Theme Paper Education and Adolescents
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- Theme Paper Education and Adolescents
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THEME PAPER
Education and Adolescents*
Mr. Tirtha Bahadur Manandhar
Nepal Administrative Staff College,
Kathmandu, Nepal
I IUNFR4
South Asia Conference on the Adolescent
21-23 July, 1998
New Delhi - India
* The views expressed in this paper arc those of the author and do not necessarily reflect those of UNFPA.
Theme Paper: Education and Adolescents
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1.
INTRODUCTION
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2.
THE IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATION
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Consensus on Education
Population Education
Education and Reproductive Health
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2.3.1 Education and Mortal ity
2.3.2 Education and Fertility
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Education and Adolescents
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2.4
THE EDUCATIONAL PROFILE OF ADOLESCENTS
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Primary Education
Secondary Education
Literacy and Non-Formal Education Opportunities
for the Adolescents
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4.
INSTITUTIONALIZATION OF POPULATION EDUCATION
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5.
EDUCATIONAL INTERVENTIONS NEEDED TO PROMOTE
THE REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH OF ADOLESCENTS AND
THE EXISTING GAPS
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FUTURE ACTIONS
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CONCLUSION
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REFERENCES
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APPENDIX
Theme Paper: Education and Adolescents
1.
INTRODUCTION
Education is usually considered as learning which is imparted through schools and other
formal academic institutions. However, the education process starts in the family which
is the first agent of socialization affecting behaviour, including reproductive behaviour.
Formal and non-formal education continue the socialization process in a systematic
manner. Informal education, exposure to the media, and social interaction are also
important instruments to complement the education process initiated in the family and the
school (UN. 1997).
“Adolescence” has been defined as including those between 10 and 19 years of age;
“youth” as those between 15 and 24; and “young people” as a term that covers both age
groups (WHO/UNFPA/UNICEF Statement, 1989).
In this paper the linkages between Education and Reproductive Health are established
conceptually followed by an analysis of why education is essential for adolescents. In the
next section the Education Profile of Adolescents is drawn with as much data that could
be gathered from the Country Papers and other sources. The Institutionalization of
Population Education is dealt with in Section 4. The fifth section discusses the Educational
Interventions needed to promote the Reproductive Health of Adolescents, and the gaps
between what is and what should be in regard to relevant educational interventions in the
SAARC Region. Finally, future actions are suggested which are open for discussion.
2.
THE IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATION
2.1
Consensus on Education
Consequent on a number of empirical and other research studies in developed and
developing countries, there is a consensus that education is one of the most important
factors contributing to an improvement of the quality of life of society. It is acknowledged
as an integral component of social and economic development as it facilitates the better use
of resources and helps individuals and society to realize their potential. It has been
identified as a key variable that affects mortality, fertility and migration trends, although
its impact is enhanced or reduced according to the social and cultural conditions of every
country. Education has also been identified in many studies as one of the most powerful
determinants of reproductive behaviour.
Especially since the last three decades, an increasing number of countries, including those
of South Asia, have become aware about their population issues and have adopted actions
to respond to them in a culturally-appropriate manner. In the search for appropriate
strategies, scholars and officials have arrived at a consensus on the critical value of
education.
Among the many reports on the effect of education on individuals and society at large are
The Report on the World Social Simation (1997) and the paper on “Gender, Education and
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Theme Paper: Education and Adolescents
Development” presented at the Expert Group Meeting on Gender, Education and Training
(Turin, Italy, 10-14 October, 1994). Both concluded that education broadens the capacities
of both men and women to understand themselves, to take advantage of new opportunities
and to plan their future lives.
The importance of education in the development of human resources has been highlighted
in several sections of the International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD)
Programme of Action (POA). Principle 10 of the POA affirms that: “Everyone has the
right to education, which shall be directed to the full development of human resources, and
human dignity and potential, with particular attention to women and the girl child.
Education should be designed to strengthen respect for human rights and fundamental
freedoms, including those relating to population and development. The best interests of
the child shall be the guiding principle of those responsible for his or her education and
guidance that responsibility lies in the first place with the parents.
Chapter XI of POA deals exclusively with “Population, Development and Education”. It
says, among other things, that education is a key factor in sustainable development and that
the relationship between education and demographic and social changes is one of
interdependence. The content of the educational curricula and the nature of the training
received should prepare youth for today’s complex world. The curriculum should be
improved so as to promote greater responsibility and the awareness on the
interrelationships between population and sustainable development, health issues, including
reproductive health; and gender equity.
2.2
Population Education
Within the rubric of general education the countries of South Asia have added a special
component focussing on population issues in selected subjects. The generic term used is
Population Education but there is considerable variation between countries on the content.
The existence of and need for Population Education is prioritized in the ICPD Programme
of Action (Paras 11.9 & 11.10). It says that “to be most effective, education about
population issues must begin in primary school and continue through all levels of formal
and non-formal education.” With financial and technical assistance from UNFPA, all the
seven South Asian countries are implementing population education programmes.
The Appendix to this paper cites other relevant provisions of the ICPD Programme of
Action on Education, including Population Education.
2.3
Education and Reproductive Health
2.3.1 Education and Mortality
Maternal mortality is one of the leading causes of death among women in their
reproductive years. Childrens deaths during infancy constitute a large proportion of deaths
in developing countries. Original research results as well as reviews on the impact ot
education on mortality have shown that:
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Theme Paper: Education and Adolescents
(I)
(11)
(iii)
Women’s education is strongly associated with child survival between the ages of
6 and 60 months (Cleland and Harris, 1996).
The more educated the woman, the lower is the rate of maternal mortality
(Hobcraft, 1992).
Father’s education is also associated with lower mortality levels (United Nations,
1985).
2.3.2 Education and Fertility
Among the more recent studies which provide empirical evidence on the linkages between
female education and fertility are the Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) (UN, 1995)
and the overview by Shireen J. Jejeebboy (1995) on the links between women’s education,
autonomy and reproductive behaviour. The principal findings of these and other studies
are:
(i)
Education is inversely correlated with fertility levels. DHS data (1995) show that
women with no education would have twice the number of children of women with
ten or more years of schooling. Female education is found to be more strongly
associated with fertility reduction than male education.
(ii)
The relationship between education and fertility is always strong but varies across
countries.
(iii)
Education “restructures” family relationships. Educated women and men tend to
perceive marital life as a relationship among equals.
(iv)
Increased women’s education has been found to be correlated with enhanced women
autonomy which in turn is associated with later age at marriage, smaller families,
increased use of contraception and a tendency to educate their children better,
particularly their daughters.
(v)
Father’s education is also associated with smaller family size ideals.
2.4
Education and Adolescents
The issue of adolescent fertility is emerging as one of the leading concerns in South Asia.
The urgency is exacerbated by the rapid growth of the adolescent population in these
countries. In South Asia, on the whole, adolescents form 20-23 percent of the population,
although there are variations between countries with Sri Lanka at the lower end of the
continuum and Maldives at the higher end. The population projections for adolescents for
the years 2010 and 2020 are a cause for concern in Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal and Pakistan,
but Bangladesh and India cannot afford to be complacent either. Eventually in all these
countries the number of adolescents will start to decline, but for the next 20 years or so,
there will be an increase in the proportion of adolescents in the population of the SAARC
Theme Paper: Education and Adolescents
countries. World-wide, about one-fifth of the world’s population are adolescents (WHO,
1995). At least 13 million births occur to adolescents every year. It was projected
(UNESCO, 1991) that there will be about 320 million women aged 15-19 by 2020, of
whom around three-quarters are in Asia. Since education is inversely correlated with
fertility levels, it is evident that globally and within South Asia, the education that
adolescents receive will affect their reproductive behaviour and will, in turn, have a
significant impact on present and future societies in which they live. Given the already
well-established correlation between education and demographic and social changes, the
quantity and quality of the education adolescents receive upto the secondary level,
particularly for girls, emerges as a priority concern. The ICPD POA gives the following
advice in Para 4.18 “Beyond the achievement of the goal of universal primary education
in all countries before the year 2015, all countries are urged to ensure the widest and
earliest possible access by girls and women to secondary and higher levels of education,
as well as to vocational education and technical training, bearing in mind the need to
improve the quality and relevance of that education.”
In a further fine-tuning of population education to the needs of adolescents, the ICPD POA
mentions about the need for programmes for the education and counselling of adolescents
concerning responsible sexual and reproductive behaviour (Paras 7.47 & 7.48). Para
11.24 specifically talks about the importance of age appropriate education, especially for
adolescents, in the home and through all levels and channels of formal and non-formal
education.
3.
THE EDUCATIONAL PROFILE OF ADOLESCENTS
The above review of the results of empirical and other research studies clearly illustrate
the crucial role played by education in shaping future population trends. In this section,
with the data available an attempt has been made to prepare an educational profile of the
region at the primary and secondary levels.
3.1
Primary Education
Universalization of Primary Education (UPE) has been a priority objective of the countries
of the Region. All the countries have been taking various measures for attaining UPE by
the year 2000. Progress in this direction is impressive in the countries. Since the
enrolment of boys was already high in primary schools, the emphasis is placed on the
enrolment of girls. Further, stress is being put on making educational provision for
deprived children. The general policy in the countries of the Region is to make free
primary education widely available to all the children. Bangladesh has enacted a law (in
1993), to implement compulsory Primary Education. Sri Lanka has made education up to
age 14 compulsory for ensuring primary and secondary school attendance by children of
school age. Nepal has recently introduced a pilot programme on compulsory primary
education in some districts.
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Theme Paper: Education and Adolescents
According to the UNICEF data, 1998 (Table 1) the gross enrolment ratio (GER) at primary
level exceeded 100% in India, Maldives, Nepal and Sri Lanka. Pakistan has been making
progress in attaining UPE. Except for Maldives and Sri Lanka, the GER specific for girls
is lower than the ratios for the boys, indicating that girls’ education is still well behind that
of the boys.
Table 1: Basic Education Data, 1995
Country
Bangladesh
Bhutan
India
Maldives
Nepal
Pakistan
Sri Lanka
Gross Primary
Enrolment Ratio (%),
1990-95
Gross Secondary
Enrolment Ratio
(%), 1990-95
Adult Literacy (%) of
Population 15 Years
and Over
Total
Male
Female
Male
Female
Total
Male
Female
79
25
102
134
109
69
105
84
31
113
136
129
94
106
73
19
91
133
88
42
104
25
7
59
49
46
33
71
13
2
38
49
23
17
79
38
42
52
93
28
38
90
49
56
66
93
41
50
93
26
28
38
93
14
24
87
Source: UNICEF, The State of the World’s Children, 1998.
Note: 1)
2)
Bhutan has 6 years Primary Education Cycle, GER reported to be 72% in
Country Paper.
Secondary education in Bhutan includes junior secondary, and senior
secondary (total 6 yrs.).
The Net Enrolment Ratio (NER) data are not consistently reported in the Statistical Reports
of different countries. However, where available, it is observed that there are wide
divergences between the Gross and Net Enrolment Ratios. The Net Ratio that restricts
enrolment to particular primary age group (6-10 years) is currently 70%, while the Gross
Ratio is 114% in Nepal (Educational Statistics Report, 1996). In Bangladesh for the year
1990 at the Primary Level the GER for Males and Females together was 79 while the NER
was 70. For boys it was GER 84, NER 74; for girls it was GER 73, NER 66. This would
indicate that there are a large number of children in the age-group 6-10 who are not
enrolled in schools, and thus deprived of basic education opportunities. This is likely to
be the situation in the other South Asian countries also, except Sri Lanka. For instance
during the Education for All Summit it was expected that in the year 2000, Bangladesh,
India and Pakistan would account for 41.08% of the total estimated school age population
in the 9 High Population Countries. The following table gives the total School Age
Population for 1993 and 2000 (projected) and the number of children of Primary School
Age who will/may be out of school.
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Theme Paper: Education and Adolescents
Table 2: School Age Population and Out of School Children
of Primary School Age (in Millions)
1993
Country
Bangladesh
India
Pakistan
2000
School Age
Population
Children Out
of
School
School Age
Population
Children Out
of
School
17.6
102.1
19.3
5.9
12.5
11.8
19.7
106.7
23.9
3.6
8.5
12.2
Source: EFA in the 9 High Population Countries: Analysis and Synthesis, Pages 4 and 19, 1993.
One of the problems of primary education in several of the countries of the Region is the
incidence of high dropout and repetition rates. In Bhutan, dropout rate at grade VI was
about 9%, in India dropout rate (grade I-V) was about 36%; in Nepal, dropout rate was
high (23%) at grade I, averaged 5% for grades II to IV, and was 15% at grade V,
(Educational Statistics Report, Nepal, 1996). Dropout rate was quite low in Sri Lanka
(2.4% for grades II-V).
The causes for high dropout rates in the countries of the Region, except Sri Lanka are well
known. Some of them are household work burden on the children, irregular running of
schools, poverty of the households, caste and ethnic discrimination, presence of underaged
children in schools, and also the generally poor environment of the school. Large projects
aimed at improving quality of primary education are being implemented in several of the
countries of the Region. The enactment of compulsory primary education law in
Bangladesh and plans for similar provision in Nepal are aimed at controlling the dropout
rates.
Gender disparities in primary education are being reduced due to growing awareness about
the importance of girls’ education as well as increased provision of schools in the rural
areas. In Nepal, the appointment of female teachers is one of the strategies being
implemented. However, generally girls are still disadvantaged as compared with boys both
in terms of enrolment and retention in the school system.
One of the important indicators of success of primary education is the primary school
completion rate. Because of successive dropouts at various grades, and also tendency to
repeat classes, this rate is low in several of the countries in the Region. Sri Lanka, is the
exception. According to recent estimates for Nepal, the completion rate at primary level
is 37%. (Nepal: Human Development Report, 1998).
The primary school completion rate is directly related to the survival rates to the final
grade of the primary cycle (Table 3). The survival rates as well as the completion rates
have to be raised substantially in the countries of the Region, where currently the rates are
well below 50%, again, with the exception of Sri Lanka. It is obvious that unless students
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Theme Paper: Education and Adolescents
complete their primary education, access to secondary education to boys and girls, who
would mostly be adolescents, could not be universal.
Table 3: Retention/Survival to Grade V, 1990-1995
Country
Proportion of Grade I Students
Reaching Grade V (in %)
Bangladesh
Bhutan
India
Maldives
Nepal
Pakistan
Sri Lanka
47
82
62
93
52
48
98
Source: UNICEF, The State of the World’s Children, 1998.
3.2
SecondaryJEducation
From the stand point of adolescents’ education, secondary level education is of great
importance. Countries in the Region have different structures of primary and secondary
education. Bangladesh, India and Nepal have 5 years of Primary Education and 5 years
of Secondary Education. In India and Nepal, Secondary Education is followed up by 2
years of Higher Secondary Education. Bhutan has a 6 years primary education cycle, and
6 years of secondary education (junior and senior secondary). In Maldives, grades I-VII
constitute the Primary Education (Basic Education Cycle). Sri Lanka has 5 years Primary,
6 years Secondary and two years Higher Secondary structure.
According to UNICEF data (1998) in Table 1, the gross secondary enrolment ratio
exceeded 45% for boys in India, Maldives, Nepal and Sri Lanka. The gross enrolment
ratios for girls were much lower compared to that for the boys except in Maldives and Sri
Lanka. Maldives had GER (Secondary) of 49% both for boys and girls. Sri Lanka’s
achievement is exemplary in that the GER exceeds 70% both for boys and girls; in fact,
GER for girls in ever higher than for the boys (Table 1).
In general, participation of secondary age group population in secondary education is
below 50% in all the countries of the Region excepting Sri Lanka. This means that 50%
or over of the adolescent population are not attending formal schools. Besides, there are
considerable gender disparities in secondary level enrolments in all countries of the Region
excepting Maldives and Sri Lanka. In Pakistan, the GER stood at 33% for boys and 17%
for females. Net Enrolment Ratios for the secondary level are available for Bangladesh.
For boys and girls together the GER is 19 and NER is 18; for boys the figures are GER
(25) and NER (23) while for girls the corresponding figure are 23 and 13. This implies
that in Bangladesh, although there is considerable attrition after the primary level,
secondary level students tend to stay within the system.
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Theme Paper: Education and Adolescents
Various factors hinder participation of girls in secondary education relative to that in
primary education. Some of these are: long distance to secondary schools from homes,
perceived low returns to investments on girls education by parents, lack of female teachers
in schools, concern for safety of girls, and early marriages. In the context of Nepal, the
Nepal Human Development Report, 1998 makes the following observation with respect to
girls participation in secondary education: “The on-set of adolescence, which marks the
period of gender seclusion, early marriage and appropriate preparations for early marriage
- and the ideology and practice of a dependent and non autonomous marital life severely
and systematically discourage continued enrolment of girls in secondary schools” (p. 83).
Some additional information on adolescents’ education are available in the Country
Reports. In Bangladesh, 23% of the 15-19 years old women have 7 or more years of
schooling at present. This reflects considerable improvement over the previous
generations. In India, the GER in middle level (VI-VIII grades) of secondary education
was 67.2% (79% for boys and 55% for girls). Further, in India, in High and Higher
Secondary education (corresponding to age group 15 to 18 years), the GER was 32.6%
(41.5% for boys and 23.3% for girls) in 1994/95. In Nepal, about 54% of the 10-14 age
group population, and 26% of the 15-19 years age group were attending
schools/educational institutions according to the 1991 census. There was higher attendance
levels for males of both the age groups than for the females in the corresponding age
groups. Further, large proportions of these age groups in the urban areas were in schools
compared to those in the rural areas.
Countries in the Region have taken various measures with respect to expansion and
improvement of secondary education. Some of these are as follows:
Bangladesh has provided (i) scholarships for girls students to study at secondary
level; (ii) provided free secondary education for girls up to grade X, in places
outside municipal areas ; (iii) set up a girls school in each Thana.
Bhutan has a plan for establishing vocational institutes for providing skill training
to dropouts from junior secondary schools.
Nepal has implemented free secondary education for boys and girls in public
secondary schools. A secondary education development project is also being
implemented for improving the quality of secondary education.
Sri Lanka has enacted a law making education compulsory up to age 14 years.
In general, the adolescents have much greater educational opportunities than in previous
years. Further opportunities for secondary education particularly for the girls are needed.
The quality of secondary education should also be raised so as to ensure that majority of
the secondary level students are able to successfully complete this level of education.
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Theme Paper: Education and Adolescents
A number of issues in secondary education can be enumerated. These are:
Growing demand for secondary education in all the countries of the Region
Relatively lower level of participation of girls compared to that of the males
Dropout tendencies among the students in early grades of secondary level (as noted
in Bhutan); high dropout rate in middle level of secondary education and high
school level in India
Earlier school leaving by boys (compared to the girls) at the secondary level, noted
in Sri Lanka
High rates of examination failures in the School Leaving Certificate examination (in
Nepal).
3.3
Literacy and Non-Fornial Education Opportunities for the Adolescents
According to the UNICEF data, 1998 (Table 1), adult literacy rates (for 15 years and over
population) are particularly high (90% or over) in Maldives and Sri Lanka. The rate in
other countries varies from 28% (Nepal) to 52% (India). A recent estimate of adult
literacy rate in Nepal puts the rate at 40%. The significant growth of primary education
in recent decades as well as implementation of various literacy and NEE programmes have
helped to increase the adult literacy rates in the countries of the Region.
3.3.1 Non-formal Education Opportunities for the Adolescents
Literacy rates among adolescents in all the countries of the region are high. This has been
the result of enhanced participation of children in primary education. Within the
adolescent age group, a larger proportion of males are literate compared to the proportion
of females.
In Bangladesh. 49% of 10-19 years are literate; in Bhutan the general literacy rate was
54% (1997). In India, 66% of males in the age group 10-19 years were literate compared
m 44% of females in the age group in 1981. In Nepal, the total literacy rate for 10-14
years age group was 63.2%, and that for 15-19 years age group was 54.6%. In India
there were considerable differences between literacy percentages of males and females in
these age groups. In Sri Lanka 83% of 10-14 years age group population, and about 87%
of 15-19 years age group population were literate in 1991. There were very small
differences in the proportion of males and females literate in these age groups in Sri Lanka.
(Please see Table 4).
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Theme Paper: Education and Adolescents
Table 4:Literacy Among the Adolescents
Agegroup
10-14
15-19
India, 1981
Nepal, 1991
Sri Lanka, 1991
Male
Female
Total
Male
Female
Total
Male
Female
Total
66.9
66.1
44.9
43.3
55.9
54.7
76.0
71.5
49.3
38.6
62.7
55.1
83.7
88.3
82.3
85.1
83.0
86.7
Source: Country Reports
All the countries in the region have their respective programmes of non-formal education
addressed to the adolescent population. The programmes are implemented by government
agencies and by the NGOs.
In Bangladesh, besides the literacy programmes for adults, there are programmes specially
addressed to the women. A large number of Ministries and NGOs are involved in these
programmes. In Bhutan, the NEE programmes are targetted to those who did not attend
school as well as to the school dropouts. About 70% of participants in NEE programmes
in Bhutan are women. In Nepal, several innovative alternative programmes of education
for out of school children are in operation; besides, there is a large Adult Education
programme in which the government and non-government agencies take part.
The Non-formal Education Centre in Maldives has developed a programme of accelerated
instruction in which the courses of Grade I-VII are condensed into a 3 year education
programme. This programme is meant to meet the needs of the large overaged school
population and out of school boys and girls.
In Sri Lanka, the NEE activities are directed towards skills development. The Ministry
of Education conducts about 400 literacy classes in the country, 50% of participants in
these classes belong to school going age. Sri Lanka is considering introduction of 'open
schools’ programme for those who have left the formal school.
A large proportion of the adolescents in the countries of the Region have either left
schools, or are not enrolled in schools. Many adolescents are already working in various
occupations in order to help support their families. These adolescents need to be reached
through non-formal programmes.
3.3.2 Implications for Reproductive Health Education
The adolescents particularly in the age group 15-19 years need to be provided information
on reproductive health issues in courses on health education, through population education
activities and non-formal programmes. It would help them in avoiding early marriages,
early child bearing, risks of unprotected sex and contracting STDs/HIV/AIDS. It is
imperative, therefore, that they have access to and are retained in the education system,
whether formal or non-formal.
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Theme Paper: Education and Adolescents
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4.
INSTITUTIONALIZATION OF POPULATION EDUCATION
Population education is no stranger to the countries of South Asia Region, some of which
have had Population Education activities since the 1970s. UNFPA has been funding these
programmes in most countries. The focus has tended to be on the formal school system
through the integration of population messages in the school curriculum in different
subjects but mainly Science and Social Studies. UNFPA assistance in the non-formal
education sector and the adult education sector came later. The population education
content ^ets reconceptualized over time and requires constant updating. The latest
reconceptualization took place after the ICPD in 1994. Population education content
includes, among others, environment/population linkages, family life and human sexuality
concerns. AIDS education, gender issues, reproductive health concerns, the need for male
participation in RH programmes, education for adolescents. Population Education more
than ever before helps the target population to make informed and responsible decisions
with regard to population-related behaviours with the objective of improving the quality
of life of the individual and society at large. Since national cultural and religious
sensitivities have to be respected, the actual messages vary from country to country within
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the South Asian countries.
In developing Population Education programmes in the region the objective has been to
develop national capacities and to integrate the messages into the general education system
so that the programmes get institutionalized. This has been accomplished to a great extent
)
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as will be seen below.
In Bangladesh, population education has already been institutionalized in the formal school
from grades 1-10. During UNFPA’s Fifth Country Programme (1998-2002) the contents
will be revised and updated in the light of the ICPD Programme of Action. Population
Education will be introduced in the higher secondary, technical/vocational and madrasah
systems of education.
>
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By the end of UNFPA’s Third Country Programme in Bhutan (1998-2002) it is expected
that population education would have been fully institutionalized in the education system
of the country in the formal school system from grades 1-10, and in pre and in-service
teacher training. The area of non-formal education will be assisted, and post-literacy
materials on RH issues will be included.
In India, population education has been institutionalized in the formal school system and
adult education sections and the programmes are moving into innovative areas during the
next cycle. Adolescence Education is being introduced into the formal school curriculum.
By the end of the Second UNFPA Country Programme (1998-2002) in the Maldives, it is
expected that population education would have been institutionalized in the formal school
system and, to a lesser extent perhaps, in the non-formal education sector.
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Theme Paper: Education and Adolescents
In Nepal, the emphasis during the present phase (1997-2000) of the programme will be on
institutionalization of population education through integrating population education
contents in the National Curriculum and textbooks, teacher training, strengthening of
national capabilities and through innovative activities.
Last, but certainly not the least, population education has been institutionalized in the
formal school system of Sri Lanka. During the last programme the focus was on family
life education. The present programme has moved onto Reproductive Health.
Adolescence Education, sometimes referred to as Family Life Education though they are
not necessarily synonymous, which is age-appropriate education for adolescents, has had
to be approached cautiously because of the sensitivity of the content. Appropriate
messages for young people particularly in the age-group 15-19 years would include
prevention of early marriages, dangers of early child bearing, unwanted pregnancies,
unsafe abortions, promoting the use of contraceptives. It is easy to understand the
hesitancy of most South Asian countries to talk about these issues in the classroom.
However there is a consensus that adolescents need to be better prepared on reproductive
health matters, to meet the risks and challenges they will inevitably face. Some of the
countries in the South Asia Region have introduced Adolescence Education using
innovative strategies. Sri Lanka’s most recent programme is actually called Reproductive
Health Education in Schools. In Bangladesh, a pilot project on education for adolescents
through their parents is proposed to be initiated. India will be introducing adolescence
education in the formal school curriculum. The Maldives intends to cater to the
Reproductive Health Education (RHE) needs of adolescents in school and out-of-school
using innovative strategies. In Bhutan, RH issues will be included in what students of
grades 11 and 12 of the general stream, colleges and specialized institutes learn. Contents
relating to adolescents have been included at the secondary level in Nepal.
5.
' ' (i)
EDUCATIONAL INTERVENTIONS NEEDED TO PROMOTE THE
REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH OF ADOLESCENTS AND THE EXISTING GAPS
Achieving Universal Primary Education
The Delhi Declaration (1993) signed at the conclusion of the Education for All
Summit recognized that the education systems in the nine most populous countries
(these include Bangladesh, India and Pakistan from the SAARC Region) had made
great strides in offering education to substantial numbers but had not yet fully
succeeded in providing quality education to all the people, indicating the need for
developing creative approaches, both within and outside the formal systems. It
called upon the community of nations to join in reaffirming the commitment to the
goal of education for all and in intensifying the efforts of these populous countries
to achieve education for all by the year 2000 or at the earliest possible moment.
None of the three countries listed above are likely to achieve Universal Primary
Education (UPE) by 2000 but they are getting there.
12
Theme Paper: Education and Adolescents
Two critical indicators for determining the access of children to basic education are
the net (age-specific) primary enrolment ratio and the primary education completion
rate. Unfortunately, in the virtual absence of data on net enrolment ratios in South •
Asia, it is difficult to assess accurately the gap in the achievement of UPE. GERs
are misleading and.the completion rates would also need to be interpreted carefully.
(ii)
Oimlity of Education and Learning Achievement
Children who complete the primary cycle do not always master essential learning
and life skills. Numerous factors influence what and how much is learned in
school. Mastery of life skills gets affected when there is an inflexible curriculum
developed to move children from one grade to another, rather than to help them
face the challenges of everyday life. Quality of education and even retention are
affected by the availability of essential inputs: teachers with the necessary training
and skills, learning materials of interest and quality, and adequate buildings and
equipment.
Unfortunately in most of the South Asian countries quality is sacrificed for quantity.
The general standard of teachers in less than desired and their commitment in
question; textbooks are scarce and, often, of poor quality; the classrooms are illequipped and audio-visual aids conspicuously absent. Rote learning is encouraged/
and an enquiring mind frequently discouraged. Consequently, completion of
primary or even secondary education does not mean that the student has mastered
the necessary learning and life skills.
(iii)
The statistics in Section 3 of this paper show that even though the enrolment and
retention of girls is catching up with the boys, in 5 out of the 7 countries the girls
still lag behind. Equal access to primary and secondary education is needed to
promote the reproductive health of adolescents. In Section 2 the strong correlation
between education and reproductive health has been described. The disparity of
access to schooling by gender should be reduced. Equally important is the need to
reduce disparities caused by geographical remoteness, cultural diversity and special
disadvantages, such as those of working children and of those with special learning
needs.
(iv)
Adequate financial resources for education are essential. In most of the South
Asian countries the existing resources are inadequate to provide essential inputs in
the quantity and of the quality required. All too often provision of basic primary
education takes precedence in the allocation of scarce financial resources at the
expense of secondary education. Of course, primary education is of paramount
importance but there should be adequate allocations for secondary education as
well. The implications of insufficient facilities in secondary schools on the
education of adolescents are easy to see.
(v)
For adolescents and adults the critical indicator is the rate of illiteracy which
remains comparatively high in the South Asian countries. A dual approach is called
13
Theme Paper: Education and Adolescents
for. While measures must be taken to expand primary education and improve the
retention capacity of the school, targetted functional literacy and adult education
programmes are required to serve adolescents and adults who have missed out on
school.
(vi)
Despite the best of intentions, it may not be possible for the large-scale educational
endeavours to be managed entirely by government machinery. There has to be
involvement of the private sector in which Non-Governmental Organizations
(NGOs) can play a key role, particularly in the area of adolescence education. As
stated in the ICPD Programme of Action (Section 7.37) “Educational efforts should
begin with the family unit, in the schools at an appropriate age, but must also reach
adults, in particular men, through non-formal education and a variety of
community-based efforts.” The family and the community play an important role
in the reproductive health of adolescents.
(vii)
The special needs of adolescents have to be understood and met. This calls for
multi-strategy interventions. In the countries of South Asia the concerns of
adolescents are only now beginning to assume their rightful importance.
Educational interventions needed to promote the reproductive health of adolescents
would include:
the review/development of curricula and educational materials to ensure
adequate coverage of important population-related issues and to counteract
myths and misconceptions about them
counselling services by professionals and/or teachers. Counselling by peers
can also be effective
teachers trained in how to deal with adolescence-related issues in the
classroom
appropriate audio-visual programmes
fora for adolescents to ask questions and get honest answers. The Question
Box Method and Telephone Hotline are two examples of how to help
adolescents unobtrusively
(viii) Educating parents on RH issues. The experience in Iran during the past few years
and more recently in Sri Lanka, has shown the effectiveness of educating
adolescents on RH issues through their parents, mostly mothers. Several parents
are unaware of RH facts themselves and are unable to guide their children. When
they get educated on RH issues, effective population education will begin, as it
should, in the home.
(ix)
Making appropriate use of co-curricular and extra-curricular activities.
Adolescence is a period of great energy which should be channelized constructively.
14
Theme Paper: Education and Adolescents
Participation in field projects, dramas, role playing exercises, games and sports,
social service programmes and so on will have a positive impact on adolescents.
6.
FUTURE ACTIONS
Following from the assessment of needs and gaps in Section 5 of this paper, listed below
are suggested future actions which would, it is expected, cumulatively contribute to the
Reproductive Health of Adolescents.
(i)
Ensuring basic education for every child, girl or boy. Quality primary education
provides a solid foundation for improving the quality of a nation’s human resources.
(ii)
Flexible non-formal programmes are required where children cannot be adequately
served because conventional schools cannot be expanded fast enough to
accommodate all children or where, as in the case of working and street children
the methods and timings of the conventional school are unsuited.
(iii)
Promote as effectively as possible within the context of each country, the retention
of girls and boys till the end of secondary school. Most of these students will be
adolescents.
(iv)
Supporting adult education and literacy programmes for youth and adults. In
general unschooled adolescents, young adults and young parents, especially young '
mothers, who are frequently adolescents, are likely to be the most motivated
clientele for literacy programmes.
(v)
Improvement in the quality and relevance of education and periodically updating of
the population education messages to cater to emerging concerns. The curricula
and content of primary and secondary schooling should include the knowledge and
skills learners need to cope with demands of daily life and to promote their
reproductive health.
(vi)
Effective teaching training programmes in the transaction of population
education/family life education/adolescence education in the classroom.
(vii)
A special effort needs to be made to ensure that girls complete school through the
formal or non-formal system, or, if out of school, that they enrol in literacy
programmes. Education of both boys and girls is important but the education of
girls has been shown to have a stronger effect on reproductive practices.
(viii) The need to reach excluded or less-served groups and serve their learning needs
through creative alternative approaches, need to be accorded increased priority. The
RH needs of adolescents of other marginalized groups such as street and working
children, remote or nomadic populations, disabled children, ethnic minorities are
unlikely to be reached by the simple expansion of the education system.
15
Theme Paper: Education and Adolescents
(ix)
All sectors of society need to be rallied appropriately in the endeavour to educate
adolescents on their reproductive health. The involvement of the family, the
community, voluntary organizations, NGOs in the RH Education of Adolescents
will help break down barriers built up by tradition, cultural practices and
sometimes, religion.
(x)
Maintaining a comprehensive education data base for adolescents. As of now Net
Enrolment Ratios are generally not available for the South Asian countries. Data
disaggregated by sex and for rural/urban areas is frequently not maintained.
7.
CONCLUSION
The retarding effect of rapid population growth on economic and social development has
been acknowledged by the countries of South Asia. In their search for actions that would
be effective and acceptable, the critical value of education has been recognized. All studies
on the relationship between education and population point to the fact that education is
associated with lower infant/child and maternal mortality, lower fertility, delaying
marriages and facilitating the access to contraceptive knowledge and services. Given the
fact that adolescents in South Asia, except for Sri Lanka, are comprising an increasingly
large proportion of the population and will continue to do so for the next 15-20 years, k
is of paramount importance that they should have access to quality education which will
give them the necessary life skills, and that they should be retained in the education system
at least till the end of the secondary level. Since there is a time lag before formal and nonformal education produce significant behavioural changes, we have to start NOW.
16
Theme Taper: Education and Adolescents
REFERENCES
1.
Cleland, J. and Harris, K. (1996). “The effect of maternal education on child health
and survival - Do girls benefit?”
Education for All Summit (1993). Final Report, New Delhi, 12-16 December.
3.
“EFA in the 9 High Population Countries: Analysis and Synthesis” (1993).
4.
Hobcraft. J (1992). Women’s education, child welfare and child survival. In
“Population and Women. Proceedings of the United Nations Expert Group
Meeting on Population and Women”, Gaborone, Botswana, 22-26 June.
5.
ILO, International Training Centre (1994). “Gender, Education and Development.”
Report and Technical Papers presented at the Expert Group Meeting on Gender,
Education and Training (Turin, Italy, 10-14 October).
6.
Jejeebhoy, S. J (1995). “Women’s Education, Autonomy and Reproductive
Behaviour.. Experience from Developing Countries”, Oxford, UK, Clarendon
Press.
7.
Ministry of Education, Nepal (1996). “Educational Statistics Report”.
8.
Paper prepared for the Global Commission on Women’s Health (1995).
“Adolescent Health and Development: The Key to the Future.”
9.
UN (1985). “Socio-economic differentials in Child Mortality in Developing
Countries”.
10.
UN (1995). “Women’s Education. Recent Evidence from the Demographic and
Health Services”.
11.
UN, Population Division (1997). “Linkages between Population and Education: A
Technical Support Services Report”.
12.
UN (1997). “Report on the World Social Situation” (Unedited Version).
13
UNESCO, PROAP (1991). “Adolescence Education” (Modules 1-4), Bangkok.
14.
UNESCO, PROAP (1992). Aftermath of World Conference on “Education for
All”.
15.
UNESCO (1996). “Statistical Yearbook”.
16.
UNFPA (1994). Report of the International Conference on Population and
17
rheme Paper: Education and Adolescents
Development, Cairo, 5-13 September.
17.
UNICEF (1998). “The State of the World’s Children”, Oxford University Press.
18.
WHO/UNFPA/UNICEF (1989). “The Reproductive Health of Adolescents: A
Strategy for Action”: A Joint Statement.
OthenReferences
Country Reports submitted for South Asia Conference on Adolescents, New Delhi, 21-23
July 1998.
18
APPENDIX
Relevant provisions of the ICPD Programme of Action on education (United Nations, 1994»•):
Principle 8.
All couples and individuals have the basic right to decide freely and responsibly the number
and spacing of their children and to have the information, education and means to do so.'
Principle 10. ' Everyone has the right to education, which shall be directed to the full development of human
resounxs, and human dignity and potential, with particular attention to women and the girl child. Education
should be designed to strengthen respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, including those relating
to population and development The best interests of *e child shall be the guiding principle of those
responsible for his or her education and guidance; that responsibility lies in the first place with the parents.'
3 8. "Political commitment to integrated population and development strategies should be strengthened by
public education and information programmes*.
3.17. Investment in human resource development, in accordance with national policy, must be given priority
in population and development strategies and budgets, at all levels, with programmes specifically directed at
access to information, education, skill development, employment opportunities, both formal and
informal, and high-quality general and reproductive health services, including family planning and sexual
health care, through the promotion of sustained economic growth within the context of sustainable development
in developing countries and countries with economies in transition."
4.18. "Beyond the achievement of the goal of universal primary education in all countries before the year
-'2015, ah countries are urged to ensure the widest and earliest possible access by girls and women to secondary
and higher levels of education, as well as to vocational education and technical training, bearing in mind the
need to improve the quality and relevance of that education.
4.19. "Schools, the media and other social institutions should seek to eliminate stereotypes m all types of
communication and educational materials that reinforce existing inequities between males and females and
undermine girls' self-esteem. Countries must recognize that,-in addition to expanding education for girls,
teachers' attitudes and practices, school curricula and facilities must also change to reflect a commitment to
eliminate all gender bias, while recognizing the specific needs of the girl child."
4.20. "Countries should develop an integrated approach to the special nutritional, general and reproductive
health, education antisocial needs of girls and young women, as such additional investments in adolescent girls
can often compensate for earlier inadequacies in their nutrition and health care.
4.21. "Govennuens should strictly enforce laws to ensure that marriage is entered into only with the free and
full consent of the intending spouses. In addition. Governments should strictly enforce laws concerning the
miniminn legal age of consent and the minimum age at marriage and should raise the minimum age at marnage
where nn-rvary Governments and non-governmental organizations should generate social support for the
enforcement of laws on the minimum legal age at marriage, in particular by providing educational and
employment opportunities."
6.15. "Youth should be actively involved in the planning, implementation and evaluation of development
activities that have a direct impact on their daily lives. This is especially important with respect to information,
education and communication activities and services concerning reproductive and sexual health, including the
19
prevention of early pregnancies, sex education and the prevention of HTWAIDS and other sexually transmitted
diseases.... In addition, there is a need for educational programmes in favour of life planning skills, healthy
lifestyles and the active discouragement of substance abuse. ’
7.22. "Governments are encouraged to focus most of their efforts towards meeting their population and
development objectives through education and voluntary measures rather than schemes involving incentives
7.32, "Information, education and counselling for responsible sexual behaviour and effective prevention of
sexually trammitted diseases, including HIV, should become integral components of all reproductive and
sexual health services."
737. ’Support should be given to integral sexual education and services for young people, with the support
and guidance of their parents and in line with the Convention on the Rights of the Child, that stress
responsibility of males for their own sexual health and fertility and that help them exercise those
rysponribnittfs. Educational efforts should begin within the family unit, in the community and in the schools
at an appropriate age, but must also reach adults, in particular men, through non-formal education and a
variety of community-based efforts."
8.4. ”... Governments should strengthen health and nutrition information, education and communication
activities so as to enable people to increase their control over and improve their health. Governments should
provide the necessary backup facilities to meet the demand created. ’
9.22. "Measures should be taken to ensure that internally displaced persons receive basic education,
employment opportunities, vocational training and basic health-care services, including reproductive health
services and fomily planning."
10.12. "In order to promote the integration of documented migrants having the right to long-term residence,
... efforts should be made to enhance the integration of the children of long-term migrants by providing them
with educatioml and training opportunities equal to those of nationals, allowing them to exercise an economic
activity, and fiicHitating the naturalization of those who have been raised in the receiving country..."
1Qt25, "...Refugees should be provided with access to adequate accommodation, education, health services,
including fiunily planning, and other necessary social services. ..."
113. *Tbe objectives (in the area of education, population and sustainable development) are:
(a)
To achieve universal access to quality education, with particular priority being given to
primary and technical education and job training, to combat illiteracy and to eliminate gender dispauities in
access to, retention in, and support for, education;
To promote non-formal education for young people, guaranteeing equal access focwomen
(b)
and men to literacy centres;
(c)
To introduce and improve the content of the curriculum so as to promote greater responsibility
and awareness on the interrelationships between population and sustainable development; health issues,
including reproductive health; and gender equity."
20
11.6. "The eradication of illiteracy is one of the prerequisites for human development All countries should
consolidate the progress made in the 1990s towards providing universal access to primary education, as agreed
upon at the World Conference on Education for All, held at Jomtien, Thailand, in 1990. All countries should
further strive to ensure the complete access to primary school or an equivalent level of education by both girls
and boys as quickly as possible, and in any case before the year 2015. ..."
11.8. "Countries should take affirmative steps to keep girls and adolescents in school by building more
community schools, by training teachers to be more gender sensitive, by providing scholarships and other
appropriate incentives and by sensitizing parents to the value of educating girls, with a view to closing the
gender gap in primary and seenrriary school education by the year 2005. Countries should also supplement
those efforts by making foil use of non-formal education opportunities. Pregnant adolescents should be enabled
to continue their schooling."
11.12. "Effective information, education and communication are prerequisites for sustainable human
development and pave the way for attitudinal and behavioural change. ..."
11.13. "Effective information, education and communication activities include a range of communication
channels, from the most intimate levels of interpersonal communication to formal school curricula, from
traditional folk arts to modem mass entertainment, and from seminars for local community leaders to coverage
of global roara by the national and international news media. ... Schools and religious institutions, taking into
account their values and teachingst may be important vehicles in all countries for instilling gender and racial
sensitivity, respect, tolerance and equity, family responsibility and other important attitudes at all ages. ..."
* 11 16 "Information, education and communication efforts should raise awareness through public education
campaigns on such priority issues as: safe motherhood, reproductive health and rights, maternal and child
health and family planning, discrimination against and valorization of the girl child and persons with
disabilities; child abuse; violence against women; male responsibility; gender equality; sexually transmitted
diseases, including HIV/AIDS; responsible sexual behaviour; teenage pregnancy; racism and xenophobia;
ageing populations; and unsustainable consumption and production patterns. More education is needed in all
<xynrfies co the implications of population-environment relationships, in order to influence behavioural change
arrl consumer lifestyles and to promote sustainable management of natural resources. The media should be
a major instrnment for expanding knowledge and motivation.’
11.21. "The interpersonal communication skills- in particular, motivational and counselling skills- of public,
private and non-governmental
organization service providers, community leaders, teachers, peer groups and
»~n »[■
others should be strengtheryd, whenever possible, to enhance interaction and quality assurance in the delivery
of repoxivetive health, inchiding family planning and sexual health services. Such communication should be
free from coercion."
11.24. "Age-appropriate education, especially for adolescents, about the issues considered in the present
Programny nf Action should begin in the home and community and continue through all levels and channels
of formal and non-formal education, taking into account the rights and responsibilities of parents and the needs
of adolescents. Where such education already exists, curricula and educational materials should be reviewed,
updated and broadened with a view to ensuring adequate coverage of important population-related issues and
to connteract myths and misconceptions about them. Where no such education exists, appropriate curricula
and materials should be developed. ..."
Source: Linkages between Population and Education, UN, December 1997.
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