the People which fall under
the category of up to Rs. 3000 of which 100.0 percent of them spend up to their
mcome. /Another category of the people who fall under the mcome group of Rs.
3001 to 6000 spend their earning up to Rs. 3000 constituting 27.1 percent, the
same income group spend accordmg to their mcome formmg 47.1 percent and,
spending 2 times of their mcome account for 25.7 percent. The analysis further
"V
reveals that the people whose mcome reaches between Rs. 6001 to 9000 spend
less than their income, represent 79.7 percent and, only 18.6 percent of them
equal their expenses with their income. But, a small percent (1.7) spend above
their income i.e. above Rs. 9000. The highest mcome earning group (Above
**
Rs. 9000) spending equal to their income constitute 50.6 percent. And, the
percentage of their spending declines very much as the amount comes down.
The bar diagram shows that as the income is on the increase the tendency
among the people to consume and spend more is also on the increase. Hence
the tendency to spend more is more among the highest mcome earning group.
Thus the quantum of saving might be less among the people.
VS
*
v)
56
•i
■0
Savings
Table - 6.6
■i
Frequency
Percentage
No saving
36
7.2
o
Bank
6
1.2
0
Women’s Association
450
90.0
0
Credit union
8
1.6
500
100.0
Source
Total
A great majority of the families (90.0%) have their savings m women’s
association, followed by 1.6 percent of the families’ savings m credit union.
Only 1.2 percent of them have savings in banks. A very interesting phenomena
is that a majority of women have initiated to save in their associations. It shows
that women associations are keen on promoting the habit of savings among the
people.
Loan
With regard to loan 39.4 percent of the families have not taken any loan. A
sizable number of families (244) have borrowed from local money lenders,
'0
"•Q
village head-man etc., followed by 9.6 percent of the families who have taken
loans from banks.
A small percent (2.2) had availed loan from women’s
associations. The people borrow money from money lenders or village head
man at the time of emergency, when huge amount is required for marriages.
y
-> d V V
Table - 6.7
< o
c c
HOUSEHOLD PROPERTIES CONTROLLING FOR RELIGION AND CASTE
Caste
Religion
S.No.
1.
2.
Properties
Radio
3.
Wall Clock &
Watches
Fan
4.
Kerosene Stove
5.
Iron Box
6.
Cycle
7.
____
8.
Television
9.
Cupboard
I
Motor Cycle
■ 10.
Tailoring Machine
11.
Tape Recorder
Hindu
26
49.1
33
53.2
13
59.1
13
86.7
31
58.5
48
55.8
0
Muslim
~3
Christian
24~ '
5.7
3
48
2
91
2
13.3
0
45.3
26
41.9
7
31.8
0
2
2.3
0
2
25.0
2
33.3
9
69.2
36
62.1
2
25.0
0
69.2
4.0
0
0
Total
22
41.5
36
41.9
4
100.0
4
50.0
4
66.7
4
30.8
22
37.9
53
10.6
62
12.4
22
4.4
15
3.0
53
10.6
86
17.2
4
0.8
8
1.6
6
I. 2
13
2.6
58
II. 6
26.8
100.0
SC
^43~
81.1
45
72.6
9
4Q.9
2
13.3
36
67.9
78
90.7
4
100.0
6
75.0
6
100.0
6
46.2
49
84.5
BC
Total
7
3
5.7 _________ 13.2
10
7
11.3________ 16.1
4
9
18,2________ 40.9
9
4
26.7 ________ 60.0
10
7
18,9________ 13.2
8
0
9.3
0
0
4
6.9
7
53.8
5
8.6
53
10.6
62
12.4
22
4.4
15
3.0
53
10.6
86
17.2
4
0.8
8
1.6
6
1.2
13
2.6
58
1 1.6
20.3
10.8
100.0
SI'
0
0
0
2
25.0
0
Distribution of
' Population in %
68.9
3
x)
v)
58
Heaths and agricultural purposes. This shows the local money lenders are easily
i)
0
accessible to the people.
Due to the procedural delay in banks, and women
associations might have also forced them to approach money lenders or village
head-man for financial assistance. The rate of interest, if money borrowed from
0
the lenders, vanes from 12 percent to 120 percent per annum.
o
0
Household Properties
Q
■Q
The table No. 6.4 shows the Caste and Religion-wise distribution of household
properties. It reveals that the caste and religion-wise distnbution of household
■Q
properties is disproportionate with that of the distribution of population. As far
as the religion-wise distribution is concerned, for mstance, the Christians
having motor cycles constitute 100 percent despite their population is less than
Hindus. They even out number the Hindus in holding properties like television
and cupboard. While looking at cast-wise distribution of properties BCs equal
the SCs and STs m owning some of the household properties in spite of their
constituting least percentage of population. Thus it reveals the fact that the
Q
Q
3
O
Q
economic status of the families has no co-relation in respect to their religion and
caste.
Animal Husbandary
Understandably having milk giving animals in the families signifies extra
income. Out of 500 families 72.8 percent do not possess milk giving animals.
3
0
59
This signifies their interest, financial capacity, availability of fodder, place etc
There are about 17.6 percent of the families who have cows, 1.2 percent of
them rear goats, 7.2 percent of them have buffaloes, and only 0.8 percent of the
families have both cows and buffaloes. 0.4 percent of the families have not
responded.
Animal Husbandry
Table - 6.8
Frequency
Percentage
No
364
72.8
Cow
88
17.6
Goat
6
1.2
Buffaloes
36
7.2
Cow & Buffaloes
4
0.8
No Response
2
0.4
500
100.0
Milk Animals
Total
1
Table - 6.9
Worth of the Milk Animals
T
9
Worth
Families
Percentage
Valid Percent
Upto Rs. 2000/-
89
17.8
67.4
Rs. 2001 to Rs. 4000/-
25
5.0
18.9
Rs. 4001 to Rs. 6000/-
15
3.3
11.4
Above Rs. 6000/-
3
0.6
2.3
No Response
4
0.8
Missing
Not Applicable
364
72.8
Missing
Total
500
100.0
100.0
I
)
60
)
)
Of the 136 families who have milch animals, 67.4 percent of them have animals
)
worth upto Rs. 2000/-.
This table also signifies as the worth of the animal
increases the number of families possessing them is on the decrease,
The
income generated through milch animals is interestmg to note that only 2
families out of 136 generate mcome upto Rs. 1500/-.
)
Understandably, the
D
remaining families use the milk for their household. The milch animals of the
3
11.4 percent of the families are treated at veterinary hospitals and 10.4 percent
0
of the families at their locality.
0
□
0
□
o
o
o
i
3
Ji
I*
I
<l
)
€
J c
o
i
% °
Widower
w Others
□ Business
Widow
□ Bonded
Labourer
® Labourer
Unmarried
□ Agriculture
.8 6.7
Marrie
Children
0
20
40
60
80
100
Figure - 8
MEMBERS’ STATUS BY GENDER
a No Work /
Unempolyed
■_)
0
0
62
0
0
0
SOCIAL PROBLEMS
0
o
o
0
0
□
With recard to the problem of social stigma faced by the low caste people, 100
percent of them are experiencing the problem of Untouchability. Women and
children of Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes, those in agricultural
families, and female headed households constitute the most disadvantaged
sections of the society. Social deprivation and economic backwardness of the
Scheduled Caste and Tribes coupled with their temtonal segregation in rural
o
areas inhibits access to the utilization of vanous developmental and welfare
0
programmes such as provision of drinking water, maternity allowance,
0
immunization, ANMs’ home visits etc.
The demand for modem inputs and
services is quite low among these sections of the people. Even if the demand is
0
strong they may still be the losers in the interplay of caste and class in the
■0
completion of governmental benefits.
0
0
Occupation determining Status
The figure shows the correlation between the members’ Status by Occupation.
According to the status of the members of the family, it is obseived that the
□
children those who do not work constitute 81.1 percent. But it is very pathetic
to see the problem of unemployment prevails to a great extent. It is so evident
that among the married people of the area 15.7 percent are unemployed, and
among the unmamed, who are mostly young and youthful, outnumber all, and
they constitute 74.3 percent, which means little less than 3/4 of the youth
D
□
population of the area is unemployed.
The agricultural labourers and other
coolies are the highly employed people in the area, and it is also the fact that
among the children those who are involved as labourers constitute 18.2 percent.
/
□
3
0
63
It shows Child Labour, which is considered as social menace, is still existing m
the area. The other heart wrenching problem. Bonded labour, is also evident
among the people.
0
It is found that children and married people among
themselves form 0.2 and 0.5 respectively are labeled as bonded laborers. As tar
as other occupations are concerned, among the married 6.7 percent involve m
Tailoring, Carpentry, Stone cutting and crushing. Beedi making etc.
Only
mamed people are mvolved m these busmess.
Substance Abuse
Alcohol addiction is becoming an environmental factor so far as it is constramt
variable in the home environment. It compounds the condition of malnutrition
as chrome alcoholics suffer from malabsorbtion of major nutnents. It increases
’W
the level of violence within the household and aggravates the condition of
poverty. The increased demand for alcohol has created a new monster in the
rural areas.
The study reveals that there are 43 percent of the families having members who
consume alcohol. And families having no alcohol consumers are 56 percent.
With regard to the frequency of people often consuming alcohol is from 9.4
percent of the families, and occasionally is from 33.6 percent of the families.
The local brew is often toxic and causes a degree of poisoning.
From our
observation it is visible where the men folk are outwardly sickly with yellowish
eyes, puffy cheeks and bloated visages.
0 V V V J d d u o 6
o o o o
<J u o o o C C C C C € CC O O O O tr
Table-7.1
ALCOHOL CONSUMPION BY ALCOHOLICS' AGE
AGE
TOTAL
DURATION
Above 65
16-25
26-35
36-45
46 - 55
56 - 65
Often
8
17.0
9
19.1
14
29.8
7
14.9
9
19.1
Occatoionally
16
9.5
45
26.8
36
21.4
46
27.4
14
8.3
11
6.5
168
78.1
TOTAL
24
11.2
54
25.1
50
23.2
53
24.6
23
10.7
11
5.1
215
47
21.9
100 0
U
J j a
) 5 c c <
Table - 7.2
O U u V
c
(J 1‘
h V V
PEOPLE BY HABITS
AGE
TOTAL
HABIT
16 - 25
26 - 35
36 - 45
Pan Chewing
46 - 55
56 - 65
Above 65
18
81.8
2
9.1
2
9.1
22
6.1
Smoking
4
5.7
41
58.6
9
12.8
9
12.8
4
5.7
3
4.3
70
19.1
Nas
11
26.2
12
28.6
9
21.4
6
14.3
3
7.1
1
2.4
42
1 1.5
All the above
5
10.2
11
22.4
22
44.9
4
8.2
5
10.2
2
4.1
49
13.4
17
28.8
16
27.1
19
32.2
5
8.5
2
3.4
59
. 16.1
8
10.0
5
6.2
80
21.8
Pan & Smoking
Smoking and Nas
14
17.5
20
25.0
16
20.0
17
21.2
Pan & Nas
8
18.2
17
38.6
17
38.6
2
4.5
42
11.5
118
32.2
89
24.3
75
20.5
Total
44
12.0
27
7.4
15
4.1
366
100.0
)
)
66
)
Alcoholics and Alcoholic Consumption
0
It is observed that those who often consume alcohol fall between 36 to 40 years
of age and they constitute 5.6 percent of the familres. Thrs may be attnbuted .0
the fact of high earnings of this age group is more when compared to other age
□
groups
II rs also important to note that 3 8 percent of the families are iaving
members who often consume alcohol and they fall between the age group of 16
o
to 25. People who occasionally drink alcohol fall between 26 to 30 years of age
o
and they form 14.0 percent of the farml.es, due to peer group’s pressure the
people of this age have the tendency to go for liquor during occasions like
festivals and while mvolvmg m social, cultural and political activities. There
are people who rarely consume alcohol fall also between 36 to 55 years of age.
People by Habits
More than 1 out of 10 families are
□
habituated to one or more items
found to be having members who are
like Pan, Cigarette and Snuff.
Pan chewing has been obsen/ed in the age group
The habit of
between 46 to 55 years
whereas other age groups have no such habit. Smoking habit is more among
those who fall between 26 to 35 years of age. Among those who use snuff the
highest percentage fall also between the age group between 26 to 35. In 13.4
percent of the families there are people who have all the habits listed in the
'"3
table. Of all the habits, smoking is the most prevailing habit among the people
and which an
adolescent starts doing it at the age of 21.
percentage of families (26.4) have
no one habituated to any of these habits.
I
□
A significant
I
0
67
SOCIAL ORGANISATION
Membership
Regarding the mvolvement of people in the community and other social
■O
activities, a vast majority of the women (97.6) exclusively had enrolled
0
themselves in local women’s associations. Besides as many as 21 women are
elected for the post of Secretary m the associations. In spite of their such strong
mvolvement in associations their representation in the village panchayat is only
1.4 percent.
This is much less when compared to the issue of women
representation in the Parliament.
Facilities Availed form B.D.D.S.
The BDDS’ intervention to the issues faced by the people under the facilities or
types of intervention, according to the expression of the people, 50.2 percent of
•’3
the families is benefiting out of food assistance and awareness building.
Followed by 37.8 percent who appreciate and welcome Awareness Programme
for them is bringing development in their living conditions. For another group
of people (7.0 percent), supply of food stuff has been a great help. Economic
assistance given to the people had set them free from financial crisis. By and
large, people approach the B.D.D.S. interventions with its implementation of
various developmental programmes.
0
0
68
T
FINDINGS
0
DEMOGRAPHY
O
o
I.
The. average number of members in a family is 6.
2.
The male out number the female with the Sex-ratio of 982 females per
1000 males.
3.
The children between the age group of 0-15 compile more than half of the
population (54.0%) and out of which 44.1 percent of them are in the age
group of 0-5.
4.
The senior citizens (60 +) of the area constitute only 1.7 percent.
Religion
5.
Out of the total population 69.2 percent of the families are Hindus
followed by Christians (26.8%) and Muslims (4.0%).
6.
□
The Scheduled Caste alone constitute 68.9 percent. The Scheduled Tnbe
and Backward Community constitute 20.3 percent and 10.8 percent
respectively.
7.
The majority of the families’ (94.0 percent) Mother Tongue is Kannada
followed by Hindi (3.4%) and Telugu (2.6%).
Literacy
2
□
8.
The literacy rate of Bellary and Raichur together is 43.1 percent.
9.
Children attending Balwadies form only 0.5 percent.
5
o
69
0
Occupation
10.
%) is the bread winning population.
11
I
Among those who are employed, daily wage labourers constitute 86.3
percent.
PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
fey
12.
More than 95 percent of the population do not have toilet facility.
13.
Nearly half of the population cover a distance between 101 to 200 ft to get
drinking water.
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14.
The household not having Separate kitchen constitute 95 percent.
15.
Ninety Six percent of the household use Traditional Chulahs.
16.
Non of the families have the privilege of usmg Bio-gas.
HEALTH - WOMEN AND CHILDREN
17.
The 6.0 percent of the families have leprosy symptoms.
18.
Women and children constituting 5.0 percent suffer from blindness.
19.
The women who do not receive special food at the time ot pregnancy
account for 84 percent of the families.
20.
V.
I
The 56.2 percent of the total population is unemployed and the rest (43.8
Ninetv five percent of the women take noiiual diet after delivery.
y
f
70
I
5^
21.
7
Women from 42.6 percent of the families start breast feeding their infants
2 days after its birth followed by 25.1 percent between 9 hours and 2 days.
More than half of the total families initiate weaned food during the period
D
5
between 4 to 6 months followed by 47 percent start giving weaned food
between 7 months to 1 year.
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0
0
70
Pregnant women from 30 percent of the families are not given Tetanus
Toxid injections.
23.
Women representmg 53.8 percent of the families have not under gone any
medical check ups during the penod of pregnancy.
24.
With regard to the Food intake. in spite of 72.2 percent of the families
having an average of 8 to 9 members each, only 3.4 percent of them take
food above 9 kg. per day.
25.
The infant and child deaths occurred among the 500 families constitute
6.6 and 14.6 percent respectively.
3
26.
□
□
There is no variation found in the infant mortality rate between male and
female children. However, it is found that when the children cross 2 years
of age the death rate among the female children is on the increase when
o
compared to the male children.
27.
The children hailing from 12.2 percent of the families have not been
immunized at all. Another 7.6 percent of them have given 1 or 2 types of
vaccines to their children. This implies the dropouts in immunisation.
□
ECONOMIC CONDITIONS
28.
More than half of the population is landless. Even among the land owning
families 43.6 percent of them are small farmers i.e. up to 2 acres.
0
3
71
o
29.
As recards the type of land owned by the land holders. 72.9 ot them have
dry land and in which Jawar is the mam crops cultivated. Those who
have wet land Paddy is the major crops bemg cultivated.
30.
Nearly 3/4 of the farmers depend on monsoon to irrigate the land.
31.
The ace of the most income contributors of the families is precisely
between 26 to 35 years.
O
TO
-J j—.
Women representing 32.2 percent of the families earn Rs. 10 as their dailv
wage, and which is the highest percentage of all.
33.
The tendency to spend more than the income is quite common among the
people of highest income earning group.
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34.
Ninety percent of the total population save m Women s Association.
35.
Nearly 50 percent of the population take Ioan from the local money
lenders, village head-man, etc. at the rate of 12 to 120 percent mterest per
annum.
36.
The Religion and Caste-wise distribution of household properties is
disproportionate with that of their population.
Thus the economic
condition of the people and religion or caste has no co-relation.
■w
37.
Little less than 30 percent of the total families have milch animals out of
which only 1.5 percent generate income upto Rs. 1500/-. The rest use the
milk for household purpose.
SOCIAL PROBLEMS
38.
The severity of problem of untouchability is affecting the people to a
larger extent. 100 percent of the total population is aware of the problem.
)
)
72
)
s
39.
Families having widow constitute j.O percent.
‘Widow’ is labeled as
tDevadasi< in this area wherein it is still m practice.
5
5
5
40.
Among the children, child labourers form 18.2 percent.
41.
Bonded labourers constitute 0.5 percent and 0.2 among married and
children respectively.
42.
D
43.
People constituting 43 percent of the families consume alcohol.
The hiehest percentage of those who often consume alcohol fall under the
age group of 36 to 40 years, which is the second highest eanung members
of the family.
■
44.
For every 10 fammes 7 people are habituated to one or more ‘habits’ tike
I
Pan chewing. Smoking, Applying Snuff. More number of Pan chewers
1
□
are found m the age group of 46 to 55 years.
Similarly the habit oi
smoking and Snurr is found more among the Youth especially at the age
group of 26 to 35 years.
3
SOCIAL INVOLVEMENT
o
o
45.
□
Women from 97.6 percent of the families associate with their local women
groups. Only 1.4 percent of the women population is elected members of
the Gram Panchayat.
46.
The B.D.D.S. Programme Activities coupled with food assistance and
awareness building are found to be having impact on people’s progress.
50.2 percent of the total population have welcomed these programmes.
73
0
0
□
D
SUGGESTIONS
Literacy:
1.
Adult literacy centres are to be started in every village coming under the
purview of B.D.D.S. operation areas by involving the local educated
o
o
o
o
people preferably the youth.
In the first place the trainer needs to be
trained on conducting adult literacy classes.
Each village will have at
least 2 trainers to train two groups of both male and female separately.
2.
People are to be motivated to send or admit their children to the N.G.O.
and Govemment-run Balawadi / Anganwadi Programme.
The existing
condition demands more number of Nursery Creache programme to be
implemented m the diocese. Particularly m Raichur Dt.
Occupation
2
The unemployed folk could be encouraged to take up Self-employment
Programme.
Training Programmes could be conducted on vanous
feasible self-employment activities keepmg in mind then- aptitude.
availability of local resources.
Besides, the B.D.D.S. can be a liaison
between the Government / Bank and the people m obtaining financial
assistance to enable the people to start their self-employment activity. The
B D D S. also provide direct financial and techmeal assistance to the
unemployed to begin self-employment activity.
§
A)
□
o
o
o
o
74
4.
The daily wage labourers are to be orgamsed and sensitized to fight and
demand for the right and just wage form the employer.
o
5.
It is suegested to introduce Family Insurance Scheme for the labourers
who are working m unorganized, unsafe and hazardous sectors.
o
o
o
Physical Environment
6.
The people are to be conscientized and educated on the usage and
mamtenance of toilets. Motivating the families, who have not toilets, to
take participation m construction of new toilets in forms of kind and cash,
and even mobilization of available local resources.
7.
The people are to be motivated to approach the Government to provide
more bore-wells and public wells covering every hamlet / thanda and to
pay immediate attention in repairing the existing bore-wells which are
broken down.
8.
While providing water supply sources, the population size of the revenue
villages as well as the distribution of habitations such as small hamlets,
Tandas and Janata housmg colonies have to be taken into consideration.
5
J
75
Bigger villages will have to be provided with more than one source oi
9.
water supply. Similarly, habitanons or parts of villages where scheduled
casts and backward classes live will require an independent source of
water supply. Because of these reasons the criteria for water supply will
have to be changed periodically depending upon improvements made.
10.
The people should be encouraged to go in for smokeless Chulah. The
government could be approached to provide smokeless chulah.
O
Health
11.
General Health check-up camps should be organized at the village level
with coordination of Primary Health and District Health Centres at regular
intervals.
12.
Health workers should visit the houses, identify the women in general and
pregnant women in particular as well as children and to educate them to
avail the medical services. The Health Workers to pursue and refer the
local health care centres to provide the necessary treatment to the people
suffering from vanous ailments.
13.
Emphasis need to be laid on initiating weaned food and much attention
must be paid by the health workers by identifying and pursuing the
women in feeding their infants from the period of 4 months onwards. A
regular educative meeting through demonstration would help the rural
women conceive the idea of weaned food and thereby enabling them
practicing the same.
□
76
□
14.
2)
To ensure 100 percent coverage under immunization. The health workers
have to educate the people, motivate and arrange immunization
□
programmes at the village level. The health workers can keep track of
o
o
centres.
3
o
o
those pregnant women and children and refer them to primary health
15.
The people are to be educated on Kitchen garden encourage and motivate
growing vegetables.
Economic Conditions
16.
The Farmers need to be trained on water management, through input
sessions, demonstration programmes, exposure etc. They should also be
trained on usage of manure, its procuration, application etc.
o
17.
The women labourers are to be organized and encouraged to fight for just
wage and hours of work.
o
o
18.
The people have to be educated intensively and motivated to develop
interest towards savings and thrift.
o
19.
The people have to be educated on family budgeting and create awareness
on unnecessary expenditure on social customs and convulsions thereby
discourage the unwanted expenses and curtail borrowing from money
lenders.
20.
Income generating project must be promoted and extended in order to
enable the people to earn more and substantiate their family income.
o
o
I
77
i
f
Social Problems:
21.
The people have to be helped to critically analyse the plight of Child
labourers. Bonded labourers and Devadasis. They should be educated on
o
social legislation that safe guards their rights and interests.
Massive
awareness campaign have to be organized on these issues enlightening the
people as well as exploiters. A collective effort can be called for to fight
against such social evils that disturb the normal life of the people
22
The existing problems like Child Labour,
Bonded
Lobour and
Unemployment are an eye opener to the agencies involved in the welfare
activities of the oppressed and exploited as nothing has been done to this
vulnerable section of the society, it demands an immediate action to tackle
this issue.
23.
Women organization have to be involved in prohibiting the sale of liquors
in the villages, through awareness campaigns. The women have to be
motivated to take the lead role m bringing this problem in control.
24.
The Men’s Association and Youth Clubs have to be formed at the village
level. The youth power could be harnessed to tackle the social evils. The
men have to be motivated to encourage their women folk to take active
*
participation in the, women’s association and other developmental
%
activities.
/
7.8
J
s
25.
Leadership Training Programmes have to be conducted for women, men
and youth at regular intervals.
26.
The people have to be educated intensively on the effects of bad habits.
The educational meetings should focus more on the youth focussing their
behaviour in conforming to the societies expectations.
1
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3
□
2
*
►
LIST OF TABLES
i
Page No.
Title
Table No.
)
8-
)
6
Pansh-wise Distribution
■)
1.1
2.1
11
Type of Family
Age-wise Distribution of Respondents
2.2
2.3
d
10
Number of Members in a Family
14
18
2.4
Mother Tongue
2.5
Members By Status
2.6
Occupation By Age
Distribution of Families by Usage of Water
3.1
19
23
30
30
3.2
3.3
4.1
Source of Drinking Water
Distribution of Families by Accessibility to Water
36
Initiation to Breast Feeding
Children’s’ Age at Which Breast Feeding Stopped
4.2
4.3
4.4
Frequency of ANM Visit
4.5
Food Intake
5.1
Infant Mortality Age By Sex
Type of Vaccination Administered to Children
40
42
44
6.1
6.2
Type of Land By Crops Cultivated
Type of Land By Crops Controlling for Type of Soil
6.3
-fa/
48
49
52
6.4
Family Income By Members Age
6.5
Women and Earnings
6.5
Savings
6.7
House Hold Properties
6.8
Animal Husbandry
6.9
Worth of Milch Animals
Alcohol Consumption By Alcoholics Age
7.2
45
47
Families Holding Land
7.1
37
38
Initiation to Weaned Food
5.2
•w)
31
53
56
Controlling for Religion and Caste
57
59
59
64
65
People By Habits
*
1
LIST OF FIGURES
Title
Figure No.
Page No.
o'
1.
Family Members By Gender
12
2.
Distribution of Families By Religion
16
3.
Distribution of Families By Caste
17
4.
Educational Level
20
5.
Families By Ownership of House
25
6.
Families By Type of Houses
26
7.
Family Income By Expenditure
54
8.
Members’ Status By Gender
61
2
i
J
BIBLIOGRAPHY
o
1.
□
Children and Women in Karnataka : A situation analysis, N. Baskara
Rao and P. Hanumantha Rayappa, Population Research Centre, Institute
for Social and Economic Change, Bangalore, 1990.
o
2.
India Today : John Desrochers and George Joseph, Centre For Social
Action, Bangalore, 1993.
c
3.
Theory and Principles of Education : J.C. Aggarwal, Vikas Publishing,
New Delhi, 1994.
4.
Education for Social Change :
John Desrochers, Centre For Social
Action, Bangalore, 1987.
5.
State of India’s Health : Voluntary Health Association of India, 1992.
6.
Health Action : Vol. 11 No. II, November 1998.
3
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