LEARNING FACILITATION WORKSHOP 26™ TO 28™ JULY 2011
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- Title
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LEARNING FACILITATION WORKSHOP
26™ TO 28™ JULY 2011
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SOCIETY FOR COMMUNITY HEALTH AWARENESS, RESEARCH AND ACTION
CHC/CPHE
LEARNING FACILITATION WORKSHOP
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26™ TO 28™ JULY 2011
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VENUE : SO CHARA ANNEXE
PARTICIPANTS: Learning facilitators CHC/CPHE Bangalore, CHC Tamilnadu, CPHE Bhopal
Objectives
1. To understand and explore the foundational philosophy and principles of community Health
learning programmes of SOCHARA.
2. To reflect on terminologies used in learning facilitation practice - process, content, skills and
capacities .
3. To understand CH learning praxis from review/reflections of key SOCHARA learning
programmes- past and current initiatives
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4. To review existing capacities for learning facilitators /mentorship at individual and team levels
and to evolve plans of action to build further knowledge, skill and capacity as learning
5. To reflect and review on existing strategies to clarify and formulate a training frame work and
strategy for the evolving school of public health with a civil society link and perspective.
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Resource Persons from SOCHARA pool
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Prof. D. K. Srinivasa, Consultant Rajiv Gandhi University of Health Sciences ( DKS)
Ms. Valli Seshan, Development Trainer, SEARCH/BNI (VS)
Dr. M.K. Vasundhra, President, SOCHARA ( MKV)
Dr. Shirdi Prasad Tekur, Ex Coordinator and Community Health Trainer ( SPT)
Mr. S.J. Chander, Program Director, HLFPPT-( SJC)
Dr. Mam Kalliath, Program Coordinator, Basic Needs India.( MK)
Dr. 1 helma Narayan, Coordinator, CPHE, Secretary, SOCHARA ( TN)
Dr. Ravi Narayan, Community Health Advisor, SOCHARA . (RN)
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Methodology:
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The overall ethos will be interactive /participatory /reflective workshop with full team sessions- panel
discussions; group discussions and self assessment.
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Date
26.07.2011
( Tuesday)
Time
Theme for the
day:
9.30 am 10.30am
10.3011 .QOam
1 LOO12.00pm
Programme ________________
THE PHILOSOPHY OF LEARNING FACILITATION
12.001.00pm
Session -II: Challenges in Learning Facilitation : Context,
Values and Conflict resolution. (VS)
1.00-2.00
2.00-3.00
___________ Lunch and Fellowship
________________
Session - III : Inspiration for Learning Facilitation ( RN)
(Exploring training resources/inspiration that provoked /supported
SOCHARA experiments ( An interactive session)
3.00-3.15
3.30-4.45
Tea Break
Session - IV Group Discussion -I
Identifying challenges from praxis in Bangalore /Chennai/ and
Bhopal teams. ( Check List)
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_____ ______________ Staff Get together______________ ___
Assessing Training experiences
(Am I a good learning facilitator/field mentor/ mentor - A self
assessment and reflection) __________________
MANAGEMENT AND METHODS OF LEARNING
FACILITATION
4.45-530
(Home work)
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Theme for the
day:
27th July 2011
(Wednesday)
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> Introduction
> Self Assessement ( Training facilitation Score)
Tea Break
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Session -I : Exploring Building Blocks in Learning Facilitation
(RN)
( Dichotomies and Paradigms; content and process issues, skills,
and capacities)
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9.30- 10.30
10.30- 10.45
10.45-11.45
11.45-1.15
1.15-2.00
2.00-3.15
3.15-3.30
3.30-4.30
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4.30-5.30
Reflections on Day One - Key learning /more questions
Tea Break______________
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Session- V : Learning facilitation - (RN)
Wliy/Who/What/How/WhenAVhere - Evolving a check list
Session VI: Exploring and understanding structure and frame
work- basic concepts-(DKS)
(Curriculum/Syllabus/ Objective/ Modules/ methods / assessment/
evaluation) ______
Lunch and Fellowship
Session VII - Challenges in Community based training
strategies for Health and Non Health Groups - ( SPT)_____
_________ Tea break
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Session- IX: Civil Society School for Scholar Activists ( TN)
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Strategies towards a school for scholar activist
Revisiting what we are doing with a new SPH Lens
Role and definition of a scholar activist
Group Discussion on SOCHARA - Website ( CLIC'team)-
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28th July 2011
(Thursday)
Theme for
the day:
9.30 - 10.30
10.30- 10.45
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LEARNING FROM SOCHARA PRAXIS /FUTURE
( Reflections of Day Two)
lEgyJgarning / more questions)
o—•--------------------------Tea Break
H.45 - 1.15
Sess i onX
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Fm—:------ — ----- -------- _
SSX—... -
1 • Health for Non Health Group - ( MK)
(Textual - Contextual)
2. Women’s Health Empowerment Training -(TN )
( Frame work/Manuals/Learning network meetings)
.1.15-2.00
zocPToo
3.00-3.15
335^4.00
■77—7— -------------- Lunch and FeHowship
Session X ( Contd)
---------- ------------- ----4. Lessons from interactive programmes- Life Skill
Educa .on and Joyful Learning series - (SJC)
(adapting learning to group/joyful learning series)
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7;— ----------- ------------- Tea break
Setting individual and collective group goals
a* Bhopal Plan
b. Bangalore Plan
c. Chennai Plan
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4.00-5.00
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t Workshop (SOCHARA)
Leaning Facilitation
26tl,,27th and
L. 28th Jniy 2011
A - Background Papers and Documents.
- Ivan Urich
.h« W >•
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2. ThoHk.mrd.yori'tals- Stew-™
t Banking Edition enc k-Ridtin, i- <
4. Approacho to Training - k LU John s S.aks
onrros.ed Pi in Io Pre ire
5. Our ideas about Training
6. The learning model ■ Action- refk* .to?
7. Training and Learning
8. The individual in the Group
9 Do we listen?-A questionnaire
Ho,. o,« » aolos
11. Looking inwards - The
development , John Staley, SEARCH
12. A perspective on conflict
13. Managing conflict in an organization
14. Dealing with Conflict
S’. Our'appSeh to planning - A
s, E,„ra!1,, „d FoodSook- te. W- "
Workers Learn - David Werner and Bill
17. Planning a training program - from Helping
Bower
18. SEARCH training papers
a) Respect for other people
b) The conditions for learning
c) Leadership Quiz
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d) Solving problems and making ( ecisio
e) Elements of team work
f) Group discussions and meetings
g) Empathy and Sympathy
h) Feedback
i) Case studies - episode and cases
j) Setting goals
ciences.A statement of shared concern and collectivity
19. Education Policy for Health Sci
- iQQ1 (SOCHARA)
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from Community Health Trainers dl®l°gue ^SOCHARA model ( from the trainers network
20. A Collective approach to 1 raining
Project)
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B - BASIC READING LIST FOR SOCHARA LEARNING
FACILITATORS
1. Limits to Medicine - Medical Nemesis: The expropriation of Health, Ivan Illich Penguin
books
2. Pedagogy oi the Oppressed, Paulo Friere, Penguin education
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>> riiing ior Distance Education : A Manual tor writers of distance teaching texts and
independent study materials, The international extension College 1979
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1 eaching for better learning - A guide for teachers of Primary Health Care staff, F.R.
Abbatt, World Health Organisation, Geneva, 1980
5. People in Development - A trainers manual for groups , John Staley , SEARCH, 1982
6. Helping Health Workers Learn - A book of methods, aids and ideas for instructors at
village level, David Werner and Bill Bovvers, The Hesperian Foundation, 1982
7. From development worker to activist- A case study in participatory training, Desmond A.
D’Abreo , Deeds, 1989
8. Community Health Trainers Dialogue, Oct 1991, CHC SOCHARA workshop report’
9. Enticing the learning - Trainers in development, John Staley, University of Birmingham,
UK, 2008
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10. Learning programmes for Community Health and Public Health - Report of the
National Workshop — April 2008 (A CHC Silver Jubilee publication)
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Limits
> to Medicine
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Medical Nemesis:
The Expropriation of Health
Ivan Illich
Penguin Books
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OF WORLD CUtm
6 SHB1B.P. WADIAROAD.
BANGALORE-560 004.
} /it’ Recovery of Health
The Politics of Health
desirable to base the limitation of industrial societies on a shared
system of substantive beliefs aiming at the common good and
enforced by the power of the police. It is possible to find the
needed basis for ethical human action without depending on the
shared recognition cf any ecological dogmatism now in vogue.
This alternative^ to. a new .ecological religipn or., ideology©is
based "on an agree me nt... a bout ,bas.ic values and on procedural
rules'.
It can be demonstrated that beyond a certain point in the
expansion of industrial production in any major field of value,
marginal utilities cease to be equitably distributed and overall
effectiveness begins, simultaneously, to decl ine,.l£lhejndu st rial
modQ_oI..product:orr expands-beyond a certain stage and con
tinues to impingc-onThe autonomous mode, increased personal
suffering and social dissolution set in. Jn tKe interim - between
the point of optimal synergy between industrial and autonom
ous production and the point of maximum tolerable industrial
hegemony - political and juridical procedures become necessary
to reverse industrial expansion. If these procedures are con
ducted in a spirit of enlightened self-interest and a desire for
survival, and with equitable distribution of social outputs and
equitable access to social control, the outcome ought to be a
recognition of the carrying capacity of the environment and
of the optimal industrial complement to autonomous action
needed for the effective pursuit of personal goals. Political pro
cedures oriented to the value of survival in distributive and
participatory equity are the only possible rational answer to in
creasing total management in the name of ecology.
-bcJhc.resulLpf
political .action reirforciog^iL-elhi.caLawakeniiig^.P.cople will
i want to limit transportation because they want to move efficientI ly, freely, and with equity; they will limit schooling because they
• want to share equally the opportunity, time, and motivation to
? learn in rather (han about the world; people will limit medical
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specific. goali^t^k.share,.! . ■■■ thei: use of legal and political
procedures that peri nit jm o- idu <!s and groups to resolve conincts'ansFng^rom their pursu;:i of dil'crcnt goals. Better mobility
will depend, not on some n -•.v
‘ ’.ind of transportation system,
mobility under personal
but on conditions mat ma-n personal
;
control more valuable. B-.m.'- learning opportunities will de
pend, not on more inferm.iim.'i about the world better dis
tributed, but on the limut; :; ^ of capital-intensive production
for the sake of interesting woi i mg concmions. Better health care
will depend, not on seme
tl'crapeutic standard, but on the
level of willingness and co i.;,m ncc to engage in self-care. The
recovery of this power dcpeiids .m the recognition of our pres
ent delusions.
The Right to Health
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Increasing and irreparable damage accompanies present in
dustrial expansion in al •cLtors. In medicine this damage
appears as ialrogencsls. Ut; •..>. ™csisj- clinical when pain.^sickness, and death t^s.ult.frcn ricdicaj ern e ^it is social when .health
policies reinforce an ind.u;i.i;d organization that generates illheahh; it is cultural and symbolic when medically sponsored
behaviour and delusions.re./.i >ct. the vital autonomy of people
by unclermin mg. their compcience in growing up. caring Jor
each other, and ageing, oi when medical intervention cripples
personal responses to pa m disaoility, impairment, anguish, an^
death.
Most of the remedies row proposed by the social engineers
and economists to reduce ic.uogenesis include a further increase
of medical controls. Thes? so-called remcdies.generatc.-se.c.ondordcr iatrogenic ills on each cf the three critical levels: they
iatrogenesis self-rcinfoiciog.
render clinicai, social, anc <i-liitural
-i.c
cdccis
of the medical tcchnoThe most profound iat ogen
a
result
of
those
non-icchnical
functions which
structure are a ------- -.
support the increasing ii!,' litutionalizalion of values. The
technical and the non-tc. ! r.ical consequences of institutional
therapies because they want to conserve their opportunity and
power to heal. They will recognize that only the disciplined
limitation of power can provide equitably shared satisfaction.
The recover yof a u t o n q m
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The Politics of Health
i i\e Recovery of Health
medicine coalesce and generat_c_a.jiew-kind-<of.’Suffefrngi.-^naes-
lion would tax medical technology am: professional activity
thclized, impotent, and solitary survival in a world turned into a
until those means that can t-c handloi i y layrncn were truly Y
available to anyone wanting access to ; em. Instead of multi- .
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plying the specialists who can gian*. an;. ■ ;ic of a variety of sickroles to people made ill by th<.:r work
id theii life, the new
legislation would guarantee the right oi people to drop out and
hospital ward. Medical nemesis is the experience of people who
are largely deprived of any autonomous ability to cope with
nature, neighbours, and drcams, and who are technically main
tained within environmental, social, and symbolic systems.
Medical nemesis cannot be measured, but its experience can be
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to organize for a less destruct ve way <-i ;:fe in which they have
shared. Tlte intensity with which it is experienced will depend on
more control of their cnvironm-. iit In
.d of restricting access
the independence, vitality, and rclatedncss of each individual.
to addictive, dangerous, or useless dri.’;’,- and procedures, such' :
The perception of nemesis leads to a choice. Either the natural
boundaries of hutnairendcavour are estimated, rccogmzed, and
traTisfai^dJm^o.liikaJ
limits, or cojnj^ulsoiyjur-
legislation would shift the full burden of their responsible use
on to the sick person and his next of kii
Instead of submitting
the physical and mental integpip, of citi.-cns to more and more ; \
vival in a planned and engineered hell is accepted as the altern-
wardens, such legislation would recogu 'c each man’s right to
Until recently the choice between the
define his own health - subject only to limita'ior.s imposed by
ative to extinction.
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politics'of voluntary poverty and the hell of the systems en
respect for his neighbour's rights. Instead of strengthening the ’ i
gineer did not fit into the language of scientists or politicians.
licensing power of specialized ps-ers and government agencies, i j
Our increasing confrontation with medical nemesis now lends
new legislation would give the nubiic a ' oice in the election of •!
new significance to the alternative: either society must choose
healers to tax-supported health jobs. Im'. . id of submitting their
the same stringent limits on the kind of goods produced within
performance to professional review orpa; izar.ons, new legisla
which all its members may find a guarantee for equal freedom,
tion would have them evaluated by the ionmunity they serve.
or society must accept unprecedented hierarchical controls3 to
provide for each member what welfare bureaucracies diagnose
as his or her needs.
In several nations the public is now ready for a review’ of its
health-care system. Although there is a serious danger that the
Health designates a process of adapt:1.!:<; 1. It ’.s not the result
of instinct, but of anjAHo_n.Qn.i3iu>..}el. cu!- uj'idLy^KLpcd_i£a.GU.pti
alization of life, the debate could still become fruitful if atten
to^so.cially,ci^i(^lreali^y. Il designate:, the ability to adapi to
tion were focused on medical nemesis, if the recovery of per
changing environments, to gre wing up t-ttd to ageing, to healing
sonal responsibility for health care were made the central issue,
when damaged, to suffering, anc to the jx:aceful expectation of
and if limitations on professional monopolies were made the
death. Health embraces the future as \>cll, and therefore in
major goal of legislation. Instead of limiting the resources of
3. The Honourable James McRuer, Ontario Royal Commission Inquiry into
Civil Rights (Toronto: Queen’s Printer. 1968. 1969. 1971). On self-governing
professions and occupations, see chap. 79. The granting of self-government
cludes anguish and the inner resources tc I vc with it.
H
Health designates a process by which each person is respons
ible, but only in part responsible io others. To be responsible
may mean' two things. A man s responsible for what he has
done, and responsible to anotlc person >t group. Only when he
is a delegation of legislative and judicial functions that can be Justified only
feels subjectively responsible oi answet
as a safeguard to public interests.
will the consequences of his failcre be m : criticism, censure, or
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Health as a Virtue
forthcoming debate will reinforce the present frustrating medic-
doctors and of the institutions that employ them, such legisla-
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The Politics of Health
punishment but regret, remorse, and true repentance.4 The con
sequent states of grief and distress are marks of recovery and
heahng, and are phenomenologically something entirely diflerent from guilt feelings. Health is a task, and as such is not com
parable to the physiological balance of beasts. Success in this
persona! task is in large part the result of the self-awareness,
self-discipline, and inner resources by which each person reg
ulates his own daily rhythm and actions, his diet, and his sexual
activity. Knowledge encompassing desirable activities, com
petent performance, the commitment to enhance health in
others - these are all learned from the example of peers or
elders. These persona, activities are shaped and conditioned by
the culture in which t ie individual grows up: patterns of work
and leisure, of celebration and sleep, of production and pre
paration of food and drink, of family relations and politics.
Long-tested health patterns that fit a geographic area and a
certain technical situation depend to a large extent on longlasting political autonomy. They depend on the spread of
responsibility for healthy habits and for the socio-biological
environment. That is, they depend on the dynamic stability
of a culture.
The level of public beakh
degree to which
the means and responsibility for coping with illness are 1distributed among thejotal. population. This ability to cope can be
enhanced but never replaced by medical intervention or by the
hygienic characteristics of the environment. Ibat society which
can reduce professional intervention to the minimum wiU pro
vide the best conditions.for health. The greater the potential for
autonomous adaptation to self, to others, and to the environ
ment, the less management of adaptation will be needed or
tolerated.
A world of optimal and widespread health is obviously a
world of minimal and only occasional medical intervention.
Healthy people are those who live in healthy homes on a healthy
diet in an environment equally fit for birth, growth, work, heal-
j he Recovery of Health
ing, and dying; ’hey arc susnJ - - d by a culture that enhances the
conscious acceptance
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popui.-tion, of ageing, of in
complete recovery and cvv ■minent death. Healthy people,
need minima) bureau-ratic uitcrfcrencr to mate, give birth,
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share the human condition, and die.
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Man’s consciously lived fraydity, jndividualitv^and^relaicdness make the experience of p--.n, of sickness, and of death an
Tfftegral pari of his life. The ability to copc with (his trio autono
mously is fundamental to his health. As he becomes dependent
on the management of his mtimacy, lie renounces his auto
nomy and his health
d-.< :iiic. The hue miracle of modern
medicine is diabolical It cot? : is in making not only individuals
but whole population - survive .m inhumanly low levels of per i
sonal health. Medical neme:.. is the negative feedback of a
social organization that set u-m to -improve.and^equalj.zc the J
opportunity for each man to c.ipc in autonomy and ended by
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destroying it.
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• ^A,!CrcdjSchutz- ,S<)rnc Hquivccations in the Notion of Responsibility1
'iQAdt CC'e^P
AaP/rS' V0L 2’ S,UdiCS ‘n S0™1 Theory
HaSuc: Nijhotr’
pp. 2/4—6.
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THE HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
I : ORIGINAL PROPOSITION
(ABRAHAM MASLOW)
Sei f actualization need
Esteem needs
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MATURATION PROCESS:
REALIZATION OF
GENETIC POTENTIAL
Belongingness needs
Safety needs
Physiological needs
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II : EXPANDED PROPOSITION - THE Y MODEL
(Y. YU)
GENETIC
EXPRESSION
GEN: 1 ;C
HtANSMISSION
Self actualization
need
Esteem needs
Belongingness needs
/ Parenting
/
needs
Reproduction needs
Sexual needs
— Safety needs
GENETIC
SURVIVAL
Physiological needs
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III . GENETIC EXPRESSION CHANNELIZED
IN CONTRASTING SOCIETAL SYSTEMS
NEED
LEVEL
OLLECT1VISTIC INDIVIDUALISTIC
SOCIETAL
SOCIETAL
SYSTEM
SYSTEM
Seif
actualization
Contributing
Personal
to community
development
I accomplishment! full potential
Esteem
Primacy of
social esteem
Primacy of
self esteem
Relongingness Cohesion in
relationships
Self interest
through
relationships
Safety
Physiological
GENETIC
EXPRESSION
Unlikely
differentiation
Unlikely
differentiation
GENETIC
SURVIVAL
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IV : REVISED PROPOSITION - DOUBLE ¥ MODEL
(KUO-SHU YANG)
GENETIC TRANSMISSION
COLLECTIVISTIC
GENETIC EXPRESSION
4-
CSA
Parenting
needs
CE
INDIVIDUALISTIC
GENETIC EXPRESSJCN
Reproduction
needs
CB
CSA: Collectivistic
self actualization
ISA. Individualistic
Self actualization
CE:
Collectivistic
esteem
IE:
Individualistic
esteem
CB: Collectivistic
belongingness
Individualistic
belongingness
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Sexual
\ needs /
— Safety needs
Physiological needs
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Chapter 2
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Pedagogy
of the Oppressed
A careful analysis of the tcacher-stu'icnt relationship at any
level, inside or outside the '.choc!, reveals its fundamentally
narrarivc character.
This rcia(i-./n:-H.involves a
narrating
Subject (the teacher) and patient, lisk-mng objects (the students).
The contents, whether values or empirical dimensions of reality,,
Paulo Freire
Translated by Myra Bergman Ramos
tend in the process of being narrated to become lifeless and
petrified. Education is suffer.ng from narration sickness.
The teacher talks about reality as if i: were motionless, static,
compartmentalized and predictable. Or else he expounds on a
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topic completely alien to the existential experience of the
Penguin Education
.students. His task is to ‘fill’ the students with the contents of
his narration - contents which am detached from reality, dis
connected from the totality that engendered them and could
give them significance. Words are emptied of their concreteness
and become a hollow, alienated and alienating verbosity.
The outstanding characteristic of this narrative education,
then, is the sonority of words, i:ot their transforming power.
‘Four times four is sixteen; the capital of Para is Belem.’ The
.student records, memorizes and repeats these phrases without
perceiving what four times four -caliy means, or realizing the
true significance of ‘capital’ in t te Jiirmation 'the capital of
Para is Belem,' that is, what Belem means for Para and what
Para means for Brazil.
Narration (with the teacher as mnator) leads the students to
memorize mechanically the narrated content. Worse still, it
turns (hem into ’containers’, intc receptacles to be filled by the
teacher. 'The more completely he fills i!.c receptacles, the better a
teacher he is. The more meekly •he receptacles permit them
selves to be filled, the hcttersiudcris they arc.
Education thus bccom.es an act of depositing, in which the
students are the depositories and ilv icacher is the' depositor.
Instead of communicating, the teacher issues communiques
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and ‘makes deposits’ •.vhfch the students patiently receive
memorize, and repeat. This is the ' banking' concept ofeduca.
tmn, in which the scope of action allowed to the students
extends only as far as receiving, filing, and storing the deposits.
They do, i. is true, have the opportunity to become collectors or
. cataloguers of the things they store. But in the last analysis, it is
men themselves who are filed away through the lack ofcreati’vity,
transformalior., and knowledge in this (at best) misguided
system. For apart from inquiry, apart from the praxis, men
cannot be truly human. Knowledge emerges only through
'nygntioa-aud. reHnv^tion^EEu^^
5. The (eacl-cr disciplines and (he students are disciplined
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< VJ I I I Jy J y.
3. The teacher th nks and the students are thought about.
4. The teacher talks and the students listen - meekly.
^<len<S
•7h-IuPh'dCllCr aC,:' -T !i,e S‘'jdenlS hi,Ve lhe illusi011 of acting
tlu ough the action ol the teacher.
6
SJhe teacher chooses :he programme content, and the students
(who were not consulted) adapt to it.
9. The teacher co.nfu.ses rhe authority of knowledge with his
own professional authority, which he sets in opposition to thireedom of the students.
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continuing, hopeful inquiry men pursue in the world, with the
world, and with each other.
In the banking concept of education, knowledge is a gift
bestowed by those who consider themselves knowledgeable
upon (hose whom they consider to know nothing. Projecting
an absolute ignorance onto others, a characteristic of the
ideology of oppression, negates education and knowledge as
processes of inquiry. The teacher presents himself to his students
as (heir necessary opposite; by considering (heir ignorance
absolute, he justifies his own existence. The students, alienated
like (he slave in the Hegelian dialectic, accept their ignorance as
justifying the teacher’s existence - but, unlike the slave, they
never discover that they educate the teacher.
The ro/hc/ili.bertarian educatjon,_On_thc other hand,
hes in its drivejowardsjec oncih'ation.'Education mus'(~bcgin
with the solution of the teachcr-studenTconFradicibon7j)V
reconcil^
so (h';ll bo.’j^7rc'
simultaneously teachers ira/studcnts.
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This solution is not (nor can it be) found in the banking
concept. On the contrary, banking education maintains and
even stimul..tes the contradiction through the following altitudes
and practices, which mirror oppressive society as a whole:
1. The teacher teaches and the students are taught.
2. The teacher knows everything and the students kno w nothing.
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10. The teacher is lhe subject of the learning
process, while the
pupils arc mere objects.
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It is not surprising that the banking concept of education
regards men as adaptable, manageable beings. The more
students work at storing the deposits entrusted to them the less
lhey develop the critical consc.ousness' which would msult
Iron, then- mtervent.on in the world as transformers of that
«orld. lhe more c.mplute'y they accept the passive role im
posed on them, the more they tend simply to adapt to the world
•is it is and to the fragmented view „f reality deposited in them.
re capacity ol banking education to minimize or annul the
students creative power and to stimulate then- credulitv serves
he interests of the oppressors, who care neither to have the
word revealed nor to see it transformed. The oppressors use
hetr humamtartamt,n to preserve a profitable situation. Thus
•ey react almost mstmcttvely against any experiment in educatmn whtch smnulates the crit.cal faculties and is not content
with a partial vtew m re; lity but ,s always seek,ng out the tics
wmchhnk one point to another and one problem to another
Inoced. the mte.-ests o‘' the oppressors lie in -changing the
umsetousness ol the oppressed, not the situation which oppresses them (Simone re Beauvotr in /m
thC <’PP'CSSCdbe '«! >0 adam to
■h. t stluatton, the more easily they can be dominated' To
"US eih’ 'llc '^Pressors use the banking concept of
...mat,on m uon.ttm. ;ton with a ptttcrnalisuc social action ,
apparatus, w.thm which the oppressed receive the euphemistic (
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title of ‘welfare recipients’. They are treated as individual^
cases, as marginal men who deviate from the general con
figuration of a ‘good, organized, and just’ society. The op
pressed are regarded as the pathology of the hea.thy society,
which must therefore adjust these ‘incompetent and lazy’ folk
to its own patterns by changing their mentality. These mar
ginals need to be ‘integrated’, ‘incorporated’ into the healthy
society that they have ‘forsaken’.
\
The truth is, however, that the oppressed are not marginals,
, arc not'men living ‘outside’ society. They have always been
inside - inside the structure which made them ‘beings for
, o t hers’. The solution is not to ‘integrate’ them into the structye
of oppression, but to transform that structure so that they can
become ‘beings for themselves’. Such transformation, of
course, _wouTd Amjermine the oppressors’ purposcs; hence lheir
utilization.of-XhcJ^nking' concept of education to avoid the
threat of student conscientization.
The banking approach to adult.education, for example, will
never propose to students that they consider reality critically. It
will deal instead with such vital questions as whether R.oger
gave green grass to the goat, and insist upon the importance of
learning that, on the contrary, Koger gave green grass to the
rabbit. The ‘humanism’ of the banking approach masks the
effort to turn men into automatons - the very negation of their
ontological vocation to be more fully human.
Those who use the banking approach, knowingly or un
knowingly (for there are innumerable well-intentioned bankclcrk teachers who do not realize that they are serving only to
dehumanize), fail to perceive that the deposits themselves con
tain contradictions about reality. But, sooner or later, these
contradictions may lead formerly passive students tn turn
against their domestication and the attempt to domesticate re
ality. They may discover through existential experience that their
present wayoflifeisirreconcilablewiththeirvocation to become
» fully human. They may perceive through their relations with re
adily that reality is really a process, undergoing constant trans-
'' fomdtiQnt If men arc searchers and their ontological vocation
is humanization, sooner of later they may perceive the contra
diction in which banking education seeks to maintain them, and
' 7..
42
Zhen engage thumseh-. in the struggle for their liberation.
But the humanist, : . Jutfon.iry educator cannot wait for
this possibility tc mate.'ta.izc. From the outset, his efforts must
coincide with those of the students to engage in critical thinking
and the quest fcr mutual humanization. His efforts must be
imbued with a profound t rust in men and their creative poxyer.
To achieve tEis, he rm.sLbe_.^^a.rt_ner of the students in hjg
relations with thcr.
The banking concept roes not admit to such a partnership
and necessarily so. To risolve (he teacher-student contradic
tion, to exchange the rol: of depositor, prescribcr, domcsticator,
for the role of student among students would be to undermine
the power of oppression and to serve the cause of liberation.
Implicit in the bard ng concept is the assumption of a
dichotomy between m.?. : and the world: man is merely in the
world, not wii/i the wor.d or with others; man is spectator, not
re-creator. In this vic>% man is not a conscious being (corpe
conscienie)} he is rathe: the possessor of a consciousness; ar,
empty ‘mind’ passively open to the reception of deposits of
reality from the world c; ? ide. For example, my desk, iny books,
my coffee cup, al- the <r ucts before me - as bits of the world
which surrounds me •- .‘•culd be ‘inside’ me, exactly as I am
inside my study right mw. This view makes no distinction
between being accessib;/. to consciousness and entering consciousness. The cistint:. >n, however, is essential: the objects
which surround me arc i.nply accessible to my consciousness,
not located within it. 1 am aware of them, but they are not
inside me.
)i follows logically i.:u:: the bat.king notion of consciousness
that the educator's role to regulate the way the world ‘enters
into the students. H.- 1 isk is to organize a process which
already happens s )on(ai usw, (i, ‘fill’ the students by making
deposits of :nfor:Tiati()i. which he considers constitute true
knowledge.1 Aid since ircn ‘receive’ the world as passive
1. This concept corrcsp;
> to what Sartre calls the ‘digestive1 or
‘nutritive’ concept <»f cd
if-n, ir •.shich knowledge is ‘fed’ by the
teacher Io the sludcats in Hi; tl em 'in*. Sec Jean-Paul Sartre, * Une
idec'tondamcntak. d-. .a
.icnkt-.c. i<,gic de Husserl: rihicniionaliic’
Sifi/aiions I.
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entities, education should make them
more passive
still, and
adapt them to the world. Tim crh.
.
is the ad.iptcd ma11n■ ,
because he is more 'fit ’ fSFTEe xvo'rld
thiFwHSgnr^ii suited'
)
4
have created and how Iit tl^^y^-^iT.... — C
which (n.1°re.C°mP,etCry.lhe
to th; purposes
wh.ch the dommant mmonty prescribe for them (thereby
depriving them of the right to their own purposes), the more
sdy the minority can continue to prescribe. The theory and
VerhT,
2 edUCati0n serve fhis end quite efficientIv.
Verbafistic lessons, reading requirements,2 the methods for
the L hS l-n0W.,edgC’’ the dis,ance between the teacher and
he taught, the enter,a for promotion: everything in this readvto-wear approach serves to obviate thinking.
The bank-clerk educator does not realize that there is no -rue I
secur.ty m his hypertrophied role, that one must s^k to Z
others m sohdartty. One cannot impose oneself, nor even
merely co-ex.st with one’s students. Solidarity requires true
communication, and the concept by which such an educator is
guides fears and proscribes communication.
Yet only through communication can human life ho'd
meanmg. The teacher’s thinking is authenticated only by the
uthentic.ty of the students’ thinking. The teacher cannot fhink
for his students, nor can he impose his thought on them'
itlcnuc dtmking^ thinkin^tha£ is concerned abom
g«20Uake place in ivory-tow^^rj^Z^3’
IS true that thought has mcan7np"r^i----generated by action upon the wor'd
WhCn
or
jxs xs
c„„no,
Because banking education begins with a
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false undersianding
romm, in rhe Heart of Man, calls ’biophily’ but in-teid
Produces us opposite: •necrophily.
'
J
While life is characrcriZed-by growth in a im-,..
or-.
students.
„„„„ |o,„
P b
10
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do this 10'help'their
51
meclbmical. I he necrophilous person is driven by ihe desire to trans
form tl.e ow.nic into the inorganic, to approach life mechanically
as tf ad i.vtn,, persons were things. . . . Memory, rather than experi
ence; having, rather than being, is what counts. The necrophilous
person can relate to an object - a flower or a person - only if be
possesses it; hence a threap to his possession is a threat to himselfif he loses possession he Joses contact with the world. ... He loves
control, and in the act of controlling he kills life.
Oppression - overwhelming control - is necrophilic; it is
nourished by love of death, not life. The banking concept of
education, which serves the interests of oppression, is also
necrophilic. Based on a mechanistic, static, naturalistic
spatialized view of consciousness, it transforms students into’
receiving objects. It attempts to control thinking and action
leads men to adjust to the world, and inhibits their creative
power.
When their efforts to act responsibly are frustrated, when they
find themserves unable to use their faculties, men suffer. ‘This
suffering due to impotence is rooted in the very fact that the
human equilibrium has been disturbed’, says Fromm. But the
inability to act which causes men’s anguish also causes them to
reject their mipotence, by attempting
djv-J.
■ ■ ■ to..rcstorc ftheir] capacity to act. Buf can^heyVam’rhnw? One
way is to subnriUfl.aixLidenfify with a person,or group h7v^
p-ower: By lhls symbolic participation in another person We'TTen
WFFiTTiru^,,,, mactipg,. whenJocality [they] onlyJubmVibTnd
become a part of those who act.
Populist manifestations perhaps best exemplify this type of
behaviour by the oppressed, who, by identifying with charis
matic leaders, come to feel that they themselves are active and
effective. The rebellion they express as they emerge in the
histoneal process is motivated by that desire to act effectively
fhe dominant elites consider the remedy to be more domination
...and repression, carried out in the name of freedom, order and
social peace (the peace of the elites, that is). Thus they can
condemn-logically, from their point of view - 'the violence of a
strike by workers and [can] call upon the state in the same ' T.
breath to use violence in putting down the strike' (Niebuhr’s
V;
Moral Man and Immoral Society).
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Education as the exercise of domination stimulates the
credulity of students, with the ideological intent (often not
perceived by educators) of indoctrinating them to adapt to the
world of oppression. This accusation is not made in the naive
hope that the dominant elites will thereby simply abandon the
practice. Its objective is to call the attention of true humanists
to the fact that they cannot use the methods of banking educa
tion in the pursuit of liberation, as they would only negate that
pursuit itself. Nor may a revolutionary society inherit these
methods from an oppressor society. The revolutionary society
which practises banking education is either misguided or mis- ■
trustful of men. In either event, it is threatened by the spectre of
reaction.
Unfortunately, those who espouse the cause of liberation
are themselves surrounded and influenced byjhe climate which
generaTes the banking concept, and often do not perceive its
true significance or its dehum anizin g power. Pa rad oxica Uy,
‘this very instrumentpjfa)jen£tion in whatThey
consider an effort to liberate. Indeed; some ‘revolutionaries’
brand as innocents, dreamers, or even reactionaries those who
would challenge this educational practice. But one does not
liberate men by alienating them. Authentic liberation - the
process of humanization - is not another ‘deposit’ to be made
in men. Liberation is a praxis: the action and reflection of men
upon their world in order to transform it. Those truly com
mitted to thecause of liberation can accept neither the mechanis
tic concept of consciousness as an empty vessel to be filled, nor
the use of banking methods of domination (propaganda,
slogans - deposits) in the name of liberation.
The truly committed must reject the banking concept in its
entirety, adopting instead a concept of men as conscious beings,
and consciousness as consciousness directed towards the world,
'■‘hey must abandon the educational goal of deposit-making and
-cplace it with ihe posing of the problems of men in their re
lations with the world. ‘Problem-posing’ education,responding
to the essence of consciousness - intentionality - rejects com
muniques and embodies communication. It epitomizes the
special characteristic of consciousness: being conscious oj', not
only as intent on objects but as turned in upon itself in a
.
Ja-sperian ‘split! - cnn-jciousncss as consciousness o/consciousness.
_Libera^c<h)cim2n consists in acts of cognition, not transferrals of jnformafio:-. Jt is a learning situation in which the
cognizable object (far from being the end of the cognitive act)
intermediates the cognitive ac:<>rs - teacher on the one hand and
students on inc oilier. Accordingly, the practice of problem
posing education first .d’all demands a resolution of the teacher
student contraciction. Dialogical relations - indispensable to
the capacity ol cogmn-.c actors to cooperate in perceiving the
same cognizable object - arc otherwise impossible.
Indeed, prohlern-pusing education, breaking the vertical
patterns characteristic of banking education, can fulfill its
function of being the practice of freedom only if it can over
come the above contradiction. Through dialogue, the teacherol-thc-students and the studerus-of-the-teacher ccasc to exist
and a new term emerges: teacher-student with studentsleachers. The teacher <s no longer merely the-one-who-teaches
bjH_onewho_is_h mselijaught in dialog^T^The'students ~vho
taught a IsoTeach, They become iohhiv
P1()ccss jn which all grow. In this process,
arguments based on ’authority’ are no longer valid; in order to
function, authority must be or. ihe side o/freedom.’not anahist
it. Here, no one teach..-; anothei, nor is anyone self-taught. Men
teach each other, mediated b:. the world, by the cognizable
objects which in bankim. ecucat.on arc ‘owned ’ by the teacher
(he banking conrept (with its tendency to dichotomize
everything) distinguishes two stages in the action ofthe educator.
During the first, he cog rizes a cognizable object while he pre
pares his lessons in !>;$ study or his laboratory; during the
secund,.he expounds to r is students on that object. The students
are not called upon t. know, but to memorize the contents
nariatcd by the teacher. Nor do thesiudenls practise any act of
cognition, sine;.- the ojjectjov.irds which tfiaf act should h7
y.-rectcd is tliejjr.opern ja_f.jhc tJaZteTTher than Fmedium
jjXE'admhC-CnticaLre:iciUauii_>LhtHhTcachcr and students
Hence in the iiirme of ihe ‘ pre-.ervaIior^FTnKnTTnTIT3^rledge’ wc have a rystem which achieves neither true knowledge
nor true culture.
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The problem-posing
55
method
does
not
dichotomize the
Sartre. In one - fl’ our culture circles in Chile, the group was
discussing (based on a codification)-5 the anthropological con
cept of culture. I > the midst of the discussion, a peasant who by
banking stand;;: Is was completely ignorant said: ‘Now I see
activity of the teacher-student: he is not ‘cognitive’ at one point
and ‘narrative’ at another. He is always ‘cognitive’, whether
preparing a project or engaging in dialogue with the students.
He does not regard cognizable objects as his private property,
but as the object of reflection by himself and the students. In
that without m.-n there is no world.’ When the educator re
sponded: ’Let'.- say, for the sake of argument, that all the men
this way, (he problem-posing educator co ns (a n t !y re- fo r m.s_.'-i is
on earth were to die, but that the earth itself remained, together
reflections in the reflection of the students. The students - no
with trees, b rds. animals, rivers, seas, the stars ... wouldn’t all
longer docile listeners - are now critical co-investigators in
this be a world?’ 'Oh no,’ the peasant replied emphatically.
dialogue with the teacher. The teacher presents the material to
‘There would be no one to say: “This is a world’’.’
the students for their consideration, and re-examines his earlier
consideralj_QnsjLSdb£.sl uden t s ex press their"ownTThe role of the
lacking the consciousness of the world which necessarily implies
problem-posing educator is to create, together with the students,
the world of consciousness. ‘ I ’ cannot exist without a‘not I’. In
the conditions under which knowledge at the level of the doxa'-.
turn, the ‘not !' depends on that existence. The world which
is superseded by true knowledge, at the level of thcifceavp
brings ccnsciom ncs;s mto existence becomes the. world‘s ifiaT
The peasant wished to express the idea that there would be
Whereas bankingeducation anaesthetizesandinhibitscrcative
consciousness. I once the previously cited affirmation of Sartre:
power, problem-posing education involves a constant unveiling
of reality. The former attempts to inaint.ain.the submersion of
conscience et le monde sont dormes d'un meme coup.'
As men, simultaneously reflecting on themselves and on the
, ■■ consciousness; the latter strives for the emergence of con-
world, increase the scope of their perception, they begin to
sciousness and critical intervention in reality.
'^’'Students, as" (Key are increasingly faced with problems re
direct their observations towards previously inconspicuous
X
phenomena. I lusserl writes:
lating to themselves in the world and with the world, will feel
increasingly challenged and obliged to respond to that challenge.
Because they apprehend the challenge as interrelated to other
problems wiFfiinTldtafcbnlext, not as a theoretical question,
t he resul: i n g co m pre liens io n lends to be increasingly crihcal and
thus constantly less alienated..Their response to the challenge
evokes new challenges, followed by new understandings; and
gradually thestudents conic to regard themselves as committed.
Education as the practice of freedom - as opposed to educa
tion as the practice of domination - denies that man is abstract,
isolated, independent, and unattached to the world; it also
denies that the world exists as a reality apart from men. Authen
tic reflection considers neither abstract man nor the worldwj t hou fmen t but men i hTFTc i r reTaTtonT w ft h t h e worTcT.'1 n I hose
relations consciousness and world arc simultaneous: conscious
ness neither precedes the world nor follows it. 'Lu conscience et
le monde sont dormes d'un meme coup: exterieur par essence a
la conscience, !c monde est, par essence, rclatif a ellc\ writes
.
In perccp’.ion pru >erly so-called, as an explicit awareness [Geiva/jren],
I am turned love rds the object, to lhe paper, for instance. I appre
hend it as being il is here and now. The apprehension is a singling out,
every object laving a background in experience. Around and about
the paper lie hoc ks, pencils, ink-well and so forth, and these in a
certain sense an. ilso ‘perceived’, perceptually there, in lhe ‘field of
intuition'; but -..hilsl I was turned towards the paper there was no
turning in the r > irection. nor any apprehending of them, not even
in a seconda y : nse. They appeared and yet were not singled out.
were not posii.d an their own account. Every perception of a thing
has such a zone "f backgrounrl intuitions or background awareness,
if 'intuiting* already includes the state of being turned towards, and
this also is a ‘conscious experience’, or more briefly a ‘consciousness
of’ all indeed that in point of fact lies in the co-perccived objective
background.
That which l ad existed objectively but had not been perceived
in its deeper implications (if indeed il was perceived at all)
3. See chapter 3. (Translator's note.')
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begins to ‘stand out', assuming the character of a problem and
therefore of challenge. Thus, men begin to single out elements
from their ‘background awarenesses' and to reflect upon them.
These elements are now objects of men's consideration, and, as
such, objects of their action and cognition.
1£ problem-posing education, men develop their power, to
perceive critically the way they exist in the world w/A
Tn whiditheyfi r^'t¥emseRSutiey-C.o me.tL-see.the.wo.ddxoTas
Although the dialectical relations of men with the world exist
independently of how these relations are perceived (or whether
of the word) is found in the interplay of the opposites per
or not they are perceived at all), it is also true that the forrn of
manence and chan:'..\ The banking method emphasizes per
action men adopt is2.0
perceive themselves in t~he world. Hence, the teacher-student and
- which accepts neither a ‘well-behaved’ present nor a pre
Hcc^ siTrwTfaneously ph Jhemsefves and
Once again, the two educational concepts and practices
under analysis come into conflict. Banking education (for
manence and becomes reactionary; problem-posing education
determined future •
rcois itself in the dynamic present and
becomes revolutionary.
Problem-posing education is revolutionary futurity. Hence-
it is prophetic oind. a- s.ich, hopeful), and so corresponds to the
historical nature of
. .'.n. Thus, it affirms men as beings who
obvious reasons) attempts, by mythicizing reality, to conceal
transcend themselvc . who m-we forward and look ahead, for
certain facts which explain the way men exist in the world;
whom immobility rept•. sents a fatal threat, for whom looking al
problem-posing education sets itself the task of de-mytbiologiz
the past must only he a means of understanding more clearly
resists
what and who they arc so that they can more wisely build the
ing.
Banking
education
dialogue;
problem-posing
education regards dialogue as indispensable to the act of cog
future. Hence, it identifies with the movement which engages
nition which unveils reality. Banking education treats students
men as beings aware of their incompleteness - an historical
as objects of assistance; problem-posing education makes them
movement which has its ooint of departure, its subjects arid its
critical thinkers.
Banking education inhibits creativity and
objective.
domesticates (although it cannot completely destroy) the i/i-
The point of dep.j tore of -he moyement lies in men them-
tentionality of consciousness by isolating consciousness from the
world, thereby denying men their ontological and historical
sclvcs7~BuTTnce men do not exist apart fron]_the world, apart
vocation of becoming more fully human. Problem-posing
education bases itself on creativity and'stimulates [rue ref.eetion
and action upon reality, thereby responding to the vocation of
rclationshij).^Accordmgly, the point of departure must always
be with mcnjnjhc 'here and now’, w h jch co ns t i t u t es t lie silua-
men as beings who are authentic only when engaged in inquiry
fron}_je;diUL..HK:.am ■.e.r.cnt, tnus^_begm__yvi(h the men-world
;ir- submerged, from which they emerge,
Thdjn which they intervene. Only by starting from this situation
practice, as immobilizing and fixating forces, fail to acknowledge
- which determines their perception of it - can they begin to
mave^.To_do .ihjs. aut lien deal ly they mus.t .perceive their state
men as historical beings; problem-posing theory and practice
_noUis.faLQd.and unalterable, but merely as limiting.- and-there-
take man's-historicity as their starting point.
Problem-posing education affirms men as beings in the pro
_f< ircchallenginiL.
and creative transformation. In sum: banking theory and
i
reality necessitate that education be an ongoing activity.
Education is thus constantly remade in the praxis. In order
andthus establish an authentic form of thought and action.
I
finished character of m.:n and the transformational character of
to be, it must /.•ccrv/;l'. Its ‘duration’ (in the Bcrgsonian meaning
the world without dichotomizing this reflection froQTaction,
!
education as an u.xdus vely human manifestation. The un
astatic reality, but as a_reality in process, in transfonrjttion.
t he students-teachers
!
cess of becoming
.. ui)Cin;:-:;cd, uncompleted beings in and
with a likewise un: ■ -iud rcaiuy. Indeed, in contrasij_o other
animals who are uij : : .bed, bnt not historical, men know :hem
selves to be unfinished; they arc aware of their incompleteness.
In this incorn pie (cm
.md this awareness fie the very roots of
..
Whereas (he banking method diicctly or indirectly reinforces
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men’s fatalistic perception of their situation, the problem
posing method presents (his very situation to (hern as a problem.
As the situation becomes the object of their cognition, the naive
or magical perception v/hich produced their fatalism gives way
to perception which is able to perceive itself even as it perceives
reality, and can thus be critically objective about that reality.
A deepened consciousness of therr situation leads men to
apprehend that situation as an historical reality susceptible of
transformation. Resignation gives way to the drive for trans
formation and inquiry, over which men feel themselves in
control. If men, as historical beings necessarily engaged with
other men in a movement of inquiry, did not control that move
ment, it would be (and is) a violation of men’s humanity. Any
situation in which some men prevent others from engaging in
the process of inquiry ts one of violence. The means used are not
important; to alienate men from their own decision-making is to
change them into objects.
This movement of inquiry must be directed towards humani
zation - man’s historical vocation. The pursuit of full humanity,
however, cannot be carried out in isolation or individualism,
but only in fellowship and solidarity; therefore it cannot unfold
in the antagonistic relations between oppressors and oppressed.
No one can be authentically human while he prevents others
from being so. The attempt to be more human, individualistically, leads to having more t egotistically: a form of dehumaniza
tion. Not that it is not fundamental to have in order to he
human. Precisely because it A necessary, some men’s having
must not be allowed to constitute an obstacle to others’ having,
to consolidate the power of the former to crush the latter.
Problem-posing education, as a humanist and liberating
praxis, posits as fundamental that men subjected to domination
must fight for their emancipation. To that end, it enables
teachers and students (o become subjects of the educational
process by overcoming authoritarianism an.d an alienating
intellectualism; it also enables men to overcome their false
perception of reality. The world - no longer something to be
described with deceptive words - becomes the object of that
transforming action by men which results in their humanization.
Problem-posing education docs not and cannot serve the
59
interests df (he pressor. No oppressive order could permit the
oppressed io he/m to i|’.cstion: Why? While only a revolu
tionary society <■.'.!• curry out (his education in systematic terms,
the revolution;!!>■ leaders need not take full power before they
can employ the method. In the revolutionary process, (he
leaders cannot ■.' Iizc the banking method as an interim measure,
justified on grounds of expediency, with the intention of later
behaving in a miiinely revolutionary fashion. They must be
revolutionary that is to say, dialogical - from the outset.
f?-.) I
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\ 02)
Approaches to 1 raining
> In ten years time I may have forgotten the content but I will remember the approach.
This section is directed mainly towards trainers. The section sets out four approaches
to training and learning, with their characteristics and their advantages and dijsadvau-
tages. The purpose is to provide an overall perspective for people who have 'training
responsibiliues, and a rationale for die experience-based approach of this manhal.
j
Course trainers may want to offer the material to course members also. If
become familiar with the approaches and their characteristics it will sth! pei^cc.; w .•
their experience of their own course, and will increase their understanding of its
wtTwtology.
Li Ifthe topic is offered to course members, it is best dealt with alter three or fou. wecto.
by which time members will be able to relate it to their own experience or th? course.a |
The information and ideas can be conveyed through a short presentation: do nbt give
I
continuous lecture (see page 158).
-7:
be used to open up the ■
The sshort
____ questionnaire Our Ideas about Training (page 163) can
H
topic beforehand.
The questionnaire is light-hearted] in style, but it will help mepnbers to
mptions about training and the role of thd trainer. |
clarify and question some of their assur
When we consider the education and training of adults as development workers,, we can
ch with advantages and disadvantages. The four ..y
identify four different approaches, ear
„
,
approaches can be illustrated with a simple diagram which has two axes.'
and Practice as the other. The second axis has
The first axis has Theory' as one extreme
- - -------------i
Content as one extreme and Process as the other? The two axes produce tour g
quadrants each representing an approach
approach to training. Please refer to die diagrpi on the
I
I
next page.
ffii Academic
I
6®
In the first quadrant which lies between Content and Theory, the apptoath can be-3
described as ‘academic’. The main tool here is ‘teaching’. The purpose oil acadoinic-^
teaching is to convey information and to pass on theoretical understanding. Ihc..^
characteristic method is the lecture, supported by individual reading and tliekvritin
die wrmng of.
Jam
I
I.
CV<Ud.UUl..uUZ,^.v...
:
2
1. After Rolf P. Lynton and Udai Pareek. Training for Development, Taraponevala,
': or the subject When we observe what a group .s4
2. In training the content’ refers to the substance, the task the topic
focussing on the content When we observe hoj// the group is/J
working at, or listen to what a group is discussing, we are f
working or discussing, we are focussing on the process.
'
156
14
r7 /
i /
J SffWmi-.vfc.'iE
SFf
& iPWgBFMtaw iraryrown
.
Approaches to Training
gays-. The goals arc contained in a syllabus or curriculum. Appraisal is by means of
^exvnninat’ons, usually written and competitive. The principal roles are lecturer or
j teschcr, and student or pupil.
T
Pf(’'
assumes that education is an intellectual process of acquiring knowledge.
‘S iO be Passed from th°se who ‘know’ (the teachers) to those who don’t
'ignorant’. A further assumption is that when students acquire
’bey arc then able to transform it into effective action in the 'real world’.
f«
1.I
4
;‘l||
•f"'
giving atte? Lion
and importance to
Content
Academic
i
Activity
. •C giving attention
pxpnd importance
to Theory
giving attention
and importance
to Practice
jh;
<. .> •
hl
‘‘il
Laboratory
11
n; a
1
'1
Action-Reflection
i
giving attention
and importance to
Process
’ • ! ’ !|;S
The formal education systems, with their schools and universities, fall in this quadrant
These systems are usually individualistic and competitive. Authority and responsibility
. for the learning process and for appraisal lies mainly with the teachers and lecturers.
• The approach is attractive to teachers and lecturers because it ensures they have higher
; status? Furthermore, the process of teaching is predictable, and normally remains
■ within the teachers’ control.
i The approach is useful for disseminating information and strengthening theoretical
; tanking. But on its own it may not lead to better professional’practice or more
effective development work. Too many practising workers attend academic courses,
listen to lectures, acquire a lot of information, pass exams, and gain qualifications —
and then carry on working as before, without any improvement in effectiveness or in
t.'.c quality of their work. The links between academic learning and practice are weak.
Practitioners need an approach to training which emphasizes change in practice.
' i'W
i
w
■f
f
Hii
••i'
one-Ty toT™nStiondeVelOP,,nent
Wh° ''<n0WS''
157
'Vi"aSerS' Wh° d° nOt
and ,h0 ,OP-down
I
1
The principal academic method, the lecture is also ineffiripnr TP
i
•ita. bral, f„
,hm io
±
" J* r,"d' 8“‘
».y onl, «% of wb„ hl„ he„d „,d Wf of Jtas b J * ■
W;
ater. Confucius is supposed to have said, ‘What we hear, we forget.’
■
1
IS Activity
™uvitv°?r
C°,1!Cn'
,r"’r:in ■ ,iCS
Pr!,CticC- ™S aPPxoaEh
If
called
ofte a f ’ j PU''PT 'S l° tC
Impr°Ve Practical skilJs- This is the ^d of learning
often found in traditional societies.
*°
■is x
■“?
■h'“ 'u“s “ * p'™““ s“““" ■»“
»
ow .» *. „„ e„eI1Oo„. An obv,ou, „„pfcwho fam
S •-W
om their parents and grandparents. Another is the young person learning a skill 4 ™
Tvoie3! 1
a"
Practitioner who has the required expertise and experience I'ill
Typtcal learning roles are the apprentice, the novice, the intern, and the Me' " W
method8 .r° “ arC *C master’> the demonstrator, the instructor, and the expert 'Che
?ra mnt o”' h
t pT"10?’ inStrUCd0n’ c°Pying> and Ptactice under supervision
c“cu”6 ““d”“ -
U-;L
I IQ
« mb
Confucius is supposed to have said, What we see, we remember.’ The approach leads T ■
deXn t^b
Pr°CedUreS and eXpertise have b-n expounded o J 1
demonstrated, but it may not go further. It assumes that whatever apprentices hav
V"
eno b
to d
them tQ
not ody
PP^ nces h„
, :
.
job, out also with unfamiliar and i
• •
unexpected challenges. But those who follow and rely
IVilSht toVe0! tinehP-0CedUreS may fmd
the the^'Tending or
me insight to deal with situations outside their previous c
‘
b
experience. And many of the
situations we encounter in development work will be outsidfe
c.de our previous experience,
experience.
t has been said that practice without theory is blind.
sXn^^ itS limitations ‘activity’ is long established and widely recognized as the
voluntaryXXr1"
Staff °f Organi2ations- Much of the training conducted by |
0 -tary development agencies and NGOs follows this approach. One advantage is «
Ut cheap. Another ts that it does not require any specialized training facilities or |
1
i:
p
f
1
O:
Many development Avorkers have been inducted into their work through A.Am.- r- H
rhe work’ “h "1
W‘th Y’’ °r ’-4 how Z does ff' f W
: >. C-’
started b ’ I '
may
the newcom« to ‘get the feel’ of die job and get fib
by resortinv tXr
TX
demands> “d may end up
•
I
Some tra
311
zePe2UnS
P«t mistakes of others
?ome training courses combine the academic with activ.ty, so that the two' 1M
approaches then complement and inform each other.
158
it'
6.1 ApfirocrJic'. h Trenina
/'•third approach emphasizes Process and Theory, and is known as ‘laboratory
.Cl. i-vjig. This is represented in the third quadrant of the diagram.
P,Tl
,|S;
Laboratory
' .The name labota'ory is used because there are parallels with the working of a scientific
'•horatory. One narallcl is the experimental nature of what takes place. Individuals or
r .groups try things out and observe what happens. For example, they may take new
'Tdts. express hidden feelings, practise new roles, experiment with new behaviour, and
ih,-.,. nrc relating to others and how other percci-.’e mem. Another
r.' Tcl ’•.'irl'. .i 1..moratory is the separat’on ot the work trom the rest of the v.oiid.
Ar.er.rion can then be concentrated on the task or process under study, and what is
:?jt rJc- ant can be left outside’. This makes it easier to locus on particular i ’.ctors,
.trace their effects, and draw conclusions.
Another name which is sometimes used is unstructured .
The approach is essentially person-centred and group-based. The task of the group is
• to. observe and study the way the group is functioning while this is actually happen' ing. The task of the individual is to examine his or her own behaviour and personal
. :oie within the group, and the impact that he/she is having on others, again while
• .actually engaged with the group. Attention is therefore on the present moment. This
is often referred to as ‘working in the here and now .
The reference points, and the data for study, come from within the group itself.
Outside forces, back home situations, and formal designations are all left ‘outside’ the
laboratory’. There is little or no external accountability. The learning is the concep
tual understanding and insight which comes from this experience, together with
increased self-awareness, improved sensitivity, and enhanced skills in relating to
others.
• The role of the trainer, typically called a facilitator here, is to help members to focus
on the way the group is working, and on the issues facing the group. He/she also
■ helps individuals and the group to examine and understand experiences within the
group. The ‘methods’ include group dynamics, sensitivity training, personal growth
laboratory, T-groups, community change laboratory, and group relations conferences.
! If the focus is mainly on the working of the group, rather than on individuals, then
rhe dynamics of participation, decision-making, leadership, power, authority and
conflict are all likely to be examined, along with other dimensions. These are all central
issues in any organizational or community setting, and development workers need, nor
only to recognize them, but be able to work with them.
If the focus is mainly on individuals within the group then the members become more
aware of themselves and how they are perceived by others, understand more about
159
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Tii
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y
:'!H
r
• x
.........................
...................
' •
' ■
■•
•
""■•
................... *................................ ....
also central in development work.
The approach assumes that a person’s inner psychological realities are relevant to
learning and to then work in the outer world. Tr makes mow explicit the link between
the assumptions, aspirations, values, etc of the inner world, and die roles, decision
making. leadership, and action of the outer world. It also assnm,-; rl-.ar people can
translate their experience and learning in the •'■•..hoia:, tj.' mu ■ :?-.v wms ot work.iw
when they return home.
’ The learning has a deep and lasting quality, which is often personal to the learner. I he
individual who joins such a training group may be expected to disclose more ol
him/herself, and to receive more feedback, than in other approaches. Feelings are
often exposed. The experience can be exciting and challenging; it may also have
disturbing and even painful moments. Some people say that if learning is to be effective
it should disturb us!
Such training can be difficult to handle effectively, and requires trained facilitators.
Teachers and trainers who are used to a more conventional academic approach may
find this approach open-ended, unpredictable and complex.
This kind of training is usually offered to those who want to increase their own
awareness and improve their own skills. It is particularly helpful in situations and
professions where there are systemic disparities in power, such as community and
development work, social and youth work, prison and probation services, and manage
ment. Many development workers who have experienced such training have gained
important insights and have greatly improved the quality of their work with others. It
is especially useful for those with responsibility for training.
|W Action-Reflection
>
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W'
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lj
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sitW
If
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ii
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Finally there is the quadrant which lies between Process and Action. Training here
|
consists mainly of providing course members with alternating opportunities for ‘acdon
and reflection’. They experience an action, and then they reflect on it. They work at a task
which is related to some aspect of development work, and then they think about the
process. What happened? How did it happen? Why did it happen? How is it relevant?
?, ,
||
I
I
BJ
The approach is also referred to as experience-based or ex[iperiential. Learning arises
from the direct experience of the course member, but that experience: has to be |||
nalyzed. Simply doing something is not enough. We need to look at ourselves in the
V:; I.
P
The basic tool for the approach is alternations which reinforce learning. Action is T
we eat but which passes through our system undigested — it does us no good.
with individual work, personal involvefollowed by reflection, group events alternate
?
160
1
F’’: I
£
.
.*r.r
■■
W
’
-
■
-.... ---- --------------------------
0. / Ap{)rnach's !;> Training
■'t
“rnaCes with lniP^sonal analysis and input. We
move between the specific
ife r S,ner‘" We ■' romerhiog a„d then [aJk abput it,■ and vice versa. We
12“ . .................. <l“p<'’“v.-d„„d„,emdai
: by putting it into
— v.ieory
pl"
““
”™b“
...thev
T..
have just
jTPt had and rhe
'■
’ey have
■'X Z
Z •WCCS
up supporting and interactive roles as much
ng opportunities, facilitators,
-.J course
......
:
....... .
own experi-
„d ™8te. Th.
p[ora, „ „.ope„^ ”pl”“ » “ s haring
.1 ■» W.«ch ,!slTO! th„ ,„u„g „d ,
_
<j- >7- attitudes,
: J as knowled^'
■'iX 15 1101 for knowing more, but for behaving differently.’5
§ A climate in the
group Wh,ch euoormges explo,,^ „d
thinking, is more important than
J.y in development work are
j - b„ipmm
f
dive™n,
"Z1" ””nd
with many Udons. Whafto ^n
TaT
co think/
h,nk 15 taken to be a
“ UnderStand and d-'
potent learning than how
The learning from this approach i
is often deep. Confucius is supposed to have said
What we do, we know.’ Research
> suggests that we remember 80—90% of what we
discover and do for ourselves.
I
-
?
process; greater
relationships;
•.....
listening and
into the dynamics nfnntnnnm
j
• • ’ conthct’ and change; a clearer insight
participation. Such outcomes LTdem^0^^ dn; a?d an lncreased commitment to
subversive.’
‘ dcmocraac> developmental, and — to some —
i. 4. Lynton and Pareek. page
I £““aX;"""",r“ •*—- —■
161
Th= dIc ■“ “ - •
It is the events and methods which contributed to
are included in this manual.
sz:
the action-reflection approach that
> .. the action and rcjlection method has emphasised our own nJeehngSj behejs, opinions, slrenglhs
and weaknesses. This method increases creativity and self confidei
'.nee.. I(. addresses the iv/iole human
being...
> .\r0t a day has passed without some exercise, simulation, role play case study or mih f,//
course by refection and shanng. Yes, by now we all refect in our Lp J ertLedhs^o
/ r
{
=SSSS=gfSSsSf
> ...the varied training methods make each day different and interesting.
** ...the day has been a real cocktail.
K Some days it isjust too much, with all this group work.
I
162
. . »■».
••I?"X•*•'•• •
♦
n
•'
Questionnaire: Our Ideas about Training
Indicate which statement in each pair (a or b) fits better with your own
ideas about training.
bi.
) The main focus of training should be the job which has to be done.
) The main focus of training should be the person who has to do the job.
a(
) It is most important that a trainer should understand the subject
a(
and its applications.
) it is most important that a trainer should understand the course
members and thoir situations.
a(
) One of the trainer’s tasks is to ‘cover’ the topics ar d issues
b(
which are to be studied.
) One of the trainer’s tasks is to ‘uncover’ the course members'
experience of the topics and issues which are to bo studied.
a(
b(
) One of the trainer’s tasks is to provide answers which course
members can apply to their own situations.
) One of the trainer’s tasks is to raise questions which course
LJ
n
u
n
members can apply to their own situations.
a(
) An outcome of training should be that course members do
b(
more things right
) An outcome of training should be that course members do more
right things.
n
i i
Discuss your choices in groups of three or four.
Adapted in part from ‘Approaches to Training’ in Management 8elj-Development'.
A Practical Guidefor Managers and Trainers, MSC, pages 314—316
163
n
i ^5 )
1 he Learning Model
i: . ■ -■^4,,...^,_______ .___________ O
1
n
Present the following simple model of experience
based learning. It shows the learn
mg
process as a continuing spiral in six stages.
■
I
ACTION
i
1. Action
REFLECTION
I
I
® doing: 'What did we do?’
a the exgerienc-e: 'What happened?'
® thd implemehtation: ‘Hbw did we do it?'
'
« may refer to events in the course, or c/cnt; mm
I
2. Describing the experience
;
;
6. Further action
i
i
i
i
'J
I
■
5. Doing differently
I
® applying the learning; making changes;
I
t
new experience;
I
I
® further implementation; trying something
new; 1
® doing better; improved effectiveness;
•
i
® further action ... and further reflection ...
i
i
‘ .xit' .'
'
t
i
I
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i"
■' i- :
A X/WmCCLW's ..
i ?? AWW.
■
/s-T
’
- w m y- y Ct
■ Lx.-1
.
* reviewing wh^^ened: .talking about the
experience;
\
• XT XXTX ‘
.
What did you experience?'
‘Who d.d what?'
j
3. Analyzing the experience
« analysing what happened; [ .
& understanding how it. happened;
making sense of it;
a thinking critically; asking question's:
Why did it happen like
"
How were decisions rnadi?’
‘Who had power?’
’
How do we understand rt?
‘What does it mean?’
. < ■’
'How does it relaWO XT
a seeing links and/cOradicti&ns.
I
I
II
J
I
J
"f
I1
I
■I
4. Identifying learning
1reachi^;co^l^i0nS;.
increasing our awareness;
r® new perceptions and insights;
9 What conclusions do we come to?
** dr*-leaa^Fpw/^hail we move on?’
i
1I
1
does
■ wa
•I1
E'
Introducing the Methodology
I
I
I
I
> ...inis course does notfocus on lecturing theoretical knowledge to individual students, but is basld on
tne whole group learning as one body ...
I have the responsibilityfor learning. Nobody can learn on behalf of me.
‘
With an experience-based methodology the learning grows
out of a cycle of action and
reflection, [he best way of understanding this is to
experience 3nd reflect upon it.
rather than to hear someone talk about it.
r
£
£
■' •5l,Olt briefing. as a Pa« of
general introduction on the first day of
tie .outse, is helpful to members. It will satisfy those who already have an interest in
uraintng and want to know what methodology will be used. It will also alert others
Who may be familiar only with academic and formal study methods, that experience-’
•■'
•>
J;
I
Ii
asec earning is different, and that it may seem strange and even uncomfortable at
1 Jlol.
I
Additional material follows in More about the Methodology (page 122), and can be
used to continue the briefing a day or two later. Links can be made with other
introductory work such as The Course Diary (page 72) and Why Have We Come?
sharing Expectations (page 77).
*
t J Introducing the Topic
I.
°n
' emo£
P°intS Which
^uldLot
■?.
f
sj
Training and Development
oarXkTT
itSeif 15 °fr thOUght °f 3S a Pr°CeSS °f learnin8- Thcre are str?ng
parallels and simrlanUes between the process of development among people in f
I
community and the process of learning among the members of an experience-based
training course, such as this.
«oun Ma
Sr°UPS
COmmunides 6—applies to this training
group. Many of the issues and forces which we will experience in this group 'ar!
world'Thi 0 TT and
WhiCh °Perate
any °ther
the
world. This includes members’ own organizations and communities back home'
a
Examples are communication, participation, gender relations, decision-making and
eadership. These issues wiU become central to the life of this group as members
begin to work together. The same issues are central in all development work.
67
I
c*. / )
that learning in other stations.
^h8’ “d
’
then “PP1/
1 he Course Members
*
cou7such as tWs Me to —
from the needs Of students in formal elXT0™1
a
nSbeandkbv7V1'Ul"11Cy.Want C° leafn- ThlS C°UKe ShouJd be E"^d -ore by th-1 -ed., and by the trainers’ perceptions, chan by any pre-set syllabus.'
'
a
he members are adults who are uped to mn ;
k
sibilio- for themselves Thev 7
8
arc
°Wn J1Ves and taki‘tg respon-
P
component
ot ".peppnee-b^
experience-based |„„„„s „d of
j=«lop„o„t p„Z
Course members are rich in
experience of work and life, and rich in understanding,
skills and insight. These are resources for the
course. Members will learn most from
each other, especially from those in similar roles.
Learning
we know, and
’
and how and why we do it.
conceined Wlth what we do,
each of rhas in our devei°^
°«
need to understand our ow
1 7
tO Undeistand ourselves better. We
-les, and the impact we have onX^pT’
r°leS’. m°re skiUed and sensitive in
’ woZngtkh tZ'rs^d moT0^
!
leadership, we need to develop'XrsdvesdeC‘S1OnS and contribuhng
s
ourselves are developing and changing we shah not beX
ment and change among ocher people
tO
deveI°P-
i
l“eV!
„ „pC„
fem tbfe ikiil, ,o adpp, (!,„ „“Je "
change? If not have we
’
” ch“«' f““»g prwtices, u
W at a^Out us? Are we willing to
• v
ucanon 1S noc for knowing more, but for behaving differently.’' If we attend a
u c to John Ruskin, British educationist and writer.
68
•WWXU/lKUJlutfl
?
B Build up the diagram on the
i‘ board, using the headings and starting with I. Actbn.
(.oiioct contributions from the group, adding in examples and questions at each stage irt
me spiral. After expiating the model, continue v/ith the points beiow.
'I he process summarized in the model is sometimes called Learning from
D: -.•ii..;.
1 lie process is a continuing alternation of Action and Reflection.
In normal lite we often take action without reflecting on it afterwards. 'Lius is like
I-.VK! which we cat but which we do not digest. The food passes through our system
without giving us any benciit. Action must be reflected upon if n is to ruMilj. m
kntaiL
m
!1 ■ ■■■ t—cci A.i upon may du repeated over and ovct a^am. Vvhuiiv.c
hen- someone who s.iys, 'I have 2u years’ cxnerience’ We m..v ih.J d.m he/shv v p'-ar'st
..ty hi. ■
t y, v.ij
... .
..... ,
....
1 i iC. t. i
run, mat leads
vl! ti i.wna.m,
Lads to learning, change, impujvcmcni —
and develop'menr.
ii
During the course we shall constantly reflect on action, whether the actioh is
something that happened in our work back home, or an experience which, we share
together in the course, or events elsewhere that someone has described in a case
study. The Course Diary fits into this methodology as a reflection on the prewbus
day’s action.
Reflection is a different process from evaluation. The difference will be further
explained (see More About the Methodology, page 122).
The Variety of Methods
I
i
I
SI Conclude' by referring to the methods themselves?
s>
1 he principal methods ot experience-based learning are discussions, group-wOrk,
exercises, simulations, role plays, case studies, visual materials, and field visits. Mjany
ot these methods are active, and they are often fuh.
j
Individual styles of learning vary, and so some members will like one kind of
method and some will Eke another.
&
<3
Ihe variety of methods allows for alternating opportunities in die training knd
learning process. For example, they make it possible to- switch between individual
work and group work, between small groups and large groups, between involve
I
ment and withdrawal, between doing and thinking. Such alternations are part oflthe
methodology.
I
lhe trainers will change their roles according to the method. A
trainer may giye a
lecture, manage an exercise, chair a discussion, and participate in a role play, all m
the same day. Members who expect staff only to lecture may be
surprised by this.
I
!
..
— ------- mnwi—wiimiiiib—ii—i
70
|
in i n..i ■
2. Members may be more familiar with the methods of formal education, such as
so on. These are not dealt with here.
i
lectures, reading, writing assignment^ and
I
S
ft
3Q
■ glffil The Individual in the Group
As a course unfolds individual course members often become increasingly aware of the »
roles they are playing within the course group. Phis section introduces a simple model
which can help individuals to think about their roles (and sub-roles) and about how
they arc behaving.' The model is applicable in informal groups, such as training groups.
It mav not be so relevant in more structured groups.
The model is intended as an aid to self obser/ation. It can be used for seif-evaluation,
but it should not be used to evaluate the performance of others.
It may be introduced during the early weeks of a course: half a session may be enough
for this. The model can then be referred to during reflection upon course events.
Objectives
to provide course members with a simple model of individual functioning in a
group, within which they can identify their own behaviour and role or sub-role;
to help members to observe how their own role or sub-role in the group may
change from time to time, and to reflect on the reasons for that;
to encourage members to try to change the role or sub-role they are playing if
they wish to do so.
Introducing the Model
scuiXGUuauaKMci:
El Introduce the idea of the roles we play in groups and other settings. Point out to
members that while on the course they are all in the role of course member, but that
the way each of them plays that role varies from one individual to another. Furthermore
the same individual may play that role in different ways at different times.
Distribute the handout, and refer to the five 'levels'. Each level can be thought of as a
sub-role within the role of course member. Point out how each of us tends to have a ;
sub-role we are comfortable with, and to function in a group at that level. Point out also
that sometimes we switch from one level to another. For example, any of us may
become a detractor if we feel hurt or offended, or if our needs are not being
recognized.
If vye want to develop leadership in ourselves, we can aim to function at progressively
higher levels, although it may be unrealistic to attempt to move too far or too fast.
.j
1. After a model contributed by j.M. Foster.
2. See Functional Leadership page 418.
148
I0
1
5.7 The Jniiivi.t’ial in (he Group
fe.
iasdng changes in our behaviour, even to move from one sub-role to t. ,e next,
Mp'.ain that the model is offered as a way for members to think about their own sub-role
fed behaviour. It is not intended to be a tool for evaluating the behaviour of others.
y.sr membe'*s to- identify their own usual sub-role or level, and to think of specific
• f x;.mp‘es and occasions during the course which have demonstrated this. : hen ask them
■ to sham their thoughts in groups of three or four, and to consider the questions in the
,:>ack 10 the model whenever it may be useful in later discussions about roles and
in groups.
0
Guidelines: The Individual in the Group
^Below are five ways in which individual members may behave in the group.
jThese can also be understood as sub-roles or ’levels' of functioning.
/Leader (this literally means to go in front and show the way ahead)
- attends, and responds to others, and is involved
seeks clarification of what is not clear
•j
contributes his/her own learning, insights, concerns, feelings, etc
- draws attention to the group's concerns, problems and needs
takes initiatives to help the group to solve its problems and meet its needs.
Contributor (this literally means to put in, or give for a shared purpose)
!- attends to what is happening in the group, and is involved
- seeks clarification of what is not clear
- contributes his/her own learning, insights, Concerns, feelings, etc.
draws attention to concerns of the group, and voices its problems and needs
>
j.
. Participant (this literally means to take a part in, or to have a share in)
- attends to, and takes part in, whatever is happening in the group, but does not
take any initiatives
- responds to others and reacts to the issues, but only when he/she is asked or
invited to do so
- does not contribute to the group on his/her own account
149
.
On-looker (this literally means to watch what is happening, to be a spectator)
- attends to what is happening, but is not actively involved
- often makes postive comments, but makes them aside to his/her neighbour, so
that the group as a whole does not benefit from them
♦
Detractor (this literally means to take out, or take away from)
- often does not attend to what is happening in the group or to what others are
saying
- makes complaints, and sometimes destructive criticisms, but does this outside
the group, so that the group as a whole is not aware of them
Which of these sub-roles do you think you play most of the time? Think of
occasions in the course which demonstrate the sub-role you usually play.
Which sub-roles do you also play occasionally? What causes the change? Why do
you sometimes switch 'levels'?
After reflecting on your own, discuss your thoughts in small groups of three or four.
Check with the other members whether they perceive your sub-role in the same
way.
Ask yourself whether you play similar sub-roles in other groups, and in your work
back home? Are you satisfied with your usual sub-role?
John Staley, Enticing the Learning. Trainers iiin Development, University of Birmingham,
pages 149—150 (After J.M. Fuster)
150
■■
Questionaire: Do We Listen?
hefieot on the following statements and indicate in one of the two box;
whether
you agree or disagree with them.
Staien lents
^Sree
■ Lister ling if, |i|<p breathing. vVe do it anyway;
■■•'•c! go riot ri66Ci to iriink uLoul it
‘E vcii.'u coGnnuniCciUoo.
n
:s iViore important than listening
El
3. Listening is an automatic process; it doesn’t
□
need our attention or any special effort
4. it :s important that we give other people
a chance to speak; it doesn't matter whether
i.
n
we understand them
5. Understanding the other person means
n
agreeing with him or her
6. The person who listens with understanding runs
a risk of being changed himself/herself
7. We can understand another person well,
even if we don’t understand his or her feelings
U
8. If I am aware of my own feelings it will help
n
my communication with others
9. Our natural tendency to evaluate helps us to
listen more effectively
10. It is more difficult to listen when the subject
is unfamiliar
134
u
Agree
Statements
Disagree
11. We tend to hear things which support our
own opinions, and not to hear things which
contradict them
□
■ ' 12. it is more difficult to listen to people whose
;es are opposed to our own
1-3. it is easier to listen to those in authority
■
un n : r,
listen tn those who
am 'subordinates ’
t 14. Understanding about another person is more
important for effective communication than
any understanding with that person
■
□
L_J
□
•"15.1 can listen better to the people I work with
if we have shared our expectations of
each other
1
K
ft 16. An effective listener pays attention to what
■
• ’<'
H
a person is saying and to what he or she is
not saying
?• •?. Effective listening includes listening' with
the eyes
I
ii
h
f
18. Some things can only be said with the help
i .1
of the listener
hr-i
j. 19. she best way to show that you are
listening to another person is to keep
interrupting
I
It
□
20. Silence does not communicate
Adapted from E.H. McGrath, Basic Leadership Skills* XLRI, Jamshedpur, pages 45—47
135
.
!
|
■
How Are We Doing? Widening Evaluation
: > In l./i.e i?:tenn fZiihie.iiori it is interesting to listen to course members* opinions and suggestions, not
'■■ndy about development as a subject, but also as a course: its structure, methods, etc. It was useful
/ .'■■thrr'i fnr both tutors and course participants.
1 ic evaluation and monitoring of participator}' training happens at three levels.
j/nme Performance
■. Ultimately training must be judged by the future performance and effectiveness of the
; people who receive training. This can be tested only after they have returned to their
■ work, and perhaps only some time later.
•
• Continuous Monitoring
i
A second level is monitoring of the learning within the course itself. Ideally this is
Happening all the time. 'I he trainers follow the process and interactions, they observe
the climate in the group and the roles members are playing, and they listen to feedback
from the course diary and other events. For an experienced trainer this process —
which is partly internal and partly discussed with colleagues — becomes automatic. The
result is continuous adjustment to an always-changing situation. Flexibility in role,
iterative planning, an evolving timetable, and a repertoire of alternative inputs and
events make such adjustment possible.
i
;
;
;
j
'
’
Periodic Evaluation
The third level involves more deliberate and more explicit evaluations of progress.
Both trainers and members are formally involved, and the results are used, both by the i
trainers who have organized the course, and by the members who share responsibility
for it. Most courses include an evaluation at the end, by which time it is too late to
change that particular course. If an interim evaluation can be arranged early in a course, !
the results can be used immediately.
Interim Evaluation
HKW!
asaa
Obvious items to be evaluated include the extent of progress towards the objectives,
the levels of satisfaction, the usefulness of particular sessions and events, the effective
ness of methods, how far expectations are being met, how much the learning is relevant
to members’ work back home, and practical arrangements.
It is more difficult to evaluate the role and work of individuals, both members and
trainers. In a participatory methodology, members share responsibility for the course.
243
t
I
I
f
Each has a contribution to make to the life and learning of the group, and each is in
charge of his or her own participation, role and learning. So any course evaluation
should at least invite members to reflect on themselves, and on their role, commitment,
contribution and learning. Widening the evaluation in this way reminds members that
progress and satisfaction do not depend only on the trainers.
Trainers may have to decide how far they are willing to submit their own performance
for examination by rhe course members. To do dais they need confidence in themselves
and trust in the judgement of members. The principle here is that we should not expCct
others to change iinless we ourselves are willing to change. Trainers need feedback for
rheir own growth and change, even if this is sometimes painful. The more they are
willing to receive it, rhe more evaluation serves as a model for participatory evaluation
in development work.
The course group, as a whole, also shares in the responsibility. So there should he
questions about the process in the course group, the growth of die group, the climate,
the levels of participation, the observance of norms, and any current difficulties. The
responses to such questions are necessary before the members can even consider
whether diey want to change the way their group is functioning. This also has paralljels
in development work.
Using a Questionnaire
One way of finding a balance between encouraging openness and retaining so ne
control is for the trainers to draft an evaluation questionnaire and distribute it to each
member for a written response.’
Members should be told that the results will be shared in the course group, and mat
they will be expected to take responsibility for what they write. The principle here iq! to
keep responsibility close to the members, and not allow them to blame others and
‘walk away*. They should be ready to support and justify their, opinions, and shoiuld
have suggestions for improvement. A written evaluation is also an opportunity for
members to practise giving feedback in writing.
;
;
*
When trainers use a questionnaire it becomes their responsibility to see that the
responses are collected, collated and reported back. Yet another principle of develppment work is relevant here, which is that data should not be taken away from a '
community to be used elsewhere, but should remain available to the community for its =
own purposes. If members find that the reporting back is complete and frank, they ivill <
gain trust in the trainers.
When trainers report back on the responses to a question it does not mean that individ- i
ual members are exposed. ‘Three people wrote that the session on underdevelopment }
—.•r*-.".,*iT-~1*m~linTrrriirB>rln-nlT..1,n'l»w*wrilHM ii<r>iMi(wi'Trn—»-nn-rinfw~,lrlm«iimi-~"—rr~*'>rnrwmiirinirrmwm'riiiri irn inr—irr__ rcmr winiiwriniiijumuji '
I. Another, possibility is that course members are given the task, partly to evaluate the course and partly to
experience in evaluation.
i
244
I
I i
J__ i
*
36 \
6.8 How Art iVe Doing? Widening Evaluation
J'
sUas disappointing’ allows those individuals to take responsibility and explain then vtew
Jkuther; but it also allows them to remain silent. Nonetheless, it .s difficult to maintain
•^anonymity in a course group, even if this is desirable.
’ Members can be asked to discuss their responses to certain questions in small groups,
and then to share conclusions or recommendations in the whole group. Questions
which produce ditfuse responses can be dealt with in this way.
However the reporting back is done, members find it is helpful to to see how their own
responses and perceptions match, others in the group. They mav discover mat t reit
perceptions and feelings are more widely shared than they expected.
Members' ooinions about levels of progress, achievement, satisfaction, etc can be
graded1 on
scale. If
the course
group is
on aa scale.
If the
course group
is large they can also be scored. A scale with an
even number
number of
points
perhaps
four
forces members at least to. choose
of points — perhaps four or six -- ---scale
has
three or five points, too many
above or below the mid-pomt. When a
'' members may choose the mid-point.
Scores can be transformed into averages and percentages, but trainers should be
cautious about this. The numbers in most courses are small, and small samples do not
support averages or percentages. It is more useful to report actual scores.
The information and opinions which emerge from an interim evaluation may lead to
changes so the sooner it can be done the better. On the other hand members must
be given enough course time to adjust to the methodology and to form their views
clearly. An interim evaluation may be conducted at the end of three weeks in a three
month course.
Some useful interim evaluation questions are.
« ‘How has your understanding of development (or other topic) changed
since the beginning of the course?
© ‘What have you learned about yourself which you did not know •
before the beginning of the course?’
o ‘How do you assess the progress the group has made so far towards
achieving its objectives in the course
disappointing/adequate/good/very good?’
0 ‘How do you see your own contribution in assisting the group
to achieve its objectives?’
o ‘Do you think that the course group has any difficulties at present? If so,
what are they, and what do yoi>u think can be done about them?
« ‘Reflecting on your experience of the course so far, what has been —
more useful/less useful/frustrating or disappointing?’
o ‘How do you see your learning in the course as being relevant
to your own work?’
» ‘Can you make any suggestions to the trainers about their role/s which
will help them to increase the learning?’
245
I
Ii
Wi End of Course Evaluation
SfiS
.. '
Sd Hck tme SeXlc SZe and^Xwch they are able to give to evalua-
Zion front the trainers. They may also want to know the cramers assume
lt
three month course, the mncuEng e.
is warteu at t
-e hi d week there should be. time for responses to be collected, co la cd and
ofik oduam.
•« »
«/».«». .»■- «•.*> • d‘-d “•
'
££;£SSSE£SSourselves.
> 77.=«» ddU. Id.fdddd
BESSSSSESSgi
se'===;e=shs==said, 'We all lose when anyonefeels unable to contribute.
> /
that it would be more approbate if we ourseA the evaluation guesUonnmre and
melhothiexl tune, so it becomes our own evaluation and a learning process loo.
246
*
!
their group.
> U
tn.,rl k
dM
i dd d i. d.
J
John Staley
PEOPLE IN DEVELOPMENT
A Trainer's Manual for Groups
PART 7 LOOKING INWARDS:
THE INDIVIDUAL
ft.
I
7.1 Values*
The objectives are
a) to introduce thr1 cor.u.p: of values
b) to help trainees under'- .ad the r )!c of values in their personal
lives, and in groups, co mnunitics and society
i
tfW-
c) to help them to ident.it. n? r own \ slues and to assess the depth
and significance of. th<;:.< values
d) to demonstrate ih.atwi ih-i t ie group the members hold different
personal and cultural •• lues
II
J; -
e) to examine the gulf b<
eer what is said and what is done, i.e.
between the values tn : are claimed and the values that are
'practised and lived'
We touch on values at Sc.ial points in the.orientation and other
courses. A value has been deii ■ J as an enduring belief that a particular
kind of conduct (e.g. honest, PvdJ or end-state of existence (e.g. secur
ity, salvation) is personally oi - ; ially preferable to the opposite or con
verse. Another way of desci iL
values is lo say that the kind of future
which a person tries to bring
uu. will depend primarily upon his per
H
sonal values. Such an unde.-; mding oi values puts them at the very
te: centre of development woik and social change.
At the more personal level w e can al<o say that values serve as stan
dards to guide our own conduct, or to evaluate, praise or blame our
selves and others. They are linked with our self-esteem, and to the
meaning we find in our lives.
Values have already beer touched upon in some of the exercises
described earlier (see section T2.. The following exercises are directed
SEARCH
more specifically to the topi- nt values. We use some of these exer
SI® cises
during the first week or
o of the orientation, mainly to illustrate
|H|p£; the concept of values and n
4 ’he first part of this section
encourage reflection.
hased ‘on inputs by Henry Nunn
120
LOOKING INWARDS: THE INDIVIDUAL
Ten Things that I Like to Do
121
VALUES
5
write dovzn which five* va!u.:> < >ut of the list are most important to them
personal/. They can also :x- asked to give evidence of how these
values are reflected in important decisions in their lives. This can be
. Trainees are asked to write indivicually a list of ten 'things that they
like to do. The trainer can give some examples, e.g. reading, movies,
playing with children, learning new skills.
given as an overnight assignment, and the answers shared in the group.
When the lists are written the trainer asks the trainees to write
down against each thing when they last did it, e.g. yesterday, last
Some values which may be listed are: open-mindedness, competence,
cheerfulness, family., imagination, cleanliness, courage, forgiveness,
Sunday, two months ago, the year before last The trainer then asks the
helpfulness, 'name and fame', daring, independence, conformity, love,
trainees to write cown whether each of the things is done alone, or to
duty,
gether with other people (dr either or both). Next the trainees should
write down whether each of the things costs more or less than Rs. 10.
obedience, honesty
A variation of this is to g w trainees a list of possible priorities for an
tradition,
politeness,
sdf-control,
rationality,
responsibility,
Next the trainees should ind;cate which of the things their fathers
individua in his life. The train-cs are then asked to choose four or five
and/or mothers co or did. Were the.trainees doing each of :he things
which a'e the most important to them personally, and then to rank
two years ago? Do they expect to be doing them still in five years'
these four or five in order. I his can be done as an overnight assign
time ? Finally, of the ten things, which three do they enjoy doing most,
ment, and the choices and rankings shaded and discussed in small
in order of rank?
groups. T'ainees can then Lh? asked to reflect on how their choices and
After all these questions have been answered, the trainer asks the
1
trainees to sit in pairs and share the answers with their partner. They
should also reflect on their answers individually.
.11
The trainer may point out that answers to the question, 'When did
you last do each of the things listed ?" may help trainees to see whether
1
the things are really important to them. If a trainee says he enjoys walk
ing, but last went for a walk six months ago, it suggests that he does not
,0
enjoy walking that much!
The answers to the question, -Together or alone ?" may also tell trai
3
rankings are related to their \alues and to their attitudes towards deve
lopment and development work. Some possible priorities are as
follows:
a) social recognition, fame
b) prosperity, economic comfort
c) security—of job, for himily, etc.
d) love, affection, deep kiendship
e) moksha (salvation)
f) freedom, independenc e, free choice
nees something aoout themselves. Are all the answers the same ? Or is
g) to oarticipate in building a more human world order
there a balance ? Many, perhaps most, of the things we enjoy doing do
h) involvement in a meaningful cause or movement
not cost much. Is that true of the trainees' lists too ? Were trainees
i) pleasure, an enjoyable comfortable life
doing the thing two years ago? Do they expect to be doing it in five
j) an adventurous, exciting life
years' time ? Are trainees changing their interests ? Does this represent
k) a position of influenc e over events and people
any change in values?
l) work with the under privileged or handicapped
Finally the trainer asks if trainees can see any link between any or all
Where Do My Values Come From?
of the ten things and their personal values. The ten things represent
behaviour; and behaviour expresses values. Indeed values must be
shown repeatedly in behaviour, otherwise they are probably hot
vate. So 'the things we like to do' is one expression of our values.
We may also ask trainees to think about their parents' and famil/s
1
Ranking Values
Another exerc se is to list a number of values, and to ask trainees to
I
values; and also the values oi others who influenced them, of teachers,
of friends, and so on. Then v,e ask trainees to make a summary in the
form of a diagram. This is o show from whom they think they have
acquired their own values
The d.agram may follo\A the layout o' figure v. The trainee makes a
fCK! >
I ■
122
LOOKING INWARDS: THE INDIVIDUAL
Figure v Where My Values Come From
My father's values
My mothers values
a
S
:3
1
1
I
p
My own values
My relatives' values
My teachers' values
3
river. The river was very wi<’.' and fast, ind there were crocodiles in it.
One day Maya heard thu. I rakash was very ill, and might even die.
She became very anxious anout Prakash. She loved him very much,
and she wanted to go and be with him if he was sick, and especially if
he might die.
So she went down to th( river, where there was a ferry-boat The
ferry-boat used to be rowec by a ferry-man called Ram. When Maya
said she wanted to cross the r ver Ram asked her for a fare of Rs. 10.
Maya said that she did not l ave Rs. 10, but that she would pay Ram
later. Ram refused. Then Maya pleaced with him to take her because
he would take Maya across, but or one condition —that she should
••I
I
tg
-y?
Other people's
values
123
Prakash was so ill, and might die. Ran refused again. Then he said that
4-
My friends' values
VALUES
iss
I
sleep with him first.
Maya was very upset about th s, and went back to her village
wondering what to do. On t ic way she met her cousin Anil, and she
told him what had happened. "That's nothing to do with me," he
replied. "It's your problem. Don't involve me in it. I don't want to have
anything to do with it." Then Anil went off leaving Maya disconsolate.
Maya didn't know what to co. She hated the idea of sleeping with
Ram, but she loved Prakash
: much and thought she might never see
him again. She had to get across that river somehow. So finally she
brief list of the most important values held by the persons mentioned
m the outer ring. He then indicates which of those values have been
i
river, and she rushed to Pra-cash's house.
'passed on' to him, and from whom.
After listing values in the diagram and considering where his own
values have come from, the trainee is invited to choose which of his
own values he would like to hold on to, and which he would like to
discard. The point can be made that the more we realize how others
have influenced us, the more we can think of changing ourselves.
At Prakash's house Maya nursed him and looked after him. Soon
Prakash felt better, and was out of canger of dying. After some time
II
The trainer starts by asking the trainees to sit in small groups of five
Once
,
viice there
mere was
was a
a girl
girl called
called Maya.
Maya. Maya
Maya was 19 years old and very
beautiful. She was also very poor. She lived in a village on the bank of a
I
ig rrver. Maya was engaged to be married to a young man called
rakash. Prakash lived in another village on the opposite side of the
Prakash asked Maya how she had crossed the river, and where she had
got the money. Then Maya tolc Prakash what had happened. Prakash
was furious. He shouted at Maya anc abused her for having slept with
Ram. He told her he'd never marry he. now and that she should get out
of his house for ever.
The Story of Maya
or six.,He then tells them the following story, saying that afterwards
they will -drscuss Tt---------- ------------- -------------
went back to Ram, and slept with b.m. Then he took her across the
<8
1|"
I1
9
.a
Maya went sadly cown to the ferry again. On the way she met a
neighbour called Krishna. Sha told Krishna everything that had hap
pened. Krishna was very angry when ne heard it, and he rushed straight
to Prakash's Irouse, pulled Prakash-c>lf his srck^bed;-and beat him up very badly.
Having told the story; the .rainer asks, "which of these five charac-
ters-Maya,'Prakash, Ram, Anil, Krishra-do you think was the worst?"
He asks the trainees to work individually at first, ranking the five chaiac-
A “■
124
LOOKING INWARDS: T-IE NDIVIDUAL
tors in order, from the worst to the best («. • least bad). Then they should
discuss the ranking in their small g-oups and :o sec if they can come to
3
a consensus. After the discussion has continued for some time, the
trainer asks the small groups to report tl;< !i ranking, and he tabulates
tee on the board.
He then points out that different opinions and different rankings
depend on the trainees' own values. For some, family obligations may
be the most important value: for them Anil will be the worst of the five
ploit people, or the virginity of brides, or lovalty to a loving partner may
seem more important It may bo useful in some groups, especially if the
level of dependency is high, to stress that there can be no 'right or ab
claiming values is the same.as living them, then .this exercise may only
I
f
I
a
solute answer to the question, 'Which i ■ the worst character?"
The trainer may also ask trainees to (('port on their discussion. "In
trying to reach a consensus did anyone give in to the majority view?
concrete evidence. We stress our conviction that a value has no mean
ing or reality unless it is expressed in action and behaviour. Intentions
are not enough. Furthermore, if a group is left with the impression that
characters. For others, non-violence may be the most important value:
for them Krishna will be the worst For others, not using power to ex
125
VALUES
i
i
I
Does anyone feel his opinion was brushed aside? How much confid
ence do I have in my own judgement when there are no 'right
add to distorted perceptions of the self.
(Trainees tended) ... to overestimate the depth of values which they
claimed to have. This was apparent from the incongruence between
what they said and what they did. We understood this 'shallow
ness' as a lack of realism about an aspect ofthe self. We also attributed
it partly to their lack of experience in decision-making. It is when
people make decisions affecting their own future, and the future of
others, that they express their values. Those individuals who were un
able or unwilling to make decisions for themselves were also those
who were least able to demonstrate the presence or depth of the
values they claimed.*
We therefore go further in confronting individuals by examining the
evidence which they adduce. For example, a value which many trai
nees claim to have is hard work, but examination of their work usually
reveals only normal activity and performance.
answers'?"
Dinesh: One of my values is hard work
Trainer: What time did you start work this morning?
Identifying Some Personal Values*
Dinesh: Well, I had my breakfast and all those things. I started work
Later in the course we ask trainees to j’o further in identifying some
of their own values. We also ask them to adduce evidence for these
at 9.30 a.m.
Trainer: What did you do after the session yesterday?
values from within their experience in the training group.
Dinesh: I went for a walk. When I came back I chatted with my
We usually start by asking the trainees lo reflect on what is importan: for them in their lives. As an overnight assignment they are asked
i
to answer the following questions:
friends. Then I read a magazine. Then I slept
Trainer: Would you say that you have been working hard during
this course ? [about two months at this point]
a) What do I value most in life?
b) Why ?
Dinesh: Well, no, I suppose not really. .
c) What evidence do I have that I value it so highly?
Trainer: Then how do you say hard work is one of your values?
An alternative here is to ask each trainee to identify three values
which he has expressed in his behaviour within the group since the
beginning of the course. He sf <' 'Id give enough circumstantial infor
As we repeat and elaborate exercises to do with values, and as con
fidence is established, we increasingly confront trainees with such dis-
__ ere pan ci es.
mation to enable the other trainees to endorse or challenge his identifi
cation.)
1 . .-.X, rema.-..o-cv of t..._ ..^ctiod
ised
)uts
opal
ha
trai nees
themselves
soon
take
over
the
Ram : One of my values is love.
Members are then invited to take turns lo share their answers in the
group. Many of the answers arc vague and general—love, truth, free
dom, friendship, politeness —and the trainer presses repeatedly for
The
confrontations:
Trainer: One of your values is love. What is the evidence for this?
fc
Ram: I show love towards everyone.
* Sta'-- 0 Sesb— '>981, -
:
1
t
126
LOOKING INWARDS:
INDIVIDUAL
Trainer: What do other people here think about th1*5- Does Ram
“ show love to everyone?
Kutty.
Well, Ram, love may be one o: vour values. Bu£
VALUES
A
•'S
1
a
so> you keep
it inside. We certainly haven- seen any lov^ in y°u-
i
Insisting Upon evidence for values claiin,.-; brings (he focUs aga*n upon
what is rather than on what should bo; n helps trainees
1’°^ what is
said with what, is done; it contributes u> ilu>ir understanding of them
selves and of others; and :t is a
of looking
and deal
ing with, differences due to caste, sub-culture, and social background.
By the end of a course trainees have a more accurate ‘dea of what
their values really are, and can accept in themselves pertain needs
which they were previously denying. This in itself make^ them more
understanding of others.’
fl
I
I
I
II
I
The purpose of confrontation is not to find fault By confronting in-
dividuaJs with such discrepaiwcies we encourage them in a process of .
confronting their own selves.
Later still in the course, we may go on i 0 deal with <7ther aspects of
values such as depth, clarity and integration, and the Pr’ce that may
1
size that the meaning the individual finds in his own
is acquired
through his values, i.e. the individual who has clear int^grated deeply-
C
A
D
E
j) an adventurous, exciting life
5
4
k) a position of influence over
events and people
l) work with the under-privileged
or handicapped
1
2
.. • 4
Five trainees, who had heard ‘he story of Maya, ranked the characters
as follows:
A
"worst"
B
C
D -
. E
1
Prakash
Anil ‘
Ram
Maya
Krishna
2
Ram
Maya
Prakash
Ram
Ram
3 Anil
Prakash
Krishna
Anil
Prakash
4
Ram
Anil
Krishna
Anil
Krishna
Maya
Prakash
Maya
Krishna
5 Maya
Six of the trainees of one group identified some of their personal
values as follows:
held values finds his life more meaningful.
i
One small group of six trainees ranked twelve possi^le priorities in
their own lives as shown below:
A
B
C
a) social recognition, fame
D
E
F
5
7
2
b) prosperity, economic comfort
c) security — of job, for family, etc
d) love, affection, deep friendship
7
2
3
4
3
........
g) to participate in building
human world order
~2~
1
2—5
3
3
1
4
"i
5
h) involvement in a meaningful cause
or movement
; Staley & Seshan, 1981. Part 2,Jn print
J
I
more
4
I
5
3
3
— conscience
— doing the 'right thing'
— truth
— happiness
— security
— acceptance
— honesty
— hard work
— knowledge and experience
7
r.
-
B — understanding
— love
C — reciprocal love and service
2
f) freedom, independence, free
choice
A — security
— health
— competence
4
e) moksha (salvation)
•
1
5
F
i) pleasure, an enjoyable comfortable
life
"least bad"
have to be paid for deeply-held and cherished values.V^6 a*so empha
127
• — openness
— justice
—^happiness
E — truth
— love
— effort
— freedom
— justice
D- atman (inner self, soul)
— hope
— sincerity
— doing well in my profession
— concern
— deep relationships
----------------
F — friendship
~
— truthful, consistency
— to love and be loved
— career
1;
ji.
128
"Si M 5
LOOKING INWARDS: THE INDIVIDUAL
.
f
.
empathy
n•
In answer to the question "What are values?", eight trainees
answered as follows:
— something I believe in, live in and live for
Alternatively, or add tion<ilh, we may circulate the papers Empathy
and Sympathy and Ei^pathy //ie Hasis of Human Understanding * for
overnight reading.
— the qualities cherished by a person: I will sacrifice for them
— principles or framework in which I operate: they help me to
function
— what is important to me
— what is important in life
— something basic with which we look at things and form conclu
sions
1
1
1
— goals for which I live and strive
them.
7.2 Empathy*
A
a) to teach trainees the concept of empathy
;r
o
p'
c) to enable them to assess their own ability to empathize with
others
ponses (see below), and ask ea< h person to choose which response best
reflects his normal response, and which is the most empathetic res
ponse. The responses given in t he exercise also illustrate the giving of un
called-for advice, and provide an opportunity to deal with the whole
issue of giving advice with and without understanding and empathy.
STATEMENT:
ALTERNATIVE RESPONSES:
1. Imagine that you go to a com
a) Yes, the bus service is terrible,
mittee meeting one day, and that
• isn't it?
as you sit down you say’to the
b) You're feeling happy because
member in the next chair, "I've
you've made it to the meeting,
despite all those problems.
had such trouble in getting h ’.-e
today. So many problems came
The objectives are
tic.a!ly
We may-then ask the train* < -s to try a written exercise to helpto make
the idea clear. We present them with statements, and alternative res
Empathy Exercise (written)^
— that which I like to do, and like to show to others. I can take risks for
b) to give diem personal experience of being understood empathe-
129
-1!
up in my work. Anyway I've made
it!"
2. Now imagine that you are in a
training group and the modera
d) to enhance their skills in empathizing and effective listening
tor says, "There's a bit of a prob
lem, because I can't understand
We start by defining and describing empathy as a concept, stressing
its intellectual and feeling components, and its affinity with the atti
what work the organizers want
us to do today."'
tudes of respect and the equal worth of all persons. We sometimes use
the formula "to understand and see as if we are the other person".the as
c) You should never let prob
lems get on top of you.
a) Well, you're the moderatoi.
it's your responsibility.
b) You'd better complain if those
people can't make things clear.
c) You're feeling uncomfortable
about toda/s work; but per
haps we can help to puzzle it
out between us.
is then linked to the feeling component and the if to the analytical and
intellectual. "If I leave out the feeling component, I shall be only hearing
but not listening. If I leave out the intellectual component, 1 may be
carried away by the emotional."
We also distinguish between empathy and the more familiar idea of
3. Now imagine that you .ire
a) You,'re feeling miserable be
visiting a slum and a poor old
woman there says to you, "Life is
miserable for our family now. My
have come in your family.
sy,L2?.tt,7^drawing
to tbe difference of 'levels' in sympathy
and to its largely emotional nature. We may also clarify other associat
son has lost his job. My grand
children-are not getting enough
My heart bleeds for people
ed concepts such as tolecance/acceptance and understanding/agree
to eat. My daughter-in-law is s c k
and can't do any work."
c) You should take your daugh
ment
cause of the misfortunes which
b) You poor; miserable people.
like you.’..
ter-in-law to the doctor.
Based on inputs by Copal Valecha
• Valecha, 1978
+ Adapted from Staley & Sugden 1981, V3, pp. 18-9; Valecha 1978, pp. 10-3.
■
Oc?
130
LOOKING INWARDS: THE INDIVIDUAL
• MPA TH')
4. A trainee has been in a training
group for three weeks. During a
discussion with the trainer he
a) Why don't you use the first
chance you get to do those
fellows a favour?
says, "I don't know why it is, but I
b) It seems to you that the group
just don't feel as though I am one
of the group. They are all. nice
enough fellows, but somehow
they seem to have a closed circle
and make me feel like an out
sider. Maybe it is me; I don't
know."
does not accept you.
7. Tm bursting with joy. I s. ) >
to someone about my prcul. r
and felt fully understood. I h d
a. Well, don't get too excited.
!.ii<? if. not all joy, and the feel■■ng will soon wear off.
as though a big burden has :)•.•< n
lifted from my shoulders, ’t
b'My! what a fine feeling. It is
great!'
c) It seems that the others dislike
you for some reason.
Ram any more. He is lazy and is
taking a superior attitude. He
complains about the rest of us
not helping him as much as we
should. He thinks he is too good
for this kind of work with the rest
iiisuc about the future!
d) Don't you think they will ac
8. '/I don't want to th nk ab-i-l
cept you, if you give them
myself, it's too painful"
some more time to learn that
vourself. It is pointless.
painful things going on inside
a) You feel that Ram ought to be
vou, and you feel frightened
disciplined in some way.
’.o face the pain.
b) Ram doesn't want to co-oper
c, ' ou should learn to face pain-
ate, is that it?
lul things.
c) Ram's attitude makes the work
very unpleasant.
point each: 1b; 2c
Scores: 7 - 8 excellent
d) You think Ram might fit in
better somewhere else.
a) You came to see me because
was sent to the project manager
for an interview. One of the
you were sent and not be
cause. you feel any need for
help; and you are annoyed
things he said on arriving was, "I
about it
haven't time for this kind of chit
chat So give me what help you
have in rhihcT and” 1 witt~get~
along."
.
’
k; 4b; 5c;-6a; 7c; 8b.
5 — 6 good
3 — 4 fair
0-2
don't know why I should be
arc the most empathetic, and score 1
Scoring: the following lesponsc
team with him."
asked to talk to you about my
work. I haven't complained and I
a) You find it painful to look at
b) You feej that there are many
of us. I am fed up of being in the
6. A young man whose work
showed a sudden drop in quality
beautiful!
c) You feel relieved and opti-
you are a nice fellow?
5. During an interview with his
team-leader, a health worker
states, '1 don't want to work with
! 31
b) Don't you feel that with my
experience in the project I
might be of some help?
c) You feel irritated over coming
_ here because you don't think
I can help you.
d) You must not jump to conclu
sions. Often people need, help
t
poor
Empathy in the Training G» ; •■n
We then come to a seccr:' • • * .-■.‘icise I >ased on data from.the group
itself. First we introduce a s< i.- mr rating responses according to their
level of empathy:
40% or less
50%
— iLtle
:>U>. IU
empathy or understanding
mpathy and understanding
70%-80%
— good c•: pathy and understanding
90%-100%
— full eiiijpaihy, excellent understanding
more
than 100% - '-The
_____
______________
___ < -tlh'T person understands me better than
I und<‘istand myself!"
We then invite any nemlx ;
)r’ the group to share something real
out of his life that he feels m;a- or less strongly about. This may be a
when they are unaware of this
problem or a pleasure. We will m'er to the member concerned as A.
need.
For the purpose of the o>:ercs- * \'s probk-m or pleasure should not be
‘r
132
LOOKING INWARDS: THE INDIVIDUAL
FEEDBACK
133
very great or complicated or lengthy. Something brief and clear that is
bothering him, or that is pleasing him, perhaps from the daily life of the
d to increase their awarri ess of the effect that others behaviour
has on them
group or from the course, may be suitable. But it must be real and not
d) to create a climate in which individuals are enabled to express
feelings about each oil er
imagined.
After A has stated the problem or pleasure, other members are invit-
e) to generate confidence and trust within the group
ed to respond empathetically, saying what they have understood of the
problem or pleasure, and of the feelings of A which are associated with it
We start by introducing die idea and purpose of feedback, toget
her with principles and guidelines, both for giving and receiving. Alter
They can be encouraged to use the formula, "You feel... because..."
natively or additionally we emulate the paper Feedback beforehand
for overnight reading.
As each member makes his response, A rates the response accord
ing to how far he feels understood in terms of the problem or pleasure
itself ^nd the feelings involved. When he gives a high rating he can be
We then go on to describe the exercise itself as follows:
1. Trainees form groups of four or five according to their own choice.
asked. how he himself felt on hearing that response. Similarly on a low
2. One person volunteers to receive feedback first Let us call him B.
rating. If the trainer thinks that any response is rated too high or too
low, he can ask A to explain his rating.
3. The other members take it in turn to give B negative feedback using
the following form of words: "An observation which I have made
about you which I do not much like is..."
The trainer also gives an empathetic response to A's statement, so
that trainees can experience and rate the empathy of the trainer.
It is important to check that statements of problems or pleasures
contain sufficient information for empathetic responses. Some groups
may tend to treat the exercise as a guessing game rather than as an
The feedback given should be frank and honest, but not powerful or
overwhelming. It should b? basec on real observations which
members have made about B. It should be significant and helpful,
and not trivial. Nothing should be written down.
opportunity to listen and respond.
After most or all the other members have responded to A and been
5. Let us call the person giving feedbac k C. After each negative feed
back, B immediately responds to C by saying what he thinks C
rated, another member can take A's place and share one of his prob
lems. Small groups of about 8 members are suitable for this exercise. A
may be invited to sit in the centre of the circle, turning to face each
person who responds.
As the exercise proceeds, some members score consistently high
ratings, while others score low. Before the topic is left, the trainer
makes it clear that empathy can be practised, and that trainees can
improve their skill if they wish.
i
means. He uses the words, 'What I think you mean is..."
6. B then goes on to give his soontancous reaction to Cs feedback,
using the words, "...and my reaction to that is..."
B then receives negative feedback from each of the other members.
Then another member takes the plac <? of B, and the procedure is re
peated.
After a round of negative f(\ ( back there follows a round of positive
feedback. The formula now : "An observation which I have made
7.3 Feedback*
The objectives of this exercise are
)
a) to allow' trainees to check their own perception of how others
see them
I
about you which I do like is..." to which B responds in the same
way as before.
the exercise everyone should have received negative
and positive feedback from all the members of his group.
After explaining the exercise, but before beginning it is very helpful
if the trainer offers himself to the whole group for negative feedback
b) to increase their awareness of the effect their behaviour has on
others
• Based on inputs by Gopal Valecha.
This not only makes the method clear, but dispels some of the anxiety
A-hich trainees usually feel. (It is important, of course, that the trainer
* -
..
;
a
"innnuuu.
-fl
134
LOOKING INWARDS
IHt INDIVIDUAL
himself should be prepared to receix. and handle negative feedback at
this moment!) It further helps to make (he trainer more accessible as a
person.
After trainees have completed th., exercise, the trainer asks each
member of the group in turn whdi 'hey fell and thought:
J
FEEDBACK
I
a
encouragement, recognition, self-confidence, self-worth
hanced risk-taking.
their experience in the exercise, especially if any strong feelings- nega
b) when receiving negative feedluck
tive or positive
ci when giving positive feedba< k
d) when receiving positive feedb.u k
have been aroused.
The giving and receiving of feedback can be related directly and
These feelings and thoughts are listed on Lhe board. They can be laid
out as follows:
conveniently to the Johari Window, which is described in section 7.4.
The following was recorded on the black-board when trainees were
asked for the feelings and thoughts they had while giving and receiving
5
negative feedback:
Negative
Giving
Receiving
Giving
NEGATIVE.
Receiving
- hesitant; he maybe hurt, angry
- confident, it will help him to .
think and become better
- anxious whether I shall be
understood
Positive
Giving
Receiving
- uncomfortable; I had to make '
an effort
- confident in giving, but wor
ried over his reaction
- anxious whether what I say '
will be useful
- sad and angry
As in the exercise itself, the negative is dealt with first The list of
feelings and thoughts may indicate to tr< tinees that the anxiety over giv-
points out that negative feedback is generally/ unpleasant and uncomfortable both to give or to receive. Ho .also
’
stresses again, that it will be
useful only if given out of a genuine interest in the pefsoi
.
rv..^Jri“cbhcerh’ed,
WLth
7fntlon.Qf helping, and in a climate of trust If given with a
judgemental or critical attitude, it will do
..J more harm than good,
Positive feedback, on the otaer
uL.,cl hand, is
l5 p
leasant to
t0 give
glve and
pleasant
and [o
receive. It also is useful provided again (hat it is authentic, and that it is
f
t
I.
1
— mixed feelings
— learned my shortcomings
— happy to receive attention
— happy; more so with negative
feedback than positive
— anxious, anticipated something
unpleasant; happy because it
was an accurate observation
— it was helpful; I became more
aware
— helpful, led to learning
- easy
— surprised; unhappy at first, but
alright afterwards
- anxious over his reaction
— expected it, so happy
ing negative feedback is often r—
as great
as over receiving it The trainer
_ 4 •
and en
It is important that trainees are given the opportunity to talk about
a) when giving negative feedbar !•
I — 4- _
135
7.4 A Model of the Self*
The purpose of this is
~
'
1
a) to introduce a model of the self
b) to relate this to the concepts of self-disclosure and feedback
A simple and convenient way of introducing the concept of self-
r
• p- •
--
.-
• This model is d«rribed •-
dr-^ -oaetf—
•(,+. .
136
LOOKING INWARDS: THE INDIVIDUAL
A MODEL Ol THE SELF
knowledge is the Johari Window, named after its originators, Joe Luft
throughT T? h'S 15 3 mOde' in Which the self is seen 35 though
mrougn a window.
5
KNOWN TO SELF
UNKNOWN TO SELF
tn
or
UJ
T
o
o
H
z
O
z
£
1. The Public Self
What I and others know. My
own and others' perceptions
are the same. There is no in
ternal conflict here. Area of
congruence and growth.
o
o
I-
3. The Secret or
z
Aspects of myself that I know
but that I keep hidden from
others..
O
Z
Private Self
z
2. The Blind Self
Behaviour of which I may not
be aware, but which others
know. I do not see in myself
what others see. If this area is
large, my control over myself-using my strengths effec
tively, and overcoming my
limitations —will be lbw.
4. The Unknown Self
This area is not known to me
or,to other people. Parts of it
may be revealed during life
but it will never be fully
known.
D
We can 'remodel the window- and increase the area of the public
°f the bllnd 3nd Pnvate self-The ^ea of the
Zhi h
IP0?6 deCreased th-°u8h disclosure; and the area of
the blind self.through feedback (see figure vii- below).
Some of the common barriers to self-disclosure are a fear that
wav 1 lackY 7
me'' , WiSh t0 be 5660 bV OlherS in 2 Particular
way, a lack of accepting relationships with others; and the absence of
an. open supportive climate.
'"' f
w
li
Figure vi Joh^ri Window
137
Figure vii Johari Window remodelled'
011
I
I
E
I
I
I! ID BACK
D
6
u
■Q
T The Public Self
2. The Blind
Self
u_
LU
un
▼
3. The Secret or Private Self
4. The Unknown
Self
Some of the common bariers to feedback are I'
hierarchy (where
information from the lower to the upper levels is diverted into grumbl
ing at the lower levels); defensive reactions such as "you don't under
stand me" or "you don't like me"; and again a lack of trusting relationships and open climate.
'
We usually introdttce the Johari Window in relation to feedback as
such as M 3? r ' p “T,6
such as My Life Road (6.4).
famihar examPles of self-disclosure
... -
....
— (-ft,
[■
, -r
a
miO A Perspective on Conflict:
‘Conflict'.1 someone said, that the word itself is too strong and too big.
> ... we havefound out that in general conflict is negative, but if it is kept within limits and
managed effectively it will have advantages also ...
Conflict is an inevitable part of change. It is the other side of the same coin. We
cannot have any change — or any development — without some amount of conflict.
Conflict is always a concern in development and for development workers. When it
is managed and used with skill it can be a prime tool for development. When it
becomes violent, and degenerates into warfare, it can be the greatest obstacle tp
development.
r
Conflict is increasing in the world. Competition for resources, rising expectations,
plural values, and changes in relationships are contributing to it.
Even as a subject to be studied, it is huge and intractable. Whole courses, and
countless training events and books, attempt to grapple with it. Here the topic is
introduced, in a limited way, mainly at interpersonal and organizational levels. Even '
at these levels the subject may seem disturbing to some course members.
The approach is to recognize conflict at different levels, and to show that some level'
or conflict is inevitable in development work, and indeed in daily life. Members are
invited to consider their own attitudes and behaviour in relation to conflict at this level, •
so that it may be seen as less of a threat and more as an opportunity. The approach is- •
partly conceptual and pardy experiential.
The material below requires two sessions. The topic links with many others, including?Cosy Or Challenging? The Climate In The Group (page 86), More About Our Valued
(page 356) and Puzzling It Out: Using Case Studies (page 164).
$
I
Objectives
iJ
to explore the topic of conflict, to demystify it, and increase the ability of
members to approach conflict with increased understanding and objectivity;
o
to demonstrate that conflict is a fact of life and of all relationships, and to help
members distinguish the levels of conflict which may be useful from those which if
may be harmful;
if
■I
d
to demonstrate that conflict is inevitably linked with change, and ito consider this..;^
in the context of working for change through development work;
a
to encourage members to share their experiences of conflict at work and within
their own organizations, and to recognize individual styles of dealing with it;
1
«» to increase members’ confidence in using conflict as a tool for change.
426
1
w
'I
.B
w
10.3 A Pirsbective on Conflict
<13 Introducing the Topic
One way cf putting conflict into p
perspective is to recognize that the word itself means
different things to different oeople.
=E=s™E™^~^
c„„, M
;irfcc
worts ”u"-ira—<h’; ■h'
SX"
r*
5k=S=5~=^=S“
Focu, on tbe worts, start,ng from the left, and discuss them with the ww-.
fZX «'i,T^PP™ m ~r minds when
t=ced wish a difficult choice? Is this a kind of conflict?’
s a misunderstanding between two colleagues a kind of conflict?’
we are
s
--
Do the words as a whole represent a continuous sequence?’
At what point m the sequence does the level of conflict become stressful?’
^violence the problem? Can we distinguish violence and conflict?’
Does it help to consider different levels of conflict?’
By this stage members may agree that conflict is part of everyday life, that there are different levels of conflict, and that not all of these
the problem rather than conflict
as the problem rather than conflict
threatening’
maX identify violence
Ph de^ Or «ons _ Whhuu.
Useful Levels of Conflict
ch^e-n
Organizat‘on 5Ome level of conflict may be necessary and
- and also
Tell me course members to wori< in small groups of four or five. Ask them to refer back
427
V
; 6r> )
i
-
.. ..................................
Ask members to Share experiences or examples of conflict which they think
were
beneficial.
Illustrate the genera! point Wlth the simp|e gi.aph shown
High Level
c
•8
Q
6
!
Low Level
Amount of Conflict
High Level
• i
Managing Conllict
I
£EE=~“os=?;K;a I
P
their responses. Invite any comments in the whole group
6 j
e ^ZX'of°r7anag!r °rteam ,eader °ne °f
— usefG. I
within bounds. Ask members what the^TK T
ablS t0 aCt
enou8h t0 keeP.it:‘f
-.Ct within an orgaZW
-ZXXz*Examp,es are indiv,duals
als absent, short tempers, and abuse.
S'
'
8rWrnbl'n®' fact,ons for™ing. individi?®
Ask the members to discuss the list briefly.
The work outlined above will occupy roughly one session.
428
'
■
W
'I
ii.
’ 0.8 A Perspective m Conflict
■
■
Our Attitudes to Conflict
£1 Continue the work in a further session by inviting members to consider how they
themse'ves react when faced with interpersonal conflict, and how they deal with it.
Where Do We Stand?
Adz r f'T.bcrs to stand on a continuum line (see pages 108— •09) to demonstrate their
own attitudes towards interpersonal conflict. One end represents tendencies like not
cor Tcrting others, disliking arguments, avoiding conflict, maintaining harmony and so on.
"■•v
d reprevwcs enjov;.-:g argument, beir-g able i'. ..''.frofit other's, "cceoting
scree conflict and so on.
The categories may not be exactly defined, but members will be able to take up approx
imate positions. When they have placed themselves, ask them to talk with those standing
near them and to compare notes. Invite them to adjust their positions in relation to others
if that now seems appropriate.
Ask questions to the group or to individuals:
'How do you react to the way the group has arranged itself?'
‘Is this how you see the group?’
'Are you surprised by where you see anyone else standing? If so, who and why?’
'Are you happy about where you stand yourself? If so, why? If not, why not?'
‘Would you prefer to be in another position? If so, why?'
Invite anyone who would like to change his/her attitude towards conflict to move to the
position thoy woi ild prefer Ask those who move to explain the difference, and to say
what they think holds them back
How Do We Deal with Conflict?
The questionnaire Dealing With Conflict (pages 432—440) offers another way for
members to think about interpersonal conflict and their own attitudes and behaviour.
Distribute Part I of the questionnaire and ask members to work at if individually. This may
take 20 minutes. If time is short members can be asked to to complete it overnight.
When Part I has been completed, distribute Part 2 for members to score their own
responses. Check that they understand the procedure and the results..Explain that the
questionnaire gives a rough indication rather than an accurate assessment. It is to provide
food for thought, but should not be taken too seriously. If necessary explain the five
styles and the diagram.
Distribute Part 3, which explains the five styles in more detail and suggests their
advantages and disadvantages. Joint Problem-Solving may be ideal, and Compromising
may be realistic, but the other styles also have their uses. The question is whether we
can vary the ways in which we deal with conflict, and can choose the style that is
appropriate to the situation.
429
-I
4
11
<
Exploring conflict with role-play
A Conflict with a Colleague
Jhis IS a light-hearted exercise which gives members an opportunity to try out these
different styles while in role.1 Ask members to work in pairs, and to decide who is A and
who is B. Distribute the role outline (page 441).
After members have read the outline ask them to take up their roles and see if they can
reach any agreement within the pairs. Tell them that the As are to adopt a Dominating
style and the Bs an Avoiding style. After a few minutes ask them to continue in the same
A and B roles, but to exchange the styles. After a few more minutes ask them to stop, to
give their attention to the whole group, but to remain in their places. Collect some
reactions from both As and Bs.
1 hen ask the Bs to move and work with another A. This time, if the As are Dominating,
the Bs should be Smoothing Over. Then both A and B should be Dominating at the same
time. Again check for reactions and share in the whole group. Now ask the As to move
to new B partners.
Other combinations of styles can be tried, but befoie ending both A and B should use
Compromising at the same time. The exercise can finish with both using Joint ProblemSolving. Bring the members together and ask them to share further observations and
snsights.
I
I With <Kknowledgments lo Simon Fisher
430
hC18o'
fete-
F
l~'
1
----------------i0.8 A Perspective on Conflict
t
;
;
i
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K-
i iI
|
I
The exercise demonstrates the styles and their effects, and grives members an experience
' ' -end of different styles. More important, it gives members a
of being on the receiving
of using styles ^hich are new to them. This can be enriching in itself
safe oppor
• ft
■
> ...
i0.« given Ae n^nuy to
theses along a
£xll-^ e,nis being
of confit and aet^ parta^n orde^fi, cog ..... v./m,.,.
myself at the side which avoided conflict...
>
the questions led us to see our tendencies ... I was not sure of how the others Jett, tub IJell
tod and the result seemed to be showing what I know of me. There was one thing I seemed .
in common among us - that the Smoothing Over seemed to be more than the Dornin
g.
> The discussion ... developed into a conversation about handling corflicMoked at how as
development workers, we may well have to engage ourselves in situations of .onf,cl in ord r to
generate change. I knowfrom a personal point of view this is not something to which
forward, as confronting such situations has never been one of my strong Join J.
' lc
Questionnaire: Managing Conflict in an Organization
I liI -
To reduce the likelihood of damaging levels of conflict within an organization,
there are many preventive actions that can be taken. Some more or less
I
appropriate suggestions are given below.
I
M
11
imagine that you are the director of an organization, or the manager of a team or
department. Which will you consider the most important and useful suggestion .
Which suggestions aro not useful at all?
a) encourage a working climate whore sharing, co-operation and consul-------
tation are expected, but where differences can also be expressed.
b). clarify structures, procedures, responsibilities and authority within the
I?
S-
organization or department.
week on working
C). give all the staff a strongly-worded talk every
peacefully together.
d). increase your own awareness of the mechanisms of conflict and your
skills in managing and resolving it.
e). anticipate in advanc
I
keep watch for the early signs of any conflict.
431
isssg'
f)- encourage staff-members to put forward their own views without
attacking or blaming those with different views. Encourage T
statements.
!»*pad.
R
|1
J
■i
g). use an authoritarian style of management and take all decisions
yourself so that there will be less reason for others to quarrel with '
each other.
|
h). make sure that all staff (including yourself) share their expectations of I
M
n
-------
I i
M I'ih
-------
I). arrange informal meetings without any particular agenda whore staff f
members are free to bring up anything that concerns them; including.:|
any clashes with colleagues.
$
-------
k). arrange regular formal staff meetings about important issues and.j
problems, and encourage staff members to express their viewpoints!
M
' Ha :
■ 11
'ft
ii- «•:
HI
.1
Hl4
■J
I
each other’s roles and work, and especially when new staff are /
appointed.
■
’f
i). give time and attention to listening to what other people say about their |
work and problems, listening to their words and to their feelings alsa |
and differences of opinion openly,
-------
I). when a problem or conflict arises, ask those involved what they thinO
is the underlying cause.
-4
After ranking the suggestions, compare and discuss your conclusions in small!
’
groups.
—
Exercise: Dealing with Conflict, Part^®
1
Mlj
pi
Each of us has our own way of dealing with conflict; and we may tend to use tha®
way, or style, whenever we are faced by conflict. The exercise is to help us identi®
which is our preferred way, or style, of responding to and resolving conflict.
W
Below are 30 pairs of statements. For each pair circle ‘a1 or ‘b’ to indicate whj.cg
statement more closely fits the way you tend to deal with differences betwee®
yourself and other people.
Although the statements themselves are repeated, each pair of statements isS
different combination.. You should therefore continue to think carefully about the]
pairs of statements as you complete the questionnaire.
31
S'w,
H
432
9
K-r
d-^7
1. a. I am usually strong in pursuing my goals.
b. I try to get all concerns and issues immediately out in the open.
2. a. I put my cards on the table and invite the other person to do the same.
b. When conflicts arise I try to win my case.
3. a. Once I decide on something I defend my decision strongly.
b. I prefer not to argue but to look for the best solution possible.
4. a. I sometimes give up my own wishes for the wishes of the othe.r person.
b. I feel that differences are not always worth worrying aboi.it.
5. a. I accept the views of the other, rather than rock the boat.
b. I avoid people with strong views.
6. a. I like to cooperate with others and follow their ideas.
b. I feel that most things are not worth arguing about.
I stick to my own views.
u
7. a. I try to find a compromise solution.
b. I am usually strong in pursuing my goals.
8. a. When conflicts arise I tiy to win my case.
b. I propose a middle ground.
0
9. a. I like to meet the other person half-way.
b. Once I decide on something I defend my decision strongly.
10. a. I feel that differences are not always worth worrying about,
b. I try to find a compromise solution.
11. a. I propose a middle ground.
b. I avoid people with strong views.
12. a. I feel that most things are not worth arguing about.
I stick to my own views.
b. I like to meet the other person half-way.
1
13. a. I am usually strong in pursuing my goals.
b. I sometimes give up my own wishes for the wishes of the other person.
14. a. I accept the views of the other, rather than rock the boat.
b. When conflicts arise I try to win my case.
15. a. Once I decide on something I defend my decision strongly,
b. I like to co-operate with others and follow their ideas.
433
'1
I
■I
- *
16. a. I try to find a compromise solution.
b. I sometimes give up my own wishes for the wishes of the other person.
17. a. I would accept the views of the other, rather than rock the boat,
b. I propose a middle ground.
18. a. I like to meet the other person half-way.
b. I like to co-operate with others and follow their ideas.
19. a. I feel that differences are not always worth worrying about.
b. I am usually strong in pursuing my goals.
20. a. When conflicts arise I try to win my case.
b. I avoid people with strong views.
21. a. I feel that most things are not worth arguing about.
I stick to my own views.
b. Once I decide on something I defend my decision strongly.
22. a. I try to get all concerns and issues immediately out in the open.
b. I feel that differences are not always worth worrying about.
23. a. I avoid people with strong views.
b. I put my cards on the table and invite the other person to do the same.
24. a. I prefer not to argue but to look for the best solution possible.
b. I feel that most things are not worth arguing about.
I stick to my own views.
«
r
25. a. I try to get all concerns and issues immediately out in the open.
b. I try to find a compromise solution.
26. a. I put my cards on the table and invite the other person to do the same. ■
b. I propose a middle ground.
27. a. I prefer not to argue but I look for the best solution possible.
b. I like to meet the other person half-way.
"g
28. a. I sometimes give up my own wishes for the wishes of the other personal
b. I try to get all concerns and issues immediately out in the open.
4
' a
29. a. I put my cards on the table and invite the other person to do the same.||
b. I would accept the views of others, rather than rock the boat.
30. a. I like to co-operate with others and follow their ideas.
b. I prefer not to argue but to look for the best possible solution.
434
I
’ I
t
: 5^ I
Exercise:
Dealing with Conflict, Part 2
CM. „u, nseonMS «, M quKtlonnalra in the taUe beta. For .x.nmple.
pit'.lf you chose statement 'a' as more closely «®9 tor you. men agatnc
...
’ '
tho 'a' in the first line of the table.
T
:
1
2
3
4
A
i
-.r-
TIT
' T
1
a
b
____
a
b
ill
b
a
b
!--------
a
|12
15
16
.17
18
19
20
P22
23
j24
a
I
b
a
b
i
a
b
a
±z
-------- r
b
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
b
b
I25
26
27
28
29
30
a
b
—4——~a
a
b
b
a
b
a
b
“1
.. r_
b
111.
t- b
a
b
a
____ i____
9
E
D
I
_ i
a
a
a
b
b
b
7
B
----------b
a
b
a
totals
435
a
a
b
a
b
•I
■tf®)
(ii).
Add up the total number of responses circled under each of the columns A, B,
C, D and E.
(iii) . The maximum score in any column is 12; and the total in all columns should
be 30. Check your own totals; and see if there is any discrepancy.
(iv) . The five columns represent five different styles of dealing with conflict:
A = avoiding
B ~ snioothing over
C = compromising
0 =: dominating
£
joint problem-solving
A score of more than 6 for any style indicates tnat you may prefer to use that style.
A score of less than 6 suggests that it is a style you do not prefer.
(v) . The five styles are shown in the following diagram. The characteristics and
advantages and disadvantages of each style will be described separately.
(vi) . Alter hearing the five styles discussed, reflect on how the questionnaire came
out for you. Do you think it indicated correctly your preferred style/s of dealing
with conflict? Do you always use the same style/s? Are you satisfied with the
way you deal with conflict?
Assertive
DOMINATING
JOINT PROBLEM-SOLVING
COMPROMISING
Unassertive
avoiding
smoothing over
Uncooperative
Co-operative
It is the ability to vary the style used — to choose the most appropriate style —
that makes a person effective in dealing with conflict. We may each have our own
preferred style/s, but we should also be flexible enough to use whichever style is
going to be the most useful in the circumstancess.
Adapted from unatcribured secondary sources.
436
£
*
■
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e
‘
____ . **A» /iftt»•B\'O.
It
I
;c>^40c >K^
Exercise: Dealing with Conflict, Part 3
1
■
A. Avoiding Style (both lose)
I
I
)
This style attempts to ‘get rid’ of conflict by denying that it exists, or by post
poning any attempt to deal with it.
i using this style tends to withdraw or retreat from conflict.
i
-A
I
- It may be associated with low levels of involvement and commitment, as well as
low levels of co-operation and assertiveness.
s-
i
- The style gives little importance' to the task/s or the relationship/s involved.
)
- The person using it ignores his/her own needs and the needs of the other party,
y
I
so no one’s needs will be met.
i
- The main disadvantage of this style is that if conflict is neglected, it does not go
away but tends to grow and become more and mors unmanageable.
Some possible uses of this style are:
I
- as a temporary response if an issue is not urgent or important;
- for a ‘cooling down’ period;
- while collecting more information and making further analysis;
- if other people can resolve the conflict satisfactorily;
!
- if the issue is only a symptom of a wider problem;
- if other people are likely to be hurt by the use of other styles.
i
B. Smoothing Over Style (you lose, the other gains)
This style tends to emphasize the areas of agreement and play down the areas of
nt
disagreement.
- It puts others’ needs and concerns above your own; if you use it you may be
giving too little attention to your own goals and needs.
- This style tends to be co-operative, but not assertive.
- The person using it tends to yield to others, to give more importance to the
harmony and relationship than the task or the real issues.
- He/she may not recognize the positive aspects or possible advantages of
handling conflict openly; but this may be preferred in some cultures.
437
--........
I lip
I |
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.1
4
- Those who tend to ‘accommodate’ others are often seen as ‘quiet’. If already
.. perceived that way, when they do make their contribution it may not be heard,
and they may lose recognition and influence.
I
- Conflicts dealt with in this way may not be resolved; or they may be resolved
without either party’s view being effectively presented or understood
meaningfully.
>
Some possible uses of this style are:
hj
•H
N ii
□
- when goodwill and preserving a relationship is more important than dealing
with the conflict;
- when one party is much more concerned about the issue/problem than the
other;
- when one party is much more powerful than the other;
- to give the other party an experience of ‘winning’;
fl
- to make the other party more receptive to a more important issue.
11! |
C. Compromising Style (both gain, but both lose too)
I
f
This style attempts to reach or negotiate a midway position.
- It is searching for solutions that bring some satisfaction to both parties; but it
expects concessions on both sides.
1
K|
- Both parties expect to gain a bit, but also to lose a bit: ‘you give a little and I'll
give a little;' ‘let’s split the difference’.
‘
r!
- There may be acceptance of a compromise agreement on both sides, but it"
i
a
|
gives limited satisfaction to either party.
- The process of bargaining may encourage both sides to take up inflated
3
positions; it may be associated with positional bargaining.
r
M|
rt
. > • f i'’TW
- In the search for an agreement and compromise, both parties may lose sightcM
their own values.
W
- Any agreement reached may be weak, mediocre and ineffective; and there mayf
be a lack of commitment to it.
. 3
- This style allows a more thorough exploration of the conflict than avoidance,?!
but less thorough than collaboration.
-Jj
.
- Overall more needs can be met through this style than through competition, b»
less than through collaboration.
438
t
St
I
$
I
I
II
- This style may not be ideal, but it is often expedient and practicable. It often fits
the realities of management and organizations.
- It is important for ever/one/every organization to use this style sometimes, i.e. to
be able to negotiate, to make concessions, to extricate themselves from
difficulty, etc.
s'
i;
Some possible uses of this style are:
- as an alternative, if collaboration fails;
- if time is short;
- if the goals of both parties in the conflict are not very important;
- If both parties are equally powerful and equally strongly committed.
D. Dominating Style (you gain: the other, loses)
In this style one party imposes its own views or meets its own heeds at the
expense of the other.
- This style represents a high level of assertion but a low level of co-operation.
- Dominating, imposing one’s views, or ’winning’, is more important than
preserving the relationship.
- It involves the use of authority or power (from position, rank, information,
supervision, ‘the system’, expertise, etc.) to overcome the other party.
- It leads to ‘winners’ and ‘losers’. The losers .Often do not support the
decision/agreement which has been imposed, and the ‘struggle’ is taken
forward into the future.
- The losers may be suppressed, coerced, hurt, damaged.
- This style tends to be used in competitive societies and cultures.
- Persistent users of this style may be seen as aggressive, and may be cut off by
other people from interaction and information.
- Those who never use this style may feel powerless in conflicts, especially against
those who often use it.
Some possible uses of this style:
- when a quick decision is essential;
- when an unpopular decision is necessary;
- in situations where life is threatened e.g. military, children in danger, emergen
cies, disasters etc;
439
■ tei
- when applying ‘the law’ or ‘the rules’;
- where decisions are made by majority vote.
E. Joint Problem-Solving Style (both gain)
Here the emphasis and energy is given to analyzing and jointly solving the
•
problem, not on defending a position or defeating the other party.
- The aim is to meet the needs of both parties. Both parties recognize the needs
•
and concerns of the other as legitimate.
- Both parties acknowledge that there is conflict. They identify each others’ needs;
and together identify alternative solutions and their consequences.
!
- Both parties expect to modify their views in order to reach agreement but both
:
expect to gain from agreement.
- This style represents a high level of both assertion and co-operation.
<•
'1
- It gives importance both to the task and to the relationship.
- This style is more creative and innovative; it leads to personal, group or
I
organizational growth.
I
- The style calls for time, understanding, energy and commitment; some issues
may not be worth so much if,.other work has to be neglected.
i
- It may be associated with principled bargaining.
- It requires trust on both sides. If there is trust on one side only, that party may ■ |
be taken advantage of.
J
'•
- It is appropriate when both parties agree that the conflict is important and is
worth the resources needed to solve it, and are committed to a joint resolution. .
___________________
_ ______________ :--------- 1----- r—
Adapted in part from: Donald T. Simpson, ‘Handling Group and Organizational Conflict’, '{he -Mg
Annual, (eds. Jones and Pfeiffer), pages 120-121; Martin B. Ross, ‘Coping with Conflic't’, ThtEle^b^
Annual (cds. Pfeiffer and Goodstein), pages 135—139; Gordon Lippitt, ‘Managing Conflict inToda/s^
Organizations’, Management Development and Training Handbook, (eds. Taylor and Lippitt) pages 67—68.
■" 4
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w
1
440
I
i
WW®
.
TAI
USM Approaches to Planning
This event uses a questionnaire which contains 25 statements about planning in
community development programmes. Rospondirig l-j the-, st .renu.i.u cus t
members’ minds towards the topic, and stimulates thinking about it. Discussion or
their responses helps members to compare their own, and their organization s,
attitudes and experiences wnn those of others.
Four additional statements under the heading Wanning for Yourself can be added co
rhe main quesuuuuaim and dealt with at rhe same time. These statements explore the
link between members’ attitudes towards planning in their protessional wo^k ana
planning in their personal lives.
: ;beyond the scope of this manual. The questionnaire can only b$
As a topic, planning is
a starting point. Allow one session altogether.
*5
Objectives
to introduce the topic anid processes of planning for development in a
community;
.
to raise issues related to planning and participation,
i
to provide an opportunity for members to discuss their previous experience ^f
9
'!
planning, and to share their assumptions;
to encourage members to reflect on whether their personal attitudes to planning
9
are consistent with practice in their professional work.
B
Using the Questionnaire
igMff^i-wwrCT ffiwstirww ■ -•ua .
tnnsaffl
H Distribute the questionnaire to each member and ask them to complete it md^duall^
without discussion. This may take 30 minutes.
Ask the members to form small groups of four or five. Separate colleagues from th^ sang
organization. Ask the small groups to work through the questionnaires, statement
statement sharing their individual responses with others in their group and explaining th«
X™ The JL « no. <o n«h co™.n„, but <o
dtog
approaches and experience. The discussion may take a further 30 minutes.
;
|
Brine the members back into the larger group, and take up any statement that yotj wan:.
to emphasize, or which member.; want to discuss further. Remember that the purpose
442
isi
iJ
to stimulate thinking rather than to reach conclusions.
Avoid repeating the discussions which have already taken place in the small groups^.
>
B
/0.9 Appwackei tn Planning
tions and draw attention to them,'50
COntentlOUS' Accept members' different assump-
I
S Jemems in the main questionnaire that may be worth emphasis
are numbers 4, 5,
Z 21 and 22. In the supplementary questionnaire
statement
4 may be worth
emphasis.
The statements which mention
• •■ji.-uc.i d, iu—u, zu ana zl.
L—J
some of the advantages and benefits of planning are
Questionnaire: Approaches to Planninq
Below are 25 statements about planning and plans. Read the statements and
i dicate whether you agree or disagree with them. Add comments if you wish.
Agree
H'arezjw»»
Disagree
Comments
»iM,wlBj,4n®w»ilw:
VAC
1. Working without plans is like using a canoe
without a paddle. The canoe drifts
according to the winds and currents,
instead of going on a chosen course.
2. Planning is a specialized process
which should bo left to professional experts.
3. Planning is a Western idea. It is not so
□
appropriate or welcome in other cultures.
4. Planning is basically a common-sense, natural
activity. All people everywhere can and do plan. Q
5. Planning allows us to use our imagination
about possibilities for the future.
Q
6. Planning is a process of making decisions
I
about the future.
j-j
A plan puts us into a rigid framework and
reduces our flexibility.
pn
Agree
8. The situation in many areas is so unpredictable
that it is pointless to plan.
Disagree
Comments
n
9. When resources and skills are scarce,
planning is a luxury. It is too expensive
and takes too much time.
10. A plan is necessary for work to be
co-ordinated, and for tasks to be delegated.
11. A plan provides the basis for dayto-day decisions, and helps to make
consistent action possible.
12. A plan helps in gathering and
mobilizing resources.
□
□
□
□
13. Planning helps us to foresee both
problems and opportunities.
14. As long as the planners are clear about
about their plan, it doesn’t matter if other
people understand it or not.
15. All the people who will be affected by a
development plan must be fully involved in
the process of planning.
□
16. Those who are paying for a development
programme should have a part in planning it.
17. Much of the work of planning is convincing
people to accept the plan.
18. Much of the work of planning is listening
to what people want in the plan.
19. Effective planning includes giving attention
to peoples’ feelings.
20. An effective plan helps to increase people’s
commitment and morale.
21. Being involved in planning helps people
prepare themselves for change.
444
LJ
Agree
Disagree
n
□
Comments
22. Planning for the future is an essential element
in the process of development itself.
23. The main reason for planning is that it
helps us get support from donor agencies.
24. If we have a good plan there won’t be any
problems in implementation.
25. One of the ‘inputs’ for planning is evaluation.
After you have responded to the statements:
Indicate any statements that have given you a new thought or insight into ‘
co
planning, or which have raised a question in your mind.
(ii) Indicate the statements that mention advantages and benefits of planning.
(iii) Indicate any statement that you think you or your organization, should give
more attention to in future.
Planning for Yourself
Consider the additional statements below:
1.
Planning may be necessary in my development
work, but it is not necessary to the same extent
in my personal life.
I
2.
Planning our personal future helps us to sort
out what is important to us in our own lives.
3.
New opportunities and unexpected challenges
constantly arise in real life. It is more important to
be able to respond to these as they arise than
to follow a previous plan.
4.
Planning is a tool. We should be able to use it
when it is helpful and discard it when it is not.
Is your attitude towards planning in your own life generally the same as, or differ
ent from, your attitude towards planning in your professional work?
John Staley, Enticing the Eearning. Trainers in Developmenty University of Birmingham,
pages 443—445
4'45
3-1
■$
CHAPTER
Planning a Training
Program
_
_n,
not to discuss the
■L ways of erning.
Aim of this hook ;s to look at WdVo
u .3C is planned, and by
traininy cc
ccursc
The primary aim oi
th|J wav a training
uroC is ,
. -Ps of a training prcgraiu.
|earninq tf<e place.
1 * Wi
11
I
°'0X" ™ ■>» ' °n w’p,""=“
iiicA
■-t'c- -■
arn o' >my importance.
.,F„ are possible. But two thmgs arc c
,
and
to ths
•“h
n
mm
•StfXr*Ss
VVe have reasons for
• content is
/X LARGER
TRAINING COURSE AS PART OF
THE TRAINII^
—
LEARNING PROCESS
,!(orM)thwt,rk„B»xM.pl"
In this chapter we focusways and on many levels.
W
0
I
plv linked with a vital network of
mind that'training takespa
„.inM coo,„. eoma>u™tv. ™
.0MMUN1TY HEALTH
THE NETWORK OF LEARNING FOR C
-Instructors
help
health
workers
learn
COURSE
Everyone
/
helps the
instructors
leorn
, /HhPO Ith workers
CON MUN 11 I / help children
, /
leorn
Health workers
help parents
Children
learn
help
parents
leorn
. /
PorerftS be'p
heolth v/orkers
\eorn
i
Po cents
help
children
Veorn
Health workers
help instructors
leorn
Everyone
helps student
heolth workers .
leorn
Health workers
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Health workers
help workers\
learn
-
Children
help children
learn
help
\ mid wives
leorn
Workers ^e'p
heolth workers
I corn
Midwives help
health workers
learn
1
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»
3-2
HAVING STUDENTS TAKE PART
the importance of
in THE PLANNING
I
The ability to plan effectively-to ana'Y26>and^^^^X^ZX^P'anning
J
» te»™.....
- ■-/c.r- in
teachers, and organizers
in ^Apir
tneir communities,
conn
include special classes on
training program must
This does not mean that a
the value of including the
Instead, it points to t..
'planning and managemenl
student group in the planning process.
r
MORE APPROPRIATE
LESS APPROPRIATE
A^tFplam this program
TOO AV vje are GWO to ^nJ°T
AEOOT PLANMINGk
AHO MAMA&EtAE’MT I
TOGETHER , BASED
OU \OOR VILUAGES'
• -; are best learned through practice
Some of the most important skills
5SKr«a*.w»*«*- as separate' topics,
in applying them to f— ■ -
Th„e„e^2^" W”rkm
ninnnino the content and organization or tneir ow.
. Zou9. 8.W. p«...
•<«-"»
™IVZinS'
planning, and organizing relevant activities.
. Tb.v bKome-a. “-"'T.eXo iteLommuniUes. They will be more
"XT
«X=OP. es equal., end w sb.™ .sbons'b.u.s
. Z.X «P
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needs, and resources withi
exciting and more relevant experience
each training session a new, speciai. exc mg,
for the instructors as well as the stude
.
. Th, Oex.unhy .nd sh.ed
achieving community health and fairer distribution
L
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3-3
A COMMON PROBLEM: PLANNING THINGS BACKWARDS
• Why are so many health worker training
courses taught by persons who have r.o
com mu n i ty ex peri ence?
,
|
r
i
i
I
. Why do so many instructors give more
class time to the study of anatomy and
iill.iiq out forms then to child diarrhea,
nutrition, and teaching methods7
tA i N l S r k y
• Why do so many courses fail to prepare
health workers to solve many of the
basic problems they will face?
of
H £ A LT M
The answers to these questions lie in the fact that training programs too often
are planned backwards. The time and place are fixed, instructors chosen, and
course content decided before planners consider the special difficulties, resources,
customs, and strengths of the people involved. As a result,.what is taught does
not match either the community s needs or the students abilities.
I
Many training programs today teach too much of what matters httle-and too
little of what matters most. To make things worse, the way they teach is often as
II
unrelated to people's needs as is the subject matter.
If training is to be appropriate (adapted to people's needs, resources, customs,
and abilities), things need to be done the other way around:
1st:
I
f
I
2nd:
Invite the people from the communities that the program will affect to
determine and make knbwn their needs.
Let the people's needs, resources, and abilities determine what should be
taught, and to whom.
3rd:
Let what should be taught, how, and to whom, determine who should
teach, where, for how long, and in what way.
5
Appropriate planning starts with PEOPLE.
people-centered or 'decentralized' approach to planning can be relatively
easy for small programs that are community based. But it may be extremely
difficult for a large, regional program. An appropriate approach may still be
possible, however, if those in positions of central• authority are willingj to:
• Permit planning and basic decisions to take
place at the community level.
• Act not as a controlling body, but as a center
for communications, advice, support, and supply.
the decentralized
or
people-centered
approach
3-4
THE DECENTRALIZED APPROACH TO PLANNING
(the solid arrows show the main direction of flow)
The central ministry or program
provides most of the supplies,
support, and coordination.
The communities provide most
of the advice, planning, and
control.
u'
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When groups are very large, central planning-and-control very easily becomes
rigid, bureaucratic, change resistant, and corrupt. Planning-and-control has more
chance of being appropriate, flexible, and responsive to human needs when it
takes place in groups that are small enough for everyone to know each other.
Hh-
DECIDING HOW MUCH TO PLAN IN ADVANCE
AND HOW MUCH TO PLAN DURING THE COURSE
As we have noted, it is advisable to leave some of the planning of a training
course until after it begins. This allows the course content to be planned or
modified according to the students' interests, experiences, needs, and capabilities.
Clearly, however, some planning must be done in advance. Someone has to
make decisions about why, when, where, with whom, and for whom the training
will take place. Resources and needs must also be considered. And certain
preparations need to be made.
On the next four pages (3-5 to 3-8) we present an outline of IMPORTANT
CONSIDERATIONS FOR OVERALL COURSE PLANNING. It includes.
Section A: Planning to be done before the training course begins
Section B: Continued planning after the training course begins
Section C: Planning and programming after the course is completed
Note: The outline to follow is intended as a sort
of checklist and question raiser. You do not have
/ to read it in detail as you read through this chapter.
Refer to it as you need to when planning a course.
t
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3-5
IMP0RTANT CONSIDERATIONS FOR OVERALL COURSE PLANNING
A, Planning to be done before the training
course begins:
• Selection of instructors and advisers:
• How much understanding and respect do they
;■ ?ve for village people? Do they treat them as
I. FIRST CONS’. DF RAT IONS-
equals?
• : c V committed ?.re they to
PURPGSFS AND QUESTIONS
• Whose needs will the t'ai'u'ig nrogram be primarily
social change?
• Do they have the necessary knowledge and skills
Q'-k i 'Ti reward
. hlir health, education, croup dynamics,
" ly ex tend
■
: help to change .
. imunitv crju-irr.ic \ :'^d erne, etc.) or are
y
Hing to learn?
• How much will it prepare the health worker to
jnderstnnd and deal •■.■ith tho social (economic,
cultural, political) causes of ill health?
• Will it make the poor more dependent, or help
them to be more self-reliant? Will it promote or
resist social change?
• What are the general goals and objectives of the
program? (To express goals in terms of numbers
and dates is probably unwise a* this stage. Why?)
• Who is (or should be) involved in all these
decisions?
• Location:
• Where will the training take place? Near or far?
V llage or city? Why?
♦ Where will everyone eat and sleep? In hotels?
In special facilities? With village families?
(How can these decisions influence what they will
learn?)
• Numbers: How many students will take part in the
training course? (Beyond 12 or 15, quality of
training usually decreases. This must bo weighed
against the need to train more health workers.)
2. OBSERVATION OF NEEDS AND RESOURCES
(Talking with a few observant persons from the area
can often provide more useful information than a
census or elaborate 'community diagnosis', at far
lower cost, more quickly, and with less abuse.)
Information worth considering:
• Common health problems: how frequent and how
serious?
• Causes of main problems: physical and social,
coming from inside and outside the community.
• People's attitudes, traditions, and concerns.
• Resources: human, physical, economic, from
inside and outside the area.
• Characteristics of possible health workers: age,
experience, education, interest, etc.
• Possible choices of instructors and training
organizers.
• Possible sources of funding and assistance. (Which
are more appropriate7)
• Reports and experiences of other programs.
• Obstacles: certain, likely, and possible.
3. EAR LY DECISIONS—
Who? Where? How many? When?
• Selection of health workers: by the community,
by the health program, or by both? (How can
selection of a health worker be a learning
experience for the community?)
• Timing:
• How long will the training course last?
• What time of year is best?
(Consider how these decisions may affect who
can take part in the course.)
• Will the training be done in one continuous
stretch, or be divided into short blocks so that
students can return home (and practice what
they have learned) between sessions?
(Whose needs and opinions should be considered
in answering these questions?)
• Funding:
♦ From where? How much money should come
from outside the local area?
.• What are the interests of possible funding
groups?
» What are the advantages and disadvantages of
asking communities to pay part of the cost ot
training their health worker?
• How can costs be kept low? How much is
needed?
• Follow-up and support:
• What opportunities may there be for continued
learning or training after the course is over?
• What kind of support or supervision will the
health workers receive?
(Why is it important to consider follow-up before
the training program begins?)
»
3-6
4. ANALYSIS OF PRIORITIES
(deciding what is most important)
Problems can be compared by considering the
following:
• How common are they?
• How serious are they?
• How contagious are they?
• How much concern do people feel about them?
• How much do they affect other problems?
• How much could a community health worker do
about them in terms of . . .
• diagnosis and treatment?
• referral, when needed?
• prevention?
• education of local people?
• community action?
• How easy or difficult will it be to teach a health
worker to take safe, responsible action with
respect to the problem?
Then group the problems according to their relative
importance, or priority, and decide which ones to
include in the course. (Be sure to include common
social problems that affect health—such as drinking,
overuse and misuse of medicines, local forms of
exploitation of the poor, and misuse of resources—
as well as physical diseases.)
5. RE-EXAMINING OBJECTIVES
• In view of the information you have gathered and
analyzed, how can the training program be best
designed . . .
• so that it prepares health workers to help the
people in their villages solve their problems and
needs?
» so that it is adapted to fit the particular
strengths and weaknesses of the students?
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6. ORGANIZING STUDY MATERIAL FOR
APPROPRIATE LEARNING
• What general subject areas and specific topics
might be taught in order to prepare students to
act upon the important problems and needs in
their communities?
• How many hours of organized study time will
there be during the course?
• How much time is needed to adequately cover
each topic?
• How can the time available be best divided
among the different topics, according to their
priority?
• Which topics are best approached through
classroom learning, through practice (in clinic,
community, or field), or a combination?
(At this point, some program planners make a list
for each subject area, stating exactly what the
health workers should know and be able to do.
What are the strengths and weaknesses of this
approach? See Chapter 5.)
7. PLANNING FOR BALANCE
• How can the subject matter be approached so as
to maintain an appropriate balance between . . .
• classwork and practical experience?
* learning in the training center and learning in
the community?
• preventive and curative health care?
» physical and social causes of ill health?
♦ me needs of the poor and the requirements of
diose in positions of control?
♦ caution and innovation?
* health skills, teaching skills, and leadership
skills?
- work and play?
8. PREPARING A ROUGH TIMETABLE OR
CLASS SCHEDULE
(without details, to be changed later)
• How can different subjects and topics be arranged,
according to hours, days, and weeks, so that.. .
• there is enough variety to keep the students
interested (for example, classwork alternating
with farm work, community action, and
learning of practical skills)?
• related subjects are scheduled close together or
in a logical order?
• more difficult subjects come early in the day,
and more fun subjects later (when people are
tired)?
• all key subject matter is included?
• high-priority subjects are given more emphasis
in the training course?
• skills and knowledge needed for immediate use
and practice are learned early (for example,
learning about medical history, physical exams,
preventive advice. Road to Health charts)?
• How can study time and free time be best arranged
to meet students' and instructors' needs?
• How can the schedule be kept open and flexible
enough to allow for unplanned learning
opportunities and special needs as they arise?
(It helps to leave the last week of the course
unscheduled, to allow for review and for making
up 'displaced classes’.)
• How can the schedule be presented in a clear,
simple form that can be easily seen and
understood by students and instructors?
WEEKLY PLAN
3-7
B. Continued planning after the training
course begins:
12. INVOLVING STUDENTS IN PLANNING THE
k.
COURSE CONTENT (based on their experience
and tne needs in their communities)
9. PLANNING APPROPRIATE TEACHING
.VET) IODO
'C A:OS
•..'hat teaching approach is best suited to persons
•••hoar-? more >
■f,
•
!<-..»•.•••
to learning from expc'-ience
hooks?
' ■ri'. -.q v..":| ,
oe in .
teacher in his community?
• What attitudes on the part of the teacher will
encourage the n ??!?'-. worker tn share knnwledqe
gladly and treat others as equals?
• What teaching methods might aid the health
worker in helping community people to become
more confident and self-reliant?
• What teaching aids can be used that will lead the
• Why '$ it important that the students fake part
in p.anning the courts;?
• How can the students' participation in planning
help them to learn about .
• examining ard analyzing the needs in their
c
'’.muni ties
• m- ognizing both the ‘j-.-engtns and the
weaknesses of their people's customs?
• wavs to pian and organize a learning group?
• the value of learning by doing, and of respecting
and building on their own experiences?
• shared decision making?
13. REVISING THE PLAN OF STUDIES
health worker to make and invent teaching aids
(COURSF CONTENT) ACCORDING TO
after returning to his village?
STUDENT SUGGESTIONS
• What approach to learning will best prepare the
♦ To what extent do the priorities determined by
health worker to help his people understand and
the students, according to problems and needs in
work together to solve their biggest problems?
• What approach to health problems will enable the
considered by the instructors and planners? (How
health worker to learn how to approach the
solving of other community problems?
• What con be done to ensure that all learning is
related to important needs?
their own villages, correspond to these already
do you explain the similarities and differences?)
• How important is it to revise the course plans in
order to better meet the concerns and expressed
needs of the student group?
• How can classwork be made more friendly and
fun?
• How can tests and exams be presented so that
students use them to help each other rather than
to compete? How can tests and exams be used
to judge the instructor as well as the students?
14. PREPARING INDIVIDUAL CLASSES ANO
ACTIVITIES
• How detailed should class plans be?
• How far in advance should a class or activity be
10. GETTING READY AND
OBTAINING SUPPLIES
• What preparations are needed before the course
begins/ (transportation, eating and sleeping
arrangements, study area, wash area, etc.)
• What furnishings and teaching materials are
rioedod to begin? (benches, blackboard, ere.)
• What can be done if some of these are not ready
on time?
11. DETAILED PLANNING OF ACTIVITIES AND
CLASSES FOR THE BEGINNING OF THE
COURSE
• How many days of classes and activities should
be planned in detail before the course begins?
• Why is it important that the details of all the
classes and activities not be planned in advance?
planned? Why?
• Is it helpful tn use a particular outline or formula
for preparing a class? If so, what should it include?
L..
• Can each class or activity be planned to include
• all of the basic points to be lenrned or
considered?
• active student participation and interaction?
• use of appropriate learning aids?
• opportunities for the students to explore
questions and discover answers for themselves?
• practice in solving problems-similar to those
health workers will meet iX their work?
• a chance for students to summarize what they
have learned and to ask questions?
• To what extent can students take part in the
preparation of classes and of teaching aids? (Is
this important? Why?)
I
3-8
15. CONTINUED REVISION OF THE
SCHEDULE—to make room for new ideas,
learning opportunities, needs, and problems
as they arise
• What are the advantages and disadvantages to
keeping the program open and flexible? (How
might this influence a health worker's ability
to work toward, or tolerate, change in his or
her community?)
—
18. STARTING OVER
The whole process is repeated:
PURPOSE
OBSERVATION
COLLECTION OF IN FORMATION
■■■
I
1 WINDS (
OP
CHANGE
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I.
ANALYSIS OF NEEDS
IMP
POHTANCE /
OF F
FLEXIBILI’Xf
C
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16. EVALUATION DURING THE TRAINING
PROGRAM—to consider how it might be
improved (see Chapter 9)
• In what ways can this be done?
• Who should be involved?
• What is the value of . . .
• round-table discussions in which all students
and staff have a chance to express their feelings
about the program and each other?
♦ similar discussions with members of the
community where the training program takes
place?
* tests and exams?
♦ setting specific goals and seeing if they are met?
• If evaluation studies (informal ocformal, ongoing
or final) are made, what can be done to help
assure that results are useful and will be used?
C.
EARLY DECISIONS AND OBJECTIVES
I
ACTION
£T
<
uj :
CONTINUED PLANNING
V):
Cf-
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O:
o;
O:
Z:
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<
CONTINUOUS EVALUATION i
I
CHANGES OF PLAN
UJ;
r:
changes of action
------- FOLLOW-UP AND FEEDBACK
Planning and programming after the
course is completed:
•ft:
i
17. FOLLOW-UP AND FEEDBACK* (see
Chapter 1 0)
• How can a supportive learning situation be
continued between instructors and students,
and among the students themselves, once the
training course is completed?
• How can the following be involved in supporting
the health worker:
♦ members of the community (a health
committee)?
♦ other health workers?
♦ program instructors, leaders, and advisers?
♦ other support groups and referral centers?
• How can the experiences, successes, and
difficulties of the health workers in their
communities be recorded and used to make the
next training course better than the last? (Can
this be done so that health workers know they
are contributing, rather than being judged?)
•FEEDBACK: helpful ideas and suggestions
sent back to planners or instructors by health
workers.
► •
3-9
•EARLY DECISIONS
Location of training
Jt is bestjf training takes place in a situation close to that where health workers
will work. Closeness.in distance is convenient. But closeness in terms of community
-.t'li'u is crscnt'al. Village health workers are best trained in a village. Thai wuy.
e/ can pic.ctice solving problems and carrying out artjv.ties under conditions
much like those in their own communities.
If possible, training should take place in a village with a health center where
students can gain clinical experience. It helps if the health center is run by
experienced local health workers, and has strong community participation A
small community-based health center is usually far more appropriate for training
villagers than a large clinic or hospital (see page 8-4). The closer the situation of~
learning to the situation in which health workers will later work, the better.
For the same reasons, it is important that the building in which training takes
,place-and even the furniture, if any-be similar to those in the villages of the
health workers.
In this book and in
Where There Is No
Doctor, we often show .
drawings of health
workers-in-training
sitting on chairs or
benches. That is
because people
customarily make and
use such furniture in
the villages of Latin
America where we
work Rut in areas
where people
traditionally sit on
the ground during
meetings and
discussions, it makes
sense that the same
traditions be observed
in the training course.
In places where villagers traditionally sit on the floor, it is
appropriate that the training course follow the same custom.
This drawing is from Ang Maayong Lawas Maagum, a
Philippine equivalent of Where There Is No Doctor.
In the same way, there are advantages to having health workers live with
families m the community rather than staying in a separate 'dormitory'. This is
discussed further in Chapter 6.
;
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3-10
Numbers
LESS APPROPRIATE
Many programs have found
that from 12 to 15 is a good
number of students for a
course. A group this size is
large enough for discussions
to be exciting, but small
enough so that everyone can take part.
MORE APPROPRIATE
Timing
2 to 3 months
1. Continuous
Some training courses are taught in one continuous block of time. Two to
three months is the average length of such a course. This is usually long enough
for health workers to learn the basic skills needed for primary care. Yet it is
short enough so that villagers with families and responsibilities at home can
(sometimes) afford the time away.
2. Short blocks of training
alternating with practice
*
2 weeks
2 weeks
2 weeks
Other training courses are taught in a series of shorter blocks of time. Health
workers may train for blocks of 2 weeks, separated by periods of 1 or 2 months
in which they return to their villages to practice. This way health workers are not
apart from their families for so long at one time, and they have a chance to
put into practice what they have learned. The experience they gain and the
problems they meet in their village work add meaning and direction to their
continued training. However, if health workers must come a long distance by
foot or on muleback, training in short blocks may not be practical.
T
3. One day a week
1 day
1 day
1 day
1 day
1 day
etc.
The Chimaltenango Development Program in Guatemala has health workers
train for 1 day a week as long as they continue their community health work.
This means that the health workers continually increase their knowledge and
skills. It also allows continual close relations and sharing of ideas within the group.
The more experienced health workers lead most of the training sessions. Clearly,
this sort of weekly training is only possible where health workers live nearby or'
where public transportation is adequate.
II
Combination: Any cornbiiidlion of these plans is possible-for example, a 2-week
initial course followed by training one day a week, or a 1 -month course with
follow-up training every 3 months.
I,
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1W.3
Time of year: For health workers who are also farmers, certain times of year
will be convenient for training, while others will be impossible. It is important
that villagers be consulted about what time of year to have the training course,
and whether training would be more convenient in one continuous period or in
shorter blocks of time.
l
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3-11
Funding
■ Most training courses we know about depend on funding from sources outside
the area being served. The amount of outside funding varies greatly from program
/. to program. As a general rule, the more modest the funding, the more appropriate
the training.
■
i
The struggle to manage with very limited outside funding can be a valuable
learning experience for those involved in a training program. It helps bring the
r/cg-.m -doser to the mality of the people it serves, and closer to the communpy
as a whole.
J
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.< For example, a community-based training program in Nuevo Leon, Mexico was
feegun with very little money. The students and instructors started by building
their own mud-brick training center with the help of local villagers.
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Later, when outside funding was stopped, the staff and students began raising
goatsand other animals, and opened a small butcher shop. Their struggle to
survive economically brought the community and the health program closer
together. When we visited, we were struck by the close, caring relationships
between people in the village and participants in the training program.
Outside funding often means outside control. Therefore, it is usually wise to
allow no more than half the funding for a health or development activity to come
from outside the area served. If at least half the funding is provided locally, there
is more of a chance that control of the program will also be local. Then, in a very
real way, the program will belong to the people.
In Project Piaxtla, Mexico, each village that sends a student to the training
course is encouraged to pay half of his or her living expenses during training.
Other programs in Central America organize villagers to help with their health
worker's farming or other work while he is away at training. This helps the village
feel more responsibility for its health worker. And it helps the health worker feel
more responsible to his village.
3-12
MAKING A ROUGH PLAN OF COURSE CONTENT
Before the training course begins, it helps
to make a rough plan of what the course
might cover—even though this may later be
changed with help from the student group.
As much as possible, the plan should be
based on the needs of both the communities
and the students. But the strengths, talents,
and resources of the students and their
communities also need to be taken into
account.
CONSIDER. PEOPLE’S STRENGTHS
AS WELL AS THEIR NEEDS.
SUGGESTED STEPS FOR PLANNING THE COURSE CONTENT
1. List the main problems that affect the local people's health and well-being.
2. Try to determine which problems are most important to the people
(priorities in the community).
F
3. Decide which problems should be included and which should be
emphasized in the course (priorities for the course)^ To do this, consider
local factors as well as the probable strengths and limitations of the health
workers.
4. List the areas of knowledge and the skills health workers will need in order
to help people solve their more important problems. Arrange these into
groups or subjects for active, problem-solving study.
5. Given the length of the course, consider how much time may be needed
for each subject or study area.
T-
6. For each subject, try to balance discussion-type learning (classes) with
learning by doing (practice). Also seek a balance between curative,
preventive, and teaching skills, physical work, and play.
7. Make up a rough course plan, including timetables for each week (but
not in great detail, as these will probably be changed with the students'
help).
8. Prepare detailed plans for at least the first few days.
In the rest of this chapter, we discuss these steps in greater detail You may
find these planning suggestions useful at 3 stages:
T
frill
• before the course,-to help instructors draw up a general course plan,
• during the course, to help the instructors and students adapt the course
according to needs in their communities, and
• after the course, to help health workers and people in their communities
plan activities according to their needs.
?•
3-13
Step 1. Lookhv;. .land listing needs
To help a .7 :ui? ci health workers (or w.Uagers) plan a course ol study or action
according to
-veds, rhe first step is to have them look carefully at their
recent prop..
Ask each pci-m to speak of his own problems and needs, both big and smaii.
Sc/neone car- wm*
:,-;t on the blackboard or a large sheet of paper.
Ask questions thui call for specific answers, so that people discuss problems
from their own experiences.
LESS APPROPRIATEtoo vague
MORE APPROPRIATE
specific
What are the worst problems
of people in your village?
What is the worst problem
your family had this year?
Although the focus will be on health problems, encourage people to mention
other problems and concerns that also relate io health or well-being
?•
"Ou'- cH. ckens died.”
"The crops failed.''
"We had to sell our land
to pay our debts."
"My neighbor let his cows loose
in my cornfield."
bn m
Before deciding which
health problems to begin
discussing in class, one
training program in the
Philippines has the health
workers visit different
homes m the village. During
these visits, they ask people
what they feel to be their
biggest problems and needs.
This way the community's
wishes are brought into the
training and planning from
the start.
'
Talk to people about their problems and
needs from the very start of training.
■
I
' £
3-14
Step 2. Considering the relative importance of the different
problems the group has listed
This can be done in several ways, some simpler, some more complete.
One way is to make a chart on a blackboard or a large piece of paper. Have the
group discuss how common and how serious they feel each problem to be. Then
mark from 1 plus (+) to 5 pluses (++++•+) in each column, like this:
HOW
COMMON
problem
HOW
HOW
serious
im porta nt
Babies have diarrhea
■ i
9
Children have worms
t- 4-
6
Children very thin
+
Skin sores
To ot haches
S
Chickens died
Too
6
+ 4-4-
far to water
6
7
Fever and chills
7
w
i*"’
Path e rs oft en drunk
Crops
Failed
+ 4- 4- + 4■i
Food in store too costly
Heart attacks
Women
and weak
Problems
after birth
ij”
4- + +- +
few
++
Measles
Common
+-++-+
+ + +-
colds
+ not very common (or serious)
'll
+ + Somewhat common (or serious)
+ +• + common (or serious)
4" + 4- very common (or serious)'
4- + + extremely com mon (or Serio u s)
Hi ■
J
By considering both how common and how serious a problem is, the students
can get an idea of its relative importance in the community. To help in this, they
can add up the plus marks for each problem.
H
ij
Ask the group which problem appears to be most important. (In this case it is
diarrhea, with 9 pluses.) Then, which are next in importance? (Those with 8
pluses. Which are they?) And so on.
'I
El
I
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0
w
ff
ffT
J
-------------------------------------------------------------
-
3-15
a'
te W7 t0 l00k at the re,ative imP°rtance of problems is to
consider the following 4 questions for each oroblem:
r
y''.-a' • r
& :
1. How COMMON is the problem in the community?
2. How SERIOUS are the effects on individuals, families, communities?
3 Is it CONTAGIOUS? (Dees it spread to other people?)
4. Is it CHRONiC? (Does ,t last a long time?)
9
Again, plus marks can be used to add up the results. But a more fur. wv that
involved
is
— •
.b io use cut-out symbols.
■
SKULLS
mean St RIOUS.
big skulls:
EXTREMELY SERIOUS
(deadly)
i.
t
SAD
FACES
FACES
WITH
ARROWS
LONG
ARROW
E
|
|
I
i-
I
middle-sized skulls:
VERY SERIOUS
COMMON. The more common a prob|cm
® ©©
V V (©*) CrJ
faCCS y°U PL!t neXt t0 ’L
mean CONTAGIOUS (the illness spreads from one person
to others).
means CHRONIC (the problem is long lasting).
11 iuvio vai
These vjr
symbols
cani be made of flannel or soft cloth, to be used on a •flannelboard' (see p. 11-16).
' ‘ |'rst;.have the 9r°up members draw them and cut them
out. They will need at least:
V^-'.;
100 sad faces
15 skulls
15 faces with arrow's
10 long arrows
|
I
Use a different color for each symbol.
f
Now write the name of each problem on a
W of paper or cloth. Attach these strips to
the flannel-board.
flannel-board
I
small skulls:
SERIOUS
rnTaXoblem6’
ill
IWKS
1-4_ _
MBs;
Ui
COme f°rWard Snd p,ace.
i.
■ r
3-16
I
When they are done, the flannel-board could look something like this
[f^7| © ©©
eaaag^g]
[[Bottle
--------------—
Feeding]
SlEH^Coid]
i
-------------------------------------------------
| Worm S I
----------
------------
J
[mis u sT~Jf~ fzl e d i ci;
^JOQOGO
;| Fever and Ch HI T~
|Heart A11ack]
©©©o
'ey 'ey
I
S
I
q§§g o ©
t
i
[
0Q ©
©OO
ProblemgSOQ
|Acci4en€s|
j©run kenne Sb
Lc Birth
* ■ *-
iretaTLTlcG^
__ 00©
®0®O© [TT
IlSkmDiseases] ®fg§e,
[Pregrtancy
--------------------------------------------- -—-—<c-4
------------------
[V^ioai
wm
[Measles , Whoop^nc,
J ©o©
[Mumps, ChickerT
I
Let the students argue about how many sad faces to put up for 'couch' as
oet thtredh° udiarrheT °r whather 'drunkenness: is contagious or not This will
get them thinking and talking about the problems in their villages.
There may be differences of opinion, especially if the health workers come
from d.fferent areas. For example, in Project Piaxtla in Mexico some heahh
a^-c morV-T
r
l0W'and Vi"a9eS Where diarrhea' hookworm, and typhoid
a'H " rc c0mmo(i. Others come from mountain
villages where
colds bronchitis.
bronchitis
mountain
villages
where
colds,
and
hea,th WOrkOrS
W'"
di—
P-biems
j
1
For those who cannot read:
I
r?
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fc
Bi
Health workers can use
these same methods with
persons who cannot read. To
show the problems, they can
use simple drawings instead
of words. Once the drawings
are explained, people rarely
forget what they represent.
a
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*-d
8
ii
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Here is an example:—
Can you identify each
problem?
■it-
I!®'- raw
8
IS
1
S'
3-17
Step 3. Determining priorities for what to cover in the course
; After looking at the relative importance, or priority, of the different problems
found in the students' communities, the instructors need to consider how much
emphasis, or priority, should be given to each of these problems in the course.
To do this, you can again make a chart. But this time ask some additional
questions about each problem. For example:
• Are local people concerned about the problem?
• How much dees it affect other health problems?
• What is the possibility for teaching effectively about the problem?
• How much would community health workers be likely to do to correct the
problem, if taught?
Mark your answers.with pluses (++++-I-) on a blackboard or a sheet of paper.
ROW MUCH
ROVE
PEOPLE'S IT AFFECTS
OTHER
SERIOUS
CONCERN health
QOtlilON
HOVJ
PROBLEM
PROBLEMS
POSS IB!LITT HOWMUCH IMPORTANCE
FORIEACH/NG
PREVENTION
OR
TREATMENT
CHW COULD TO BE
GIVEN
OR WOULD
DOABOUTIT
IN
IF taught COURSE
Diarrh ea.
2:
MaLnulr'iNon
2 I
20
'vUormz
Cou<jh
CamtnorfCold
44 4 4
PneuTnortia.
•b +
14
I 6
+> ♦*
Tuitrculosis
♦
20
l 5
Skin Diseases
Stomach ache
4 4
Toothproblems
¥
I4
I 5*
Fever .
I 3
Drunkenness
I 5*
I 7
Preynancyt 8if-th
9
8
Heart- Attack
Epilepsy
¥
Bottle FetJi,
Tetanus
I 8
n3
I 5
Headach e
+ +4-
NTiiusi ofmedicine
4 4--¥¥
Lani tenure
Accidents
*■ ?
444
VayinaL Pob/ems
Meas let
Whoopin<] Cough
9
o
4 +
I 6
2.1
I 6
I 4
• 7
I 6
Add up the plus marks for each problem to judge its relative importance for
inclusion or emphasis in the course.
Suggestion: When working with a group of health workers you may not want
to use this chart. It may be too complicated. Perhaps you will want to just discuss
the 6 questions it considers.
t
i
3-18
Step 4. Listing appropriate areas of study
After looking carefully at the problems you want to cover in the course (based
on people's needs), the next step is to consider:
What skills, knowledge, and practice will health
workers need to help people solve these problems?
l
The skills and knowledge health workers need to learn should be carefully
analyzed (see Task Analysis, pages 5 7 to 5 9), Skills in both curative and
preventive medicine will be important. But so will skills—and practice—in
community organizing, teaching (of both adultsand children), problem analysis,
record keeping, and so on. Some programs include certain agricultural skills,
veterinary skills, and even basic dentistry.
One of the most important
areas of study for health workers
concerns the way people relate
to each other: Why people act
and do things as they do! So
health worker training should
include learning about 'group
dynamics', and even
'consciousness raising' or
'building social awareness'.
Based on the priorities of
local problems, list all the
different areas of learning or
activity you think should be
covered in the course. The
subjects chosen must be realistic
in terms of needs, resources, and
time available for training. Then
arrange these subjects in sensible
groups or 'areas of study'. It will
help if you organize these into 3
general categories:
I'I
•
PREVENTIVE
•
CURATIVE
•
COMMUNITY OR SOCIAL
I
I
I
One community-based program in the
Philippines spends more than half of training
time helping health workers to gain an
understanding of ‘what makes people tick’.
i
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pi
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y
II-
Ik
II
Drawing by Lino C. Montebon in Ang Maayong
Lawas Maagum, a Philippine equivalent of Where
There 1$ No Doctor.
?
I
On the next page is an example of a blank worksheet for planning the content
of a training course. This kind of sheet has been used by Project Piaxtla in Mexico.
Following the blank worksheet is a copy of the same sheet with a list of possible
study areas for health worker training. You are welcome to use this as a
checklist. But probably you will want to omit some.items and add others,
according to your local situation.
11
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3-19,
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WORKSHEET FOR PLACING fb’E CONTENT OF
A TRAINING COURSE
Total hours of course time available;
SUBJECT UNDER
CONSIDERATION
hours per day
RELATIVE
PRIORITY
(+ to +++++}
ESTIMATED
HOURS NEEDED
PREVENTION
Mother/cnild health----------Nutrition
~
--------~Agricultural wor~F~------------— Hygiene ano sanitation
Vaccines
~PrenataTcare & childbirth
r ami ly Pl annir.g
~
x ___ days
ADJUSTED
NUMBER
OF HOURS
=
estimated hours:
hours availableestimate' must
hours
be lowered by:
CLASSROOM
STUDY
PRACTICAL
ACTIVITY
hours
NOTES:
DIAGNOSIS AND TREAiMENT
_ History & pnysical~^a?T~
Care of tie sick
---------
7
(Anatomy and physiology)
_ Diagnosis, treatment,
and prevention
Medical energencies
, Clinical practice
Use A misuse ofmedicines
Use of bock(s)
‘—
Limits and referral
Record keeping
Treatment techniques
~
~
COMMUNITY' AMD SOCIAL - --------Awareness -aisjng.-------
Community development
and heal th
~
Group dynamics
(Role p fays J
Teaching rrethod~and aids
Teaching practice
Leadership
(•Planning cjig managementT
Home visits
- Finding out needs""--
Village theater, etc.
Round-table discussion
Games and sports
"
Jests and evaluation
Review and cake-up time
I
CO
! O\ >
(g 7 )
zZ
Step 5. Consider how much time to allow for each area of study
This can be done using the same worksheet. As an example of how to do it,
see the next page.
• First, figure out the total number of hours of study time for the whole
course. Write the sum at the top of the sheet, beside "total hours of course
time available." (A two-month intensive course at 8 hours a day, 6 days a
week, would have 384 hours available.)
•
Then, in the column for ESTIMATtD HOURS NEEDED, write the number
of hours you think will be needed to cover each subject. Keep in mind the
total hours of course time.
• When you have filled in the estimated hours for each subject, add them up
and compare your toxa! with the "total hours available." (See the upper
right corner of the chart.) Subtract to find the difference. This lets you
know how many hours you need to add or subtract from different subjects.
But before making these adjustments ...
• nil in the third column, RELATIVE PRIORITY, using information from
your previous studies (steps 2 and 3). This will help you to make study time
adjustments according to priority of needs.
• Now adjust the hours for different subjects until the total equals the number
of hours available. (Be sure to allow time for review and missed classes.)
Note: Not all of the subjects for study will require separate class time. Some
can he included within other subjects. For example, we suggest that 'anatomy'
not be taught as a separate subject, but that it be included as needed when
studying specific health problems. Subjects that do not require separate hours
can be written in parentheses (like this).
Some subjects with scheduled hours can also, in part, be covered in classes on
related subjects. For example, preventive measures like hygiene and sanitation
can Ibe reviewed during classes covering specific illnesses. Physical exam, history
taking, and the correct use of medicines> can be reinforced during the daily
clinical practice.
b
w
i
WORKSHEET FOR PLANNING THE CONSENT JF
Total hours of cojrse time available:
SUBJECT UNDER
CONSIDERAIION
estimated
HOURS NEEDED
prevention_________
Xother/child heal th
Nutrition
~ Agricul tural wort-’
_ Hygiene and sanitation
Vaccines
--------Z^repatai care & childbirth
Family Planning
DIAGNOSIS ANO TREATMENT
^History & physical exam
Care of the sick
(Anatomy and physioiogy)
Diagnosis, treatment,
and prevention_____
Medical emergencies
Cl inical practice
Use & misuse of medicines
Use of book(s)
----Limits and referral
Record keeping
~
ZTreatment technique's-
hours per day
RELATIVE
PRIORITY
(+ tO +-H++)
IQ
_LQ_
A TRAINING course
x Yg> days
ADJUSTED
NUMBER
OE HOURS
= 3S>^-
CLASSROOM
STUDY
hours
PRACTICAL
ACTIVITY
estimated hours:
hours available:
53?3
estirate must
be 1 owere.d by:
/53
r.: -
hours
‘JOTES:
8
■ ¥•
I 2.
8
IQ
_ S_
_ S
it
5 4-
O 41Q O
-1 Q-
± f 4- +
70 4<5 460 44 4/4 4I__ 4I 43 4-
COMMUNITY AND SOCIAL
Awareness raising
7 Community development"
and health
Group dynamics
(Role plays)
ZTeaching methods and aid?
Teaching practice
Leadership
—
(riannin^ and managementT
Home visits
~
‘
Finding out needs
Village theater, etc.
Round-table discussion
Games and sports
Tests and evaluation
Review and make-up time
ia 4-
8 4-
Io
_2_
0
8 4I 4-
1Q
_O +
6 4-
_a 4-
4- 412 48___
12 4SC
38 +
CO
M
CO
3-24
Step 6. Balancing the course content
A training course needs to be balanced in both content and learning methods.
• Try for a balance between
preventive, curative, and
community or social aspects
of health care. Add up the hours
in each of these 3 areas. Consider
if the balance is appropriate in
terms of the people's needs and
concerns. Adjust the hours if
necessary.
c/------
• Balance discussion-type learning
(classwork) with learning by doing
(practice), physical work, and play.
STUDY
PRACTICE
More and more programs are realizing the importance of learning by doing.
Increasing emphasis is being placed on activities in the community, in the clinic, j
in schools, and in the fields as a part of health worker training. Even classworksome of which remains necessary-can involve a great deal of active practice in
using skills and solving problems.
I
Many programs also are recognizing the importance of physical work and play
as a part of health worker training. Physical work serves many purposes—
especially if it is health related (gardening, digging latrines, building equipment).
It provides a change of pace. It keeps health workers close to the land and the
working people. It helps them learn new agricultural or building skills. And in
some projects, the health workers' daily farm work produces food that helps
make the training program self-sufficient.
•)
Learning through games and play is especially important for occasions when
health workers work with children.
To plan a balance between classroom study and practical activity, you can use
the same worksheet as before. Go down the list of subjects, marking the balance
you think is appropriate for each one. You can do it this way:
CLASSROOM
STUDY
PRACTICAL
ACTIVITY
This means equal
—
Treatment tecKnTques
P——* Ibis means inusLly
1
practical activity.
This means all
classroom learning.
j
Round-table discussion-t:
1’5=1
balance.
Nutrition,
—
After marking each.subject, look at the overall balance. If too much time is .
given to.classwork, try to think of ways more learning can take place through
practice and experience.
I
I
V 0
’"WSSSzSaft
WORKSHEET FOR PLANNING THE CONTENT OF A TRAUIN'G COURSE
Total hours cf course time available:
SUBJECT UNDER
CONSIDERATION
PREVENTION______
Mother/chiId heal th
Nutrition
~
Agricultural work
~
Hygiene and sanitation
Vaccines_______________
~ Prenatal care & childbirth
ESTIMATED
HOURS NEEDED
&
RELATIVE
PRIORITY
(+ to +++++)
IQ
COMMUNITY ANO SOCIAL
Awareness raising
Coffimunity development
and health
Group dynamics
(Rote plays)
Teaching methods and aids
Teaching practice
Leadership
(Planning and management)
Home visits__________
Finding out needs
~
Village theater, etc.
Round-table di'scussion
Garr.es and sports
"
Tests and evaluation
Review and make-up time'
x
ADJUSTED
NUMBER
OF HOURS
days
3 3S>j-
CLASSROOM
STUDY
[o
s
PRACTICAL
ACTIVITY
8
4-
3
-I- -t-
hours
det Ails
&5cn
-W.g-1 k.
a
8 +
IQ
2
Q
G
1 Q
8
I
Q
8
8
1
O
>6
4
I2
O
-24_
b
20
r&
4b
444
44-h
4+
44-
-V-
-U b j 2 C±_S.
S3?.
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■S.cJn do I chil d r m.
ry
5 3 ~i: i > r d B y
r-n a r n \
A
PI a n n i
a__
12 4--4
L
I2
5,;
+
-*gggg
Lcj-S
SB
NOTES:
80 b
4/4 4I 4f 43 4-
_Lk_
__ 2
__ 3
'■
_____
3|SQ 'attend th'ierge.ntdp^_________ _
o h. —irih a. g nab ad , with obher cl-asseS
4-
<5 +
-I C
iqn
___ 5_
153
.
includes rr> n n L h I y__b a b.
gh i
i n c I k>d e s So m ?-iC- 4- i c- e- - Q o K i r
pltJ-S e.'arly m a ■Crtl-O
i
b?4nr p. c I -a
-plus 4Im
Far- bi > i I d i ig lai rin?x and
'i n c I vj d P S Y 3 C C | y~) A F i r g ch id rP. r_________ _
also TiLt.p.nH births
v i~th ml d yy'i Vfe S______
4
3
Q
estimate must
be lowered by:
hours
8
?•
I2
Family Planning
DIAGNOSIS MO TREATMENT
History £ physical exam
Care of the sick
(Anatomy and physiology)
Diagnosis, treatment,
and prevention______
Medical emergencies
Clinical practice
Use i misuse of medicines
Use of book(s)
Limits and referral
Record keeping
Treatment techniques
hours per day
___
estimated hours': " 5 3?L'
hours available:
3 B-4
12 -F
every Frid -B.y—Enam ing
QnrhpJr a
. '■m pet p 1 v s
384-
v.
yZy'5’
■“te..... ..... -
ara-.'vsss**": s'L-rsb&k
co
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cn
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___ i
!-?6
planning^bal^ceofl^^
From the first day of the course,
it is a good idea to have a balance
of different learning activities.
At first, getting to
I know each other will be
very important. So
discussions about health,
gardening
well-being, and the goals
and other
j of the program But the
learning of specific
skills should also begin
ai once. Productive work
like gardening is
songs,
important, too. And
games,
don't forget games,
and
songs, and sports.
sports
getting to know
each other
and
making plans
.
learning
in class
=* p r
I
H
learning
through practice
After the course
is underway, other
important activities
can be introduced.
home visits
nd community
activities
helping care
for the sick
(clinical practice)
7
Here are a few.
teaching
practice
prenatal
care, and
activities
with mothers
and children
health theater
or circus
evaluation and
further planning
(whole group—
Instructors
and students)'
‘roundtable’
discussion
I
r
3-27
Step 7. Preparing a timetable and making the weekly schedules
Once the overall content for the course is decided, you can plan the classes
and other activities on a week-by-week basis. It helps if you mimeograph blank
planning sheets similar to the one on page 3-29, but adapted to your needs. The
larger the planning sheet, the more details can be written in later. You can make
' a large one by joining 2 sheets together. Each week the plan can be posted for
students to see. Following the blank weekly schedule is an example of one that
was filled out and used during a training course in Project Piaxtla, Mexico.
In preparing a weekly timetable, think about how to best use the hours of the
day. Plan your schedule according to the local rhythm of life: the hours when
people usually wake up, work, eat meals, rest, and so on. Try to include a variety
of activities during each day, to avoid doing the same kind of thing for too long.
You may also want to allow a few minutes between classes for relaxing or quick
games. When planning times, be sure to get the suggestions and agreement of the
students and the families with whom they are staying.
Now consider which subjects should be taught when. Here are some ideas based
I
on our own experience:
Be sure afternoon classes
have plenty of action.
Which time of day is best for what?
NOT APPROPRIATE
• Early morning hours, before the day is
hot, are good for gardening and physical
work.
• The morning is also a good time for
classes on serious subjects that require
thoughtful study. Everyone is fresh and
eager to learn at this hour.
• The afternoon, when students are tired,
is a good time for active discussions, role
playing, and projects like making
teaching materials.
• Evenings are best for slide and filmstrip
presentations, and for meetings with
community persons who may be busy
all day.
A\ Il I 111 11 IIJL±^
APPROPRIATE
Every day? Or once or twice a week?
• Subjects such as curative-and-preventive medicine and clinical practice,
which cover a great deal of material and require a lot of time, are best
included every day.
• Skills such as using a reference book (Where There Is No Doctor) or using
medicines correctly are best taught once or twice a week-m such a way
that they reinforce other subjects the students are learning.
• Review sessions should follow consultations or exams as soon as possib e.
• Community visits should be scheduled for times when people are likely to
be at home—a couple of evenings each week or on a weekend morning.,^;-.^.
3 28
At the beginning of the training course? Or near the end?
• Knowledge and skills needed to examine, care for, and give advice to
people v.'ho' are sick should be covered at the beginning of the course. See
page 8-5.
• Teaching in the community and putting on village theater shows are good
activities for later in the course, when students have more knowledge and
self-confidence. But be sure to plan and practice for these well in advance.
Before the course begins (or shortly after,
<j as to include student suggestions), make
rough weekly plans for the whole course.
This helps ensure that you allow time for
,erything you Ttend to include. It is easy
to run out or time before ail the important
material has been covered!
.(Hl! P.AM.UC ShCT -■ k£HTH K.kiXfi'S UslMuG COURSE
_..
....... .
.........
....
~ll
Uil
When making an early plan of the whole
course, you do not need to fill in many
details. Later, during the course, the
instructors can meet with the student
planning committee (see p. 4-14) each week to prepare a more detailed plan for
the following week. Be sure you schedule a regular time for this planning, too.
^Iwr
An important suggestion: MAKE YOUR TIMETABLE FLEXIBLE
It often happens that some classes or subjects take longer than planned. Others
are poorly or even wrongly taught, or prove especially difficult for students to
understand. Such classes may need to be repeated. For this reason, it is wise to
•
leave plenty of extra time for review: about 1 or 2 hours of 'open' time each
week, plus several unplanned days at the end of the course.
I
This open time also allows you to adjust the schedule when classes; are missed i
or postponed. Especially if training takes place in arteal-life setting (like a
village), medical emergencies and other unplanned learning opportunities ate
bound to come up.
I
For example, during a training course in Ajoya,
Mexico, a class was interrupted when news arrived
that a man had broken his leg on a mountain trail.
The students and instructor carried the man to
the health center on a stretcher, set the broken
bone, and put a cast on his leg (see photo).
The interrupted class was given later. This was
easy to manage because extra time had been
allowed in the schedule.
■
■Ml
sjiWil
jgaSIls i®
'y
Do not be afraid to change your plans.
y
I
Step 8. Preparing detailed plans for the first few days of the
course
This will be discussed in the next chapter.
4
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MOYA CLINIC_______
A J OXA » SWALOA __
WEEKLY PI AWNING SHEET - HEALTH WORKER'S TRAINIKG COinSE
M EXt C Q
> 1^5.12to January 31
DATES January 25
SUNDAY
|
SATURDAY
FRIDAY
THURSDAY
WEDNESDAY
TUESDAY
GAR® IE N
VEGETA BtE
TH H
IN
a
WEEK NUMBER
MONDAY
TIME
7:008:00-
9:00-
BREAKFAST
BREAKFAST
CURATIVE MEDICINE
CURAT WE MEDICINE
DIARRHEA
CAUSES AND
TREATMENT OF
______ DE HXP RATION
AND
DEHYDRATIOH
use of
USE OF THE BOOK.
MeoiciN&s
(WIND)
10:00-
RlS fCS AMD PREcAV-noHS
KINDS OF DIARRHEA
WFTH MEPICINCS
CURATIVE
STOfAACH
USE OF
MEDICINE
ULCERS
BREAKFAST
CURATIVE MEDICINE
OTHEF. GVT PROBLEMS
BR.E AK-F-ASTT.—!
B R E A K F A ST
--------------------------- PREPAR-E FOR.
WEEKLY
----
i
COM TA UN I TV
MG.DICIbwE.S , VsRE liUL ft00 -
HOW TO MEASURE.
AND C>«VE MEDICINES
■ OH M v N i T- -
TEST
VI SITS
(wtnd)
| (.Remind mothcrs
PRACTICE
11:0012:00-
breakfast
IN
DE NT6LJ
clinical health care (medical anc
REV IE W CONSULTATIONS
REVIEW CONSULTATIONS REVIEW CONSULTATIONS
CURATIVE MEDICINE
CURATIVfi MEDICINE CURATIVE PlEPI C/NH
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
MEDICAL HISTORY
1:00-
ABOUT
BABY WEIGHING
INTAOPUCTIOH TO
PHYSICAL EXANA
ON
REV €W COHS U LT AT I okS REVIEW CON SUIT Al IONS
CURATIVE NTEDIClME CURATIVE MEDHNN »r~
VITAL
SIGNS
VITAL SIGNS
LUNCH
I
2:00-
LUNCH
Lu NCH
LUNCH
lunch
4:00-
PREVENTIVE MEDICINE
HOW To PREVENT
DIFFERENT KiMDi
OF DIVEASES___
discussion
show
PREVENTIVE MEDICINE REVIEW OF TEST
PREVENTIVE MEDICINE PAEVCNTlVE MEDICINE
AND wEEK'S
IMPORTANCE OF
PREVENTION CF
SPREAD OF
SANITATION
CLASSES
And Nutrition______
OTHER DISEASES
INFECTIOUS DISEASES
HEALTH EDUCATION
round-table
LEARNING To DAAW
taaKing
Powers
HEALIH EDUCATION
AARKlNGPOSTERS
HEALTH
EDUCATION
PLAN MEETING WITH
School
LUNCH
lunch
MEET WITH Sc Hoc-.
CHILDREN to PLAN
puppet
3:00-
MONPAT)
OPEN
DISCUSS/ OlV
CONTINUE MAKING
POSTERS
ANP
PuePETS u;iTH
5CHOOU GN/LPR6K
children
5:006:00- ’
DINNER
' Dl N NLR
pi NNER
DINNER
dinner
DJNNER
L
7:00-
MEETING
SLIDE
SHOV/ANC1
DISCUSSION ABOUT
-CHILP -to: CHILD
STUDENTS’
self -evaluation
M E- ETI rs) Gr
TO
PLAN
NEXT
WEEK'S
"SCHF.DUtE
-
....... —............... -
-
------- --
...
....................
i f
I?
t
HOW MUCH CURATIVE MEDICINE SHOULD A TRAINING
I PROGRAM
INCLUDE?
I
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3-31
If health workers are to win people's
confidence and cooperation, they need to
START WHERE THE PEOPLE ARE AND BUILD ON THAT.
I
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K
I
T.
h
•
Prevention may be more important than cure. But not to a mother whose child
is sick! Most people feel far more need for curative than preventive medicine. If
health workers are to respond to what people want, they must be able to diagnose
and treat a wide range of common health problems.
II'
To teach health workers to start out by focusing on prevention can be a big
mistake. People do not immediately see the results of preventive work. I hey will
respond more eagerly if health workers begin with curative medicine and use that
as a doorway to prevention.
I
In a community-based program, curative care cannot be
separated from prevention. The first leads to the second.
V
fe.
I
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I CAN'T UNDERSTAND WHV THE
People haven't responded better
'
\TO OUR COMMUNITY HEALTH
r^o H
PROGRA M !
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Xxi-iEAL TH
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1
A HEALTHY BALANCE BETWEEN PREVENTIVE AND CURATIVE MEDICINE
MUST TAKE INTO CONSIDERATION WHAT THE PEOPLE WANT.
r
1
I
Tt- ■
Unfortunately, many programs provide training only in preventive measures
and 'health education'. Curative care, if taught, is limited to the treatment of a
few 'basic symptoms', using 5 or 6 harmless or unnecessary medicines (see p.
18-2). Sometimes health workers end up learning less about diagnosis, treatment,
and the use of modern medicines than many villagers already know. This so
reduces the community's confidence in the health workers that they become
less effective even in their preventive work.
!
*
6 )
I
T"
A common argument against preparing health workers adequately in curative
care .s that "It would be dangerous! There is just too much material to cover in a
short course."
This is true if training focuses on making the students memorize a lot of
detailed facts and information. But if training helps them learn basic skills through
role playing and actual practice, it is amazing how quickly they can become
effective in a wide range of curative skills. To develop reliable curative ability,
I
I
training needs to focu-o on 4 areas of ’learning:
1. Step-by-step problem solving (scientific method).
2. History taking and physical examination of a sick person.
6
3. Practice in using a handbook to diagnose, treat, and advise people about
common problems.
1
I£
4. Learning to recognize one#s own limits, and to judge which problems to
refer to more highly trained workers.
f
I
I
In our experience in Latin America, village health workers can, in 2 months of
practical training, learn to effectively attend 80 to 90% of the sick people they
see. In time, as they gain experience and receive good follow-up training, they can
effectively attend up to 95%. The best health workers learn to work as capably as
most doctors, with less misuse of medicines and more preventive education.
I
I
I
WHAT MAKES EFFECTIVE HEALTH WORKERS?
Whether or not health workers develop the skills and understanding to
help people meet their needs, on their own .terms, depends on many factors:
It
H
• They must be carefully selected, preferably by the community.
• Their instructors must be friendly, identify with the poor and with
their students, and have a good understanding of human nature.
• Training must be carefully and flexibly planned—according to the
needs of the students and llieir communities.
• Teaching must be appropriate and effective built around problem
solving and practice.
• Follow-up after the training course must be supportive and reliable.
1
1
I
In Chapters 2 and 3, we have looked at the first three factors on the list
above. In the next chapters, we will look at others.
But first, it is important to get off to a good start.
IB
|B
.s., —
1
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APPENDIX : SELECTED TRAINING PAPERS
Respect for Other People
The Conditions for Learning
Croup Discussion: The Modulator's Role in a
Democratic Discussion Craup
Styles of Leadership
Leadersh p Quiz
Solving Problems and AZaking Decisions
Elements of Teamwork
Croup D scussions and Meetings
Empathy and Sympathy
Feedback
Episodes A. B and C
Channa Rao
Four Months'Among Oopressud Villager:,
Binnamangalam
Setting Goals
Page
177
179
180
181
183
185
187
187
189
190
192
193
195
196
197
Respect for Other People*
If we are going :o succeed, first, in establishing
a relationship of
trust and confidence with other, and second, in r
promoting change,
there are certain attitudes which we need to adopt in
i our relationships
with others.
These attitudes are important tor the life- and the learning- of any
fl
E
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I
group undergoing training for development work. Without these atti
tudes, we shall not learn much. They are also important for each of us
m our vtsits to villages o- slums, and in all our meetings with other
people, whoever they are. The attitudes are also important in other
aspects...of our-lives^ in-our Emilies,-at work, with our friends, and in^ ~
“I
casual encounters with others at the shop or in the bus.
Adapted from Staley & Sugden, WBI, p. ig.
■■■l!IIIIIIIIBIi!l!llll
.... . .....
III
/
/
178
■
APPENDIX
1
1
The most important is an attitude of respect for other people. This
attitude is based on a sense of the worth of every human being. This is
a fundamental value which under ies our approach to development
We belipve that without respect for others, there can be little meaning
i
ful learning or development, either in a training group, or in a commun
ity outside.
-
179
The Conditions for Learning*
1. An environment of active f>eople
People learn wlien t x y feel they
others in a learning process.
are personally involved with
2. A climate of respect:
Respect implies confidence i n the other person's ability to learn,
and in his potential to solve his proolems and to change himself in the
When a high value is placed on individuals and a sense of caring
prevails.
process. In the wider context of development it implies confidence in
the potential of communities and groups of people to take hold of
°
3. A climate of acceptance.
Accepting a person means that he can be himself and express
his beliefs without fear.
their own lives, to solve theirr own problems, and to work for change
and transformation in society.
4. An atmosphere of trust.
When people have a feeling of trust in themselves and in others.
By communicating respect, v/e help others to respect themselves.
For those who are down-trodden this is important: their attitude to
wards themselves may be one of disrespect Perhaps in a slum you may
hear people saying things like, 'We are only poor people. We can't do
5. A climate of self-discovery:
When learners are he ped to find out about themselves, and to
meet their own needs i .ither than having their needs dictated to
them.
anything. We are helpless." If v/e respect them, we shall help them to
respect themselves and each other, and to change these attitudes of
helplessness and worthlessness. We shall be helping to give them back
their dignity.
6. A non-threatening climate.
So that persons can ccntrort each other and ideas can confront
If we give time to others, listen to others, allow them to make deci
ideas without fear.
sions for themselves, and express warmth towards them and interest'in
them, we shall be showing respect
7. A climate of openness:
When personal concerns feelings, ideas and beliefs can be ex-
One final point about respect Respect for others is based ultimate
ly on respect for oneself. Unless I respect myself, I cannot respect
pressed and examined openly.
8. An emphasis on the unit,quely personal nature of learning:
When each individual krnows that his values, his beliefs, his feel-
others. We shall often see in this course that there is a correspondence
between attitudes and behaviour towards oneself and attitudes and
ings and his views arc iimportant and significant
□ehayfour towards others.
If you are reading this paper in a group, we invite each of you to do
9. A climate in which differ
mnces are thought to be good and
desirable:
a simple exercise at this point. Lock round at—or think of-all the
other members of the group for a couple of minutes and in silence.
When differences iiin p('<'ple are
ideas.
Think whether you have an attitude of respect towards each of them. If
not'.try to cultivate such an atiitude.
SELSCTtD TRAINING PAPERS
|
a> acceptable as differences in
10. A climate which recogmzos the right of individuals to make
mistakes:
' Learning is facilitated who
n e-rdns accepted.as a’hatural part of
the learning process.
11. An atmosphere that tolerates ambiguity:
When alternative soluti )ns can
bo explored without the pres
sures of having to find
Adapted from Exnerienli.il
n
i mmediate single ans we r.
\rn
J? 1
180
APPENDIX
SELtrili) TRAINING PAPERS
12. An emphasis on co-operative evaluation and self-evaluation:
When people can see themselves as they really are, with the
help of their peers.
12. Keep track of time. At (lie- beginning of a discussion you may ask
the members if the-, want to set time limits.
101
13 If the discussion becomes bogged down and people appear
bored or tired, suggest a short break (or a game).
14. Ask the members to evaluate the progress of the discussion
Group Discussion: The Moderator's Role in a
Democratic Discussion Group
Throughout the discussion
Styles of Leadership*
1. Make sure that everyone understands and accepts the task, the
*
• ’
from time to time.
problem, or the issues which the group is going to discuss.
What evidence is there to suggest that quality of leadership is relat
ed to the effectiveness of a group ? A famous study.of leadership styles
2. Help everyone to participate. Don't let one or two members
monopolize the discussion.
was made in America. For the purpose of the study, a number of bo’ys'
3. Encourage the members to share the opinions, the information,
the skills, and the other resources which they have and which are
clubs were set up. In these clubs the boys engaged in hobby-type acti
vities over a period of time. Club leaders were trained to play three dif
ferent types of leadership role: a) authoritarian, b) democratic, and
needed to complete the task.
4. When necessary, clarify what members say through questions or
re-phrasing. Ask questions rather than give answers.
c) 'let-il-happen' (laissez-faire).
5. Encourage members to speak for themselves ("I think...") and
from their personal experience, and to give specific examples.
He allocated tasks for them to work on, rather than allowing them to
choose what they wanted to <io He did not give them any information
Discourage them from speaking very generally and making state
about the end-product of thr-ir work, nor about how their particular
ments like, "Some people seem to think..."
tasks were related to the overall group project He discouraged com
The authoritarian leader gave orders to the boys one step at a time.
munication between the beys and did not allow any irrelevant activity.
Most of the communication was from him to them. He praised and
criticized the boys' wo-k without explaining the basis for his evalua
6. See that members listen to each other and seek clarifications
from each other if necessary. Do not allow interruptions.
7. Keep thp focus on the central task or issues.
tions.
From time to time
The democratic leader allowed the boys to choose a group project
for themselves. He also allowed them to choose what tasks they would
8. Make a summary from time to time. This may involve putting
ideas together, reconciling arguments, exploring differences of
work on as individuals, and helped the boys to see how the individual
opinion, and testing out conclusions for consensus. Don't hesit
tasks were related to the overall group project. He allowed communi
ate to draw attention to differences of opinion.
cation between the boys. He helped them to plan, made suggestions,
and listened to their suggestions. He was concerned for their welfare,
9. Listen to the feelings being expressed behind the words spoken.
Allow the group feeling to be expressed from time to time.
and participated in the life of the group. He gave both praise and critic
10. If there-isa lotto discuss and the group is large, keep in mind the
ism, but made the basis for these clear.
possibilities for breaking into smaller groups.
11. If you want.to give your personal opinions, do so outside your
role as moderator. Say, for example, "Speaking personally, as
Swamy, and not as moderator, I think..."
'
The 'let-it-happen' leader was friendly, but he opted out of the
K
gioup as much as possible. He -ave the boys materials and suggestions
if they asked for them, but he did not direct the proceedings at all. He
remained passive unless directly approached by the boys.
ii^xArt Oil .
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182.
••
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APPENDIX
SELECTi.D TRAINING PAPERS
'The behaviour patterns within the group under the different leaders
’were carefully recorded, and conclusions drawn about the sort of be-
everyone to be heard. The reason for this is, presumably, that without
an acknowledged leader, the early phase of a group's existence con
sists of a-Struggle..f.or leadership by many of the members.,From this
point of view, the presence of an acknowledged leader can speed up
the process whereby individuals in a group learn to co-ordinate their
behaviour to that of pthers. Too much 'leadership behaviour' hinders
•<
haviour“found' under-the three different styles of leadership.
A' r*.
More work was achieved under authoritarian conditions than
under.democratic conditions, and least under let-it-happen'. However,
i
group solidarity, originality, motivation to work, approval of the leader,
and enjoyment were all higher in the democratic situation. The boys
were more co-operative with one another. There was less aggressive
behaviour and 'scapegoating'. The group was not disrupted when the
democratic leader left them alone.
Morale was very low in the authoritarian situation, and more ag
gressive and destructive behaviour occurred. During the authoritarian
leader's absence, there was disruption of the group.
Under the 'let-it-happen' condition little work was done at all, and
the general atmosphere was one of apathetic chaos. The boys' beha
viour was anti-social and disruptive.
Most of the boys preferred the democratic leader, and all of those
who-drbpped out did so under authoritarian conditions. One or two of
the boys did, however, prefer the authoritarian regime, in particular
one boy whose father was an army officer.
fc
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The study illustrates clearly what is meant by 'authoritarian' and
§
183
’ .■
On the other hand, if no-one plays a co-ordinating or supervisory
role, it may take a very long time for group members to work out a sys
tem of working together effectively. In the study, particularly because
the subjects were young, they cid not learn to do this at all.
Other studies have also shown that some degree of leadership is
necessary to allow more eqyal participation, and for the views of
Disagree
1. An effective leader varies his use of authority ac
cording to the group and situation. Sometimes he
merely announces his decision, at other times he
persuades, consults or leaves the decision to the
group, all depending on the group and situation.
3. An effective leader realizes that people have
mixed feelings towards authority; .e. they both
the individual members.
ate their behaviour with that of other group members.
Agree
dual members of his team.
kind of group and its task, there is an optimal point on that continuum
some way. This is partly because they have not acquired the skills to
undertake the task; and partly because they have to learn to co-ordin
All of us have some basic not ons and assumptions about leader
ship. What are yours? Do you agree or disagree with the following?
fective one the strengths and weaknesses of indivi
for the effectiveness of the group and for the personal satisfaction of
If a leader does no: delegate any aspects of his role to other group
Leadership Quiz*
2. An effective leader sees more clearly than a less ef
'democratic/ leadership. It also suggests that leadership can be seen as a
continuum, from control by an authoritarian leader to almost complete
individual autonomy under a 'let-it-happen' leader. Depending on the
members, that group is vulnerable if he is absent or if he fails them in
the process, and so does too little.
like it and do not like it.
■
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lite
4. An effective leader must decide whether he is go
ing to be democratic o
authoritarian, and then
stick to his decision.
5. Effective leaders tend to smooth over or avoid
conflict between members of the group rather
than confront them.
6. An effective leader musi have an impressive
appearance and be tall, strong and handsome.
* Adapted from Britto, 1978; McGrath, 1978, pp. 297-8.
4
v -/
APPENDIX
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11
I.'
SELECTEi > TRAINING PAPERS
;>7?;$nveffective leader is careful not to make mis-
20. An effective leader considers his men, their qual
stakes, and he does not tolerate the mistakes of
pothers.
_
ity and development, to hi? his mos: important re
sources—far mo'o impf'dant than materials or
8. Al) effective leader thinks in terms of duty rather
than results.
w
185
money.
s
9, Arr effective leader always rewards all those who
21. An effective leader is sensihve both id group and
individual needs, as well as the de mands of the
situation.
are loyal to him.
22. Leadership should be shared in a g .oup, moving
from one member to another, according to the
10. An effective leader is one who keeps his ap
pearance and dress neat and clean.
competence required in '.he situa.i'm.
T1. An effective leader is one who can get a lot of
’ help from outside for his group.
Solving Problems and Making Decisions*
12. An effective leader puts a great value on humour,
When a group tor an incl.\idual) is -a<. ed with solving a problem or
making a decision, there arc live step.- which can be followed. These
steps will make for greater clarity and effectiveness while considering
the problem or the decision, and they will also lead to a better final
and uses it to keep a sense of perspective when
the group is struggling with a problem.
13. Besides the authority of his position, an effective
leader tries to develop other forms of influence,
decision.
i.e. his personality, competence and character.
1. Define the problem
Ask yourselves, 'What is the real problem before us?" If you cannot
agree on what the problem i>, you certainly will not agree on the
14. An effective leader is one who leads a group to
Its goals.
solution! A clearly-defined pioblem is already a great help towards a
15. An effective leader encourages honest disagree
ment in order'to find bette' solutions.
16. An effective leader treats each member of his
group in the same way.
OO-
17. An effective leader is one who usually gets his
group, doing the things they do well and omit
lem is moderating discussions"; but, 'The problem is how to learn to
2. Collect possible solutions
||p;
Ask yourselves, 'What am he possible solutions to this problem ?"
Make a list of all the deas, p< -ible sontions and suggestions without
ting those they cannot.
19. An ineffective leader often gets lost in the jungle
of his duties and loses track of objectives.
tom. Underneath there may be larger and deeper issues.
Express the problem in "Mow to...' terms. Do not say, 'The prob
moderate discussions effectively."
way in a group discussion.
18. An effective leader builds on the strengths of his
solution.
What appears to be the problem may be only a superficial symp
evaluating any of them (The process is similar to 'brain-storming').
It is important to separate the collecting of ideas in this step from
■tft
evaluation: the evaluation should come only in the third step. If you
evaluate ideas in this second step., it will inhibit the contribution of
further ideas.
Adapted from McGrain, 1978, pp. 330-2
i
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APPEND!*
SELECTED TRAINING PAPERS
Makethe-list of possible solutions as long and complete as possible.
■
187
!■
•
Some people believe that the quality of the final decision depends on
the number of possible solutions collected during this second step.___
it;
committees, organizations and communities.
Ask yourselves, "Of all the alternatives we have listed, which is the
fi
I
best solution?"
Weigh the pros and cons of each possible solution.
5?- ’
Encourage dissent and disagreement among the members of the
ing others feel defensive. Try to separatelhe ideas and solutions from
the individuals who contributed them.
There are two important aspects to an effective decision. One is the
quality of the decision. Ask yourselves, "Does this decision accomplish
our purpose ? Will it effectively solve the problem ?"The second aspect
is the acceptability' of the decision to those who have to carry it put
.1. Teamwork requires an understanding of, and commitment to, the
task and objectives of the group.
2. Teamwork requires the maximum utilization of the different
resources of the individuals within the group.
group. This will help in the complete examination of every possibility.
through completely. At the same time, avoid being defensive or mak
There are a number of elements to teamwork. These are not easily
rk together in groups,
groups.
achieved, but they arc excellent targe:s as we work
3. Evaluate the possible solutions and choose the best
Beware of easy agreements—they probably have not been thought
h
Elements of Teamwork*
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I
If you find that you now need further information or an expert
opinion, get it before the decision is made, not afterwards I
Consider whetner the group itsel' is ready to make a decision.
Sometimes groups (like individuals) need time to 'think oveC a decision
3. Teamwork is achieved wlci flexibility, sensitivity to the needs of
others, and creativity arc encouraged.
4. Teamwork is most effective when leadership is shared.
5. Teamwork requires a group to develop appropriate procedures for
meeting particular p'oblems or situations, and for making decisions.
6. Teamwork is charac'.erizec by the group's ability to examine its own
process, so as to conszamlv improve itself as a team.
7. Teamwork requires trust am: openness in communication and relat
ionships.
8. Teamwork is achieved
nun the group members have a strong
sense of belonging.
before finally making it
4. Implement the decision
Decide on the steps for implementing the decision. Ask yourselves,
"Who is going to do wiat? When? How?" Be specific: put names against
actions.
/
A decision which coes not include details of how the decision is to
be implemented may be ineffective and even useless. Lots of good
i
not taken care of.
As well as deciding who will do what, when and how, there may be
other questions, such as, "Who else should be informed of this
decision?"
I.
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tion effectively and to coripleie its task. There are also conditions and
behaviour which will hincer the group. These can be related either to
the group's task, or to the nrocess of the discussion.
The following contribute tn a good discussion:
A. Related to the zask
1. Members take the initiaii/e to define the task, define words and
concepts, clarify issue - introduce new ideas, etc.
2. The task is clear to every member of the group, and all members
5. Follow-up
Ask yourselves, "How will we check on how this decision s working
in action ?" It is important that the group decides at the time they make
X’ne demion ’now they are going to arrange for follow-up and feedback.
Every meeting snd discu>>k n has its own dynamics. However there
are; certain conditions or behaviour which will help a group to func
••if.;'-.
ideas are never translated into action because their implementation is
Group Discussions and Meetings
accept it
3. Members have tne information they need; or they seek it from
K.
each other.
‘ Adapted from Lippiti, 197 ). iu >ted by Britto, 1978
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APPENDIX:'
; -4. 'Members freely give information and facts related to the-task, and
.
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SELECTED TRAINING PAPERS
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189
B. Related to the process
also offer their opinions.-
. .
•
’ 1. No agreemen: on procedure.
—Si-Membe r-s-speak- f rom-the4 f—pe rsonal - ex peri en ee, - givi ng-s pecift &■
,
examples.
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6. Members listen to each others contributions, and ask for clarifica
tions from each other of what is not clear.
2. A climate of tension^ or (jf c!omintitidn’and-c6'iTt7brby’67fe dr two
people.
3. Failure to listen to others.
4. Interrupting others while :hey are speaking.
7. The focus remains on the central issues.
5. Hurt feelings, and faili
8. There is a periodic summary, a putting together of ideas, or the
testing of a conclusion. .
9. Any conclusion is tested against reality to see if it 'fits'.
B. Related to the process
1. Members agree on a procedure for the discussion.
2. There is a periodic evaluation of the progress of the discussion.
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3. The climate.in the group encourages everyone to participate.
4. People listen, not only to the words spoken, but also to the feel
ings behind the words, and to the non-verbal expressions.
5. There is a periodic expression of the feeling in the group.
to deal with these and other group
feelings.
6. Withdrawal of some members or displays of non-participation.
7. No review of the progress of the discussion.
8. Excessive disagreement and opposition for personal reasons.
9. Passing judgement on what others say; deflating others; or giving
them advice.
10. Struggles for power, recognition or leadership.
11. Formation of sub-groups.
I
12. Vested interests and 'hidden agendas'.
A person who is acting obstructively is probably doing so, not
because of any intellectual difficulty, but because his feelings are upset
If a member, feels:
6. Any tensions which arise within the group are reduced or relieved.
7. Arguments are reconciled, differences are explored, members
'agree to disagree agreeably7.
a) that his role or identity in the group is not clear, or
8. There is a periodic testing for consensus or decisions.
b) that the group s task is net worthwhile, or
c) that he should be wielding more influence than he is, or
d) that the group does not like or accept him,
The following hinder a good discussion:
A. Related to the task
then he may behave obstructively. Sensitivity to this point can help the
1. Lack of clarity about—or commitment to —the group's task.
members of a group to set4 more clearly what is happening in the
2. Failure to give, or to seek, information which is available with
group.
group members.
3. Failure to stick to. the main, issues.
4. Generalized agreements at a high level of abstraction.
5. Failure to check out and clarify exactly what is not clear when
someone else speaks.
6. Excessive probing for another member's opinions or experience
when he does not want to share these any further.
7. The
introduction
interests.
of
irr&l&vcint
personal
topics,
anecdotes,
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Empathy and Sympathy*
■If we are to 'start where people are' we need first to understand
where they are. Above all, v.e need to be able to understand how
other people experience the wodd. This means that we must not only
understand their knowledge, hut also their feelings and their attitudes.
We must be able to see life through their eyes, and to understand the
forces that they feel are impinging on their lives.
' Staley & Sugden, 1981, V3, p. 18.
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SELECTED
RAINING PAPERS
lyl
When it comes to helping to brint; about change, this becomes
given wrongly, it is not only unhelpful, but can also be destructive Here
even more important. For example, if we want to encourage change
1-
are,some guidelines for giving feedback:
onlyjf wecan startvvith them
where they are, and respond to them, and contribute ideas that fit
within their frame of reference, that our responses and ideas will have
1
any meaning for them.
The technical name for this md of unde-standing is empathy, which
make use of such information f he chooses to do so.
DON'T make general statements, such as, '1 feel annoyed because
we can define as the ability to understand accurately and accept what
■M
another is experiencing, and to communicate that understanding and
acceptance to him. All of us are capable <empathy; and it can be deve
loped through conscious effort and practice. Like respect, it is based on
DONT describe the other person's feelings or motives or intentions.
For example, "You wanted to hurt me." You do not know this: it is only
your guess or interpretation. Such feedback will probably be rejected.
1
There can also be an element of pity in sympathy, which implies an
sive reaction.
DONT make general evaluative statements about the other per
with. The sympathizer may ever 'shower his emotional warmth on the
son's character. For example, 'You are dominating and inconsiderate."
'unfortunates' below. It is much easier to show sympathy than empa
The person who is told this will p'obably react defensively.
thy, especially in a culture where we are used to thinking of some
people as superior and some as inferior. This is the attitude of many
people towards the poor: by sh-;wing sympathy towards the poor, the
better-off person assumes a cert ..in superiority to them. In our view this
is not showing respect So we ca i see that an attitude of understanding
DONT judge the other person's actions. For example, 'You were
wrong to shout at me." Statements >ike this will only produce a defen
unequal relationship. The person snowing sympathy, i.e. the sympa
thizer, is at a 'higher7 level compared to the person being sympathized
or empathy-goes hand-in-hand with an att tude of respect
you never listen to me." Unless you can give some specific examples,
the receiver may not understand or believe what you are telling him!
DO describe, your own feelings and reactions. For example, "I felt
hurt" This is. what you actually know.
an assumption or belief that people are of worth, and of equal worth.
It may be useful to make the distinction here between this kind of
understanding or empathy, and sympathy. Sympathy is the sharing of
anothers feeling-feeling with that person. We feel sympathy for our
friend whose father has died. We share' his sadness.
DO be specific. Give examples and data. For example, ''Wfen ypu"
interrupted me just now I felt annoyed." The othe- person Si&le'to
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DO think of the needs of the other person and of what will be use
ful to him. Feedback should be constructive.
i
DONT speak only out of your own need to react or score off the
other person: that is irresponsible and destructive.
DO speak only of behaviour which the other person could change,
for example, his habit of interrupting. This is within his control.
DONT speak of behaviour over which he has no Control, for
example, his habit of stammering. To comment on that will only in
Feedback
crease his frustration.
Feedback is information given to a pet-on (or a group or an organi
zation) about how he affects otlc-rs. Il hHp- i im become more aware,
both of his strengths and of his'^
w. c
'
.iknesM
s |i does not tell him what he
should do, but it raises qucsla is for •
It helps him to decide
whether to change his bchaviou; ..o that
. an Im - more effective and
better able to achieve what he wants.
If feedback is given in a po-.ative wa\ a . an be helpful. But if it is
I
DO choose the right time, climate and company io give feedback.
Generally it is most useful immediately after the event concerned.
/J?.'
DON F give feedback long after tae event, in some other situation,
with some other group of people.
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DO give feedback when the other person asks for it. Better still, ask
him exactly what he wants to knew.
I
DON'T give feedback if the other person has made it clear that he
,
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SELECTEi: 1RAINING PAPERS .
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does not want it
O'
DO encourage him to check with anyone else who was present
about the accuracy of the_feeTibackrTbir(^7Tbe^^
------b^ck is more effective if it is received from several sources.
.
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193
Episode C
------ S.p.me: sodaLworkers., wanted, to ..start a qaroject. fQcqhe. bemefjt-OJ_____
pooLfamilies in a semi-industrial area. One of the needs which they ob
served-was for training and employment for the girls of the area. So
they started a project, and gave training and employment to .many of
DO ask the receiver if he understands what you are saying even
though he may not accept it
the girls. After some months, the girls were trained and were earning
Feedback is a way of giving help. It is a corrective mechanism for
considerable salaries. Then the ;oc al workers discovered that most of
-the person who wants to learn how well his behaviour matches his
the money which the girls ut-ie earning was being collected by the
intentions. It is a means of increasing a person's autonomy and estab
lishing his identity—for answering the question "Who am I?"
fathers. Sc it. turned out that the project was mainly benefitting the
local money-lenders in repay!! ent of loans taken earlier by the girls'
money-lenders.
Episode A*
[The following extract is tasi-n from a first-hand account of work in
had been promised. So-we organized a march to the Corporation
remote villages of Andhra Pradesh which had been devastated by the
office, and the people prpceeded to wash their clothes at the taps
there. After that the Corporation quickly got the water connections
installed in Ram Nagar.
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Channa Rao*
The slum-dwellers of-Ram Nagargot tired of endlessly appealing to
the Corporation authorities for the piped water connection that they
fe1
cyclone of 19th November, I1 77.1
That evening, at the meeting Alv-no pointed out that we had to be
sensitive to the feelings of the village people. For us burying bodies
might be a new experience. Bui io them, it brought back memories of
people they had known intimately. "Suppose we were to find a dear
Episode B
Some fishermen were freed from their age-old indebtedness to
the fish merchants and money-lenders, and were organized into a
fishermen's sangam^. But the sangam members still had to sell their fish
to the merchants. The merchants normally pay cash, but for the sangam
members they now refused to do so, giving credit notes only, in
the hope of breaking the sangam. When one merchant owed several
thousand rupees, the sangam organizer arranged a petition from the
sangam members for settlement, warning the merchant that he would
not be allowed to remove his fish from the village unless he paid up by
a certain date. On that day his lorry was prevented from moving from
the village by the sangam members, and he quickly paid the amount
due.
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relative of ours in that slate ol
composition, what would our feelings
be? Would it not be a heart-breaking experience?"
The next day, we were to find out just how heart-breaking.
A father recognizes his dead children
The bodies of two childre- had been found about half a mile from
the village. People said they v. -re the children of Channa Rao, the
headman of Malakayalanka.
Should we tell him' Or should we bury them without his know
ledge? Two opinions were exp «^sed. Some felt it would.upset him un
necessarily. He had lost father, mother, wife and five children. But
others thought differently: "Sup x>se we don't tell him, he will surely
come to know later. And he n .r. leel betrayed by people he had come
to knew and trust." In the end ths view prevailed.
The next morning Channa Rai» was sent for. Madhava Rao handled
* Adapted from Maglaya, 1978, pp. 3-4.
A sangam is an association or co-operative.
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the situation well. "Channa Rae
‘ Noronha, 1978, pp. 31-2
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he said softly,, "two bodies have been
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APPENDIX
found-near the river. The people say they are from your village. Would
youdike to see them ?" After a pause, Channa Rao said he would. Asil~cp.t pi'Qcessru1! took him to the-spotywherewvaod-^cHiTeseHoil had~
already been prepared.
■’ As soon as the other fishermen saw the first body, they said, "Channa
Pillai, Channa Pillai^fChanna's child!). It was the body of his eleven-year
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More than anything else? I had seen, this event made me realize the
i Ip- enormous tragedy tha: hac come ((.•ver these men and women,
3
—Ehanna-R-ae -w-as-aw-ay-at-the i ime-of-t!he c^cToner-Whe-n-he-heacd-tlaalhe had lost his entire family, he spent days searching for the bodies of
p his children. Without realizing, it., we had given him the solace of a final
glimpse of two of his daughle'S.
dla daughter— Krishnalcumari — who used to come to the primary
school in bur village. She was lying face downward, with her hands be
neath her chest Part of her dress was still on her body, but her feet were
missing. Some vandal had chopped them off to get her silver anklets.
Channa Rao looked at her, shaking his head as. if in disbelief Then
I first macle a quick round of ail the villages. All I had with me was a
slowly, the tears began to roll down his strong, weather-beaten face.
knap-sack on my back. I used to eat what the people gave me. Often, it
"Don't cry," said one of the fishermen, "I too lost three children." But we
made a sign to him to be silent
was only one full meal a day. The group I wanted to capture were the
A longtime passed, before Channa Rao was ready to be shown his
could talk things over. I won d tell them of the developments taking
second child a hundred yards away. It was the body of his three-year
old girl.T-fer left hand still wore a pretty glass bangle, but her right arm
was gone. Her face was turned to one side and her features were still
distinct after 38 days. But her body ended at the femur.
-
Four Months Among Oppressed Villagers*
A-V'?
young men. I invited them to come around in the evening so that we
K
s
%
place in other parts of the country, and ask them how they compare
their situation to what is happening elsewhere. When they acknow
ledged their situation was pretty hopeless, I asked them who should
bring about change, except they themselves. I would explain that to
Channa Rao sat down on the ground. Now, the full impact of the
each problem there is a corresponding solution: the solution is a com
tragedyhit him, and he cried uncontrollably. As we stood there, we no
bination of the energy and co-operation of the people and the facilities
ticed a clump of the dead child's hair on the thorny bush above. A little
offered by the local government
below, a piece of her dress fluttered in the strong wind.
"Channa Rao, would you like-your children cremated or buried?
Whatever you want, we will do." He did not answer.
When the question was repeated, he said: "Cremated." We led him
away . gently, while logs of wood were wedged under the body, and
place.d-over it
Channa Rao. went back to the,first child, and. despite protests,
caressed the hair, the arms and legs of his 11-year old daughter.
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According to-Hindu custom, it is the father who lights the funeral
pyre. But Channa Rao could not bring himself to do this. A short prayer
was said in Telugu, commending the dead child to God's care. Then
Alvino set the wood aflame. The strong wind fanned the fire and even
the green leaves on the bush above crackled in its searing heat As we
watched the burning wood consume the last remains of Channa Rao's
children, it seemed a more impressive way of handing back the human
body to the earth.
---- ..c-..
—
The next step was one of motivation. Help is available, but will not
be forthcoming unless the people demand it. The whole village must
first become aware of their own problems and of the corresponding
solutions, and then demand whv.t is due to them from the government
as a village community. This is the challenge I threw to the young men:
get the people together and help them realize their problems and their
rights.
So meetings were held in the vil age>. organized by the young men.
The people were asked to enumerate their problems, then make a list
H
of priorities. Once they had se lected the top problem, I would instruct
f.
Ill
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approached, the conditions l< ■ ft Ifill. The next step was to draw up ap
1
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them about what governmen: >cheme was available, the offic er to be
plications and get them signed by eveiyone present.
14 such applications were handed in to government agencies in
two months. I continued to meet with a core group of 12 youths at
least once a week. In this process O' growing awareness on their part a
’ Lourdusamy, 1975. pp 7-8.
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APPENDIX
significant thing happened. They came to realize that it was not enough
for^hem to be committed to the development of their own village, but
—
w
^^eh^hot±M%e^eiieemed-abetjt-eaehptheGs-vilFage-too7-They4elt-
the need of an inter-village organization to strengthen their common
cause. This organization would serve as a channel of education for the
village folks, viz., to.awaken the people to their socio-economic situa
SELECIL':' !RAINING PAPERS
JgEfeG were entitled. They set abo 1 .oingthi* ,;nd by the end of two weeks
relief works had beer start
.-.hie i gm.e- employment to about half
the-able-bedied- adiGs in ii • village \:o one had yet-reuJved.. iny.
grant, although application^ had been submitted by all those who were
Meanwhile the dm.... i; was growing more severe, and many
people in the village wen
tion and motivate them to action; it should become a registered
society and get legal status; as a recognized organization, it would take
up specific acts of injustice, corruption and .exploitation to which the
yi.llage people are subjected, and fight these issues.
This is where v/e have reached so far. It is difficult tp assess the im
pact this group of youngsters has had on the villagers. But it has been a
good start towards a greater awareness of the present situation, espe
cially among the young, and a certain amount of commitment has
manifested itself to meet the existing situation, with a desire to do
something about it.
197
'.'haring. Those still without w>-.-k were
becoming apathetic.
l-
At this point, the represt.iv.i'ave of a foreign agency came to Binna-
mangalam. He told thestuder is that if they were willing to take responsi
bility for cooking and distributing food, the agency would provide two
meals a day for every person m the village until the drought was over.
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Do you think the stud
s slioulci have accepted the agency's
offer?
What would be the pros .nd cons or the agenc/s proposal from a
development point of view
Setting Gcals*
Binnamangalam
GA’•
. During the severe drought in Lok Pradesh, a small group of students
from Swami Durgadas College went to work in the village of Binna
mangalam. The. Government of Lok Pfadesh was already organizing
relief works near every village. According, to Government statements,
all drought-affected adults who were able-bodied could obtain daily
employment near their homes and receive a basic wage.
Government had also announced a programme-of grants-in-aid for
the very old, the physically-handicapped, orphaned children, and
widows with babies. All the families of Binnamangalam were, in theory
at least, eligible to benefit either from the employment on the relief
works or from the grants-in-aid.
But when the students reached Binnamangalafn they found that
there were no’ relief works within five miles, and that no-one in the
village knew about the grants-in-aid. Every able-bodied adult in the vil
lage wanted to work. The students had no financial resources them
selves.
After studying the whole situation, the students decided that they
couJd help best by or^anizin^ the villagers to demand from the local
Government officials the relief works and the grants to which they
C’
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Most of us live and work I'.ir below < ?ur capacity. We are like bits of
wood, floating passively on a river. We are carried here and there by
the currents of the river wthout any aim of our own.
Setting goals for ourselve-. can free us from the aimlessness and
inertia of floating on the river. Goals can help to give meaning and di
rection to ourlives. They can help us tc use our’capabilities more fully
and effectively. They can he In us to develop our potentials. They can
help us to use our resoun
our Lme, and our energies more
effectively.>They can guide u> when v/e have to take decisions and
make plans. They can help us io change ourselves. They can help us to
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work for change in society
Research has shown that
ommitment to clearly stated goals leads
to the achievement of tliese g* >als. Yet tl is commitment is not acquired
easily. Commitment to pe'scnal life-goals can be especially costly. To
choose one goal is to reject < >thers. You can't be a development wor
ker and a businessman too.
Further,.once we set goals lor ourselves, we must have the courage
to risk failure in reaching th?G-.’pals. One who sets no goals for himself
does not run the risk of failing to rear h his goals.
* Adapted from Currie, 1975, pn
and other sources.
tR-9; McGrath, 1975, pp. 93-5; Britto, 1978-
Q
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APPENDIX
SILECH D TRAINING PAPERS
Ivy
-Often we confuse activities-doing things-with achieving goals.
term goals are more 'acdon-<cntred'. 1 hey can be related to improving
skills, developing relationships, study and learning, solving a problem —
|||___ orJncleed any area or aspe
oik oav-c-day lives during
_ ct of*____
'
g a limited
We invest ourselves and our own resources (our time, our capabilities,
--
leisure, social events, training or whatever it may be) without thought
tor the end-result of such activities. Unless the end-result is clear, the
B'
purpose of the activities may not be clear. Setting goals, which are the
end-results
end-results we
we W^ntto
want to achieve,
achieve, can bring purpose and meaning to our
I
activities.
To be able to set meaningful and attainable goals, we must know
period of time. Our short-term goals must be consistent with our long
term goals.
B
f
Finally our goa.s—esoecially our short-term goals —should be pre
cise, concrete and measurable. They should be linked with some
record of progress. Otherwise we shall not be able to tell if and when
we have achieved them. A goal such as. 'To read as many books on
ourselves. What do we do best? What do we enjoy doing? What are
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our strengths? How can we build on our strengths? How can we
change ourselves ?
If we want to change ourselves—to acquire and practise new skills,
development as possible and to under- rand them to my utmost ability
in a very short time," is not a good goal. It is too vague; and it cannot be
cuss anything in the book which I do not understand with Venkatesh
and Mr. Ramappa by 31st December," would be a better goal.
or to behave differently-goals can help us. For one thing they help us
to compare what we want to do with what we actually do now. They
also, in themselves, help to motivate us to achieve the changes we
want, and they reinforce our efforts to change. Coals that are associat
ed with an enhanced self-image will help to motivate us further.
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point in setting goals. We might as well continue as we are doing
already.
m
as
Our goals must be challenging. If they are not sufficiently challeng
On the other hand, we'must be realistic in setting goals' We must as
sess our opportunities and situation carefully. What goals would be real
istic and within our reach? If we set unrealistic goals, we shall not be able
to achieve them, and this.will lead to frustration and disappointment
Moreover/ once we have set goals, we must have enough self-confid
ence to reach out towards them If we feel our situation to be hopeless
When setting short-term goals it may be helpful to use the ART
formula:
a
ing- or if. we are not going to make the necessary effort-there is no
O;
A = Aspect or area e.g., learning, relationships, leisure, skill
R*= Result to be achieved
'
Once we have set our goals we should keep them constantly in
mind. This will prevent us from being side-tracked. Using our imagina
tion can also help us. If v/e can imagine in detail what it will be like to
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them. Breaking down major goals into smaller steps can also help.
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our goal-setting will be in vain and will again lead to frustration.
But if the goal is important to us, if we subject it to continual reas-
I
T= Time limit
achieve our goals, it will act as an additional incentive.
|a; |
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measured. 'To read C. T. Kurien's Poveriy and Development, and to dis
If we can anticipate I kely or possible obstacles in our way, we can
think about them in advance and plan how we are going to overcome
Every journey, however ong, begins with a single step. It will help us
further if we talk over our goals with friends, and with people with
special skills who can guide aiid advix* us.
sessmen^and if we seek feedback in our efforts from those who count
in our liv&s; we may reasonably assume that we can achieve the goal
we set for ourselves. Even the very process of setting goals—even
thinking-about them-can help us to achieve them.
y
We can distinguish between long-term and short-term goals. Longterm goals are to do with our lives: the overall direction of our lives,
our career, our ambilion,
our personal growth, etc. For. setting longterm goals we should consult our hearts as well as our heads. Short
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KDUCAyTON
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A statement of shared concern and evolving collectivity
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.COMMUNITY HEALTH TRAINERS DIALOGUE
OCTOBER 1991
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Preamble
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Ne, the participants of the Community Health Trainers Dialogue
representing Community Health and Development trainers, networks
--’d coordinating agencies and faculty members! of medical
colleges in the voluntary ’' health sector
having reflected on the key components of the National
Health Policy, the reports of the various committees
including the National Education Policy for Health
Sciences as found in the Bajaj Report (1989);
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having considered the need for change in Education for
Health in view of our goals and in the context of health
and community development; health and culture; human
power development; training strategies; education of
trainers and the approaches to adopt as also the mechanisms of Implementation;
have arrived at the following conclusions at the meeting held
on October 3-5, 1991 at Bangalore.
NEED
FOR
CHANGE
The socio-economic,-political and cultural situation in our
country has resulted in the declining health of the majority of
our people who are poor and marginalised, especially the women
and children among them.
Various factors including the f
increasing use of Inappropriate capital intensive’sophis
ticated technology and high cost services;
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incireasing commercialisation of the health care system,
witli the tendency to transfer governmental responsibility
to privatised, profit-oriented sector;
limited, available resources for health care;
the disregard of priorities;
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the use of English to the exclusion of local languages as
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— lopsided health human [power development policy
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in production,
distribution and utilisation in the health
-—1th sector, not linked
to need;
- the destructive impact of modernisation on culture and health; |
-- the orientation of health care more in toms or disease then
of health;
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- the dominant Influence of Western and consumerist practices
and values in health care;
and the lack of a holistic approach;
indicate an urgent need for change in our policy for education
tor health.
GOALS
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Considering the goal of Health for All the policy for Education
for Heal't-h must
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see health as <a constituent
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part of human development
and as
an integral instrument of building a Just and equitable
society;
- aim at building up and sustaining a health system that
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is people oriented, helping the people to cope with
tneir problems in health;
* is available and accessible
preferentially to the poorest
sector;
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strives to enable and empower them to participate in their
own health care by sharing in decision making, control,
financing and evaluation with regard to their choice of
health system;
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is in consonance with the culture and traditional practices^
when these ;are constructive and beneficial;
uses the resources better f with appropriate technology
which serves the people.
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HEALTH AND COMMUNITY pEVELOWg.NT
The increasing recognition of the interaction between health
and community development should be reflected in proportiona
tely adequate budgetary allocation for health. Given the
resource crunch, the priority needs of the majority of our
people must be focussed on.
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While we see a gradual shift already taking place from hospital
and dispensary to the community, we need to go still further
in cur progress from curative to promotive and community health,
through awareness building and participation in decision making
by the members of the community.
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All health and development workers together with the people
must work as a team.
In this sharing process, care must be taken not to put too
much of a load on the primary community level workers.
SYSTEMS AW PSACTICfeS
There is a plurality of health systems and practices in our
country, many of i^hich have their roots in our ancient past.
These systems are to be recognised for their specific strengths
and limitations, and to be nurtured as a valuable and effective
heritage. A greater and more sustained effort must be made to
study and understand these systems and their specific relation
to the various needs of the people.
There is also a complexity of health service systems in
operation viz., governmental, private and voluntary. These
systems must be decentralised to the extent possible with
greater accountability to the people.
HEALTH HUMANPOWSR DEVELOPMENT
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The present context of education and training’ needs to be
reviewed. What is useful should be retained and what is
inappropriate should be removed. The contents of all levels
should also include the study of ethics and values, behavioural
and social sciences, management, economics of health and ecology.
There is need for the creation of a body of knowledge and skills
that are locally relevant and for the building of proper attitude.
The capacity of people to cope with, and the responsibility they
take fox? their health is to be recognised.
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Different grades of workers are needed at different levels of
nealth care and they must include
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the (group of people at the community level, including the
voluntary
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- -f quasi-governsental
- -» governmental health workers,
me teachers and others? and
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the doctors, nurses, dental surgeons, allied health
p ro f e ssi cn a1s, technicians and others of similar category
There is need for an optimum mix of the different categories,
both quantitative and qualitative 3 wltii priority for the health
workers at the community level.
Hoalth t o am 3
The training should be such as to enable the members to work
a s a team for the health of the people.
jj-llj.-p.g sducation
Continuing Education should enable even the most remotely
^situated worker to benefit from it. This may be achieved by
distance and other methods of learning.
The focus must mainly be on social goals, in addition to needed
knov/ledge, skills and attitudes.
TRAINING STRATEGIES
Eaucation for health should be community-oriented and people
based so that the health professional/worker is able to equip
and enable the people to cope with their health problems^
Competence based learning
The health personnel at different levels should be trained with
appropriate skills attitudes and knowledge to function effecti
vely in the area of work, encouraging competence based learning.
Opportunities should be provided for learning outside the
training institution or organisation in the health care delivery
system at various levels. One way of achieving this objectives
will be through the greater use of olcctives in the community
with government and voluntary health and development projects.
Value orientation
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The training programmes at all levels should
day emphasis on
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values and ethics including conduct and relationships at the
personal level and right to health and distributive justice
at the social level.
Health and Culture ,
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build on it. Both trainers and trainees must approach this
area with an attitude of learning.
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It is the primary responsibility of the government to provide
health care services, while the voluntary (NGO) sector also has
its increasing role. To achieve the optimum mix, with respect
to n^bers, tjpes a^d qualities of health workers and effective
training programmes, all efforts should be made to have inf
raction between governmental and non-governmental sectors,
learning from and supportive of each others e or s.
gon-Government al Programmes
3ystems of Health Care and Medicine
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All training programmes must take into consideration peoples
health culture.
Whatever be the focus of the system of health care‘ and medicine,
, there"is need for generating awareness
in a training prog^niej
trad£tions in the country
of the plurality of health systems <-_
and encourage a healthy respect for all systems.
sys ems.
Evaluation
All training programmes should be evaluated for their effectiveness to achieve their goals, including their cost effect!usoo. The process of cevaluation
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veness
by the
J-- trainees and the people themselves.
Training of Trainers
There is need for improving training of trainers for community
based, people-oriented health care. The trainers should be
role models for the trainees. For all formal courses, tne
trainers should devote their full-time for the training.
Methodologies of training
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Different methodologies of learning and training, appropriate
to the situation should be used. To the extent possible, all
training should be more experiential.
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I nnova t ive g vogrs
To meet the requirements of Health for All,innovative
training programmes should be encouraged and supported,
whether in the governmental or voluntary sectors. National
institutes set up to function as torch bearers of innovation
should h- ~'-ccountable to the people in. this role*
Netvorking of individuals/lnstitutions involved in promoting
innovations in training should he encouraged and
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This staten’ont of shared concern and an evolving collectivity
amongst us is also the beginning of a process of working
together towards the evolution of such an educational policy
in health sciences responsive to the needs of the large
majority of our people - the poor and marginalised* We also
resolve that building on our own individual/project/programm©/
institutional experiences
shall work together* lobbying for
these changes and new directions in training of health humanpower 5»n the country.
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Rajaratnam Abel
D. Banerji
Sara Bhattacharji
P,G. Vijaya Sherry Chand
Sujatha de Magry
Margaret D’Abreo
Ulhas Jajoo
Mani Kalliath
Dhruv Mankad
Thelma Narayan
K, Pappu
Amia Rama Rao
Satish Samuel
Reynold Washington
Dara S. Amar
Pramesh Bhatnagar
V. Benjamin
Darleena David
Desmond A. D’Abreo
G»M. Francis
George Joseph
Daleep Se Mukarji
Jose Melettukochyil
Ravi Narayan
P. Ramachandran
Sukant Singh
Shirdl Prasad Tekur
P« Zachariah
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A COLL
Hy Alex Parimalctni
GHNESIS
B»ns.l»,o I,,'TO-l l! ™2ZlisS'“' “ " |'",dv"cl,ca»"-«l>»» cxpcrimen,»,
;oing
out
ganisadons and networks such as 1S1 SE M'Cr/v
CSlilb,lsllcd '"’ks with development
^'onped and started functioning from a^XecKc^'
l,luill,,e^
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3. To encourage groups - lo X
V0'Untary tlealth eftbrt
< To see health as a process of aXenSuddX’0'd'0"8
■ 1° p/omotc a greater sharing amone field w i?
0,sanisal10” among people
pnit of a‘ broad
bra’d bbased
“Cd r*—
»»= or^e,,.
groups so that these eH'orts bi
b'““ P« »* ’
- 1 nioveincnt.
’ TO
a~ess
i"Hie“dbbasi
'Z "T'”, °f” iw"’ i~nh
U'sas or-HeXthe
X)'-'
of
'l'ed!“l "“"'“y or
should be collective process
process.
P
PC‘,plc’S
Ceuhcai “^ustry. Setting
CHC AND TRAINING
byTl,e Cc" ■»
Iwry M }() is ill/o /mi/ ■
'd P' OV,dc tecJniical inputs.
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cHC’s training is dinerent in mIS’"'egrated and holistic. These are not
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development sector. What do these words mean to CMC? How is CHC trv ‘
means
adneving its vision ofbuilding up a broad based health mov^eS
!,<!C training as a
building a broad based health movement
varied : students, health workers devel m > H)vu.,,l.,,Lllt ,iealth ccnlres. I he participants arc
nurses and policy makers at the stalo
i*10? dC ,V1‘SlS’ teac,,ersJ women’s groups, doctors,
giv^s unining ZIZu S
M0™' -^ international level U .nay look like Cl IC
addressing various issucs/and groups They do noUakcC’"p,Oy-s 11 !l,^c '"Jiaslily
lining. The group must beliete inL.1... ,
,
7 a'’d evc,y Broug that asks lor
and the philosophy ofCHC Through tninZ Ct JC!"'’i’‘;,!neSS 10 mtderstand conunu.nty health
Hie same ideology and to promote dJ
' . ’ S l° S,re"Btl,crl lllc Partners who share
v-ho Will take p:lr't in building UN Z T
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partners, i e. those
chooses and channelises its Energy it
cannot be their partners.
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th "n!lh "H,VCn,em- fhat is
CMC deliberately
0 d,c diametrically opposite to die beliefs oPCIlC
........ ..
Uicy are educated lhey will in turn become a platlbrm mZ * T118 baS? 'n ‘he comrTil,nity- If
people’s health can be
easily disseminated
disseminated One ol tln
be easily
"'T * 'C'C "'e ",CSSii«e of
training changed his mission to community health He ahonh"1''? *
e°n? ll’,'OUgh tl,is
health issues as part ol’lhcir lormalion studies IITnini’ <
Y“ p,oactlvc ,o,e ln including
and can bring about policy change
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PC,S(,,,i" C,1a”gCS
address health issues appears wo,ah a 1^
* CXpe,"ne',t'"S Wltl’ Hillcrent groups to
sovenme,„, cue chooses
use
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,l;« m„ tc„
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'raining is"abendZl71Za^Zt\TUhifliCity
8r°UpS'S thatCHCdoes not think that
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P'0CeSS °f bui,di^ “P a P-ple’s Zth
movertot rZSmZ oZ r f 3
sees the importance of networking with'08 3,6
C|0,laborators ln the process. Hcncc CHC
activists, govermnernt rymil
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* 8''0UPS ',kC ,,Ca,l', institutions, NGOs, social
nmcnl scivanls and lobbying groups nt the national and international lovol.
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1J It* SPECTRUM Ob’ TRAINING ISSUES
CHCl£sP"?'! “"1 nK”“""' CHC ™”s
‘™-S " «
.ho.,Sh, oZ;“ilmw |,art’ «*.*“y. Zas of
TB, ylobalisaiion, tobacco AIDS and alcoholi^ C°l"SeS Va?eS ,TOm wom‘h'’s health, malaria,
.
, and alcoholism, along with topics directly related to health.
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"U’C period, etc.
on the group, the
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nE>S£“:=:V;=.. .......
s'
Mother and Child health
........
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! ,C T1 k"’g n"d vo,lintn,y agencies in health
I lealth coniiininicalion
Consumer and health care
Health care and its management
" heailh Cdre w'th a ^o->8 social/comrnunity orientation.
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OLLABORATIVE approach in training
one of the objcXL^buw'Lp'rcsX^X"^
various
is
own resource persons and also seeks tS™ o
' CHC
wiltl ils
its capacity to pool resources through its network The ? I reSOurce Persons. CHC believes in
likc-nnndcd peers who serve as trainers The trainers or i ° a”Other reason in working with
sessions and go away. Instead they believe in what hov
!’C'S0,’S
juSt de^er
<iie die contacts for any campaign or lobbying or/health / M praCl!CC whal llWoress?They
tfikc up different issues. Even if the trainers
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,c^ scc^ l^s support when they
I'callh CHC ropes them in and uses variousmearis moos’ t ' 7h°
CXP°Sed 10 comr"unity
Hiem that they have a role to play in community healtlHn tZ Uence the,n and convince
■»» proton
8el ,rained
.«d
I o cite n lbw initiatives:
out the mKc bulletin through the
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! gaining as a process
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.‘XXXS-*’ 7 'ra,l,"'’SKI '>rik
™"y. I Ps training sessions were l or
nC
PC°P C 10 Pa,'!ici^e
a" AIDS Me ' o al
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action
the
tiic
'^''S another Irainlnu uiitia'ivr-ih
f
„NOOs.SP.l1„«,,,,el|;:ssx;:2“:I,
■. p«y
f
'
TO TRAINING
™"'n
''e''rl- k‘wwl«dac and
p'- •«» tessxsr"4'*
n! St!vn s'l,!l"’ indndod n pra-imcwailehl ol il
comfortable.” <cj
wife and treat h<
wherever I go.”
students. They
TT"-~=s 3-';T--;...
Eenornl „ 7
AH lhcse years they have been mrr,;
‘ ’ l( "> Particular about sex and about wonic^
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the.tra,,1»>g and that they got
ISt°rIed lnr°rmalion about health in
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IN CONCLUSION
(• •* It has ai rived al a model f
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is an .eknowteaJ';™™^-™1 !he lr“"«(s). The iny„““m«"Ta S
trained persons are nor it
-Hcnt, appi-^Xo tr 6
.tbal heaJth 'S one facet of develn
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of“»
sPectn-'m of
°f P^P’e’s well LinX^r6^ and that medically
part in a-iy
ilS ^00,i"« Sources. Chic
ufl?Cled in its C011™
‘^ible end outcome On dZ?d,H '?,s t0 be properly linked from ,1^
'S a'’ inscl)a';lble
'"visible presence, and influcn ■ '° "
W°rks as a calalyst and a r- '
f“al sl:^e t0 "
resources in
niininiuin
Questions for reflection
Ca'’lbcCHCmodeloftrainh '
be used for another organization not
-'-at are the pre-requ,SI[eS ne'"S
e“dedfo7;h
working in health? Ifso>
-- >.ie organization?
2- What are lhe dilemmas that a
change agent would face following the CMC an
.o
b oil u it approach?
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