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Total number of slums District wise in Karnataka

SI No.

1

District
Bangalore (R)

Pvt. Govt. TMC CMC Rlwys G.P. KSCB BCC Others Total

46

4

12

-

-

-

-

62

-

-

-

2

54

2

Haveri

31

9

9

3

-

3

Raichur

11

20

26

13

1

3

-

-

-

74

4

Hubli - Dharwad

42

9

4

11

2

-

1

-

1

70

5

Koppal

9

3

27

12

-

2

-

-

2

55

6

Tumkur

39

4

30

2

-

5

1

-

2

83

7

Mandya

16

2

10

27

-

-

-

-

-

55

8

Kodagu

-

-

6

-

-

-

-

-

-

6

9

Kolar

11

15

40

1

-

-

-

-

2

69

10

Mangalore

9

-

-

10

-

-

-

-

3

22

-

7

64

11

U. Kannada

8

12

27

5

-

5

-

12

Belgaum

4

2

12

5

-

-

-

-

-

23

13

Udupi

3

3

6

-

-

-

-

-

-

12

14

Hassan

28

-

29

16

-

16

-

-

-

89

15

Mysore

16

6

26

33

2

-

1

-

5

89

16

Shimoga

23

18

34

15

-

25

-

-

4

119

17

C. Durga

5

1

21

-

-

-

-

•

27

19

9

13

-

5

1

-

3

53

15

8

-

1

-

-

-

48

18

Davanagere

3

19

Chikmagalur

24

-

30

Gulbarga

10

18

57

-

-

-

-

-

85

21

Bidar

-

-

52

17

-

-

-

-

69

22

Bijapur

13

41

56

9

-

1

-

4

124

23

Bagalkot

5

6

25

2

-

-

-

-

-

38

24

C.R. Nagar

26

4

24

-

-

-

-

-

-

54

25

Bellary

22

34

54

34

-

2

1

-

147

26

Gadag

12

3

8

3

1

-

-

-

-

27

144

48

-

%

3

-

5

73

21

576

271

613

239

9

65

10

73

56

294
1912|

27

Bangalore (U)

Total

TMC : Taluk Municipal Council
CMC : City Municipal Council
GP
: Gram Panchayat
KSCB : Karnataka Slum Clearance Board
BCC : Bangalore City Corporation

SI
No.

Information of Urban ICDS Projects
Name of
Name of
Project
District

1 Bangalore(U)

No. of
centres (s
*

Bangalore Central
Bangalore State
Sumagali Seva Ashram

114
100
130 -

2 Belgaum

BelgaumfU)

110

3 Bellary

Bellary

110

4 Mangalore

Mangalore(U)

141

5 Dharwad

Hubli-Dharwad

110

6 Gulbarga

Gulbarga(U)

116

7 Mysore

Mysore(U)

110

8 Tumkur
Total

Tumkur(U)

110

I

Information of Tribal ICDS Projects

1 Chamarajnagar

Chamarajnagar

516

2 Chikamangalore Sringeri

124

Bantwal

537

Mangalore(R)
Puttur

425
363

4 Kodagu

Madikeri
Ponnampet

228
283

5 Mysore

Nanjangud
Periapatna

510
266 _

3 Mangalore

Total

f 3252

[

aJGo

SJSRY
Physical & Financial Progress under different components of SJSRY as on 30.11.2000

Abstract
1) USEP-ME

URBAN
LOCAL
BODY

Achievement
ME
Subsidy
No of benefi­ Amount of Subsidy
Target
loan
released
ciaries
fixed (No. amount
sanctioned (in Rs.)
financed by
of benefi­ earmarked
(In Rs.)
Banks
ciaries)
(In Rs.)
1692.14
496.50
20206
845.88
10836

Total
(In Rs.)
(6+7)

2173.15

"/. of
Achieve­
ment

58.69%

2) USEP- DWACUA

URBAN
LOCAL
BODY

Achievement
Target
Target No. Subsidy
No of Groups Amount of Subsidy
loan
of Groups amount
released
financed by
earmarked
sanctioned (In Rs.)
Banks
(In Rs.)
(In Rs.)
851
604.37
180.24
294.44
230

Total
(In Rs.)
(6+7)

474.68

% of
Achieve­
ment

48.71%

3) UWEP

URBAN
LOCAL
BODY

Funds
released
(in Rs.)

3246.66

URBAN
LOCAL
BODY

Funds
released
(in Rs.)

No.of works No.of works
taken up
comple-ted

6127

Type of
Activities
taken up

1130.46

1780

Expendi­
ture
Incurred
(in Rs.)

Amount
No.of
% of
for which Man-days
Achieve­
UCs have generated *
ment
been sent
to DMA
(in Rs.)
2093.78
2093.78
64.49%
29.91

No.of
beneficiaries
covered

Expendi­
ture
incurred
(in Rs.)

658340

716.18

Amount % of Achieve­
for which ment
UCs have
been sent
(in Rs.)
551.42

5) Training & infrastructure
URBAN
LOCAL
BODY

•

Target

23140

Financial
Alloca-tlon

983.59

Achievement

No. of benefi­
ciaries
trained/
provided with
infrastruc­
ture

Expendi­
ture
Incurred
(in Rs.)

26140

496.37

% of
Achievement

50.46%

6) Thrift & Credit Groups
Target
No of
Target No. Subsidy
of Groups amount
Groups
earmarked
financed
(in Rs.)
by Banks
93.87 2413

Target
Grand Total

Achievement
Amount of
Expenditure
loan
sanctioned
(in Rs.)
47.88

Achieve­ Percentage
ment
6904.83
4145.15
60.03%

Total
(in Rs.)
(6+7)

47.88

% Of
Achieve­
ment

51.00%

63.35%

>. ukl
SJSRY - CSC - STATEMENT No.lU (A)
Monthly statement showing the progress under the community structure component of SJSRY
ConsolIdated Statement
: Decemoer
DISTRICT: Mandya
YEAR: 2000

Community Structure

Name of tne
CMC'TMC'TP

1

CMC - Mer.aya

No. of beneficiaries
covered

Funds released
(in Rs.)

Type of activities
taken up

966600

32
1.School uniforms
9
2.Handicap Uehcile & Chair
50
3.Teaching Aids
4.Note Book
112
5.School Bag
(No.of Anganava dis 80) 55 Nos.
80
6.Anganavadi Toys & Teaching aids
7.Desk
27
31
6.Bench
144
9.Seating Mats

Expenditure
incurred
(in Rs.)
310590

Amount for which UCs
have been sent to DMA
(in Rs.)
316593

c-)OXj<-

^n^axjt^cJ.

2

TMC - Haddur

261625

School teaching, aids, steel
almara, steel folding chair
steel table lamination top wooden
sitting plank, toys, chairs
steel water drums, cooking vessels

1650

209300

209300

3

TMC - Malavalli

283500

1400

283500

2835C0

'

Anganavadi teaching aids
Purchase of Black Boards
Chairs, Plates, Glass,
water filter, note book etc.

4

TMC - S.R.Patna

374460

268939

206939

-

l.At NHC level 125 note books,
1028
uniforms distributed
2.Toys putting plank chairs charts
etc., distributed to 8 anganavadi
3.Benches putting Plank, Alarms,
chairs distributed to anganavadi
and school
4.Tricycle distr Ibuted to disable iserson.

5

TP - Par.davapura

266500

Folding chair, Gosy Table,
putting plank, play equipment
for Agriculture, 4 Bench Talbe.

1500

178524

176524

6

TP - Nagaftangaia

139400

Note books for students,
uniforms for 5,6,7th
Standard, furniture for
schools and anganavadi
*s
& books for 1ibrary

36
31
1 Govt.School
6 Anganavadi
1 Library

105044

105044

7

TP - K.R.rete

276200

l.lO0childs for Anganavadi
2.Monthly Fuel charges anganavadi
3.Books for Govt.School
end anganavadi
4.Furniture distribution, library
NGOs SJRY & Banner charges.
5.Furniture & teaching aids for
for anganavadi
6.internalional women days NUS
water supply

lOOchiIdrens
7
1604

249385

246260

25'2835

1600 CniIds

10 schools
4

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annexure-i
SJSRY - Community Structure Component - List of activities —reg

A. The list of activities to be taken up under this component (by incurring
expenditure) are —

1. Education Department —
i)

Supply of Black Boards, furniture to Schools,

ii)

Supply of Books, Uniforms etc.,

iii)

Supply of Books to urban Libraries, etc.

2.Women and Child Development Department -

i)
Providing additional materials like play-items, charts, furniture to
Aganwadis,

ii)

Provision for additional food - eg — Eggs, fruits, etc.,

iii)

Providing LP Gas cylinders and Gas stoves to Anganwadis in lieu of
firewood,

3. Health and Family Welfare Department —
Supply of Tablets, (eg: Iron & Folic acid tablets), Tonics, supply of Opticals, cost
of treatment of poor identified women, tranportation of pregnant women to referral
hospitals.

1

B. Convergence activites through coordination with other Departments and NGOs
(only motivational — no expenditure should be incurred on these activities)

1. Education Department -

i)

School - Health Education Programme,

ii)

Enrolment of children in Schools,

iii)

Prevention of drop-outs,

iv)

Stress on education of the girl child - prevention of drop-out of girl
children,

v)

Prevention of Child Labour,

vi)

Adult education,

2. Women and Child Development Department i)

Immunization of children,

ii)

Involvement of Mothers,

3. Health and Family Welfare Department —
b) Reproductive Health Care —
i)

Information and Counselling on Temporary and permanent family control
methods,

ii)

Periodical Check-ups of Pregnant Women,

iii)

Prevention of Anaemia,

iv)

Pre-natal and Ante-natal care,

2

v)

Encouraging Institutional deliveries,

vi)

Safe Abortions,

vii)

Prevention of STD, AIDs, HIV, etc - linkage with IPPs,

viii)

Training of Traditional Dais (under Training Component).

b) Conducting Health Camps - School Health Camps - in co-ordination with NGOs
and Organisations like Lions, Jaycees, Rotary, etc.,

c) Eye Check-Up Camps (Cataract operations) - in co-ordination with NGOs and
Organisations like Lions, Jaycees, Rotary, etc.
d) Camps on Hygiene and Sanitation,

e) Camps on Nutrition- balanced diet, propagating use of locally available nutritious
items like green vegetables, eggs, fruits like Papaya, Bannana, etc., sprouted gram,
pulses, etc., Special emphasis on nutrition of the girl child, adolescent girls pregnant
and lacting women,
f) Immunization,

g) Prevention of Communicable Diseases,
h) Prevention and control of Malaria, TB, Brain-fever, Leprosy, Gastroenteritis, etc.

4.

Forest -

Planting and maintenance of saplings in Urban Slums and Towns, Environmental
upgradation, etc.

3

5. Department of Housing Improvement of living conditions in slums.

Funds from CSC component should not be spent on undertaking trips and
organising functions (functions should be organised through sponsorships by
Organisations like Jaycees, Rotary, Lions etc.,).
The CDSs, Commissioners/Chief Officers, Project Officers and Community
Organisers should interact/discuss with different convergent Government Departments
referred above and select a few programmes which could be dove-tailed with the SJSRYCSC/Wage component programmes as an additionality to the various programmes
implemented by the concerned Government Department referred above.

4

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26

paid in all these facilities may be betweenRs
. one and two crores annually. A similar estimate
based on the finding that 90% of the women
pay an average of about Rs 700 at the Maternity
Homes would put the total amount of bribes
paid at about Rs 1.6 crores. The annual
emoluments of the staff at the 30 maternity
homes also amount to about Rs 2 crores.
> Most of the staff denies the practice of
corruption. They do complain about the
constraint of facilities, and shortage of staff,
supplies and resources. Doctors emphasised
the need to improve the awareness of patients,
especially with respect to the need to be regular
in their visits
The evidence presented above clearly points to the
need to urgently reform the municipal health care
facilities for the poor in Bangalore. At the core of
the problem is the highly unsatisfactory state of the
services of the maternity homes. If the present
conditions continue, the newly created IPP centres
will also deteriorate and become part of the pool of
corruption and low quality that characterise the
system.
................
The findings of the study were shared with other
NGOs and resource persons to consider the various
options available to improve these institutions. The
group after fully endorsing the findings articulated
five themes for immediate action:
> Setting up a Board of Visitors to function as an
effective oversight mechanism to monitor the
activities of the Maternity Homes.
> Creation of a Patient’s Charter to publicise the
services offered, time frames, fees, grievance
redressal mechanisms etc.
> Setting up a Health Fund through contributions
to be used for maintenance and improvements
of the facilities.
> Handing over the management of Maternity
Homes and Health Centres to interested
NGOs. •_
';
....................
> Operating Help Desks in these centres to help
women in distress.
We are happy to report that these recommendations
have found positive resonance with the Bangalore
City Corporation and steps are on to operationalise
most of the recommendations.
(For further information on this, please contact
Ms. Sheila Premkumar or Mr. Cyril Vas at PAC)
« Public Eye ♦ Vol. 5 No.3

July - Sept 2000

FIGHTING CORRUPTION

N. Vittal, Central Vigilance Commissioner,
Government of India
[ Excerpts from the First
Public Affairs Centre
Lecture delivered on
September 29, 2000 at
Bangalore ]

Corruption is not the
exclusive characteristic of the bureaucracy. We
have corruption in politics, we have corruption in
judiciary, we have corruption in bureaucracy, we
have corruption in cricket and we have corruption
in business. In fact, like God is supposed to be
present everywhere, corruption in India is present
everywhere. The issue before us today is not to
merely catalogue the sorry tale of corruption but
also to explore how we can tackle the issue of
corruption. In my approach to tackle the issue of
corruption, I am guided by five concepts. The first
is a concept articulated by Bertrand Russell who
said that every opinion becomes respectable if you
hold it for a sufficiently long time. The second is
the concept of Victor Hugo who said that nothing is
more powerful than an idea whose time has come.
The third concept is that of Alex De Tocqueville
that the inevitable becomes intolerable the moment
it is perceived to be no more inevitable. I believe
that corruption can be tackled. After all Hong Kong
has done it through the Independent Commission
Against Corruption (ICAC). Rudy Giuliani in the
context of crime in New York showed that zero
tolerance of crime can bring results. In the
Manipuliti movement of Italy, the magistrate showed
that Mafia can be tackled. Lee Kwan Yew built up
Singapore as a model of rectitude over three
decades. The magistrates in France also tried to
check corruption. Soitisnotasifthat corruption is
an unalterable and inevitable fact of modem society
and we have to live with it. It can be tackled.
If our strategy has to be effective in fighting
corruption in bureaucracy we must tackle the issue
of corruption in bureaucracy as a part of an overall

HEALTH CARE SYSTEMS FOR THE
URBAN POOR

I
\
\

With thirty maternity homes, thirty seven urban
family welfare centres (UFWCs) and fifty five
health centres funded by the world bank under the
India Population Project -VIII (IPP-VIII), the
Bangalore Mahanagara Palike (BMP) emerges as
the major provider of family planning and maternal
/child health (MCH) care services for the urban
poor in Bangalore. The IPP centres and UFWCs
focus mainly on health and nutrition education,
antenatal/ postnatal care, family planning,
immunisation mother and child, nutritional care of
children up to the age of five and medical treatment
of minor ailments and act as referral units for the
maternity homes. Whereas, the maternity homes
focus on delivery and Medical termination of
pregnancy (MTP) and laboratory tests in addition to
providing antenatal/ postnatal care, family planning
non-surgical care for children needing specialist
attention and minor gynaecological procedures. It
must be noted that all the services at all the three
facilities are supposed to be provided free of cost.
Independent reviews and stakeholder consultations
in the past have significantlyhighlighted the alarming
levels of corruption at BMP maternity homes; this
C*S»,
is a cause of major concern as with the
termination of World Bank assistance in the
I year 2001, the IPP facilities are £oing to be
I integrated with the existing system of the BMP
^\_/'for routine operation and maintenance. This
aspect was discussed by various groups working
\ with the urban poor in Bangalore and there was
\ /
j a strong demand to carry out a User feedback
V
j survey to empirically assess the quality of care,
/
/ particularly that of the service delivery process
' at the IPP health centres and maternity homes.
As a follow-up to this, PAC undertook a
comparative survey of maternity homes, IPP
■ Centres and UFWCs all over the city in partnership
with five city based NGOs. A total of 500 patients
and 77 staff of these facilities were interviewed.
Following sections briefly, describe the results of
the survey, designed on the linds'of a Report Card
study, carried out by PAC.
> IPP health Centres are on the whole rated
better than the UFWCs and Maternity Homes.
F°r s‘miIar serv>ces provided by all three the

>

>

>

>

>

rating is the highest for IPP Health Centres
and lowest for Maternity Homes.
While only 39% of the patients were given the
medicine free of cost at the maternity homes,
61% and 63% were supplied the medicines
free at the UFWCs and IPP Health Centres. '
Money was demanded for the medicines from
11 % of the women at the maternity homes
while only 4 and 3 % reported being asked to
pay money for medicines at UFWCs and IPP
Health Centres. The average amount paid for
medicines was higher at Rs. 94 at maternity
homes than Rs. 30 paid at UFWCs. But the
least amount was paid at IPP Health Centres
(Rs. 15). Interestingly, all doctors, nurses and
other staff at all three types of facilities say free
medicines are given to all patients all the time.
Patients are generally quite satisfied with the
behaviour of the staff at all the facilities (with
73% of the women reporting being always
satisfied and the rest either never or a
sometimes satisfied). The satisfaction is "
however significantly greater with the staff
of IPP Health Centres.
Patients at the maternity homes have to wait
for about 35 minutes to be attended to. The
waiting is marginally less at UFWCs at 28
minutes. The wait at the IPP Health centre
is the least at 23 minutes. Doctors, nurses .
and other staff at all the three kinds of places
have quoted not more than five to ten minutes
as the waiting period for patients.
The most distressing finding concerns the
prevalence of corruption. While none of the
facilities seems corruption free, maternity
homes stand out in terms of the severity of
the problem. Payments are demanded or
expected by staff for almost all services, but A'
most of all, for delivery and seeing the baby.
The proportions of people paying bribes vary
from one service to another. On the whole
90% of the respondents reported paying bribes
for one service or the other at maternity
homes at an average of Rs 700 per head.
Nearly 70% pay for seeing their own babies!
One out of two pay for delivery.
If a poor woman paid for all services, it would
have cost her over Rs. 1000 for a delivery. It
is reported that a nursing home might give
her hassle free and better quality service for
Rs. 2000. A rough estimate of the bribes being
♦ Public Eye * Vol. 5 No3

July - Sept 2000

KACH - 2000
1-------------------------

-—

RUAL HEALTH INFRASTRUCTURE
NORMS AND LEVEL OF ACHIEVEMENTS
(ALL INDIA - AS ON 31-12-1998)

National Norms

Achievements

1. Rural population (1991) covered by a:
Sub centre
Primary Health Centre (PHC)
Community Health Centre (CHC)

3,000 - 5,000
20,000 - 30,000
80,000 - 1,20,000

4,611
28,564
2.40 lakhs

2. Number of Sub centres per PHC

6

6.19

3. Number of PHCs per CHC

4

8.39

4. Rural Population (1991) covered by a:
MPW (female)
MPW (male)

3,000 - 5,000
3,000-5,000

4,717
9,815

5. Number of Villages covered by a:
VHG
TBA

1
1

1.4
0.9

6. Average Population (1991) covered by a:
VHG
TBA

1,000
1,000

1,527
965

7. Ratio of HA (male) to MPW (male)

1 : 6.0

1 : 3.9

8. Ratio of HA (female) to MPW (female)

1 : 6.0

1:7.2

—

22.97
142.29
1194.46

Indicator

9. Average Rural Area (Sq.Km) covered by a:
Sub centre
PHC
CHC

10. Average Radial Distance (Km) covered by a:
Sub centre
PHC
CHC
11. Average Number of Village covered by a:
Sub centre
PHC
CHC

2.70
6.73
19.49

—

—

XIV ANNUAL CONFERENCE OF KACH • 41

4.31
26.68
223.96

'

'

KACH - 2000

KARNATAKA AND INDIA AT A GLANCE

(AS ON 31/3/1999)
1.

General Information

Karnataka

India

Area in sq Kms

1,91,791

32,87,263

No of revenue divisions

4

NA

No of districts

27

466

No of taluks

175

NA

No of towns and urban

254

4,689

49

NA

Population (in 000s)

44,977

8,46,302

Male population(in 000s)

22,952

4,39,230

Female population(in 000s)

22,025

4,07,072

Decennial growth rate(1981-91) %

21.12

23.85

Percentage of urban population
to total population (1991)

30.92

25.73

Density of population
persq. Km (1991 census)

235

274

Sex ratio (No of females per 1000 males)

960

927

56.04

52.21

Male

67.26

64.13

Female

44.34

39.29

65.55

62.8

66.55

64.2

agglomerations

No of subdivisions

2.

Demographic features(1991 census)

a) Percentage of literacy (1991 census)

b) Expectation of life at birth (in yrs)
(1996-2001)

Male

.

i-.—j

XIV ANNUAL CONFERENCE OF KACH ® 42

---------

KACH - 2060]

3.

Karnataka

India

23.1

28.0

Urban

19.4

21.0

Combined

22.0

26.4

Rural

3.1

3.8

Urban

2.4

2.7

Combined

2.8

3.5

Rural

1.5

1.8

Urban

1.1

1.2

Combined

1.4

1.7

Rural

8.9

9.7

Urban

5.6

6.6

Combined

7.9

9.0

Rural

70

77

Urban

25

45

Combined

58

72

Neonatal(1994)

44.7

47.7

Postneonatal(1993)

22.1

42.5

450

453

Vital Statistics
A) Fertility

a) Birthrate (1998)provisional
Rural

b) Total fertility rate (1994)

c) Gross reproduction rate (1994)

B) Mortality

a) Death rate(1998)
provisional(per 1000 pop)

b) Infant mortality rate (1998)
(per 1000 live births)

c) Neonatal and post neonatal
mortality rates(per 1000 live births)

d) Maternal mortality rate
(UNICEF REPORT) ( per lakh births)

4.

Percentage of population below poverty line (1993-94) (provisional)
Rural

32.8

39.1

Urban

49.1

40.1

Combined

32,.6

36.0

( SOURCE : DIRECTORATE OF HEALTH AND FAMILY WELFARE SERVICES, BANGALORE )

XIV ANNUAL CONFERENCE OF KACH • 43

|KACH-2000^--^-

THE WORLD’S PRIORITIES ?
(Annual Expenditure)
Basic education for all

$ 6 billion3

Cosmetics in the USA

$ 8 billion

Water & Sanitation for all

$ 9 billion3

Ice cream in Europe

$ 11 billion

Reproductive health for all women

$ 12 billion3

Perfumers in Europe & USA

$ 12 billion

Basic health & nutrition

$ 13 billion3

Cigarettes & Alcoholic drinks in Europe

$ 155 billion

Narcotic drugs in the world

$ 400 billion

Pet foods in Europe & USA

$ 17 billion

Military spending in the world

$ 780 billion

‘a’ Estimated additional annual cost to achieve universal access to basic Social Services in developing Countries.

BASIC CAPABILITIES, CONSUMPTION
REQUIREMENTS & DEPRIVATION
Long healthy life (freedom from premature mortality and avoidable morbidity).

Requirement

Backlog of deprivation

Clean

1.3 billion deprived of access to safe water.

Shelter

1 billion without adequate shelter.

Food & Nutrition

841 million malnourished

Health Care

880 million without access to health services

Sanitation

2.6 billion without access to sanitation

Energy

2 billion deprived of electricity

Transport

3 cars per 1,000 people in least developed countries,
16 in developing countries, 405 in industrial countries.

XIV ANNUAL CONFERENCE OF KACH • 44

EACH-2000 !-■

■"■■■

------------- =

Knowledge
(freedom from illetracy, innumeracy & Lack of acquired basic skills)
Requirement

Backlog of deprivation

Schooling

109 millioon (22% of primary school - age children)
out of school.

Information

885 million illiterate adults (age 15 and above)
4 copies of daily newspaper circulated per 100
people in developing countries, 26 in Industrial
countries.
3 telephone lines per 1,000 people in least
developed countries, 40 in developing countries, 414
in industrial countries.

Communication

Decent standards of living well distributed among members of society.
Requirements

Backlog of deprivation

Secure access to
material resources

1.3 billion people in developing countries living on less than $ 1 a
day, 32% in transition Economics on less than $ 4 a day and 11%
in industrial countries on less than $ 14.00 a day.

Creative Life Requirements

Back log of deprivation

Culture - Language, arts, traditions,
philosophy.

3000 of the world’s 6,000 languages endangered.

Freedom from political and civil
constraints

13.2 million refugees.

Freedom from time constraints

6-8 hours a day spent by rural women in developing countries in
fetching fuelwood and water.

XIV ANNUAL CONFERENCE OF KACH • 45

■■

KACH - 2000

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX
India

All developing
Countries

Industrial
Countries

Life Expectancy at
birth (years) 1995

61.6

62.2

74.2

63.6

Adult Literacy rate
(%)1995

52.0

70.4

98.6

77.6

Combined 1st, 2nd, 3rd
level gross enrolment
ratio (%) 1995

55

57

83

62

Real GDP per capita
(PPP $) 1995

1,422

3,068

16,337

5,990

Adjusted real GDP per
Capita (PPP$) 1995

1,422

3,068

6,194

5,990

Life Expentency
Index

0.61

0.62

0.82

0.64

Education index

0.53

0.66

0.93

0.72

GDP index

0.21

0.48

0.98

0.95

Human development
Index (HDI) value 1995

0.451

0.586

0.911

0.772

World

Please note India is ranked 139.

----------- XIV ANNUAL CONFERENCE OF KACH • 46 -------------------- -------------------- -

KACH - 2000

Population
Progress of a country depends on development. Development is a process of change which is unavoidable
and involves expenditure. Development involving a large country like Indiawvith large population requires

large expenditure for development. The expenditure inturn depends on the resources. Resources do not
multiply and hence gets limited.
Getting an external aid is not a permanent answer to the problem of enhancing resources. So this limits

the development and is to be brought about with in the available resources. One permanent solution to a
problem of this kind is to keep a check on the growth of the population so that development can take place
with a good pace under existing realities of resources. This fact was realised while conceiving the Family

Planning Programme.
The Maternal and Child Health concept was conceived as early as 1880. In Karnataka, in the erst while

Princely State of Mysore, this concept was put to practice through the establishment of Cheluvamba hospital
in Mysore and Vanivilas hospital at Bangalore to meet the health needs of women and children. The MCH
needs of the community were met through spread of messages from these centers.

During the British rule, maintenance of health standards of the local population was not given a thrust.
After the country got independence, fragmented approach in the sphere of health adapted by Government of

India exposed many shortcomings. The problems like increasing rate of population growth, high mortality of
women and children, low nutritional standards, wide spread communicable diseases, poor sanitation and

non-availability of potable water to majority of the population came to the forefront. In 1952, Clinic based
National Family Planning Programme was started where conventional contraceptive methods were emphasised.

In 1953, Family Planning research and planning committee observed tubectomy as the most favored method.
This was followed up by the starting of Family Planning Department and Family Planning Centres under
Ministry of Health during the 3rd five year plan period.

Issues :

•

Disproportionate decline in mortality as compared to fertility is often put forth as logic towards high
growth rate. Even in mortality, it is the crude death rate (CDR) which has declined substantially (From

47.2/1000 in 1911-21 to 10.3/1000 in 1991) while child mortality (IMR) has declined relatively slowly
(IMR-222 in 1901 to 78 in 1991)

•

Sex ratio has been adverse to females for many reasons such as illiteracy, early marriage, teenage
pregnancies, violence against women, etc. Sex ratio declined from 972 in 1901 to 930 in 1971. It was 933
in 1981 and 921 in 1991.

XIV ANNUAL CONFERENCE OF KACH e 47

KACH - 2000|

•

Uneven progress amongst the states could be seen. 42% of population increase during 1981 - 1991

was from four states of UP, MP, Rajasthan and Bihar.
A.

Despite a clear recognition of the problem, population growth remains a formidable challenge. Drafts

and documents on population policy generated discussions, waiting to get translated into a formal population
policy awaiting approval of the parliament.

In 1953 by the use of tubectomy expected annual growth rate was kept at 1.25% for the 1st and 2nd five
year plan periods. In each five year plans, goals of reduction of birth rate were set.

IV five year plan (1969-74)
Goal: Reduce birth rate from 35/1000 to 32/1000 by the end of the plan period.

Achievement: 16.5 million couples protected (16.5% of eligible couples) from conception.
V five year plan (1974-79)

Goal: Reduce birth rate to 30/1000 by the end of the plan period.
Achievement: Programme came under priority sector, got integrated with MCH and nutrition. 1975-77 saw

phenomenal increase in sterilisation. The family welfare programme was launched in 1978 the rigidity and
force in implementation were removed. The main thrust was on education and motivation.

VI

Five Year plan (1980-85):

Goals : Long term demographic goals were envisaged to be achieved by 2000 AD.

•

Reduce family size from 4.4 children (1975) to 2.3

•

Reduce birth rate from 33 (1978) to 21

•

Reduce death rate from 14 (1978) to 9

•

Reduce IMR from 127 (1978) to 60

•

Increase couple protection level from 22% to 60%.

VII

five year plan (1985 - 90):

Main emphasis :

•

Promoting spacing methods, securing maximum community participation and promoting MCH

•

To provide service at the doorsteps by concept of sub-centers, (one sub-center for every 5000 population;

3000 population for tribal and hilly areas). At the end of the plan period, 1.30 lakh subcenters were

established

•

Pos Partum Programme was extended to sub-district level hospitals (1012 PPCs established )

r-

XIV ANNUAL CONFERENCE OF KACH • 48

=-..... -

:

= KACH - 2000

•

UIP started in 30 districts during 1985-86 and extended cover the entire country by the end of the plan

•

Improving the Primary Health Care in urban slums of Bombay and Madras through World Bank assistance

•

Area Development Projects in 15 selected states through various donor agencies

Achievements :
Reduction in CBR from 41.7 (1951-61) to 30.2 (SRS 1990)
Reduction in TFR (total fertility rate) from 5.97 (1950-55) to 3.8 (SRS 1990)

Reduction in IMR from 146 (1970-71) to 80 (SRS 1990)
Increase in CPR (couple protection rate) from 10.4% (1970-71) to 43.4% (31-3-90)
Over 118 million births were averted by the end of March 1990

VIII

five year plan (1992-97):
New initiatives introduced ; revamp of ongoing schemes -

(i)

IPP VIII and IX (for infrastructure and man power development) in the states of Rajasthan,

Assam and Karnataka

(ii)

USAID Project - "Innovations in Family Planning Services " in UP with specific objective of

reducing TFR from 5.4 to 4 and increase CPR from 35% to 50% over 10 year period

(iii)

Differential programming in 90 districts where CBR was more than 39/1000 (1991 census)

(iv)

NGO supplementation and complementation to the government run programme.

(v)

From 1992 onwards UIP (launched in 1985) was strengthened and expanded along with CSSM

programme (Child Survival and Safe Mothehood) to achieve high immunisation coverage, to
augment activities under Oral Rehydration Therapy, to provide Vitamin A prophylaxis for the

control of blindness among children and to control acute respiratory infections.

(vi)

Provision of aseptic delivery kits

(vii)

Strengthening of first referral units to deal with high risk and obstetric emergencies

IX five year plan (1977-2002) :
Priority:

Reduction of population growth

Objectives :

(i)

to meet all felt needs of contraception

(ii) to reduce infant and maternal mortality and morbidity so as to reduce desired level of
fertility
Strategies :

Assess the needs of Reproductive and Child Health (RCH) through micro planning

(i)

(ii) Provide need-based, demand-driven, high quality integrated RCH care

-------------- ;

■

XIV ANNUAL CONFERENCE OF KACH • 49

KACH - 2000

Expected levels of achievement by the end of the plan period:
(a) CBR

24/1000

(b) IMR

56/1000

(c) TFR

2.9

(d) CPR

51%

(e) NNMR

35/1000

(f) MMR

3/1000

Unmet needs : Are women whose reproductive attitudes resemble those of contraceptive users but whose
practices do not! To achieve this, Community Needs Assessment Approach (CNAA) has been envisaged.
A.

B.

Programme implications :
i.

Maximize access to good quality services

ii.

Emphasize communication

iii.

Focus on men and women

iv.

Collaborate with services for new mothers and young children

Trends in unmet needs :
Levels of unmet needs are not constant. It depends on the interplay between fertility desire and

contraceptive use. Factors include -

a. high fertility

b. change in attitude

d. low fertility

e. abortions

c. change in behavior

C. Approaches for meeting the unmet needs :
•

Access to good quality service :
iv.

i. More choice

ii. More outlets

Community based distribution v. Traine providers vi. Privacy for client counseling

vii. Reduce paper work

viii. Ensure enough stocks

Address health concern and side effects: i. Through media

iii. Allow switchover from one method to other
v.

iii. Social marketing

ii. Counseling

iv. Wide range

Testimonials from satisfied users

Increase knowledge : i. Mass media, etc.

ii. Train providers to answer to the questions

Overcome opposition from husbands: i. Tell men about benefits

ii. FP for men comfortable

iii. FP is common norm and respectable personal behavior
iv. Encourage better communication with spouse

v. Help women learn and talk about FP

XIV ANNUAL CONFERENCE OF KACH • 50 k-

=

KACH - 2000

POPULATION IN KARNATAKA STATE (’000)
1971

1981

1991

POPULATION

29299

37136

44977

MALE

14792

18923

22952

FEMALE

14327

18213

22025

URBAN

7122

10730

31069

RURAL

22177

26406

13908

IMR-RURAL

102.00

77.0

82

IMR-URBAN

45.4

45

41

Note :

1.

Marked population increase in urban:

a.
2.

urbanization

b. migration

c. poor performance of FP

IMR reduction more drastic in rural compared to urban:

a.

better performance of Primary care in rural than urban areas

b.

better facilities and better awareness and better utilization of services in rural areas

c.

? high cost of medical services keeping urban population away from timely utilizing
facilities

d.

is it nullified due to drastic increase in population

Contributed by Dr. C. Nagaraj

XIV ANNUAL CONFERENCE OF KACH • 51

KACH - 2000

MALARIA MONTH (June 2000) CELEBRATIONS
The Department of Community Medicine organised a day long endeavour to celebrate the Malaria
month. It was also as part of the work-up towards the conference.

The deliberations were held on the 29th of June 2000. The morning session was for Postgraduates and
the afternoon session was for Undergraduates.

The participants for the session for postgraduates included the Postgraduates and Faculty of Community

Medicine from Bangalore Medical College, St. Johns Medical College, Sri Devaraj Urs Medical College,
Postgraduates from the Departments of Medicine, Paediatrics, Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Pharmacology

and Community Medicine of M. S. Ramaiah Medical College.
The following paragraphs highlight the discussion during the deliberations. The discussions were

preceeded by a presentation by Dr. Ramakrishna, who had visited the reported places of outbreak in Tumkur.
1.

The need for Private Practitioners to report the Malaria cases to the District Malaria Officer and the
reporting to include proper and full address. This is because even if the Doctor reports the case with all

the concern without proper postal address, it is almost impossible for the field workers to undertake the
required followup (Blood smears from the contacts). Then surveillance work will be critically affected.
2.

Cholroquine is not a gametocidal drug and when given alone will provide clinical cure only. This

necessitates the giving of Primaquin, a gametocidal agent. If not, the gametocyte load in the community

will increase and thereby persistence of infection. Thus Radical treatment is a fundamental need for
Public Health Action against Malaria along with Presumptive treatment.
3.

Malaria is a local and focal disease. As reported in the media the entire district of Tumkur was not
affected. As expected only the few pockets were facing the problem. This also implies the need for local

solutions to be found and implemented rather than generalisations.

4.

There was noted a delay in reporting of the slides when there is a large case load especially in Major

hospitals and tertiary centres. This dlaey leads to delay in Radical treatment. Thus there is a need for
better co-ordination between clinicians and laboratory personnel for early reporting of Malaria slides
and ensuring prompt Radical treatment.
5.

The Fever cell which is being implemented at SDUMC could provide some answers to rational treatment

but one has to also consider the prolonged waiting time for the patient. But FEVER Protocols may be
developed for rational therapy.
6.

Need for through training skills for Laboratory technicians because slides get reported as negative due
to lack of experience.

XIV ANNUAL CONFERENCE OF KACH • 52 Lt...-- ;----------------------- ------------ - . .

,

KACH - 2000

7.

Increased gametocyte load in the community and the emerging drug resistance in the South east asian

countries are mainly due to the fact that the Practitioners of Medicine do not sufficiently appreciate the

pinciples behind the National Policy formulations.
8.

The use of insecticides to be rational and appropriate to the local needs keeping in mind the bionomics

of the Vector. Day biter and exophillic Aedes needs a different approach than anopheles.
9.

It was also decided to undertake a detailed analysis of the situation in Tumkur District with additional

inputs from the Directorate of Health and Family Welfare and the Regional Office of Health and Family

Welfare.
The participants for the Undergraduate session were the 7th term students. Dr. D Gopinath addressed

the students providing them an overview of the Vector borne disease with focus on Malaria. He spoke about
the uniqueness of the Vector borne infections in that it involves three ecological situations: Man. Disease

agent and the vector. Five of the six major diseases of global importance are VBD. Since all theses are

parasitic diseases their study requires a broader range of expertise and specific interventions. We need to
understand the far more complex interactions than with bacteria alone. Dr. Nagaraj spoke to the students

regarding the National Anti Malaria Programme and its salient points. He stresses on the importance of
Rational use of the drugs and appropriate use of insecticides.
(The Department of Community Medicine would like to sincerely acknowledge with thanks the support of Dr. P K Shome,

Senior Regional Director, and Dr. C Nagaraj, Senior Research Officer, Regional Office of Health and Family Welfare,

Bangalore for their immense and proactive support for the endeavour. Thanks are also due to Dr. Murugendrappa,

Additional Director, Directorate of Health and Family Welfare, Government of Karnataka and Dr. N J Shetty and team
from the Centre for Applied Genetics for their valuable technical support. The presence and participation of Dr. Maiya,

Professor of Paediatrics, MSRMC, Dr. Maiya, Professor of ObGyn, MSRMC, Dr. Shivakumar, Professor of Medicine,

MSRMC and Dr. Shiva Murthy, Professor of Pharmacology, MSRMC is acknowledged with gratitude.)

XIV ANNUAL CONFERENCE OF KACH • 53

|KACH - 20001--

ROLL BACK MALARIA
a)

Frame work for implementation : Multisectoral approach; advocate of rapid diagnosis, preventive
methods, protection of high risk groups.

b)

Initiate National Efforts : Taking situation analysis, establish National goals, objectives, strategies and
indicator for monitoring. Identify requirements of resources and funding.

c)

Establish political support for proper implementation, establish Operational Research and dissemination
of data.

d)

Workout modalities for implementation.

e)

Capacity buildup exercise

f)

Mobilise community and community participation in the programme.

Roll back malaria is a social movement supported by many partners. Partners function independently
but in concert. Plan of action takes into account ground realities, prioritises issues and is implemented to suit
local situation.
Goals include - halving malaria mortality and morbidity by 2010.
Thrust on - development of low cost production of malaria diagnostics, combination therapy, development
of information system.

Why Microscopic diagnosis insisted in malaria surveillance ?

Advantages :
♦

It is the most cost effective and reproducable method of diagnosis

♦

Simple stains and compound microscope is sufficient

♦

Requires a small quantity of blood on a glass slide

♦

The smear is easy to collect and transport to laboratory

♦

Can detect the infecting species accurately

♦

Stages of the parasite can be identified.

♦

Quantity of the parasitic load can be assessed.

♦

Can be repeated at ease and not at much cost.

Limitations :

♦

Requires a trained technician

♦

About 60-70 slides could be examined by one technician per day

♦

In certain situations (a few cases of complicated malaria, some days in a resistant case) the slide
could be negative. However this limitation could be overcome by repeat examination.

Principle :
The microscopic threshold for a trained techician examining thick smear is 25-40 parasites per ML of
blood. However, clinical threshold of malaria is higher (much more parasites per ML of blood).

-------

■

XIV ANNUAL CONFERENCE OF KACH • 54

~ -

KACH - 2000

Drug regimens used under NAMP
Presumptive treatment: Any fever case is presumed to be due to malaria. To prevent clinical morbidity due
to malaria before a diagnosis is made schizontocidal drugs are administered.

In low risk areas :

Tab. chloroquine (150 mg (base))

0-1

year

-

72

tab.

(75mg)

1-4

year

-

1

tab.

(150mg)

4-8

year

-

2

tab.

(300mg)

8-14 year

-

3

tab.

(450mg)

years -

4

tab.

(600 mg)

>14
In high risk areas :

Tab. chloroquine (150 mg (base))

Age (Yrs)

Day-1

Day-2

Day-3

0-1

7 tab.

7 tab.

% tab

1-4

1 tab.

1 tab.

7z tab

4-8

2 tab.

2 tab.

1 tab.

8-14

3 tab.

3 tab.

17 tab.

>14

4 tab.

4 tab.

2 tab.

Presumptive radical treatment:

In out break situations and when deaths due to malaria is being reported from high risk PHCs to prevent
malaria deaths any fever cases is presumed to be a case of P.falciparum and radically treated. Cholorquine
and Primaquine are given together on first day and chloroquine is continued on 2nd and 3rd days.

Chloroquine

Day-3

Day-2

Day-1

Age (Years)

Primquine

Chloroquine

Chloroquine

0-1

7 tab.

Nil

7 Tab.

% tab.

1-4

1 tab.

7.5mg

1 tab.

7 tab

4-8

2 tab.

15 mg

2 tab.

1 tab.

8-14

3 tab.

30 mg

3 tab.

17 tab.

>14

4 tab.

45 mg

4 tab.

2 tab.

Presumptive treatment in chloroquine resistant foci:

Tablet sulfa+pyrimethamine combination is used as an altenative to chloroquine only by the Medical Officers
at Passive agencies for presumptive treatment at the adult dose of 3 tab.

These tablets are used by active agencies for radical treatment of all P.falciparum cases detected along with
tablet primaquine given on the subsequent day.

Radical treatment:

Tablet primquine is used as a gametocytocidal drug in P.falciparum and antirelapse drug in P.vivax infections.
This is given along with tablet chloroquine (or with sulfa/pyremethamine combination in chloroquine resistant

case when the drug is given on the subsequent day). Dose of primaquine depends on the infecting species.
. . .

■.

I XIV ANNUAL CONFERENCE OF KACH >

,

==;

KACH - 2000

Age (Years)

P.falciparum

P.vivax

0-1

No primaquine

No primaquine

1-4

7.5 mg

2.5 mg x 5 days

4-8

15 mg

5 mg x 5 days

8-14

30 mg

10mg x 5 days

>14

45 mg

15mg x 5 days

Note : No primaquine for infants and pregnants.
Criteria followed to declare a PHC as high risk :

1.

PHC which has recorded deaths due to P.falciparum malaria during any of the past three years,
with an evidence of locally acquired infection

2.

P.falciparum proportion in 30% or more with an SPR of 3% or more during the last 3 years.

3.

An area having a focus of chloroquine resistance.

4.

Doubling of SPR during the last 3 years provided the SPR reaches 4% or more.

5.

SPR is 5% or more during the last three years, irrespective of its doubling.

6.

Tropical aggregation of labour in project areas.

7.

New settlements in endemic / receptive and vulnerable area.

Drugs of choice for treatment of malaria complications :
Inj. Quinine

Artemesanine derivatives (only injectables to be used).

■■

------------- 1 XIV ANNUAL CONFERENCE OF KACH «

56 I

~

-

---------

■ r..KACH - 20001

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-------------------------- =!'■ ■■

A note on
National Health Policy -1983 & National Population Policy, 2000
By definition Policy means a definite course of action adopted for the sake of expediency, facility, etc.,. It also
means action or procedure confirming to or considered with reference to prudence or expediency.

In the absence of policy all that the government wants to achieve does not get done. It becomes a rudderless
ship with no clearly spelt out objectives to be achieved. For example, with the enunciating the Immunisation
policy as distinct from the immunisation schedule the government committed and said that it wanted to achieve

90% coverage and the infrastructure to achieve this was also provided; the success was reflected in the

drastic reduction of the Vaccine preventable diseases and Infant Mortality Rate.
Policies provide framework accomplishment of the objectives to be achieved. Usually countries frame the
policies in the light of the problems to be tackled. In absence of a well designed policy, tackling problems

become difficult and result in wastage of Men, material and money. Policies prescribe aims, objectives and

targets that would be used to achieve the objectives operationally. Thus, policies refer to administration,

which defines objectives and determines the choice of action.
Health of the community has been a major problem even during the British times. The Bhore committee was

set up to suggest measures to provide health care to the people. Later the health Care delivery after the
independence was based on the recommendations of the Bhore Committee. The framers of the constitution

made a specific mention that the State shall regard raising the level of nutrition and standard of living of its
people and improvement of Public health amongst its primary duties. But, unfortunately, no policy was formulated
and the health programmes and schemes were implemented as part of National Five year plan. There was

found to be a lack of impetus and direction with a fragmented approach.

Recognising the inequalities in Health Care among communities in large part of the globe, in 1978, the Alma
Ata declaration accepted the Primary Health Care approach with a goal of Health for All by 2000 AD. Being a
signatory to the declaration India got down to formulate the Health Policy.

The preamble of NHP describes the progress achieved and the existing health picture at the time of the

formulation of the policy. The main achievements were decreasing mortality and increasing Life expectancy.
Points of serious concern were noted. The problems needed to be identified, prioritised and solved in a time

bound manner. Eight elements were listed for urgent or immediate action. These include Nutrition, Prevention

of Food adulteration and maintenance of drug quality, water supply and sanitation, environmental protection,
immunisation, mother and child health services, school health services, occupational health services. Population
stabilisation, Provision of Primary Health Care, Medical and Health Education, Role of the practitioners of

indigenous systems of medicine, Management information system, Medical industry, Health Insurance and

legislation and Medical research were the other issues highlighted. Time bound targets have been set in
respect of many indicators.

XIV ANNUAL CONFERENCE OF KACH • 57

KACH - 2000

The NHP -1983 was found not to adequately address the following issues:

1.

Social Justice and Land reforms therefore empowerment of the masses

2.

Community Participation

3.

Budgets for health

4.

Other risk / special groups (Geriatrics / Accident prevention I Addiction

5.

No Plan of Action

National Population Policy, 2000
On May 11,2000 India is projected to have 1 Billion people i.e., 16% of the Worlds population on 2.4% of the

globes land area. While the global population has increasedrthreefold during this century (2 billion to 6 billion),
the population of India has nearly increased five times from 238 million to 1 billion. India's current annual

increase in population of 15.5 million is large enough to neutralise efforts to conserve the resource endowment

and environment.
Stabilising population is an essential requirement for promoting sustainable development with more equitable

distribution. The National Population Policy affirms the commitment of the government towards voluntary and
informed choice and consent of citizens while availing of reproductive health services and continuation of the

target free approach in administering family planning services. The NPP 2000 provides a policy framework
for advancing the goals and prioritising the strategies during the next decade to meet the reproductive and

child health needs of the people of India and to achieve the replacement level (TFR) by 2010. It is based on
the need to simultaneously address issues of child survival, maternal health and contraception while increasing
the outreach and coverage of a comprehensive package of reproductive and child health services by
government, industry and voluntary non-government sector, working in partnership.

The Immediate objective of NPP 2000 is to address the unmet needs for contraception, health care infrastructure

and health personnel and to provide integrated service delivery for basic reproductive child health care. The

medium term objective is to bring the TFR to replacements level by 2010 through vigourous implementation
of intersectoral operational strategies. The Long-term objective is to achieve a stable population by 2045 at a
level consistent with the requirements of sustainable economic growth, social development and environmental

protection.
Population growth continues to be high on account of
a)

The large size of the population in the reproductive age group

b)

Higher fertility due to unmet need for contraception

c)

High wanted fertility due to the High IMR

d)

Over 50% of the girls marry below the age of 18. Around 33% births occur at intervals of less than 24

months, which also results in high IMR

I"--olirrnriirr or r*rn

~n|

KACH - 2000}

NATIONAL SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC GOALS FOR 2010
1.

Address the unmet needs for basic reproductive and child health service, supplies and infrastructure

2.

Make school education upto age 14 free and compulsory and reduce drop outs at primary and secondary

3.

school levels to below 20% for both boys and girls
Reduce IMR below 30 / 1000 Live births

4.

Reduce MMR to below 100 /100,000 Live births

5.

Achieve Universal Immunisation of Children against all Vaccine Preventable diseases

6.

Promote delayed marriage for girls not earlier than age 18 and preferable after 20 years of age

7.

Achieve 80% Institutional deliveries and 100% deliveries by Trained persons

8.

Achieve Universal access to Information / Counseling and services for Fertility regulation and
contraception with a wide basket of choices

9.

10.

Achieve 100% registration of births, deaths, marriages and pregnancy.
Contain the spread of AIDS and promote grater integration between the management of Reproductive
tract infections and Sexually Transmitted Infections under NACO

11.

12.

Prevent and control Communicable diseases

Integrate Indian Systems of Medicines in the provision of Reproductive and child health services, and in

reaching out to households.
13.

14.

Promote vigourously the small to achieve the replacement levels of TFR

Bring about convergence in implementation of related social sector programmes so that family welfare

becomes a people centred programme
The 12 strategic themes which must be simultaneously pursued in "stand alone" or intersectoral programmes
in order to achieve the National Socio-demographic goals for 2010
1)

Decentralised planning and programme implementation

2)

Convergence of service delivery at Village levels

3)

Empowering women for improved Health and Nutrition

4)

Child Health and Survival

5)

Meeting the unmet need for Family Welfare services

6)

Underserved Population groups (Urban slums / Tribal communities / Hill Area populations / Displaced
and migrant populations / Adolescents / increased participation of men in planned parenthood)

7)

Diverse health care providers

8)

Collaboration with and commitments form the Non-government organisations and the private sector

9)

Main streaming Indian Systems of Medicine and Homeopathy

10)

Contraceptive technology and research on Reproductive and child health

11)

Providing for the older population

12)

Information, Education and Communication

XIV ANNUAL CONFERENCE OF KACH • 59 -- ■ ■ ■

------- ----

r.

KACH - 2000

General Tips for Safe Management of Health Care Waste
1.

Categorise the WASTE into SIX Categories :

I.

General Waste - Dry (Waste Paper, Paper covers, Packing materials)

II.

General Waste - Wet (Food remains, any decomposable matter)

111.

WASTE SHARPS - (Blades, Broken Ampoules, Needles, Lancet, etc.,)

IV.

RECYCLABLES - (Containers I Items of Plastic, Intact Glass, Metals)

V.

INFECTIOUS WASTE - Any item I material which has come into contact with blood and or

body fluids including Urine, stools, specimen materials and Culture plates, etc.,
VI.

2.

Other Hazardous Waste - Chemical and Lab reagents, Pressurised containers and canisters

Keep appropriate containers to collect the particular type of waste for further processing.

CONTAINMENT IS THE FIRST STEP IN WASTE PROCESSING. DO NOT MIX THE DIFFERENT
TYPES OF LABORATORY AND CHEMICAL REAGENTS INTO A SINGLE CONTAINER.

3.

Reducing the Infectious Nature of the Waste takes immediate priority. Chemical Dis-infection is
simple and easy to perform. Cleaning of the Reusable items is mandatory before chemical
disinfection. TWO TEASPOONS of Bleaching Powder in ONE LITRE of Water (approximately 2%
Bleach Solution) is an effective disinfectant. The Infectious nature of the Materials is immediately
reduced when fixed in Formalin. TO REDUCE FURTHER POLLUTION AND TO ADHERE TO

THE POLLUTION CONTROL GUIDELINES SEGREGATE, CONTAIN AND BAG THE INFECTIOUS
WASTE GOING FOR INCINERATION. DO NOT ADD CHLORINE COMPOUNDS TO THE

INCINERABLE WASTE
4.

5.

Ensure that all understand the
A)

Categories of Waste and the segregation

B)

Methods of Handling the segregated Waste

C)

Use of Barrier Protection while handling Waste

ASK QUESTION AND OBTAIN CLARIFICATION. ASSUMPTIONS CAN BE DANGEROUS AND
HAZARDOUS.

For further information please feel free to contact:

Health Care Waste Management Cell
Department of Community Medicine,

M S Ramaiah Medical College, Bangalore - 560 054.
Ph : 412 of 3449190 / 3447473 I 3443476 / 3369852
Fax : 3460213 ; Email: hcwmcell@hotmail.com

XIV ANNUAL CONFERENCE OF KACH a 60 ---------------------------------------------------

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Total number of slums District wise in Karnataka

District

SI No.

Pvt. Govt. TMC CMC Rlwys G.P. KSCB BCC Others Total

1

Bangalore (R)

46

4

12

2

Haven

31

9

9

3

Raichur

20

11

26

3
13

-

-

-

-

-

-

2

54

1

3

-

-

74

1

1

70

-

62

4

Hubli - Dharwad

42

9

4

11

2

-

5

Koppal

9

3

27

12

-

2

-

2

55

6

Tumkur

39

4

30

2

-

5

1

2

83

7

Mandya

16

2

10

27

-

-

-

-

55

8

Kodagu

-

-

6

-

-

-

-

-

6

9

Kolar

11

15

40

1

-

-

-

2

69

10

Mangalore

9

-

-

10

-

-

-

3

22

11

U. Kannada

8

12

27

5

-

5

-

7

64

12

5

-

-

-

-

23

-

-

-

12

12

Belgaum

4

2

13

Udupi

3

3

6

-

14

Hassan

28

-

29

16

-

16

-

-

89

15

Mysore

16

6

26

33

2

-

1

5

89

16

Shimoga

23

18

34

15

-

25

-

4

119

17

C. Durga

5

1

21

-

-

-

-

-

27

18

Davanagere

19

9

3

13

-

5

1

3

53

19

Chikmagalur

24

-

15

8

-

1

-

-

48

57

-

-

-

-

-

85

17

-

-

-

-

69

1

-

4

124

20
21

Gulbarga

10

18

Bidar

-

-

52

22

Bijapur

13

41

56

9

-

23

Bagalkot

5

6

25

2

-

-

-

-

38

24

C.R. Nagar

26

4

24

-

-

-

-

-

54

25

Bellary

22

34

54

34

-

2

1

-

147

26

Gadag

12

3

8

3

1

-

-

-

27

27

Bangalore (U)

144

48

-

-

3

-

5

73

21

294

576

271

613

239

9

65

10

73

56

1912|

Total

C A-t-_i.rC^- ', V J

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23% population of class I cities
in Karnataka resides in slums
11

Seema Singh

BANGALORE: The urban-rural
divide may be decreasing in Kar­
nataka with rural folk flocking to
the cities. But the fact that 23 per
cent of the population in the 21
class I cities in tire state lives in
slums does not augur well for the
trends in urbanisation.
'
With 985 slums in 21 cities
(having more than one lakh pop­
ulation), the task of the Karnata­
ka Slum Clearance Board
(KSCB) is cut out but definitely
not easy.
To tackle the monumental task
of improvement and rehabilita­
tion of the slums, a study was
commissioned by the' govern­
ment. including the KSCB, to
assess the problem and suggest
remedial measures. Conducted by
the Centre for Symbiosis of Tech­
nology. Environment and Man­
agement. the study proposes a Rs
753 crore plan for the develop“Tnent and rehabilitation of the
• slums in 21 cities, excluding Ban­
galore.
As anticipated, agencies like
HUDCO, Asian Development
Bank and many European fund­
ing agencies with bilateral assis­
tance have shown interest in the

»'

slum upgradation programme of
the government. Said principal
secretary, housing department,
Dilip Rau: “The basic idea is to
rope in funding agencies, domes­
tic and international, so that we
can take up large-scale slum
improvement programme. Other
states have done it but Karnataka
has taken the initiative for the
first lime. Housing Urban Devel­
opment corporation (HUDCO)
has agreed in principle to take up
Rs 274 crore work, while the gov­
ernment can pitch in with some
more money and the project
should get going in about two
months.”
The slums account for 1.5 mil­
lion people in these cities with the
average household size being 5.4.
The percentage of slum popula­
tion to total city population
ranges from 1.7 (Udupi) to 49.2
(Hospet).
On the abysmal condition of
the amenities and infrastructure
in the slums in the state, STEM
director B. Bhaskara Rao said,
“Nearly 42 per cent of the slums
face the threat of inundation dur­
ing the rains. More than 60 per
cent of them have no access to
community toilets and under­

’T# I Mr 31,7,Do

ground drainage. About 34 per
cent of the slum population does
not have access to primary school
and 75 per cent population is
deprived of public health
care/health centre.”
The only positive thing the
study shows about the slums is the
sex ratio which is 988 females per
1,000 males against the state aver­
age of 930. The sex ratio is more
than 1,000 in 10 cities.
Though the urbanisation trends
are comparable to the national
trends, an interesting feature is
that bigger towns in the state are
growing bigger with larger popu­
lation shares, and smaller size
towns are shrinking.
The average size of a town
which was 7,663 persons in 1901,
the report says, may soon cross
one lakh mark by 2010.
A survey shows willingness on
the part of slum dwellers to con­
tribute an average of Rs 201' per
household per month ’ at the
household level and Rs 24.75 per
household for improvements at
community/slum level.
Now that the surveyors have
made them dream of quality life.
can the government expedite the
programme please?

WHO

FUNDED

WORKSHOP

ON

z

Assessment of Family Weifare/Primary Health
Care Needs in Urban Areas (specially in slums)
•for the cities with Population over Two Lakhs.

November 15-16, 19SS

D
0
0
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Conducted by
National Institute of Health & Family Welfare,
New Mehrauli Road, Munirka,

NEW E)ELHI-110067.

INTRODUCTION
Urbanisation

Although India still continues to have a large rural
population,
the urban population has increased from 20
percent to 24 percent between 1971 to 1981 at an annual
growth rate of 3.7 percent compared to 1.7 percent for the
rural population. Over the next two decades it is estimated
that almost half of India’s population growth will be in the
urban areas,
and by the year 2000 the urban population is
projected to rise to about 30Z of the total.
The rapid rate
of urbanisation in India is almost double of that what was
experienced in the developed countries.

Heal th Care Deli very System:
The Health care delivery system in urban
areas,
paricularly
in
large
cities consits
of
hospitals,
dispensaries and Maternal and child health
(MCH)
centres,
run by govt.
(State or centre),
municipal corporation,
industrial undertakings,
voluntary organisations & private
bodies.
The urban Family Welfare centres are usually
attached
to
Institutions
run
by
Govt./Municipal'
bodies/voluntary organisations and these institutions do not
have proper outreach service to cater to the needs of slum
dwel1ers.

Looking into the unique problems of the urban slums,
the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare developed a scheme
on reorganisation of family welfare and primary health care
services in urban areas in 1982 under the Chairmanship of
Shri S.V.Krishnan, Additional Chief Secretary & Secretary
Health & Family Welfare, Govt, of West Bengal. This scheme,
known as urban Revamping scheme has taken into consideration
the varying size of slum population and infrastructure
required thereof
(annexure-I).
The scheme is 100 percent
centrally sponsored. Since its inception, some progress has
occurred in the implementation of this scheme in few states
but it did not succeed in acheiving the objectives envisaged
in most of the areas.

Factors associated with low health states of si urn dwel1ers

Some of the glaring factors that keep the health status
of urban slum dwellers at a low level can be identified as
over crowding, poor housing conditions (Kutcha/semi—pucca)
house,
poor environmental sanitation, lack of potable water
supply and drainage system, child labour, lack of education,
unemployment, drug addiction and similar maladies.

This urban environment is particularly hostile to the
children and women.
The children bear the maximum brunt of
poor housing,
malnutrition, acute respiratory diseases,
diarrhoea
and
other
water
borne
diseases.
High
environmental risk,
accompanied by lack of parental care
emerging partly due to ignorance and partly to
non­
availability
of services—preventive
(immunization)
and
curative place the children at a high risk of disease,
disability and mortality.
A large number of women have to seek work to support
their families.
Again these are the women who are married
and are in the child-bearing age—group of
15—49 years.
Their limited education,
low skills, low income occupation,
unwanted
pregnancies,
!
*
abortion
etc.
lead them
to
malnutrition,
mental stress or immoral traffic.
The
situation gets worsened when this vulnerable group of women
are deprived of the maternal health care (Antenatal,
intra—
natal and post-natal)
facilities,
either due to non­
availability or non-utilisation of services.

It is, therefore, felt that more explicit policies and
guidelines involving innovative approaches may be drawn by
the planners and health administrators to implement the
health services scheme with a special focus on family
welfare and primary health care services.
In view of the
above,
Govt. of
India has requested this Institute to
prepare a detailed proposal to assess the total family
welfare,
MCH/primary health care needs of the urban
population (specially slum) of all the cities in the country
with population over two lakhs in the first instance.
In
order to assess the FW/PHC needs of slum population,
it
is proposed to conduct 2 workshops for each state/group of
states.
The present workshop is second in the series
planned
for the lagre cities, namely, Banglore, Hydrabad
and Calcutta.

OBJECTIVES
Broad

To assess total family welfare,
MCH and primary health
care needs of urban population,
specially slums in cities
with more than two lakhs population in the country.
Specific
1.

To prepare population profile and map the location
slums in each city.

2.

To assess the family welfare,
Care Needs of slum population.

MCH and Primary

of

Health

3.

To identify the existing health and
delivery services in these cities.

4.

To assess the role which could be played by NGOs
and
private medical practioners in the delivery o-f -family
welfare services in the slum population.

5.

To make recommendations -for strengthening the delivery
o-f -family welfare and primary health care services in
these cities including -formulation of packages schemes

-family

welfare

ill. HEIHQE2L25Y
The methodology for achievement of the above objectives
will be as follows:

Two workshops of two days each will be conducted for
each state/group of states.
In the first workshop the
participants will be given detailed guidelines for
collection of basic information relating to total and
slum population of the cities, existing family welfare,
MCH and primary health care
services in these cities
etc.
The participants are expected to bring the
available information in the proforma already sent to
them on socio-economic and health profile of the city.
This information will be discussed in the workshop and
gaps in the information would be identified and the
sources from which this information could be obtained
or
alterative
methods
for
ovei—coming
these
deficiencies will be discussed. This will be followed
by a brief presentation on the methodology of project
formulation.
After
the
presentation
on
the
methodology of project formulation, the participants
will be devided into groups to prepare outline of the
project proposal of their state/city which they will
elaborate after returning from the workshop. Faculty
resource will help the participants in this group work
exercise.

IV.

Participants

Workshops will be attended by one nodal officer from
the State who is looking after the implementation of health
& family welfare programmes for urban areas, specially slums
and two officers each from the cities with over two lakh
population in that state.
Of the two officers from cities,
one will be from administration and other from health
department.

November 15,

1988

0930 - 11OO hrs.

Registration and Inauguration

11OO - 1300 hrs..

Project Formulation
(Lecture/Di scussi on)
Dr.Y.P.Gupta

1300 - 1400 hrs.

Lunch

1400 - 1700 hrs.

Group work Exercise

November,16,1988

0930 - 1300 hrs.

Group work Exercise

1300 - 1400 hrs.

Lunch Break

1400 - 1600 hrs.

Presentation of Group work report
and concluding session

1600 - 1630 hrs.

Administrative Formulation

ANNEXURE-I

STAFFING PATTERN FOR HEALTH POST

a.

For Population below 5,000
i)
Nurse-midwife — one
ii)
Voluntary Health Workers one to two
iii) The Health post would be an extension of services
of the appropriate hospital selected by the local
body.
It would provide all the back up (referral)
services and supervision.

b.

For Slum Area with Population between 5000—10000
i)
Nurse—midwife — one
ii) A(basically trained male MPW worker — one
iii) Voluntary women health workers one for every
2000 population.
iv)
The Health post would be an extension of services
of the appropriate hospital selected by the local
body.
It would provide all the back-up (referral>
services and supervision.

c.

For Slum Areas covering a population between 10,000 to 25000
The same organisational set up as recommended for 5-10
thousand population with the following additions:

d.

i)

Nurse midwife— one

ii)

Male MPW — One

iii)

Supervision and supporting services to be provided as
in the case of category (a)

iv)

Women health volunteer — one for every 2000 population.

For Slum
50,000

areas

covering

a

population between 25,OOP to

i)
Lady Doctor
— one
ii) Public Health Nurse — one
iii) Nurse Midwives — 3—4

iv)

Male MPWs

- 3-4

v)
Class IV
One (women)
vi) Computer—cum—clerk — one
vii) Women Health Volunteers — one for every 2000 population
viii)Laboratory

ix)
x)

Lady Doctor and Public Health Nurse
Sterilisation and MTP services to be provided by the
mobile van provided under ROME scheme and the staff
provided either by the referral hospital or by the
Post Partum centre attached to the nearest medical
col lege.

For si urns covering populati on more than 50,OOP
Areas should be divided into sectors of 50,000 and
provided facilities given under (a), (b) and (c) above,
according to the population to be covered.

BuiIdinqs for the Health Posts

For effective functioning of Health Posts,
it is
essential that they are located in the slum area itself.
As
suitable buildings are not likely to be available in slum
areas,
it is desirable to construct functional buildings of
these Health Posts.

Over al1 supervi si on
Over all
responsibility
who would be
Health officer
F.P. Bureau.

supervision of Health Posts would be the
of the Health officers of the corporation,
assisted in this work by the Asstt. / Dy.
(FP) and other staff provided under the city

One or more (depending on the slum population to be
covered)
mobile van provided under the ROME scheme would be
placed at the disposal of Health Officers of the corporation
for providing supportive and surgical F.P. services on the
spot to the slum population.

Total No. of Units of different categories in cities with
population of one lakh and above
Unit cost (Rs. )
Non-recurring Recurri ng

Total No. of units required

Category

No.

A.(Popu.less than 5000)

32

5,000

16,000

B.(Popu.5000-10,000)

28

8,000

30,000

C.(Popu.-10,000-25,000)

73

15,000

65,000

D.(Popu.-25,000-50,000)

1878

35,000

1,50,000

Source:

Report of the working Group on reorganisation
of Family Welfare and Primary Health Care Services
in Urban Areas — 1982, Ministry of Health &
Family Welfare, Govt, of India.

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Health, Nutrition & Population
Improved Health Care for Adolescent Girls in Urban Slums
Madhya Pradesh is the fourth most populous state in India with a population of over 77 million
people. Jabalpur in Madhya Pradesh is its third largest district, with a population of 2.6 million
(1991 Census). Nearly half this population lives in Jabalpur city, with 0.8 million people
residing in urban slums. These slums also house about 66,000 adolescents in the age group
of 10-19 years, of which 44% are adolescent girls.

CARE developed this project based on a study conducted for situational analysis of Jabalpur
City in 1993. The study brought out the fact that adolescent girls in slums had limited
knowledge about their reproductive system, reproductive tract infections and birth spacing.
The use of reproductive health services was limited due to societal, familial and institutional
barriers. Girls were vulnerable to sexual exploitation, infection, unwanted pregnancy, and
abortion and this contributed to the high rates of morbidity and fertility in this age group.
The project was launched with a goal to significantly reduce morbidity and mortality associated
with reproductive health among approximately 32,000 adolescent girls, both married and
unmarried, in 143 slums of Jabalpur city by December 2002. The project also reaches 34,000
.adolescent boys and 45,000 women in the age group of 20-44 years.
The project is funded by UNFPA for a 6-year duration from January 1997 to December 2002.

The broad strategy used to achieve the project goal encompasses the following three pronged
strategy:
. Increasing adolescent girl's access to information and services,
. Improving advocacy among influential groups such as parents, husbands and
adolescent boys,
. Improving the quality of reproductive health services provided by community based and
public sector agents.
The specific activities of the project include:

Using a girl-to-girl approach by forming of a cadre of Adolescent Girl's Health Guides
(AGHGs).
2. Reaching out to adolescent boys and husbands of married adolescent girls through
Yuvak Kendras.
3. Involving and educating of women (20-44 years) through Mahila Mandals.
4. Conducting competency based training of medical and paramedical staff (both public
and private sector).
5. Strengthening the available basic minimum facilities to treat reproductive health
problems.
6. Training the Traditional Birth Attendants (TBA) on Essential Obstetric and newborn
care.
7. Establishing relay health services and referral networks.
8. Mobilising the Anganwadi Centres and Mahila Mandals to act as contraceptives depots,

1.

9.

Setting up adolescent resource centre for skill building and follow up activities.

In order to increase the effectiveness of the project and to develop a more need-based
approach, CARE is exploring the option of social marketing of sanitary napkins. This will
promote personal hygiene during menstruation, which quite often restricts social interaction,
including going to school. The possibility of conducting an operations research study on the
utilisation of community birthing centers is also being explored.

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Urban Development
At the turn of the new millennium, India's urban population is about 290 million people, which
works out to about a third of the population. This figure is projected to grow at the rate of about
3 percent per year in the next decade. By the year 2025, 50% of India's population is expected
to be living in urban areas.

Wp
Eco
Em
Hea
Pop

Urb

Although urbanization is often associated with increasing national production and higher levels
of per capita GDP, poverty remains a persistent feature of urban life, both in terms of income
and living conditions. Urban poverty in fact emerges as a more complex phenomenon than rural
poverty, with aspects of environmental degradation, inadequate planning and management of
urban resources, mismanaged investments in technology as well as insufficient mobilization of
communities. Equally notable is the mental and psychosocial divide between the poor and the
not so poor, ridden with misconceptions and a lack of understanding of what comprises poverty
or vulnerability.

Trib

Agri
Res

Girl

Em

Recognizing these trends, CARE has expanded its portfolio to include new strategies in urban
areas. The PLUS project in Delhi, launched in January 2000, is one of CARE's new initiatives in
this direction.
PLU
PLU

PIQll
PLU
PLU
Coy
Inter
Res

PLU

1 of 1

3/7/02 8-36 AM

URBAN PRIMARY HEATH CARE SERVICES

Ufa

Urban Areas of Karnataka have received very little support from
the government for primary health care. It is an established fact that
health in the slums is for worse than rural areas & require interventions
of a specilised nature. The problems of urban areas is also unique as is
the socio demographic picture.

The level of infant and maternal mortality is still veiy high with
the quality of care being provided is very poor. The main deficiencies
in the urban areas are ;
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Lack of outreach services.
Inadequate training of staff .
Lack of community participation.
Constraints to the participation private medical Practioners.
Weak Information Education & Communication.

PROPOSAL FOR PRIMARY HEALTH CARE
POPULATIONS MORE THAN 50000.

IN CITIES/ TOWNS WITH

The cities /towns with more than 50000 populations and no
infrastructure from the government require at-Ieast one Primary Health
Centre. These Health Centres can have the following staff.

1.
2.
3.

Lady Medical Officer
ANM’s
Link Workers

1
2
1 for every 5000
slum population.

FUNCTIONS OF THE HEATH CENTRES

Services

Health Centre

Promotive

Health & Nutrition Education
Knowledge of vaccine
Preventable diseases &
Diarrohea
Family Planning
Health Care

Yes
Yes
Yes

Antenatal Care
Normal deliveries
High Risk deliveries
Post natal care
Immunization of mother & child
Nutritional care of children up to
the of five
Medical checkup an follow up of
School going children
Treatment of minor ailments
Non surgical care for children
Needing specialist attention
Minor Gynaecological procedures
Laboratory test: Basic
Comprehensive

Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes

Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes
No

Family Planning

Advice on appropriate method
Supply of condom/oral pills
Initial
Subsequent
Insertion of IUCD
Sterlization
M.T.P.
Domiciliary follow up
of acceptors

Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No

Yes

JOB RESPONSIBILITES OF LADY MEDICAL OFFICER
She will be responsible
for effective implementation
of
Reproductive Child Health and Primary Health Care programmes in
Urban Poor Areas.
She will have to identify the community needs and prepare areas
specific implementation plans. She is responsible to supervise the
activities of the ANM’s and Link Workers. She will conduct clinic based
services daily in the Health Centre in the mornings &
conduct
outreach programmes
as per fixed advance programme
in the
afternoons.
These outreach programmes should be
fixed in
consultation
with the Link Workers. She is responsible for proper
implementations of all national programmes. She will conduct School
Health Programmes which includes Health Checkup
awareness
creations and adolescent children programme. She will conduct well
woman clinics and RTI/STI detection treatment and awareness
i

creation on AIDS. She will also conduct programmes for early detection
of cancers in woman particularly for Cervical cancers through visual
inspection of the cervix and cervical smears.
JOB RESPONSIBILITIES OF ANM’S

The ANM’s will conduct Eligible couple survey in the Urban Poor
area allocated to them. They will prioritise the couples according to
parity and age.

They will register
trimester.

100% antenatal cases

They will ensure 100% immunization
and infants in their jurisdiction.

of

preferably in the first
all pregnant Woman

They will assist the anemia control programme through
tablets distribution.

F.S.

They will ensure that couples follow small family norm by
acceptance of any of the family welfare methods.
They will ensure timely
institutions.

and appropriate

referrals

They will
conduct
awareness programmes and
programmes in consultation with Link Workers.

to

higher

outreach

They will conduct well woman clinic where STI/RTI detection
treatment and awareness programmes on AIDS will also be done.
They will conduct focus group meetings and other group
meetings like satisfied customers contact programmes , Mother-inlaw meetings etc., at the slums.

23

LINK WORKERS

These are woman in the slums who act as a link between the
Health Centre and the slum. They are honorary workers who will be
paid an honorarium of Rs. 500/- Per Month.
They will serve the
slums where they reside. These woman should devote at-least three to
four hours every day for community mobilization work. They will
receive a training in various programmes and also how to conduct field
level programmes.
They will be given training in communication
skills.
INVOLVEMENT OF PRIVATE MEDICAL PRACTITIONERS

In Urban areas private medical Practitioners are
providing
primary health care to slums dwellers also. Hence public private
partnership in urban areas should be encouraged. Private practitioners
should be given vaccine, training, family welfare, and IEC materials.
REFERRAL

The Primary Health Centres should be
attached to Taluk
Hospitals, District Hospitals, Medical College Hospitals for referral of
all mothers , infants & others requiring appropriate care.
PROPOSAL FOR PRIMARY HEALTH CARE
POPULATIONS LESS THAN 50000

IN CITIES/ TOWNS WITH

The cities with population less than 50000, the health facilities
can be physically located in taluk or district hospitals. Such centres
need to cater only to field activities and outreach programmes. Referral
linkage for clinic based services can be provided by the taluk or
district hospital. The staffing pattern job function etc., will be the same
as in the Health Centres proposed for cities with population more than
50000. The only difference being the location.

29

'SAID Global Health: HIX' AIDS in India

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»Additional
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» USAID Mission in
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□Project Profiles:
Children Affected
by AIDS

Nutrition & Maternal
Health

Situation Analysis

Population

India is home to the largest
number of people infected with
HIV in Asia. An estimated 3.9
million Indians are living with
HIV/AIDS, with an adult
prevalence rate of 0.7 percent.
Sentinel surveillance studies
conducted in 1999 found HIV seroprevalence of
greater than 1 percent in six of 32 states and
territories. The epidemic is growing outside high-risk
groups and is now found in the general population. It
is also moving from urban to rural districts.

Displaced Children
and Orphans Fund/
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As of July 2001,24,680 AIDS cases had been
reported to the Ministry of Health, although this is
believed to be an underestimate. HIV prevalence
among pregnant women varies throughout the
country, ranging from 0 percent to 2.6 percent.
Estimated Number of Adults
and Children Living with
HIV/AIDS

Total Population
Adult HIV Prevalence

3.9 million
1 billion
0.7%

HIV-1 Seroprevalence in Urban
Areas
Population at High Risk

0.8 %

Population at Low Risk

0.3 %

USAID Strategy
USAID/lndia’s strategy is to focus on prevention so
that HIV/AIDS can be contained. Prevention
activities focus on high-risk populations such as sex
workers and truck drivers, who are likely core

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USAID Global Health: HIV. AIDS in India

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transmitters of HIV. However, USAID/lndia is also
working to build awareness in low-risk rural
populations and will endeavor to promote prevention
activities through health services outreach projects.
USAID assistance is focused in Tamil Nadu and
Maharashtra, states with prevalence rates greater
than 1 percent. USAID has developed a partnership
approach with the Government of India,
nongovernmental organizations, businesses, and
others to fight HIV. Emphasis is being placed on
community-based and work-based approaches to
controlling the epidemic.

USAID-Supported Country Programs
USAID is one of the largest donors to HIV/AIDS
prevention and control activities in India. In 1995,
USAID began supporting the first state-specific
intervention program, the AIDS Prevention and
Control Project, in Tamil Nadu. This 10-year, $10
million project supports nongovernmental
organizations in designing and implementing
community-based prevention programs that target
high-risk populations such as sex workers and their
clients, patients with sexually transmitted infections,
slum dwellers, and truckers and their helpers. The
project emphasizes preventive behavior through
peer education, the promotion and sale of condoms,
and improved treatment of sexually transmitted
infections. Annual HIV risk behavioral surveillance
surveys track key behavior changes such as condom
use, sexually transmitted infection
treatment-seeking, and decreases in sexual contacts
with nonregular partners. These surveys, plus
seroprevalence surveillance data, show positive
trends in risk avoidance behavior and in decreased
prevalence levels.
In 1999, USAID expanded HIV/AIDS prevention
activities to Maharashtra State. The seven-year, $41
million project, called AVERT, supports a prevention
effort in urban and periurban areas, increases the
role of nongovernmental organizations in HIV
prevention, and explores models of care and support
for HIV-infected individuals. USAID also supports
projects that address children affected by HIV/AIDS
in Delhi, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, and elsewhere.
In addition, USAID supports the National AIDS
Control Organization by providing financial and
technical assistance to national programs. USAID
also supports the Program for Advancement of
Commercial Technology/Child and Reproductive
Health, which provides financial support and

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I SAID Global Health: HIV AIDS in India

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technical assistance to the commercial sector to
expand condom distribution. The program is
assisting the Drug Controller of India to strengthen
quality control and monitoring activities, and is
working with manufacturers to improve condom
packaging. The program also supports the private
and commercial sectors in creating new diagnostic
products and improving the quality and marketing of
existing products.

Future efforts may include integrating HIV prevention
with the Mission’s Reproductive Health Program in
Uttar Pradesh; expanding the social marketing of
condoms; supporting a network of nongovernmental
organizations to add HIV prevention, care, and
support services to their existing programs; and
supporting the National AIDS Control Organization to
increase HIV awareness and to treat sexually
transmitted infections at the community level.

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INDIA: FIRST URBAN SLUMS POPULATION PROJECT SHOWS ENCOURAGDN(p:R68tstt^6rldbank.org/html/extdr/extme/1208.htm

THE WORLD BANK GROUP

PRESS RELEASE
NEWS RELEASE NO. 97/1208SAS

Contact: Rebeca Robboy: (202) 473-0699
Durudee Sirichanya:(202) 458-9031
Paul Mitchell: (202) 458-1423

INDIA: FIRST URBAN SLUMS POPULATION PROJECT
SHOWS ENCOURAGING RESULTS
NEW DELHI, December 18, 1996—Population trends and health indicators in Mumbai (Bombay)
and Chennai (Madras) were among the worst in India when the country’s first urban slums
population project began in 1989 with a US$57 million credit from the International Development
Association (IDA), the World Bank’s concessionary lending affiliate.
Six years later, the project is showing remarkable results in these two large Indian cities, having
brought quality family planning and maternal and child health care to the doorsteps of urban
slumdwellers who previously had little or no access to these services.

In pockets of poverty like Mumbai’s Dharavi, Asia’s largest slum, newly-built health posts and
dispensaries are now within walking distance for thousands of slumdwellers, who receive regular
housecalls from women health workers. In both cities, more couples are using
contraceptives-especially temporary methods such as the IUD, pills, and condoms. From a baseline of
20-30 percent, contraceptive use rates are now 53 percent in Mumbai and 70 percent in Chennai.
Birth rates have rapidly declined as has the absolute number of births, and families are smaller. More
access to pre-natal and post-natal care, an increase in immunization, and a rising number of women
who are delivering in hospitals have led to a significant drop in both infant and maternal deaths.

1 of2

3/7/02 8:14 AM

INDIA: FIRST URBAN SLUMS POPULATION PROJECT SHOWS ENCOURAGIM^:I®8WLff'Srldbank.org/hlml/extdr/extme/l 208.htm

According to a recent World Bank project
implementation review, India’s Fifth Population Project
has successfully met its objectives of improving the
sen ice delivery and outreach systems of family
planning and maternal and child health services in the
urban slum areas of Mumbai and Chennai. Key to the
project’s success has been its innovative approach
which marks a shift from the traditional focus on
sterilization as a means of family planning to processes
that motivate couples to have smaller families.
"The project has demonstrated that quality family
welfare services can be provided to urban slum
populations in India. In a significant departure from
earlier efforts, the project’s objectives were not
expressed in terms of lowering birth rates but in health
services rendered to women and children," says Dr.
Anthony Measbam, Population, Health, and
Nutrition Advisor in the World Bank’s New Delhi
Office. "Theproject has made a strategic contribution
toward the gradual shift of India’s Family Welfare
Program from a top-down, demographically-driven
approach to a more comprehensive, mother and child
health care approach, " Dr. Measham added.

CHANGING ATTITUDES

The case of Lakshmi, a beneficiary of the
Saidapet Zonal Health post in Chennai (Madras) is a
telling example of how maternal and child health care
works to bring about a change in attitudes. A slum
dweller and mother ofseven, Lakshmi was one of the
most difficult cases handled by the outreach staff at
Saidapet. When a female health worker first went to
speak to her about the services available at the health
post, Lakshmi shut the dcor in her face When her
youngest child fell sick a few months later, Lakshmi
had no money to take the infant to a private clinic.
During house visits, the health worker learned about
Lakshmi’s sick child from a neighbor and brought the
mother and child to the health post where the infant
was treated free of charge. Later, Lakshmi not only
accepted asuggestion for an IUD insertion heiself, but
also brought along two of her neighbors to the health
pest whomshe had motivated for the acceptance of
spacing methods.
“Service delivery is an indirect but very
effective approach. Byforcing clients, we would only
build up resistance, ifwe give them a package of
services and motivate them, they came to us oftheir
own accord," said the health worker.

The objectives of the project were to expand and
- excerpt from Reaching Git: A campaign to take
improve the quality of family welfare services with an
family welfare services to the slums ofBombay and
emphasis on maternal and child health, birth spacing,
Madras.
and increased use of contraceptive methods. To meet
these objectives, project components included
constructing, furnishing, and staffing Health Posts and back-up units; training and IEC (information,
education, communication); reorganization of the Health and Family Welfare Bureaus, and involving
NGOs and the private sector in the operation of health posts and training.

The project pioneered several innovative outreach and IEC approaches. In Chennai, barber shops are
used to reach males about contraception. In Mumbai, the use of puppet shows and street plays
communicate messages about nutrition, the importance of pre and post-natal care, and sanitation and
hygiene.
The project’s financial objectives were largely fulfilled. USS51.17 million, or 90 percent of the credit
was disbursed. While IDA financing for the project has ended, the project activities and the maternal
and child health approach will continue to be supported by the municipal corporations and the
Government of India.
IDA has been involved in India’s family welfare program since the early 1970s through nine India
Population Projects. Of the nine projects, five supported the program in backward and rural districts
of eight Indian states; two, including the Fifth Population Project, supported urban programs, and two
strengthened training in eight states. IDA also supported the nationwide Child Survival and Safe
Motherhood Project.
Copies of Reaching Out: A Campaign to Take Family Welfare Services to the Slums of
Bombay and Madras are available upon request. This narrative report details project
activities and includes interviews with health workers and slumdwellers who benefit
from the project. India's Family Welfare Program: Toward a Reproductive and Child
Health Approach provides an in-depth analysis of India's Family Welfare Program and
the challenges ahead. Improving Women’s Health in India takes a comprehensive look at
women’s and girl's health concerns in India.

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Urban Health and Environment: Tire Indian Scene

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Urban Health and Environment: The
Indian Scene
The link between environment and health is not new. In the early 19th
century, cholera was recognized as a water borne diseases. Yet, in the
succeeding years, a medical view of such diseases stressed curative rather
than preventive aspects and saw social and environmental conditions as
merely contributory factors to the spread of disease-bearing pathogens.

In the late Sixties, the "book of infectious diseases" was declared closed. Less
than 20 years later, old and new diseases emerged rendering even the best
health care systems inadequate. In 1993, there were 16.5 million deaths due to
' infections diseases worldwide. The process of development itself appears to
contribute to the spread off disease. Unplanned urbanization and the resulting
deterioration in basic services has increased respiratory and gastrointestinal
infections in urban areas. A shift in thinking from curative to preventive
health is now unavoidable.

The Indian Scene.
The three big metros in India (Delhi, Calcutta and
Mumbai) are among the 10 most polluted cities in
. Dtslhi
j.. the world. Perhaps, the situation is no better in
‘
Mexico City, Rio de Janeiro, Bangkok and Tokyo.
devel°P>ng countries, the burning of biomass,
L't^Calcutta wo°d ar>d coal for domestic cooking/heating
Mumbai';
,
purposes has been a contributing factor to air
/
pollution. The situation has continued to be serious
Madras
over the last 25 years and will definitely deteriorate
™
over the next 20 years.

i

As the trend in the daily pollutant load in Mumbai is a rising one, several
illnesses are likely to increase with the attendant cost of treatment. As the
component of transport in terms of air pollution levels is increasing - from
399 to 1,538 metric tonnes per day (MTPD) - we need to emphasise the
importance of its control Pollution from industries (which rose from 438 to
1,357 MTPD from 1978 to 1992) also needs to be brought down.

Compared to Mumbai, the air pollutant loads in Delhi and Calcutta,
particularly for PM and aldehydes, are higher. These lead to a greater
prevalence of dense smog in winter. The major cause is the greater density of
two/three wheelers and wide spread use of coal burning. However, Mumbai
city is a small island and the other metro cities have a large land mass. So the
health morbidity due to pollution may be less intense.
Along with increasing levels of pollution, there is a worsening of global
warming. To this, India is contributing 8 percent, China 10 percent, Western
Europe 17 percent, Eastern Europe with Russia 16 percent, Africa 6 percent,
Australia 3 percent, U.S. 33 percent and South America 8 percent. A 90
percent rise in human population in the poor countries, means that this
explosion is also adding to rising CO2 levels. The photochemical smog,
supersonic aircraft flights and uses of refrigerant gases are reducing the
stratospheric ozone levels .This is along term effect, leading to an increase in

1 of 2

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I rban Health and Environment: The Indian Scene

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the rates of cancer of skin and liver, cataracts and dermatitis.

Thus the multiplier effect of urban, industrial air pollution in poorer countries
like India will have effects far beyond the national borders. The effect on
health over the next 20 years will be more dramatic. Therefore, the control of
air pollution should be given high priority.
Mann and Anshu, UEMRI-India
Abstracted from "Annual Survey of Environment 1997" The Hindu Newspaper.

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M. .»<•«. »ei
\ pp "* MJ.I. IWI
p-ntcJ in GrcJi Br.'.aui. All rights resorted

596

51. Wesnes K. and Warburton D M A ecmp'unvand
temazepam and flurazepam in terms of sleep 4U- .
, . ,
c
. ..
V/ifirpnt’Vt'/It'nKHcK •
residual changes m performance.
••
11. 255-259. 1984.
.
52. Lucki I. et al. Chronic use el benzociazepim.
psychomotor and cognitive test performance. . .nc 1
pharmacology 88. 426—133. 19$o.
Golombok
S. et al. Cognitive impairment in_ionp53.
term benzodiazepine users. Psychol. Meu. IS. . b- .
I98S.
_ ...
54. Hindmarch I. Psychoactive drugs and driving. . J.rcnio .
Practice 5, 6-10. 1986.
55. Smiley A. and Moskowitz H. Effects ot long-term
administration of buspirone and diazepam on
'B.
-9.

,

" S'tudma^

eg Castleden C. M- el “L '"creased
' ' zepam in old age.
J. k
to
<9 Swift C. G. or
^effect tote^„ „
'ongaerm recipients of benzodia^ h>pno^
6O.Siena-j7L.andEh

t>- ■«.'.’0 91 S3.00 *0.00
Copyright <* 1991 Pergamon Preu pic

■

-

61. Committee on the review of medicines svsim.
viewof the benzodiazepines. Br.
1.910-^^

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND THE ENVIRONMENT IN
AN URBAN SLUM IN INDIA
Abhay Shukla,1 Satish Kumar1 and F. G. 0ry:’
'Indo-Dutch Environmental and Sanitary Engineering Project. Hansalaya Building. Barakhamba Road.
New Deihi 110001. India and 'Department of Primary Health Care. Royal Tropical Institute (KIT). 63
Mauntskade. 1092 AD Amsterdam. The Netherlands

sr:

;,
51.

“Medicine, like jurisprudence, should make a contribution to the well-being of
workers and see to it that, so far as possible, they should exercise their callings
without harm.” Bernardino Ramazzini (1633-1714)

<vsn> Wl

Abstract—The Indo-Dutch Environmental & Sanitary Engineering Project under the Ganga action Plan
in Kanpur and Mirzapur is being executed within the Indo-Dutch bilateral development cooperation
framework. The project aims to integrate physical, social and health related improvements. It is expected
that the development approach and methodology can be replicated in other urban settlements in India.
The project is being supplemented by a training and institutional strengthening programme to facilitate
the transfer of new technologies and improvement of operation and maintenance of the new facilities. The
project is also aimed at the improvement of the living conditions of the population, by instaiiing drinking
water and drainage systems. A socio-economic unit in the project supports the technical interventions by
enhancing the community to participate in project activities.’ The Occupational Health Brogramme in
Jajmau. an. industrial slum of Kanpur, aims to improve the working conditions of tannery workers Four
hundred and ninety-seven tannery workers and 80 employees not engaged in leather work, from 20
tanneries, were interviewed and underwent physical examination. The mean age of tannery workers was
32 years, about half of them recently migrated to Kanpur. The majority of the workers are illiterate, have
temporary jobs and 85% have a monthly income between 300 and 600 Rs. Occupational morbidity was
28.2%. Regular meetings with tannery owners, the training of tannery workers in first aid. and support
for the installation of safety and health councils in tannenes are the main programme activities. A walk
through survey to detect occupational and safety hazards and the workshop ‘Higher productivity and a
better place to work’ in collaboration with the International Labour Office fILO) led to industrial
«
modification in the tanneries. Occupational health should form an integral pan of industrial counselling QN.
as it is an imponant link between health and environmental protection by controlling pollution
J
Nj

Key words—occupational health, environment. urban slum, tannery, tannery worker. Incia

INTRODUCTION

The classical concept of occupational health empha­
sized cause-effect relationships between toxic agents
and occupational morbidity within the working
environment. Disasters in Bhopal and Chernobyl
U’ith devastating effects on the environment and
health led to environmental impact assessment and
safety procedures for large industrial plants. The
promotion of health and safety within the working
place has not ye: been integrated with the protection
of the environment surrounding these industries. The
health of the labour force, already endangered by
occupational hazards is further endangered by the
Simulative effect of lack of sanitation, lack of safe
tanking water and other unhealthy conditions in the
urban industrial slums of third w'orld countries. This
Article describes an integrated approach to tackle
lhese problems in an urban slum in Kanpur. India.
file government of India and the Netherlands signed
1 Letter of Agreement for cooperation to protect the
Tivironmcnt. At the Netherlands Embassy a sector
Pecialist environment is directly responsible for the
locution and monitoring of projects in this field. One
these projects, the Indo-Dutch Environmental and
o whom correspondence should be addressed.

597

Sanitary' Engineering Project Linder Ganga Action
Plan started its activities in 1987 in two cities along
the Ganges: Kanpur and Mirzapur. in the State of
Uttar Pradesh The project aims at prevention of the
pollution of the Ganges and the improvement of the
living conditions of the population in the project area
by interventions related to sew-erage and storm water
drainage, water supply and sanitation, anaerobic
treatment of industrial and domestic waste water.
reuse of effluents, collection and disposal of solid
waste, public health education and community devel­
opment. Special emphasis is being given to training.
institutional development aspects for improving op­
eration and maintenance of the facilities provided
and transfer of knowledge. The project has a socio­
economic unit (SEU) for strengthening the effective­
ness of the technological aspects by enhancing the
active participation of the community. The SEU
trains groups of hand-pump caretakers, women
masons and other community based functionaries. In
the health field they train Anganwadi (pre-school)
workers, birth attendants, private practitioners and
school teachers An important pan of the activities oi
the SEU is the Occupational Health Programme, the
subject of this paper. In India, according to the ‘State
of India’s Environment 1984-85’ "the government
is enjoined to direct its policy towards securing

tiu.uui ana inc environment tn an urban slum

Work department
Raw Hide
Beam House
Tanyard (Veg.)
Tanyard (Chrome)
Finishing
Others

Rotation of workstation
in present tannery
Yes
No

Usage of protective devices
Always
Occasionally
Never
____________

Number

Percentage

12
lib
"4
O'
141
ST

2.4
23.3
14.9
13.4
2S.4
17.5

"4
423

14.9
85.1

1SS
24
285

37.8
4.9
57.3

washing or bathing was not available in the vast
majority (94.4%) of tanneries. Most workers (89.9%)
washed their hands with only water before meals and
the great majority (90.1%) took a bath after work.
B. Medical profile of the study population
Occupational morbidity tn tanneries (Table 5). This
was found among a significantly high proportion
(28.17%) of workers and could be divided into
morbidity of four major systems—skin, respiratory
tract, musculoskeletal system and eyes. Diseases
of the skin were mostly caused by toxic, irritant
or sensitising chemical substances including chrome
ulcers caused by trivalent chromium, acid bums due
to sulphuric acid and contact dermatitis caused by
exposure to lime solution, solvents or dyes. Diseases
of the respiratory tract were mostly caused by irritant
dust particles and vapours especially during the
finishing stage of tanning. Clinically most significant
were occupational asthma in the grinding, buffing
and chrome tanning sections and occupational respir­
atory irritation in grinding and buffing sections. An
atypical syndrome of exertional dyspnea, hemoptysis
and chest pain was observed among workers exclu­
sively in the spray painting section. This is probably
related to exposure to lacquer thinner consisting of a
complex mixture of organic solvents. Diseases of the
musculoskeletal system were primarily due to poor
ergonomic conditions, persistently working in abnor­
mal postures and lifting of heavy weights. The princi­
pal form of musculoskeletal morbidity accounting
for virtually half of all occupational morbidity was
lumbar backache found among workers working
consistently in stooping or abnormal postures in lime
yard, vegetable tanning and certain finishing sections.
This lumbar backache generally improved wrhen away
from work and was not present before commencing
work in tanneries. Diseases 01 the eves were related
Table 5. Occupational morbidity among tannery workers
Type of morbidity__________________ Number

Lumbar backache
Chrome ulcers
Occupational respiratory irritation
Occupational asthma
Occupational conjunctr.al irritation
Contact dermatitis
Injurics/burns
Solvent induced exertional dyspnea
Occupational heat exhaustion

77
,q
19
1j
15
13
-,q
1

Percentage

’mutiny SIlk
Nation ancT jr Dstances- causing conjunctival j^.
irritation in J '^uelae Occupational conjuctivm
sections mav h in8- '•'hrome tanning and buffing
(17-7%) and rt„aV' been rcsP°nsibl<=.r°r Pterygium
« Possible sJ ?eculum <10-6°/o) wh,ch were noted
A'on-Orr,,„ ' ae °r chronic conjunctival irritation
w°rkers and Z0"0'
Among tannery
with 70 4«
hcr tannery staff this was considerable
being affeekd
and 73'7% other lannerg s‘aff
been select^ Table 61' Olher tannery Staff havin8
but not en» ^tsons employed in the tanneries
them was cn^
leather W°rk’ the number of
statistical
mparati'’ely small (n = 80) to make
‘-°mparison. The overall incidence of nontanneA'1 staff m°rbidit-v among workers a"d other
..
- s', was similar, as noted above. However.
possible occupational association of certain illnesses such as chronic obstructive aspecific lune ■
isease (COAD) and arthritis among tannery workers
appears to be a fruitful area for further investigation.
Occupational responses. These were defined as con­
ditions involving physiological alterations without
symptoms caused by occupational exposure. This
included mainly callosities on the hands (72.6%
leather workers, 44.4% other staff) and callosities on
the shoulder or other sites (23.9% leather workers. '
1.8% other staff) which were adaptations to friction
encountered dunng the work.
Lung funt^^i (Peak Expt^lory Flow Rate). A
single lung f^Ktion test was^rerformed on all sub­
jects in the form of measurement of Peak Expiratory
Flow Rate (PEFR) by means of a Standard Wrights
Peak Flow Meter. The predicted value of PEFR for
each worker was calculated on the basis of his height
and age using Rastogi's equation derived from a
population of North Indian workers [13]:
Expected PEFR = 11.944 x height — 2.019
x age-r 148.882) L min PEFR index

was calculated as: actual as a percentage
of the expected PEFR i.e. A E x 100
Tabic 6. Selected non-occupational morbidity in tanneries

Workers
Form of morbidity

dumber

Other staff

4

Skin
Pyogenic injections
Fungal infections
Leprosy

Respiratory systenf
COAD
"
Pneumonitis
U.R.I.
Chest pain
Musculoskeletal system
Arthritis (U /mbs)
Arthritis (L. limbs)
Sprain Soft tissue injuries

155

|7
4

34
0s

38

Eves
Cataract
Conjunctivitis

30
\
“q
n ->
04

Other systems
Pain abdomen acid
27
54
dyspepsia
6
| 2
Cardiac conditions
7
( 4
Vit. A deficiency___ —-------------------

q

Nu;

Table 7. Distribution of per index (actual as a
percentage of expected by rastogis equation)
among tannery workers
Number
A/E x 100_____ of workers
<60
60-79.9
80-99.9
100-119.9
120-139.9
2 140

||
10
65
215
159
26

Percentage
(n =» 486)

2.3
2.0
13.4
44.2
32.’
5.3

•pie mean PEFR index for workers was found to be
113.50 and for other staff 119.94. Thus Rastogi
it al.'s equation was not found to be a very good fit
for our data, the mean AiE index being about 15%
higher for our data.
Using the above equation only 4.3% leather
workers had a PEFR which could be regarded as
ibnormally low (<80% of the expected) indicative
of abnormally reduced ventilatory function. The
majority of leather workers had a PEFR index in the
range 100-119.9 and 120-139.9 (Table 7).
DISCUSSION

With respect to the tannery workers of Jajmau,
attain important social factors and attributes which
shape attitudes to hazards at work deserve a mention.
Firstly, the workforce is predominantly young and
first generation migrants leading to a certain degree
of social mobility and 'uprootedness' inconceivable
in their native villages. Lack of stable jobs, with
frequent lay-offs by employers interspersed with
slack periods of under- or unemployment accentuates
this state of insecurity. Employment is the main
anchoring point in this otherwise shifting context.
Work, especially skilled kinds of work means social
placement, identity, status and most importantly,
significant income. Being engaged in productive work
largely tends to override considerations related to
'quality' of work; hazards are an unsavory part of a
oo-opnon survival package.
A parallel social determinant of considerable sig­
nificance is the caste/religious background. It is
significant to note that in the entire sample of
workers directly engaged in leather work there was
only one example of an individual of upper caste
(sacarna') background. As noted earlier, the working
Population is roughly equally divided between
•Muslims and scheduled caste (mainly 'chamar' or
Raidas-traditionally untouchable) Hindus. Although
Muslims arc nominally beyond the ambit of the caste
tystem. even here the great majority of workers
**longed to 'Ansari' or similar clans, descended from
’ntouchables converted to Islam centuries ago yet
’till at the bottom rung of the social hierarchy within
^uslims. Traditionally relegated to performing the
Unclean' tasks in the village economy, such as flaying
dead animals, curing of the hides obtained and
disposal of carcasses, these workers of each religion
b^ve tended to accept unhygienic and at time unsafe
binds of work with less resistance than might be
Jtpected. The self-image of such workers, particu^tly their perception of their own bodies and defi*bon of 'acceptable' levels of bodily exposure to

'‘XJl

unhealthy situations is significantly conditioned by
this historical internalisation of caste oppression.
This is despite the positive fact that traditional caste
roles and social positions are increasingly under
challenge due to a variety of factors. Certain ad­
ditional factors also condition the attitude of workers
to workplace hazards. One is the prevalence of
piece-rate work in departments involving repetitive
dangerous operations such as the hydraulic emboss­
ing press operation. Since the wage is directly depen­
dent on the number of hides processed and even
obtaining a minimal income depends on appreciable
work performance, 'straining' the machine to maxi­
mise production, even at the cost of safety, is com­
mon. On the hydraulic press this takes the form of
operating the machine at unduly high pressures
(which shortens processing time) and removal of
safety guards which interfere with 'straining'
Another factor is the system of contracting out
certain hazardous types of work to groups of contract
workers who are paid a fixed amount for performing
a specific operation—such as cleaning pits/sludge
tanks/industrial sewage lines within the tannery.
Once the work is contracted the tannery owner shrugs
off the responsibility for work saftety—with not
infrequently catastrophic consequences. Study of the
results of the data relating to morbidity tends to blur
the conventional distinction between 'occupational'
and 'non-occupational' disease. Although the data
has been presented in the categories of ‘occupational
morbidity’ and 'non-occupational morbidity', in fact
the conditions encountered be on a continuum rang­
ing from conditions with one-to-one occupation­
disease correlations like occupational asthma, to
conditions with progressively less clearly defined
association with occupational factors. Many kinds
of morbidity tend to be more embraceable in the
WHO concept of ‘work related disease' rather than
‘occupational disease’.
Occupational diseases ... stand at one end of the spectrum
of work-relatedness where the relationship to specific
causative factors at work has been fully established and the
factors concerned can be identified, measured and eventu­
ally controlled. At the other end diseases may have a weak.
inconsistent, unclear relationship to working conditions: in
the middle of the spectrum there is a possible causa!
relationship but the strength and magnitude of it may
vary [14],
This includes conditions like lumbar backache
which are less esoteric yet magnitude-wise responsible
for much more workers' misery compared to classic
'occupational' diseases' such as chrome ulcers which
often tend to be regarded as insignificant irritants.
One is led to speculate about the extent to which a
mechanistic theory of disease etiology, positing a
clearly identifiable 'agent' or toxin' for each disease
condition, is responsible for an often narrow empha­
sis on occupational toxins within the nch and com­
plex gamut of interaction between work and health.
Interestingly and significantly, the workers them­
selves rarely distinguish between occupational and
non-occupational illness though they are acutely
aware that much of their physical ill-being stems from
bad working conditions.
Another significant dynamic which could be
touched upon, given the unique nature of the project.

y. >, 1 Mm v ei • .N'l X pp ,'U ■
r.nicJ m Gicji Br.uin. All rights reserved

1’2'7 ^550 si| $3.00^000
Copyright f 1991 Pcrgamon Press pic

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND THE ENVIRONMENT IN
AN URBAN SLUM IN INDIA
Abhay Shukla.* Satish Kumar* and F. G. Ory:*
1 Indo-Dutch Environmental and Sanitary Engineering Project. Hansalaya Building. Barakhamba Road.
New Delhi 110001. India and - Department of Primary Health Care. Royal Tropical Institute (KIT). 63
Mauntskade. 1092 AD Amsterdam. The Netherlands

Abstract—The Indo-Dutch Environmental & Sanitary Engineering Project under the Ganga action Plan
in Kanpur and Mirzapur is being executed within the Indo-Dutch bilateral development cooperation
framework. The project aims to integrate physical, social and health related improvements. It is expected
that the development approach and methodology can be replicated in other urban settlements in Inaia. ‘
The project is being supplemented by a training and institutional strengthening programme to facilitate
the transfer of new technologies and improvement of operation and maintenance of the new facilities. The
project is also aimed at the improvement of the living conditions of the population, by installing drinking
water and drainage systems. A socio-economic unit in the project suppons the technical interventions by
enhancing the community to participate in project activities.' The Occupational Health Programme in
Jajmau. anindustnal slum of Kanpur, aims to improve the working conditions of tannery workers. Four
hundred and ninety-seven tannery workers and 80 employees not engaged in leather work, from 20
tannenes, were interviewed and underwent physical examination. The mean age of tannery workers was
32 years, about half of them recently migrated to Kanpur. The majonty of the workers are illiterate, have
temporary jobs and 85® 0 have a monthly income between 300 and 600 Rs. Occupational morbidity was
28.2%. Regular meetings with tannery owners, the training of tannery' workers in first aid. and support
for the installation of safety and health councils in tanneries are the main programme acuviues. A walk
through survey to detect occupational and safety hazards and the workshop ‘Higher productivity and a
better place to work’ in collaboration with the International Labour Office (ILO) led to industrial
modification in the tanneries. Occupational health should form an integral pan of industrial counselling
as it is an important link between health and environmental protection by controlling pollution.
"Medicine, like jurisprudence, should make a contribution to the well-being of
workers and see to it that, so far as possible, they should exercise their callings
without harm.” Bernardino Ramazzini (1633-1714)

, .

I.M .fU S A ,

56. Curran ll. \ . Tranquilising memories: A review
effects ol benzodiazepines on human memory,
Psychol. 23. 179-213. 1986.
57. Caplan R. D. et al. Social effects ef diazepam
,
longitudinal held study. Sue. Sci. .Med.
’ " ‘ 21. 887^
1985.
58. Caslleden C. M. el al. Increased
io
sensitivity l0
zepam in old age. Br. Med. J. 1. 10-12. 1977.
59 Swift C G et al Side-effect ‘toierance’ in eidexS
el oi Side-effect ‘tolerance’ in gJA-.i
long-term recipients of benzodiazepine hypnotics. 4^
Ageing 13. 335-343. 1984
60. Rcmcnteria J. L. and Bhatt K. Withdrawal sympuMru
in neonates from intrauterine exposure to diazepm.
J. Pediai. 90. 123-126. 1977
61. Committee on the review of medicines: systematic re­
view of the benzodiazepines. Br. Mea.d. 1.910-912.1980.

W . DAB
eq. No 5149

596
51. Wesncs K. and Warburton D M. A comparison of
temazepam and flurazepam in terms of sleep quality and
residual changes in performance. .Vrurop.nv/ictfiw/ogr
II. 255-259. 1984.
52. Lucki 1. ci al. Chrome use of benzodiazepines and
psychomotor and cognitive test performance. Psycho pharmacology 88. 426—133. l9So.
53. Golombok S. et al. Cognitive impairment in long­
term benzodiazepine users. Psvchol. Med. 18. 365-374.
1988.
54. Hindmarch I. Psychoactive drugs and dnvinc. Psvchiat.
Practice 5. 6-10.’ 1986.
55. Smiley A. and Moskowitz H. Effects of long-term
administration of buspirone and diazepam on driver
steering control. .4m. J. Med. 80. Suppl. 3B. 22-29.
1986.

Key words—occupational health, environment, urban slum, tannery
*,
tannery worker. India

INTRODUCTION

ISECWj

The classical concept of occupational health empha­
sized cause-effect relationships between toxic agents
and occupational morbidity within the working
environment. Disasters in Bhopal and Chernobyl
with devastating effects on the environment and
health led to environmental impact assessment and
safety procedures for large industrial plants. The
promotion of health and safety within the working
place has not ye: been integrated with the protection
of the environment surrounding these industries. The
health of the labour force, already endangered by
occupational hazards is further endangered by the
cumulative effect of lack of sanitation, lack of safe
drinking water and other unhealthy conditions m the
urban industrial slums of third world countries. This
article describes an integrated approach to tackle
lhese problems in an urban slum in Kanpur. India.
The government of India and the Netherlands signed
I a Letter of Agreement for cooperation to protect the
| environment. At the Netherlands Embassy a sector
'Pccialist environment is directly responsible for the
■ execution and monitoring of projects in this field. One
I °f these projects. the Indo-Dutch Environmental and

To whom correspondence should be addressed.

597

Sanitary' Engineering Project under Ganga Action
Plan started its activities in 1987 in two cities along
the Ganges: Kanpur and Mirzapur. in the State of
Uttar Pradesh. The project aims at prevention of the
pollution of the Ganges and the improvement of the
living conditions of the population in the project area
by interventions related to sewerage ana storm water
drainage, water supply and sanitation, anaerobic
treatment of industrial and domestic waste water.
reuse of effluents, collection ana disposal of solid
waste, public health education and community devel­
opment. Special emphasis is being given to training.
institutional development aspects for improving op­
eration and maintenance of the facilities provided
and transfer of knowledge. The project has a socio­
economic unit (SEU) for strengthening the effective­
ness of the technological aspects by enhancing the
active participation of the community. The SEU
trains groups of hand-pump caretakers, women
masons and other community based functionaries. In
the health field they train Anganwadi (pre-school)
workers, birth attendants, private practitioners and
school teachers. An important pan of the activities of
the SEU is the Occupational Health Programme, the
subject of this paper. In India, according to the ‘State
of India’s Environment 1984-85’ “the government
is enjoined to direct its policy towards securing

598

Abhav Shvkla ci al.

the health and strength of workers and each state is
required to make provisions to ensure just and hu­
mane conditions of work". Unfortunately, no single
law deals with occupational health in its entirety.
Three acts touch different aspects: the Factories Act.
1948. the Employees State Insurance Act (ESI). 194S
and the Workmen's Compensation Act (WCA). 1923.
A review of these three reveals that a large number
of workers who are exposed to hazards at their place
of work are excluded from their purview. However.
these three acts form in theory a certain base for
workers' protection. The main problem in India lies
not in the formulation of the relatively well designed
laws but in their enforcement: as stated in the above
quoted State of India's environment report:

The enforcement laws relating to occupational health
are u-oefully inadequate Under the Chief Inspector of
Factories. who is advised by the Directorate General of
Factor. Advice Service, certifying surgeons and inspectors
are appointed, including medical inspectors. Tnere is a lack
of inspectors in the country and the lacunae in the Factones
Act endanger their controlling power. The enforcement of
the ESI and WCA is aiso far from satisfactory

Besides the inspection and enforcement apparatus.
a number of research institutes have been set up: the
Central Mining and Research Station in Dhanbad,
under the council for Scientific and Industrial Re­
search (CSIR). the Industrial Toxicology Research
Centre (ITRC) also under the CSIR. the Central
Labour institute in Bombay, the .All India institute of
Hygiene and Public Health in Calcutta and the
Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur. The ieading
institute m the field of occupational health and safety
is the National institute of Occupational Health
(NIOHi in Ahmedabad. Yet despite recognition of
occupational health problems at a national level most
management of industrial firms and trade unions
have not yet presented comprehensive strategies
towards occupational health and safety issues.

TANNERIES AND TANNERY WORKERS TN KANPUR

Kanpur, the ninth largest city in India with an
estimated population of 2.2 million (extrapolation
from 1981 census), is the largest city in the State of
Uttar Pradesh. It has been an industrial centre since
the beginning of this century, with large textile mills,
ordinance factories and tanneries. The tanneries pre­
pared leather for shoes and boots for the British and
Indian armies and since then Kanpur is one of the
main manufacturers of leather. It has not been a
major exporter of finished leather products like
Madras and Calcutta, but prepares the leather for
other industries in India and abroad. The tanneries in
Kanpur are concentrated in Jajmau. a large slum
area near the Ganges on the east side of the
city, where the activities of the Indo-Dutch Protect
are situated. Accounts of the health hazards of
tanners [1] exist in the classic 'De Morbis Artincum
Diatribe' (1713). the product of the pioneenng
investigations of Bernardino Ramazzini. considered
the Father of Occupational Medicine. Despite
Thackrah's (1795-1833) impressions that tanners
are remarkably robust: the countenance done: and
disease almost unknown" [2j. subsequent studies

Occupational health and the environment in an urban slum

have revealed a wide variety of hazards in the |CJl,
tannine industry. Attention has been focused
existence of potential carcinogens in the indusu^
including mtrosamines. chromate pigments,
dine-based direct dyestuffs, formaldehyde. arotna
organic solvents and leather dust [3.4],
Marrett cl al. [5] discovered an increased
bladder cancer with exposure to leather while Wor£
ing. Stem el al. [6] studied the mortality of chroma
leather tannery workers and did not detect higy^
cancer mortality at any site. Similar findings were
reported by Pippard et al. [7] who did not
significant numbers of deaths lor common sites of
cancer for either chrome or vegetable tannery
Important carcinogenic exposures include A’-Nllroio
compounds [8] which includes A'-nitrosodimethyL
amine. a known human carcinogen in the beamhouse;
benzidine analogue-based dyes used in the dyeing of
leather and leather dust generated in the buffing
operation containing trivalent and hexavalent chro­
mium [9]. Other important hazards reported include
chrome ulceration due to tnvalent chromium m
tanning liquor, occupational astnma due to bark dust
or leather dust, chronic bronchitis due to dusts of
vegetable tanning materials, lime. Ijj^ier and chen^
cal mists |10. 11]. Skin diseases fot^^among IndiW
tannery workers [12] include fungal infections, vitanun deficiency diseases, scabies, allergy and cczcnu.
pigmentary disorders and psoriasis.
Accidents commonly reported in tanneries include
falls and drowning in pits and vats, injuries on
revolving drums, in running rollers and knives and
gassing by hydrogen sulphide while cleaning out
tanning pits [10],
SUBJECTS AND METHODS

Study sample
A two stage sampling procedure for selection of the
study population was adopted. Of the 124 function­
ing tanneries in Jajmau, a representative sample of
21 tanneries was obtained by stratified random
sampling. The tanneries were stratified on the basis of
tanning process (chrome, vegetable or mixed) and
hide processing capacity (large, medium or small)
(Table 1). Of the 21 tanneries selected, one closed
down during the study leaving 20 tanneries in the
sample. Within each of the 20 sti^fc tanneries.
one-third sample of workers was sele^red by stratifying the workers on the basts of work-department.
Raw hide. Beamhouse. Tanyard (vegetable). Tanyard
(chrome). Finishing and Other. Tnus a total of4^
workers were selected and studied, in addition, 108
persons employed in the tanneries but not engaged m
Tabic 1 - Types of tanneries included in lhe sluJ--

Number

Size

Type of tanning process

Large

Mixed (chrome -r vegetable)
Chrome
Vegetable

3
3
3

Medium

Chrome
Vegetable

3
3

Small

Chrome
Vegetable

3
3

Total

21__

leather work (e.g. office attendants, gardeners, gate­
keepers, carpenters etc.) were studied. Of these. 80
were finally matched with the sample of workers for
age and income and taken for comparison.
Study tools

Two questionnaires were administered by the inter­
viewer:

599

Tabic 2. Personal particulars of tannery workers
Number

Percentage

Age fin rears)
<20
20-29
30-39
40-49
a 50

21
216
141
73
46

4.2
434
2X 4
14.6
9.3

Religion
Muslims

269

54 1

A social questionnaire eliciting employment Hindus
45.9
22S
details, working conditions and practices, fa­ Education
cilities available at work, hazards experienced Illiterate
2C~
59.X
Pnmarv
at the workplace and personal nabns,
111
Middle-high
school
15 1
2. A medical questionnaire eliciting the existence
14
2.X
of current and recent (within last- 15 days) Higher education
symptoms relevant to identifying occupational income fin Rs per month)
<300
14
and non-occupauonal morbidity and health 300-600
426
85 ~
care utilisation pattern.
5"
600-900
10 '
Study procedure
>900
2.2
!i
1. Administration of questionnaires' the social
questionnaire described above was adminis­
tered by trained social workers and the medical
Employment particulars. Tnere was wide variation
questionnaire by qualified physicians;
in total working experience m tanneries and the mean
2. Physical examination; a complete general and working experience of ! 1.6 years aid not adequately
systemic physical examination of each subject reflect that over one-third of the workers were fresh.
was performed by the surveying physician in­ having worked for less mar. 5 years. The extremely
cluding height and weight measurement:
high turnover of employment is brought out by the
3. Peak expiratory flow rate, a Standard Wrights fact that nearly one-fourth of the workers had been
Peak Flow Meter was usee for this purpose. working in the tanneries wnere they were surveyed
After two trial blows, readings were taken on for less than a year. Tms i> directly Jinked to the
three test blows;
predominantly daily wage character of employmen’.
4. Investigations: selected workers with specific with frequent lay-offs ana retrenchment
health problems requiring further investigation
Workplace particularc- ana practices. While our
were referred to the Employees State Insurance proportional sample reveaied me largest number
Corporation Hospital responsible for medical of workers in finishing and beam house sections.
care and reports were obtained.
rotation in workstation was comparatively un­
common, with each worker ordinarily confined to a
Informal discussions with tannery workers and tan­
single w'ork-process. Tne majority of workers never
nery owners added to the information collected by
used protective devices, the common reasons being
the methods described above. The data was put into
non-availability (28.2% workersi and that they were
PCs by the social workers who performec the inter­
considered unnecessary (25 6% workers). The use of
views, usina dBase III plus, and was anaivsed with
protective devices was distnouted highly unevenly
SPSS.
between departments with 94°,0 of beam house
workers always using devices compared to only 8.1 %
workers in the tanyard. None of the tanneries had
RESULTS
separate lunch rooms so that aoout naif (50.5%) of
4. Personal and social profile of the study population
the workers were taking iunch at the workplace itself
Personal particulars. Tannery workers constituted and most of the remaining (4“.3%i w ere taking iunch
a predominantly young population with a mean age in open spaces within tne tannery. Soap for handof 32 years. This correlates with the fact that the
majority of workers were recent migrants with 45.6%
Tablc 3. Employment D3rt;cuiar> of tannery workers
having been in Kanpur city for less than 10 years The
religious distribution of the work-force can be seen io
he markedly distinct from national and state popu­ Total working experience tn tanneri i-5 it-. iear\>
<5
i":
.up
lation compositions which are about four-fifths 5-9.9
’?<•
24 I
Hindu and only around one-eighth Muslim. Illiteracy 10-19.9
!20
24 I
a
20
I? 1
or only primary education is the norm in the tanner­
ies which is related to the work requiring few or Duration of work tn present tanr.. r. 11-. I<vrv
11“
23.5
"tformally acquired skills Rock-bottom wages with <1
a mean of Rs. 546 per month ensure that few 1-4 9
5-9 9
IO’
20 3
educated persons are attracted to this industry. It 10-19.9
- •
1X7
may be noted that tannery workers arc an all-male a :o
51
10 3
Population, although only about two-thirds (67.4%) Tvpe of employment
°f those married stay w ith their families. The rcmain- Daily wage
21'
43 3
20!
411 4
")g. mostly migrants from eastern and central Uttar Permanent
Temporary
and
other
M
16 I
Pradesh. visit their villages once or twice a year only.
1.

PUBLIC AFFAIRS CENTRE

578,16th B Main, 3rd Cross, 3rd Block,
Koramangala, Bangalore 560 034, India.
Tel / Fax : (080) 5537260/3467, 5520246/5452/53
Internet mail: pacblr@blr.vsnl.net.in

29 November 1999

Dr.Ravi Narayan
Community Health Cell
No.367, Srinivasa Nilaya,
Jakkasandra ist main,
1st Block, Koramangala

Bangalore -560034

Dear Dr. Ravi Narayan,

Sub: Project on Access to Quality Health Care by the Urban Poor in
Bangalore - Tackling Corruption and Breaking Barriers
This is further to our meeting in October at our office. We are sorry about
the delay in designing a format for the assessment of the quality of health
care services being provided by the BMP maternity homes and the IPP(VII)
health centres. If you may kindly recall, the proposed assessment was
thought of as one of the key strategies for initiating action on the project.
As decided in the said meeting, the assessment was to be carried out by the
participant organisations and P A C had volunteered to facilitate this
process. Enclosed please find some guidelines for the assessment with a note
on the sampling design. Actual questions will be framed later. The note has
listed all the pertinent issues/themes that need to be covered in the
assessment. Please go through the same and suggest changes if any. Two
weeks from now, we propose a short meeting to finalise the themes and
issues and the sampling design. Thereafter, we can even conduct a one /two
day orientation cum training programme for the staff of the member
organisations who will actually conduct the field level assessment.

We look forward to your response at the earliest convenience

Best Regards

Programme Officer

v///

Public Affairs Centre, November, 1999

Guidelines for the assessment of the quality of health care
services provided by IPPVIH and Maternity homes of the BMP

Decide sampling design - define respondent ie is the information
gathering restricted to feedback from patients or are we also using
observers to physically verify at the centre or maternity home?

If only patients who have used the facilities are to give feedback -

Preparation of two separate questionnaires for health centres and
maternity homes. Same questionnaire for health centre of corporation
and of IPPVIII.
MATERNITY HOMES

SUB HEADS;

Ate ojjGeneral information

Referred from health centre
Referred from urban family welfare centre

(

ZRx. /CCul

•
?

by whom
place of residence
Accessibility

Distance from residence
Awareness of facilities that should be available

Staff strength by category ie doctors, nurses, other staff "
Special equipment - ie xray, lab etc

free issue of medicines
Satisfaction rating

Quality of service
Behaviour of staff - all categories
Any other aspect?

1

Public Affairs Centre, November, 1999
Dimensions of satisfaction

Time taken to attend/waiting time
Cleanliness, availability of beds
Corruption

Among -Doctors, Nurses, and Other staff
Whether paying, how much paying, to who,
and for What purpose
Other kinds of corruption -

whether they were referred to a private nursing home or clinic instead
of being treated at the maternity home
HEALTH CENTRE
SUBHEADS

Ganoral information

Nature of illness/reason for visit
Type of patient
Whether referred and to which hospital
Kind of treatment given
Verification related

Doctors availability
Other staff availability
Time taken to attend/waiting time
Cleanliness/upkeep
On immunization

Existence of days for immunization
Do doctors follow these schedules
Adherence to schedules
Information dissemination on importance of immunization, etc

Public Affairs Centre, November, 1999

Overall service
Behaviour of staff
Other aspects?
Dimensions of satisfaction/service delivery

Same as above In maternity home!
Other topics that can be covered for both maternity homes and
health centres wherever applicable

Whether MTP done - if done at health centre!
Whether family planning operation done
Advice given
Whether abortion done - asked for it or was advised to get it done
Referred to private hospital or nursing home?
What reason given?
Kinds of building
Is there a pediatrician?
Is there a staff nurse?
Is there a Lab?
Availability of Lab technician
Do they attend well woman clinics?
Existence of creche
Vocational training for young girls
Link workers - are they link workers, do they know of or any
SHE club membership
Medical check up In school
Has there been improvement in the last 5 years?
Willingness to pay

3-

Public Affairs Centre, November, 1999
Suggested sampling plans
I. Respondents could be

1.
2.

only married females
married couples jointly - or either spouse

n

Advantage of choice 1 Is that the women are the patients) and they
would reply. But it is possible that the husband would have influenced
decisions or she may not know some of the information! "
Advantage of choice 2 is that we get a complete picture in case the
woman does not know certain information. The problem could be that
the wife is either too shy to talk or not allowed to talk and the husband
gives answers that she may not give if asked privately!
A judgement based on situation has to be made.
I

II. Location of interviews would determine sampling design

1.
2.

catch patients at the centre or maternity home
household survey

Advantage of first choice is that memory will be fresh and we can get
more numbers. Disadvantage would be that they might hesitate to
speak the truth at the venue. That could be avoided by taking their
address and meeting them at home.
Advantage of choice 2 - people will be more free and give useful
information. Disadvantage could be that we have to visit many houses
to get sufficient numbers of patients who have used health centres or
maternity homes. But, this method would give us an Idea of the usage
of the centres too.

Those who have used both facilities can be asked to fill .in both
questionnaires/interview schedules. It is'also possible that there might
be people who have used both kinds of health centres. We can have •
questions put in to check that.
III. The sample size - has to be decided based on the following
factors

1. number of maternity homes
2. number of health centres
3. number of urban family welfare centres
4. and the size of the population served by each of the above
5’. cost and time constraints
«

— cLct.tJc.

, __

—

AHN' <•

■ Research Update - India

http://www.irh.org/ru-e-ind.html

(Back to Main
Research Update Page)

Institute for
Reproductive Health
George tow.s Universiiy Mi hk m ( lmlr

i '<

December 2000

India: Introducing the SDM in CARE
Community Health Program in Urban
Slums & Rural Villages
The Institute for Reproductive Health is currently
implementing a series of operations research studies to
introduce the Standard Days Method (SDM)—a simple new
method of family planning based on fertility awareness.

After promising results from initial trials, the operations
research studies are designed to identify how different
programs and providers will react to the method, how user
needs and perspectives will change depending on different
socio-cultural contexts, and what organizational and
operational adaptations will be necessary for successful
introduction of the method.

The percentage of women using traditional
methods - namely periodic abstinence surpasses the combined percentage of
women using the IUD, condom, and pill.
The Institute for
Reproductive Health is
affiliated with the
Georgetown University
Medical Center. It’s work
is supported through a
cooperative agreement
with USAID, called the
AWARENESS project.
3800 Reservoir Rd, NW
3 PHC, Suite 3004
Washington, DC 20007
202-687-1392 (tel)
202-687-6846 (fax)

CARE in India, will introduce the SDM in collaboration with
ongoing community-based reproductive health programs in
under-served communities. The project is targeted for Uttar
Pradesh—one of the four most populous states in India. These
program address the problem of high reproductive
health-related morbidity and mortality through health
education, formation of women's associations, strengthening
of existing health infrastructure, and training of grass roots
health workers. Because these programs include a high
percentage of male volunteers, the pilot project will also
investigate strategies for involving men in the use of this
"couple" method.

Why Introduce the SDM?
In Uttar Pradesh, total fertility rates (4.75), population growth
rates (2.2 percent), infant mortality rates (98 per 1,000 live
births), and contraceptive prevalence (20 percent) are far
below national averages. Unmet need for all family planning
methods is estimated at 30 percent. The percentage of women
using traditional or natural methods (most often periodic
abstinence) surpasses the combined percentage of women
using the IUD, condom, and pill in both urban and rural areas.
Nevertheless, knowledge of the fertile period is generally poor.
These statistics highlight the importance of providing men and
women with the basic information that they need to determine
their fertile period.

1 of3

3/7/02 8:26 AM

Research Update - India

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To date, the Indian national family planning program has not
included natural methods. Because the government program
does not promote natural methods, men and women rarely get
accurate information about them. As a result, only a limited
number of women know how to use them correctly.

A method like the SDM that teaches couples to correctly
identify the woman's fertile period could benefit a wide range
of the population, including couples who use periodic
abstinence, couples who use no method at all, those who have
inadequate access to commodity-based methods, those who
use barrier methods inconsistently, and those who use the
withdrawal method.

How will the SDM be Introduced in Uttar Pradesh?
In urban slum areas, the SDM will be introduced through
existing Women's Health Associations—community
organizations that are designed to help improve the
reproductive health of women in their communities. These
community groups organize group meetings, orient and
counsel women in reproductive health, and refer—and
sometimes accompany—women to health posts or hospitals.
Male volunteers will also be trained to provide information on
SDM to men's groups since male opposition to family planning
is reported as a reason for unmet need. In rural areas, SDM
will be introduced by training village-level workers and
members of women's community groups in reproductive health
and birth spacing.
In both urban and rural areas, SDM will be added to the range
of family planning methods already provided by these
community volunteers with assistance from Auxiliary Nurse
Midwives. The project will also establish appropriate referral
systems for SDM users. The project will test two different
service delivery models—one that is focused on women and
another that focuses on male involvement.

What issues will the Operations Research address?
This study will add to the growing body of knowledge available
on the SDM. It will contribute to the improvement of strategies
for the introduction of SDM in low-resource, non-clinical, and
community-based programs, as well as contribute to our
understanding of the ways to involve men. The following
specific research questions will be addressed:
• Is it feasible for CARE to integrate SDM into its
reproductive and child health program?
• Are female group leaders and male volunteers able to
teach SDM effectively?
• Does counseling men as well as women result in a
greater number of SDM users than counseling women
only?
• Which strategy results in more effective use of the
method?
• How do men and women perceive and use SDM?
• How does the incorporation of SDM influence use of
other methods?
• Does information about SDM/FA spread throughout the

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3/7/02 8:26 AM

Research Update - India

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community? How accurate is this information?
• Do couples use the SDM without receiving instruction
from a provider?
• What are the effectiveness and continuation rates of
SDM at 6 and 12 months?
• What are the reasons for method continuation and
discontinuation in this setting?
For more information concerning the introduction of the SDM
in India, please contact Rebecka Lundgren at
lundqrerta. qeorqetdwn.edu

Last updated: 2-5-01

3 of 3

3/7/02 8:26 AM

India - If We Walk Together

http://lnweb 18. worldbank.org/sar/...c9978525687b0062dd40?OpenDocumeni

If We Walk Together
Communities, NGOs, and Government in Partnership for Health —The
IPP VIII Hyderabad Experience
Summary
In the slum communities of the city of Hyderabad, the capital of the southern
Indian state of Andhra Pradesh, a remarkable partnership is taking place
between the women of the slums, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and
government health workers. These three groups have joined together to work
toward improving the health and well-being of women and children in some of
the poorest neighborhoods of the city. This partnership is occurring under the
Government of India’s Family Welfare Urban Slums Project (in Bangalore,
Cal-cutta, Delhi, and Hyderabad), also known as India Population Project VIII
(IPP VIII). This World Bank-supported project is collaborating with NGOs and
communities to make a qualitative change in the lives of women and children
who live in the slums of four major Indian cities.

This document is also
available as a PDF:
Click Here (784 Kb)

In the slum communities of the city of Hyderabad, the capital of the southern
Indian state of Andhra Pradesh, a remarkable partnership is taking place
between the women of the slums, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and
government health workers. These three groups have joined together to work
toward improving the health and well-being of women and children in some of
the poorest neighborhoods of the city. This partnership is occurring under the
Government of India's Family Welfare Urban Slums Project (in Bangalore,
Cal-cutta, Delhi, and Hyderabad), also known as India Population Project VIII
(IPP VIII). This World Bank-supported project is collaborating with NGOs and
communities to make a qualitative change in the lives of women and children
who live in the slums of four major Indian cities.

Link Volunteers do not receive individual payment for their work. Instead, their
communities are given a financial incentive through women's health groups and
community revolving funds. This money has enabled the women of the
slums—perhaps for the first time—to finance improvements in their
neighborhoods. They have used these seedling funds to improve civic
amenities, such as sanita-tion systems, wells, and toilets, and to establish
income generation schemes, such as tailoring centers. NGOs help the women
identify and carry out these initiatives.
The IPP VIII experience in Hyderabad is exceptional because it has succeeded
in gaining an unusually high extent of both NGO and community participation
and has shown strong health-related results. There are 22 NGOs delivering
family planning and maternal and child
health services in 662 slums of the city, with each NGO having autonomous
authority over all project activities in 20 or more slums. Women from the
communities have formed 586 women's health groups (WHGs) and more than
5,500 have become Link Volunteers. Thousands of other community mem-bers
have joined the project's innova-tive schemes, such as workshops for first-time
mothers, nutrition education programs for girls, and nursery schools for children.
Since the start of the pro-ject in 1994, outpatient registration has increased from
about 615,000 to 908,000, the rate of institutional deliveries from 70 percent to
84 percent, and prenatal care coverage from 91 percent to 95 percent.
This booklet describes the partnership between the government, communities,
and NGOs. It examines NGO and community involvement in Hyderabad and
explains how the partnership functions and how, by using an integrated
development approach, the partnership helps the project reach the women and
children of the slums. It elaborates on the roles of the Link Volunteers, women's
health groups, and NGOs and provides details on IPP VIII activities and the
other community development schemes begun by the project. Engaging
people's participation in a development project is not an easy process. Few
projects have been able to achieve meaningful involvement of communities, and
even fewer have tapped the potential of NGOs. This booklet describes how IPP

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India - It We Walk Together

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VIII in Hyderabad has been able to suc-ceed. It identifies some of the factors
that enabled IPP VIII in Hyderabad to engage both communities and NGOs,
making partnership with the people a reality.
For more information, please contact:
In Washington: Ricardo Castro, Phone: (1-202) 458-5157, E-mail:
RCastro3@worldbank.org
In India: Geetanjali Chopra, Phone: (91-11) 461-7241, E-mail:
qchopra@worldbank.org

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volunteer assignments
team development

field conditions
research area
accommodations
food
itinerary
daily schedule

getting there_____ \

travel planning
medical advice
physical requirements
inoculations
field supplies

j Search

1 of 1

2002 DATES IN THE
FIELD:

Team II: Feb 15-28
Team III: Aug 2-15
Team IV: Sep 1-14

W0

frequently
asked
questions

SHARE OF COSTS:

2002 Teams:

what to
expect in
the field

$1,895 • £1,295 •
$A3,425 • ¥208,450

discovery
weekends

LAST UPDATE:

January 30, 2002

I

Tamil Nadu, Southern India—In this country of 1 billion, over half
of the children suffer from malnutrition, and 60 percent of the
women are anemic. Household economics, lack of education, and
complex social systems that often undervalue women combine to
put a large proportion of the next generation at risk from the effects
of malnutrition, especially stunted mental and physical growth.
Nithya Balaji and her colleagues are trying to improve those odds,
exploring existing practices and cultural norms that contribute to
malnutrition. The creative director for an advertising firm for 20
years, Balaji cofounded the NGO Nalamdana, literally “Are you
well?’’ in Tamil. This visionary group delivers positive public health
messages through street theater and other media to urban slums
and rural communities that overtaxed government programs can't
dream of reaching.
But Nalamdana doesn't stop there. As Collaborative Research
Program Coordinator of Nalamdana, Balaji oversees research into
the community's general health standards and knowledge, and the
effectiveness of Nalamdana's efforts. She and her colleagues
manage novel collaborations between service providers, public
health professionals, and promising graduate students, to
encourage community members to participate in their own
betterment. Nalamdana even helps gifted youth from urban slums
to realize their potential as leaders for social change. As part of
this effort, students participate in Nalamdana’s health programs.
Before Nalamdana staff formulate their public health messages,
they first need to determine what misconceptions about nutrition
and social worth threaten the health and growth of children, both
inside and outside of the womb. Paired with one of Nalamdana’s
trained field staff as an interpreter, you will help gather relevant
information on maternal health in sample households. You will also
help map communities, interview community leaders, assist in
health camps, and participate in focus group discussions. Some
evenings you may witness Nalamdana’s innovative street plays,
and help with pre-play entertainment. Your important work here will
help hone Nalamdana’s public health message for maximum
impact where it is most critically needed.
Field conditions: Tamil Nadu offers the longest sandy beach in
Asia, nearly 30,000 temples, a rich tradition of music and dance,
and a warm and friendly people. Volunteers stay in a rented house
that also houses Nalamdana’s offices, with shared rooms and
Western-style plumbing. Overnights at villages will be in simple
hotel rooms with Indian-style toilets. Meals are delivered from local
restaurants, featuring authentic southern Indian food.

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A. RAVINDRA

381, 100 Feet Road,
HAL II Stage, Indiranagar,
Bangalore - 560 008
Tel. No. 5297852.

Evaluation of Bangalore Citizen.Report Cards

Public Affairs Centre, Bangalore, has brought out two Report Cards
(1994 and 1997) on Bangalore’s public services. The main objectives
were:
a) to get a feed back on the services provided by the Public Service
Agencies (PSAs)
b) to rate the performance of the service providers;
c) to highlight aspects of services that needed improvement.
At the instance of the World Bank, I have undertaken an
independent evaluation of the outcome and the impact of the two Report
Cards.

I would appreciate your views on the following:
1. Your overall assessment of the role of the Public Affairs Centre.

2. Your familiarity with the Report Cards - its strengths and
weaknesses.
3. Your response to Report Cards - action taken following its findings
and the impact of such action on service delivery. Examples of
action taken.

4. Was there increased civic activism concerning public services - such
as asserting the right to demand better services etc., following the
RCs?

5. What were the problems, if any, faced by the PSAs in implementing
changes/reforms?

6. Did you notice any difference in the way PSAs responded to the
general public and the poor?
7. A number of improvements have taken place in Bangalore since
the two Report Cards were published. To what extent would you
attribute such improvements to the impact of the Report Cards?
Overall, have Bangalore/its PSAs benefited by this PAC initiative?
8. Can the Report Card approach be replicated in other cities?

9. Future-should the civil society (organizations like PAC) continue
with such work? Can the PSAs themselves obtain public feed back
and take corrective, action?

10.

Any other information/opinion.

2

PUBLIC AFFAIRS CENTRE
25™ JULY 2000

Health Services for Poor Women

What Should BMP do to Improve Them?

BMP’s maternity homes represent the only decentralised set of health
facilities in Bangalore that are accessed by relatively low income women
and children. A network of outreach centres has now been created through
IPP 8 to expand and further strengthen the services of the maternity homes.
While this expansion and upgradation of the health facilities for the poor
need to be applauded, it is important that careful thought is given to their
proper utilisation, maintenance and effectiveness. This note will discuss the
system’s maladies, concerns about the future of these facilities and present
some thoughts on how to address them.
I

Statement of the Problem
There are two major concerns about the maternity homes and the way they
. are managed. First,, in the view of many observers, their quality of service
and responsiveness to patients leave much to be desired. Second, patients
; complain about the different ways in which payments are extracted from
them although services are supposed to be free. If this is true, nothing could
be more unjust and inhuman. The patientr
*
come from the poorest households
that have very few options at their command. They are women in distress
who are being ill-treated when they are least able to defend themselves.
Since these arc mere impressions and allegations about what goes on within
the system, it would be unfair to draw any conclusions without a systematic
investigation. It is for this reason that PAC undertook a comparative survey
of maternity homes, IPP Centres and UFWCs all over the city jointly with
, several interested NGOs1. A total of 500 patients and 77 staff of these
facilities were interviewed. The major findings were as follows:

• The overall satisfaction of patients was the lowest with the services of
the maternity homes. Only a third rated them as good while 71% and
60% considered IPP centres and UFWCs respectively as good.

1 The NGOs that partnered with PAC in conducting the survey include REDS, MAYA, Sumangali
Sevashram and CHC.

PUBLIC AFFAIRS CENTRE
25™ JULY 2000

• Only 39% of the patients of the maternity homes claimed that they
received all medicines free as opposed to 63% in IPP centres and 61% in
UFWCs. Maternity homes also lead in taking payments for injections.
But the staff say that medicines are given free to all patients.
• Cleanliness of toilets is an indication of the standards of hygiene and
sanitation. Here, patients rated maternity homes the lowest (43%) in
contrast to IPP centres (83%) and UFWCs (61%).
• Maternity homes were rated the lowest also in terms of staff behaviour
towards patients. But the gap between them and IPP was much smaller
in this case.
• The most distressing finding concerns the prevalence of corruption.
While none of the facilities seems corruption free, maternity homes
stand out in terms of the severity of the problem. Payments are
' demanded or expected by staff for almost all services, but most of all, for
delivery and seeing the baby. The proportions of people paying bribes
vary from one service to another. On the whole 90% of the respondents
reported paying bribes for one service or the other at maternity homes at
an average of Rs 700 each. The 70% pay for seeing their own babies!
One out of two pay for delivery.
• If a poor woman paid for all services, it would have cost her over Rs.
1000 for a delivery. It is reported that a nursing home might give her
hassle free and better quality service for Rs. 2000. A rough estimate of
the bribes being paid in all these facilities may be between Rs one and
two crores annually. A similar estimate based on the finding that 90% of
the women pay an average of about Rs 700 at the Maternity Homes
would put the total amount of bribes paid at about Rs 1. 6 crores. The
annual emoluments o the staff at the 30 maternity homes also amount to
about Rs 2 crores.
o Most of the staff denies the practice of corruption. They do complain
about the constraint of facilities, and shortage of staff supplies and
resources. Doctors emphasized the need to improve the awareness of
patients, especially with respect to the need to bo regular in their visits

The evidence presented above clearly points to the need to urgently reform
the municipal health care facilities for the poor in Bangalore. At the core of
the problem is the highly unsatisfactory state of the services of the
maternity homes. If the present conditions continue, the newly created EPP
centres will also deteriorate and become part of the pool of corruption and

2

PUBLIC AFFAIRS CENTRE
25™ JULY 2000

low quality that characterise the system. It will be a great pity if the fresh
investments being made for these centres arc rendered unproductive by
continued apathy while paying lip service to the upliftment of the poor. On
the brighter side, reforming the maternity homes should be a
manageable task given their relatively small size and the compact
population they serve. The Chief Minister’s concern for good
governance and control of corruption offers a window of opportunity
for BMP to design and carry out an agenda of reform. If promptly
done, reforms will have a strong demonstration effect.
What Should be Done
It is for the BMP to decide how to deal with the problems posed above. To
assist in the process, PAC and several other experts and NGOs working
with the urban poor held a discussion to think about the options that might
be considered by BMP. A gist of these ideas is given below and can be
expanded in light of further discussion.

• A more effective oversight mechanism should be created to monitor the
activities of the maternity homes. A board of visitors consisting of 5-7
persons could play this role through quarterly meetings to review the
operations, needs and plans of each maternity home. A board can also
check and eliminate unnecessary overlaps between the maternity homes
and the outreach centres. The board should include 4-5 independent
experts and activists concerned about the urban poor and health. A
corporator and another official could also be nominated to the board. If a
bpard for each home is impractical, perhaps, a board could cover about 4
homes located in contiguous wards. These boards should report to the
Commissioner or his deputy.

• A patients’ charter should be created for the maternity homes. It should
publicise the services offered, time deadlines and terms of service, fees,
remedies in case of problems, patients’ rights and duties. This could be
the first service of BMP for which a charter could be designed on an
experimental basis. Staff should participate in this process and be trained
and motivated to implement it.
• Though the services are free, the reality is that the poor women are made
to pay for them in a majority of cases. They pay, but have no assurance
of quality or rights. Why not move to a system of contributions to a
3

PUBLIC AFFAIRS CENTRE
25™ JULY 2000

health fund by the women ( some are allergic to the concept of user
charges)? The idea is not to recover the full costs of the services, but to
let patients share the costs (hence contribution) so that they have a right
to receive the services. Norms for the contributions could be published.
Delivery is a predictable event and not an emergency. They can save for
this event and pay rather than be faced with extortion when in distress.

The fund thus created should be used for the maintenance and
improvement of the facility where it is collected. It will be an incentive
for the doctors and staff if the money can be used to improve their
facility. Whether a part of the fund could be used to pay a bonus to the
staff is a matter for further consideration. Public hospitals in MP are
already working on similar lines.
In the case of the IPP centres, it is imperative that provision be made for
the diversification of their management and control. When they revert to
BMP, the issue is whether interested NGOs, foundations, teaching
hospitals, etc., could be brought in to operate the services with a
maintenance grant from BMP. IPP centres have the potential to become
community service centres as their infrastructure could be used after
office hours for meetings, teaching and even private practice and other
services beneficial to the community. If this approach is adopted, the
maintenance costs and BMP’s burden can be reduced as additional
income will be generated by the centres through the use of their facilities.
Good NGOs may have an incentive to work along these lines as it will
help further their own mission.

Even if all these actions are taken, there is a need to empower the poor
women to demand their rights and to stand up against abuse. The only
way to do this is by creating support groups of women in different slums.
Some NGOs have already agreed that they will play this role in their
areas of work. They have also expressed interest in operating help desks
in the maternity homes for patients. Support groups could prepare and
brief pregnant women and accompany them on visits to maternity homes.
This function properly belongs to the voluntary sector. IPP centres could
be used as a base for organising the support group activities.

4

MAMTA - Health Institute for Mother and
Child a nprt-Governmenial organization I
along withits jbuhding members believes
thatyoung people (especially pdorfhqyfjhe
right to enjoy the Mghest in attain
rI
standardsofphysic al, mental, social and
economic health! The major concern was
that this right still eluded, a majority of the m
due to their lack ofrecognition in the
society.

About us
ijtrtL-ariw

sjwwwi &Saaftjtfz«gzK'gMw;»3Wfaaa

MAMTA Health Institute
For Mother and Child
Head office

Outreach office

33A, saiduijaib
M.B. Road
New Delhi-110030
TeL-6858067
Telfax:6525466

#238, Swetha Nilaya
2nd “D” main
Opp to EDA Park
Koramangala 8th block
Bangalore-560095

E-mai 1: mamta@ndf.vsrJ.net.ia

MAMTA’s- TEAM FOR OUTREACH BANGALORE PROJECT

Dr. Sunil Mehra (Paediatrician)
Executive Director
Dr. P. K. Goswami, M.Sc. in MCH (UK)
Director (Projects)

Ms. Sukanya Poddar, M.Phil
State Coordinator for Projects, Karnataka State.

Srinivas Sridhar, M.S. Sociology
Programme Officer
Vimala Bellicatte, B.A. D.I. J.
Programme Officer
Meenakshi Devi V., D.C.P.
Pogramme Associate

Mary Anita S., B.Com.
Programme Associate
Boby Mon M.M., PUC.
Programme Associate
Anand Kumar M., SSLC.
Programme Associate

OUR WORK IN BANGALORE
The overall objective of the project is “To promote a conducive and enabling
environment for effective programs related to YRSHR”. In Bangalore, we are working
with the urban poor of Koramangala and Ejipura slum for the past one year. Before the
intervention work, we conducted a need assessment study to understand the community
needs on YRSHR issues. Based on the needs, we formulated a project on YRSHR to
meet community’s expectation with their participation.
The project focuses on young people’s reproductive and sexual health and rights. As this
is a very sensitive issue, we acted on the suggestion of the community leaders and other
stakeholders to take up issues of greater immediacy and concern to the community
youths- economic empowerment, public utilities, and others.

Thus the initial months were spent on awareness and sensitization programs on public
utility services along with helping the community youths to gain access to these services.
This approach helped us to gain entry and establish a rapport with the community. Then
slowly, we entered the arena of reproductive and sexual health with various related
activities.

Our major activities
Sensitization and awareness
Training

Networking

Advocacy
Information Education and Communication

Strategies
Group work

Linkages
Formation of peer groups

WE WORK AS A FACILATATOR IN THE COMMUNITY.
WE ENABLE PEOPLE TO TAKE THEIR OWN DECISION.
WE PLACE COMMUNITY PEOPLE A T THE CENTRE STA GE.

AGENDA

1. Welcome Address by Ms. Sukanya.

2. Introduction by Participants.
3. Brief Presentation on Mamta & its Work by
Ms. Sukanya.

4. Objective of the Session by Mr. Srinivas.

5. Open Forum for Discussion by Participants.
6. Vote of Thanks by Ms. Vimala.
7. Refreshments.

LIST OF PARTICIPANTS

1. Mr. Govindraj- Senior Treatment Supervisor, Corporation Dispensary,

Neelasandra.

2. Dr. Sampath Krishnan/Mr. Chandar- Community Health Cell,

Koramangala.
3. Venkata Ramanappa - Inspector of Police, Adugodi Police Station.

4. Muralidharan - Community Leader, Ejipura.
5. Indira- Dai, Ejipura.

6. Gowri- Dai, Koramangala.
7. Nataraja- Community Leader, Ambedkar Nagar, Koramangala.
8. Dr. Niranjan Shetty - Hemalata Clinic, Neelasandra..

9. P. Bhagyamma - Councillor, Koramangala.

10. M. Zaheeda - Councillor, Neelasandra.
11. Mr. Joe Paul - Associate Director, REDS.

12. Dr. Manjula/Mr. Paramesh- IPP VIII, Koramangala.
13. Mrs. Uma- PrinicipaL Govt. Boys High School, Austin Town.
14. Dr. Dhanalakshmi - Ejipura, Govt. PHU.

.50 RS

AGREEMENT.
THIS

t/

AGREEMENT
2000

between

is

made
the

•

on

Project

-this

day

Co-Onlinator,

IPP-IHI1,

of

Bangalore Mahanagara Palike, 12th Floor, Public Utility Building, M.G.
Road,

Bangalore-560

001

(hereinafter called

which shall

FIRST PARTY)

represented
^.(hereinafter

....................
,
SECOND PARTY)

as

include

the successors,

and

called

executors,

by
as

legal

representatives, heirs etc.,

WHEREAS the first party is the absolute' owner of the building
having constructed under the Grant-in-aid Scheme of Government of In­

dia with World Bank assistance, tn the review meeting of India Population
Project-Fill held on 28/4/2000 under the Chairmanship of Commissioner,

Bangalore Mahanagara Palike, it was decided to handover the Mainte­
nance of Health Centres to non- government organisations in case NGO's
with adequate experience and credibility to come forward to take over the
management of the health centres. The second party has indicated its
willingness to run the health centre
in the health ac-

r cordance with norms prescribed by Bangalore Mahanagara Palike. It is
therefore decided by the first party to handover possession of the build­
ing to the second party for the purpose of running; the Health centre. The
second party is required to utilise (he building only for the puipose of

running of the Health Centre and the functions of the Health Centre shall
■* be
per the norms given by the first partyji
-c/Lj
e.
I

The second party has operate the Health Centre strictly In accord­
ance with the terms & conditions of this agreement. This agreement is
valid for a period of three years from

2

THIS DEED OF AGREEMENT WITNESSETH AS HEREUNDER:
1) The first party hereby gives possession of the building which is
described fully in .the schedule to this agreement of second party for run­
ning a Healtlr^entre^The first party will organise Training, IEC, supply

of vaccines, Contraceptives etc., just as it does in the case of the other
health Centres under the first party. The first party has transferred a list
of assets to the second party

and the list of assets are fully described In

s the Annexure-I to the agreement.

2)

The Second party should produce \valid registration under the

existing regulations to evidence the fact that the Organisation is regis­
tered as a Non-Governmental Organisation. The Second party should
pioduce articles of Assoctatton/Bye-laws of the organisation which enables them to operate the Health Centre Project. The Second party sh
les oj
pioduce articles
of Association/Bye-laws oj
of the oiganisation which et9r
operate
the
Health
Centre
Project^
party ushould
b les th ep ■ _ to c —. —- -— ... —
w
* * —j
fThe'-second
—
w v.
■ vv n v
■/lavb persons who are committed for the cause, leadership and adequate

support staff to operate the Health centre. ^Thesecond-party should have L
Jiecessary physical resource. base like accessible--office space, vehicles,, |
communication facility e/cj ^The second-party-should have prior experi­

ence in community work and community pervepttotT~tntttattves^ The sec­
ond party should also have keen understanding of the issues concerning
women and weaker sections of the society. \The first party is entitled to

resume the building if it is found that the second part)’ does not satisfy
the above mentioned conditions.^
'
’

cp»cd

X^JPxltHS^
*
Tn-ow
*.
iSortB

:K-< ■'.■■

THIS DEED OF AGREEMENT WITNESSETH AS HEREUNDER:
1) The first party hereby gives possession of the building which is
described fully in, the. schedule to this agreement of second party for run­
ning a HealtlrfCentre. The first party will organise Training, IEC, supply

of vaccines, Contraceptives etc., just as it does, in the case of the other
health Centres under the first party. The first party has transferred a list
of assets to the second party

and the list of assets are fully described in

’ the Annexure-I to the agreement.
■2) The Second party should produce \valid registration under the
existing regulations to evidence the fact that the Organisation is regis­

tered as

a Non-Governmental

Organisation.

The

Second party should

produce articles of Association/Bye-laws of the organisation which ena­
bles them to operate the Health Centre Project. The Second party should
of Association/Bye-laws oj
of the pigqpjsation
pivduce articles oj
Qiggiusation which ena­
bles
bles them
thepi to
to operate the Health Centre Project^ [The^-second party should
ftersbns who are committed for the cause, leadership and adequate
support staff to operate the Health centre. ^Fhe-sectmd-party-should-have~L

vslcal—resource—base—like—accessible—ofliae__jpacc,—vehicles^,]
tL-facility-eta] ^lie—second-party—should—have~prtar~experi-

iiunlfy-w&rk-ahd—eommuntty-pcrception~tnittattve7^ The sec­
ond party should also have keen .understanding of the issues concerning
women and weaker sections of the society. \The first party is entitled to
resume the building if it is found that the second part)’ does not satisfj
the above mentioned conditions.\
’

3) The second party shall utilise the building
the purpose
of running a Healtfl Centre. \l'he/functions of the Health Centre are annexed to this agreement as Annexure-ll] The building should be properly

S
-7

maintained and there shall not be any damage to the building. The sec­
ond party should not handover the possession of the building
to any
7pf\ third parties. ^The second party should vacate the building if so desired by)

.

the first party i.e., Bangalore Mahanagara Palike after receipt of

7>y

months notice from Bangalore Mahanagara Palike^ In any such case, the-b

second party will not be
entitled for the value of improvements to thebuilding. ^4t the time of resumption of possession, the second party should

©

S'

handover the building in the same conditions as it was at the time of ex­
ecution of the agreement] The second party should not put up any addi- ,

tional construction without the approval of the first party.
c.

/nt/nfi-'fivu- tv I\

1

C’^cLC

rp

dltvrviuxi ft

4) The-secondparty~should-submit\monthlw-andannual-reports -as

p)zscribed—and-also-Annual~Audtted~Statemcnr~offAccountST—The—second
party—should—also—indicate—\itr-source^offinancing:\^he-jtcff~that~carrbe

.appointed- by-the-second party- their qualification-and-minimum-salary is
^tated-in-the-Annexure-IIP tot~ this~ agreement^ The second party will have

to meet the expenditure realting to the salary of staff, security & cleaning
etc., out of the project funds, fltill the project comes to an end/ Thereafter
the second party will have to meet the expenditure from ts own finds. The
TflT) electricity and water charges and pother concurrent expenditure, will have
to be met by the second party even during the project period. SdlLc.
o

.

L'>

f/UVx

Z''?

u77Je

(

«•' ftl

•/

//e q (4^.

second party should maintain all assets handed over by

the first party and shall be liable for any damage to the assets handed

over by the first party}

;
'
/-VAC;

The parties hereby agree that the agreement is valid only for a
years and this agreement can only be extended by mutual

period of

consent. If the agreement is not extended, within a period of one month

from

the

date

of expiry

of this

the . second party should

agreement,

handover vacant possession of the building together with all assets and
equipments

immediately thereafter.

This agreement is only in the nature of a license is.sued to the second party to run the Health/Centre on behalf of the first partf'fand-the.j?_sam^—ls-res^mbleat the pleasure of the first partyj)

®

schedule
IN WITNESS WHEREOF both parties get their hand on this agree­

ment on
ordmator

First Party

Project Co-ordinator,

Second Party
igara Pallkt

for

o«.« riMUUftta

India Population Project-VIII,

Bangalore Mahanagara Paltke,

Bangalore.

■iUM-

Witness:

Witness

1)
A dress

ASHHAi*

Cho^euvr.kanatwIU
R.T. N.:yar Post.
Bangalore-560037

I) ’
Address

PUBLIC AFFAIRS CENTRE
25™ JULY 2000

Health Services for Poor Women

What Should BMP do to Improve Them?

BMP’s maternity homes represent the only decentralised set of health
facilities in Bangalore that are accessed by relatively low income women
and children. A network of outreach centres has now been created through
IPP 8 to expand and further strengthen the services of the maternity homes.
While this expansion and upgradation of the health facilities for the poor
need to be applauded, it is important that careful thought is given to their
proper utilisation, maintenance and effectiveness. This note will discuss the
system’s maladies, concerns about the future of these facilities and present
some thoughts on how to address them.

Statement of die Problem
There are two major concerns about the maternity homes and the way they
are managed.. First,, in the view of many observers, their quality of service
and responsiveness to patients leave much to be desired. Second, patients
. complain about the different ways in which payments are extracted from
them although services are supposed to be free. If this is true, nothing could
be more unjust and inhuman. The patients come from the poorest households
that have very few options at their command. They are women in distress
who are being ill-treated when they are least able to defend themselves.
Since these arc mere impressions and allegations about what goes on within
the system, it would be unfair to draw any conclusions without a systematic
investigation. It is for this reason that PAC undertook a comparative survey
of maternity homes, IPP Centres and UFWCs all over the city jointly with
: several interested NGOs1. A total of 500 patients and 77 staff of these
facilities were interviewed. The major findings were as follows:
• The overall satisfaction of patients was the lowest with the services of
the maternity homes. Only a third rated them as good while 71% and
60% considered IPP centres and UFWCs respectively as good.

1 The NGOs that partnered with PAC in conducting the survey include REDS, MAYA, Sumangali
Sevashram and CHC.

1

PUBLIC AFFAIRS CENTRE
25™ JULY 2000

• Only 39% of the patients of the maternity homes claimed that they
received all medicines free as opposed to 63% in IPP centres and 61% in
UFWCs. Maternity homes also lead in taking payments for injections.
But the staff say that medicines are given free to all patients.
• Cleanliness of toilets is an indication of the standards of hygiene and
sanitation. Here, patients rated maternity homes the lowest (43%) in
contrast to IPP centres (83%) and UFWCs (61%).
• Maternity homes were rated the lowest also in terms of staff behaviour
towards patients. But the gap between them and IPP was much smaller
in this case.
• The most distressing finding concerns the prevalence of corruption.
While none of the facilities seems corruption free, maternity homes
stand out in terms of the severity of the problem. Payments are
' demanded or expected by staff for almost all services, but most of all, for
delivery and seeing the baby. The proportions of people paying bribes
vary from one service to another. On the whole 90% of the respondents
reported paying bribes for one service or the other at maternity homes at
an average of Rs 700 each. The 70% pay for seeing their own babies!
One out of two pay for delivery.
• If a poor woman paid for all services, it would have cost her over Rs.
1000 for a delivery. It is reported that a nursing home might give her
hassle free and better quality service for Rs. 2000. A rough estimate of
the bribes being paid in all these facilities may be between Rs one and
two crores annually. A similar estimate based on the finding that 90% of
the women pay an average of about Rs 700 at the Maternity Homes
would put the total amount of bribes paid at about Rs 1. 6 crores. The
annual emoluments o the staff at the 30 maternity homes also amount to
about Rs 2 crores.
• Most of the staff denies the practice of corruption. They do complain
about the constraint of facilities, and shortage of staff, supplies and
resources. Doctors emphasized the need to improve the awareness of
patients, especially with respect to the need to bo regular in their visits

The evidence presented above clearly points to the need to urgently reform
the municipal health care facilities for the poor in Bangalore. At the core of
the problem is the highly unsatisfactory state of the services of the
maternity homes. If the present conditions continue, the newly created IPP
centres will also deteriorate and become part of the pool of corruption and

2

PUBLIC AFFAIRS CENTRE
25™ JULY 2000

low quality that characterise the system. It will be a great pity if the fresh
investments being made for these centres arc rendered unproductive by
continued apathy while paying lip service to the upliftment of the poor. On
the brighter side, reforming the maternity homes should be a
manageable task given their relatively small size and the compact
population they serve. The Chief Minister’s concern for good
governance and control of corruption offers a window of opportunity
for BMP to design and carry out an agenda of reform. If promptly
done, reforms will have a strong demonstration effect.

What Should be Done
It is for the BMP to decide how to deal with the problems posed above. To
assist in the process, PAC and several other experts and NGOs working
with the urban poor held a discussion to think about the options that might
be considered by BMP. A gist of these ideas is given below and can be
expanded in light of further discussion.

• A more effective oversight mechanism should be created to monitor the
activities of the maternity homes. A board of visitors consisting of 5-7
persons could play this role through quarterly meetings to review the
operations, needs and plans of each maternity home. A board can also
check and eliminate unnecessary overlaps between the maternity homes
and the outreach centres. The board should include 4-5 independent
experts and activists concerned about the urban poor and health. A
corporator and another official could also be nominated to the board. If a
bpard for each home is impractical, perhaps, a board could cover about 4
homes located in contiguous wards. These boards should report to the
Commissioner or his deputy.

► A patients’ charter should be created for the maternity homes. It should
publicise the services offered, time deadlines and terms of service, fees,
remedies in case of problems, patients’ rights and duties. This could be
the first service of BMP for which a charter could be designed on an
experimental basis. Staff should participate in this process and be trained
and motivated to implement it.

• Though the services are free, the reality is that the poor women are made
to pay for them in a majority of cases. They pay, but have no assurance
of quality or rights. Why not move to a system of contributions to a
3

PUBLIC AFFAIRS CENTRE
25™ JULY 2000

health fund by the women ( some are allergic to the concept of user
charges)? The idea is not to recover the full costs of the services, but to
let patients share the costs (hence contribution) so that they have a right
to receive the services. Norms for the contributions could be published.
Delivery is a predictable event and not an emergency. They can save for
this event and pay rather than be faced with extortion when in distress.
The fund thus created should be used for the maintenance and
improvement of the facility where it is collected. It will be an incentive
for the doctors and staff if the money can be used to improve their
facility. Whether a part of the fund could be used to pay a bonus to the
staff is a matter for further consideration. Public hospitals in MP are
already working on similar lines.

In the case of the IPP centres, it is imperative that provision be made for
the diversification of their management and control. When they revert to
BMP, the issue is whether interested NGOs, foundations, teaching
hospitals, etc., could be brought in to operate the services with a
maintenance grant from BMP. IPP centres have the potential to become
community service centres as their infrastructure could be used after
office hours for meetings, teaching and even private practice and other
services beneficial to the community. If this approach is adopted, the
maintenance costs and BMP’s burden can be reduced as additional
income will be generated by the centres through the use of their facilities.
Good NGOs may have an incentive to work along these lines as it will
help further their own mission.

Even if all these actions are taken, there is a need to empower the poor
women to demand their rights and to stand up against abuse. The only
way to do this is by creating support groups of women in different slums.
Some NGOs have already agreed that they will play this role in their
areas of work. They have also expressed interest in operating help desks
in the maternity' homes for patients. Support groups could prepare and
brief pregnant women and accompany them on visits to maternity homes.
This function properly belongs to the voluntary sector. IPP centres could
be used as a base for organising the support group activities.

4

PUBLIC AFFAIRS CENTRE

578,16th B Main, 3rd Cross, 3rd Block,
Koramangaia, Bangalore 560 034, India.
Tel/Fax: (080) 5537260/3467, 5520246/5452/53
Internet mail: pacblr@blr.vsnl.net.in

29 November 1999

Dr.Ravi Narayan
Community Health Cell
No.367, Srinivasa Nilaya,
Jakkasandra ist main,
1st Block, Koramangaia
Bangalore -560034

Dear Dr. Ravi Narayan,

Sub: Project on Access to Quality Health Care by the Urban Poor in
Bangalore - Tackling Corruption and Breaking Barriers
This is further to our meeting in October at our office. We are sorry about
the delay in designing a format for the assessment of the quality of health
care services being provided by the BMP maternity homes and the IPP(VII)
health centres. If you may kindly recall, the proposed assessment was
thought of as one of the key strategies for initiating action on the project.
As decided in the said meeting, the assessment was to be carried out by the
participant organisations and P A C had volunteered to facilitate this
process. Enclosed please find some guidelines for the assessment with a note
on the sampling design. Actual questions will be framed later. The note has
listed all the pertinent issues/themes that need to be covered in the
assessment. Please go through the same and suggest changes if any. Two
weeks from now, we propose a short meeting to finalise the themes and
issues and the sampling design. Thereafter, we can even conduct a one /two
day orientation cum training programme for the staff of the member
organisations who will actually conduct the field level assessment.

We look forward to your response at the earliest convenience

Best Regards

Programme Officer

v///

Public Affairs Centre, November, 1999

Guidelines for the assessment of the quality of health care
services provided by IPPVIH and Maternity homes of the BMP

Decide sampling design - define respondent ie is the information
gathering restricted to feedback from patients or are we also using
observers to physically verify at the centre or maternity home?
If only patients who have used the facilities are to give feedback -

Preparation of two separate questionnaires for health centres and
maternity homes. Same questionnaire for health centre of corporation
and of IPPVIII.
MATERNITY HOMES

SUB HEADS:
General information

Referred from health centre
Referred from urban family welfare centre
by whom

place of residence

Distance from residence
Awareness of facilities that should be available

Staff strength by category ie doctors, nurses, other staff '
Special equipment - ie xray, lab etc
free issue of medicines
Satisfaction rating

Quality of service
Behaviour of staff - all categories
Any other aspect?

L

Public Affairs Centre, November, 1999

Dimensions of satisfaction

Time taken to attend/waiting time
Cleanliness, availability of beds
Corruption

Among -Doctors, Nurses, and Other staff
Whether paying, how much paying, to who,
and for What purpose
Other kinds of corruption -

whether they were referred to a private nursing home or clinic instead
of being treated at the maternity home
HEALTH CENTRE

SUBHEADS
Ganaral information

Nature of illness/reason for visit
Type of patient
Whether referred and to which hospital
Kind of treatment given
Verification related

Doctors availability
Other staff availability
Time taken to attend/waiting time
Cleanliness/upkeep
On immunization

Existence of days for immunization
Do doctors follow these schedules
Adherence to schedules
Information dissemination on importance of immunization, etc

Public Affairs Centre, November, 1999
■t—

.^a77sAAC.T/oaJ (Z-PrffbJGS

Overall service
Behaviour of staff
Other aspects?
Dimensions of satisfaction/service delivery

Same as above In maternity home!
Other topics that can be covered for both maternity homes and
health centres wherever applicable

Whether MTP done - if done at health centre!
Whether family planning operation done
Advice given
Whether abortion done - asked for it or was advised to get it done
Referred to private hospital or nursing home?
What reason given?
Kinds of building
Is there a pediatrician?
Is there a staff nurse?
Is there a Lab?
Availability of Lab technician
Do they attend well woman clinics?
Existence of creche
Vocational training for young girls
Link workers - are they link workers, do they know of or any
SHE club membership
Medical check up In school
Has there been improvement in the last 5 years?
Willingness to pay

o•

Public Affairs Centre, November, 1999

Suggested sampling plans
I. Respondents could be

1.
2.

only married females
married couples jointly - or either spouse

n
Advantage of choice 1 Is that the women are the patients) and they
would reply. But it is possible that the husband would have influenced
decisions or she may not know some of the information! ~
Advantage of choice 2 is that we get a complete picture in case the
woman does not know certain information. The problem could be that
the wife is either too shy to talk or not allowed to talk and the husband
gives answers that she may not give if asked privately!
A judgement based on situation has to be made.
II. Location of interviews would determine sampling design

1.
2.

catch patients at the centre or maternity home
household survey

Advantage of first choice is that memory will be fresh and we can get
more numbers. Disadvantage would be that they might hesitate to
speak the truth at the venue. That could be avoided by taking their
address and meeting them at home.
Advantage of choice 2 - people will be more free and give useful
Information. Disadvantage could be that we have to visit many houses
to get sufficient numbers of patients who have used health centres or
maternity homes. But, this method would give us an Idea of the usage
of the centres too.
|
Those who have used both facilities can be asked to fill in both
questionnaires/lnterview schedules. It is 'also possible that there might
be people who have used both kinds of health centres. We can have •
questions put in to check that.
III. The sample size - has to be decided based on the following
factors

1. number of maternity homes
2. number of health centres
3. number of urban family welfare centres
4. and the size of the population served by each of the above
5’. cost and time constraints
»

♦ India population project

47

Functions of UFWC

❖ Cover a population not less than 50000
❖ Motivation for family planning
♦ Provide family welfare and Immunization services
♦ Health check up of anganwadi and school children
♦ Involve conununity in family welfare and MCH programmes
♦ Conduct orientation training for opinion leaders
♦ Maintenance of Eligible couple, infant, immunization, ANC and PNC,
method wise family planning and stock register and other records.
Tuberculosis

There are 7 DOTS units under NTI. Each unit caters to a population of 5
lakhs and 5-6 centers are established under each unit. Each of these centers
are equipped with Lab and x-ray facilities.

_

____

PUBLIC AFFAIRS CENTRE

578, 16th B Main, 3rd Cross, 3rd Block,
Koramangala, Bangalore 560034, India.
Tel/Fax": (080) 5537260/3467, 5520246/5452/53
Internet mail: pacblr@blr.vsnl.net.in

PAC PUBLICATIONS
1.

Strengthening Public Accountability : New Approaches and

Mechanisms.

Samuel Paul

Rs. 30 or US$ 10

A Report Card on Public Services in Indian Cities :A View from

2.

Below.

Rs. 30 or US$10

Samuel Paul.

Public Services for the Urban Poor: A Report Card on Three Indian

3.

Cities

Rs. 30 or US$10

Samuel Paul

Making the Grade : A Guide for Implementing the Report Card

4.

Methodology.

Stephanie Upp

Rs. 30 or US$10

Public Services and the Urban Poor: A Comparative Assessment

5.

Based on Citizen Feedback from Five Indian Cities.
Sita Shekhar

Rs. 30 or US$ 10

Bringing Transparency into Elections : A Field Experiment

6.

Suresh Balakrishnan

7.

Rs. 30 or US$ 10

Bangalore Hospitals and the Urban Poor: A Report Card
Suresh Balakrishnan & Anjana Iyer

Rs. 30 or US$10

Bangalore Municipal Budgets : A Critical Assessment

8.

' Samuel Paul & Sita Shekhar

Rs. 30 or USS 10

Public Services and the Urban Poor in Mumbai: A Report Card.

9.

Suresh Balakrishnan & Sita Sekhar

10.

Elections to Bangalore Municipal Corporation: An Experiment to
Stimulate Informed Choice. S. Manjunath

&

11.

Rs. 30 or US $10.

Corruption: Who will bell the cat ?. Vikram Sarabhai Memorial
Lecture 1997. Samuel Paul

12.

Rs. 30 or US$ 10

Rs. 30 or US $10

Prometheus Unbound, or Still in Chains : A Report Card on Impact of

Economic Reforms on the Private Enterprise Sector in India.
K. Gopakumar

Rs. 50 or US $15

13.

City Finances in India: Some Disquieting Trends.
Sita Sekhar & Smita Bidarkar.

14.

Rs. 50 or US $ 15

Voices from the Capital: A Report Card on Public Services in Delhi.
Sita Sekhar & Suresh Balakrishnan.

15.

Strengthening

Public

Rs. 50 or US $15

Accountability

&

Good

Governance:

Proceedings of the International Workshop on Report Cards.
K. Gopakumar.

16.

CITY NET: A Study of Neighbourhood Newspapers in Bangalore.
S.

17.

Rs. 30 or US $ 10

Manjunath, K. Gopakumar & MM Srinath. Rs. 30 or US $ 10

The Member of Parliament's Local Area Development Scheme: An

Avoidable Discretion?
K. Gopakumar, S. Manjunath & MM Srinath

18.

Rs. 30 or US $ 10

Benchmarking Urban Services: The Second Report on Public Services
in Bangalore.
Samuel Paul & Sita Sekhar. June 2000.

19.

Rs. 50 or US$15

Monitoring the Quality of Road Works.
E.G.
C.

Justo & S. Manjunath

Rs. 50for citizen groups/
Rs. 100 for others or US $ 50

KARNATAKA PRIVATE CLINICAL ESTABLISHMENT REGULATION
qAGT)1995

An Act to provide for the regulation and control of private
clinical establishment in the Karnataka St'ate.
Whereas private clinical establishment in the state arc run
in an unregulated manner and,
Whereas it is expedient in the public interest to regulate
them, Hence this-Act is to be promolgated,

!• Short Title and Commencement ;-1)This act may be called Karnataka
Private Clinical Establishment (Regulations) Act 1995,
X2.2) It shall be deemed to have come into force from the date of

II. Definition;-

In this Act unless the context otherwise requires

1)"appointed day means the date Specified in sub-section-(2) of
of Section-I
Competent
2)
Authority" means any persons or persons appointed
by,the 'State Government to perform the functions of cor.petr.nt authority under this Act. Different persons ox’ autho­
rities may be appointed to perform different functions of
competent authority has been listdd in schedule,
3)"Licence"means, a licence granted under the provisions of
this Act. .

"Manager"
4)
in relation to ajt private clinical establishment
means the person by whatever name enddesignation called
who is incharge of or is entrusted with the running of
private clinical establishment.
5)"Clinical Establishment"' means and include all establishment

■listed in Schedule.
Allopathic
6) "Medical Treatment" means, treatment in modem/medicire
or in any other system of medicines like the Ayurvddic,
Unani, Homeopathic and the Naturxopthy. Wherein preventive
£ curative aspects ore riven to people.

&
7)"Modern Allopathic Medicines" means the western method of
Allopathic medicines obstetrics and Surgery,

...2.

- 2

(8} "A private clinical establishm'-’nt" means, a clinf
establishment which is not owned ore sponsored b;
or the Central Government.
V-V'j1 •
(5) "Section"means, a section of this Act.

(1O)"Dppartment" means, Department of Haith <?■ Family We.i..
Services, Government of Karnataka.

.

(11) "Forms" means, a form appended to thfts Act.

¥

(12)"Schedule" means, a schedule^this Act.

III.

1)"Private Clinical establishment" to be started on or >.
of the appointed da£n shall be established run ointhe state except under and in accordance withttr
& Conditions of a licensee.

2) ^provided that a private clinical estabiishmont in
■
immediately before the appointed dajrs shall apply
licence within a period of 2 months from the appe '
day (shall

apply far the- licence

warthin

B-pe-rtod-

..

c-f

from---the-appointed d-ay^) and pending orders thereon
continue to run and maintain, but subject to the c
provisions of the Act.
IV,

APPLICATION FOR LICFICE:_ Fvery person?! determined the
run, maintain or continue to run a private clinical ecf.?,
shall make an application to thecompetent authority i.-, .
form and alqngwith such, fee as may be proscribed.
‘

V.

DISPOSAL OF APPLIC J'TIONS,_1
receipt of the applicr.tic .
under section -IV- and after such enquiry as he may dee
necessary, the competnt authority may by order grant or
to grant the licence. Where the licence is refused br:l
reasons for such refusal shall be givnn by the compoter'
authority, t

> 2) Fvery order under sub-section(l) of section.
as soon as may be aftar it is made bo communicated to the
applicant. Provided that where no such communication :
before the expiry of 90 days from the date on which the
application was made the licence hdholl be de-ecied-to hi/.. ■

.

-J.l.-

- J granted/rx>#«?O;—
VI. FACTORS TO BE TAKEN IH’O ACCOUNT IM DISPQSlMG QB AKPLIC TICK...
I

In disposing of ths applications under Section (6), the
competent authority, shall have rggard to the following namely;

(1) Whether'thepremises housing the clinical establishment
is suitable hygienically or otherwise.
(2) Whether the clinical establishment is adequately
staffed with gzrax general and also technical personnel.

(3) Such other factors as’may be prescribed,
VTI. INSPECTION}- 1) The conpetent authority may at any time
inspect a private clinical establishment to satisfy himself
that a provisions of the act and the conditions of the
licence are beiu^g fi^.ly observed once a year. A competent
authority mattpus-^nire^any Class-1 office- of the Department

as an inspection authority.
2) If as a result of such inspection any defects or
deficiences are noticed by the competent authority nay by
order direct the Manager to remedy the same within such time
as may be specified in the orders. There upon the Manager
shall comply with ev<ry such directions and make a report to
the competent authority.
’ll
VIII.STANDARDS.- Every private clinical establishment shall
■conform to the. Standards prescribed in schedules
etc., wh ±h may be prescribed regarding the tech­
nical facilities Nursing and other staff, and their qualifications,
facilities to be provided to the patients maintaince and lih.ht

matters.
shall
DEBS TO BE CHARGED}- Every clinical establishment mnxi make
its fees tranoperent for different procedures and services
so that the patient can choose the clinical establishment
ard also knowns wkellin advance as, to how much expanses
iExltcnt(Kxknt be may occur. Booklets detailing the foes
structure irrespect of servi wsj. clinical procedures and
professional fees shall be available.
...4.

X.

DEFAULTSt_ if any private clinical establishment c;
in observing any conditions of the licence or fails to cy ■■ wi
any directions issue under this act, or conterveeis
provisions of this Act, the competent authority may
revoke the licence provided that no such order shall
after giving the person concern and opportunity of ar..
representation against the proposal.

XI, APPEALS1) Any person whose application for licer.
refused or deemed to have been refused and any person
by any other order under this Act may prefer an appe
appellate authority. The Director of Health & Family
Services in Karnataka will be the appellate authority for 1,: '
purpose, under this Act. -

; . .22) Every such appeal shall be prefer within
from the date of order appealed against is communicateedeemed to have been made. The' order of the appellate autlv;
on appeal shall be final.
. 3) In rare and special cases, the Government
powers of revision to set ri^it the orders.
XII. PPNALTY|_ Wh0 ever controvenes anj' of theprovisiors of ■
oi-.or the • terms and conditbns of tkoc a licence shall-be 1..
on convttion to imprisionment which may extend to six l-.o.
or with fine which may extend to gfacxxgkxac five thousand

■

|

XIII. COGNIZAiCE OF THE OFFENCESjjo offence under this Ac
taken cognizance of except on complaint preferred by the cautho rity..

XIV, INDEMNITY;- j’o suit 'or other legal proceedings shall lie ary
the State Govamment or any officers of the State Govern".,:
’ - respect of the anything which is in good faith done by undt.-r .
Act.
2 •
.
XV,

. ■ ■

RULES;- 1) i>he State Government may by Notification make
for carrying out .the purposes of thia Act under various ecctionr .

2) In particular and without prejudice to the gen.'rod <y
of the foregoing provisions,such rules .may provide for all o
any of the following matters namely;

- 5 -

&) The Standards prescribed to regarding staff
Equipment(space personnel

b) Fora of the Application
c) Conditions subject to which tar licence mgy lie
granted, licence Fee and Licence fees to be paid
anually.
d^ Other factors to he taken into account
5) Fees to

be

paid

i on

application and appeals,and.

f) The fees to tte charged for the Medical treatment
given, the accommodation and facilities provided.

XVI This Act is applicable to the whole State of Karnataka
XVII Hospital iflrtatxStatRhnKarfr established under special Laws like;
port Trust Hospital, Plantation Labour Act and Peedi
Worker Act, Dispensiries and Hospitals run by the statutory
bodies,public sector undertakings be exempted from the
provisions of this Act.
XVIII

Government has the pov.’er to exempt any private clinical
establishment from the provisions of this Act under special
consideration.

XIX

Labour Laws are not applicable to the personnel working in
the Private Clinical vetablisbment as the private clinical
establishment are service oriented and the services come
under the essential servicssj: Act.

XX

If any private clinical establishment under taken training
of the para-Medical Personnel, the training programme erf iitex
must be started after getting a licence. Troirirg must be
followed as per the Government corrie ulam and duration of
the Training. The examination B^x41xKe conducted by the
Government ard the certificate shall be iscued by the
Government.
t

S-C-n'B BULB

■W
,A\s<ysr^

ithe: 'Clinicel TlctsbliBhrnentB 'Whidi yieap come under

^■^tbislAct.'": •
....................

1
s* ‘ ; »'»

• • -- »■••• ' ’ .

- •

’-i

;1): 'Cliiic.s : (0ne'lDocto r) ■
f<i? A:’

> 2) ;?i>at>o i’ato rie
AtIll's

'

• 4) Scanning-Cent res '(with cat scan -facility or.rwithqut)
-. ,

•■’ ' '■

1?’".

A;ysi'■'V. ’ ■!

' ■- J

- ' ■(■^. ='>V ’■;

>.

•:

" A ;!;-’ '• -15) "Physiotherapy Cent'r6S..'A..':y
'■'■'■■ '''^
-1-2'■" : <<> ’;
.A
■- * • • ■■

, ’••

* . *c3

\ • —- -

-j

• 1 -

« *e

•

*'

.

.. •

f

;-

? ■

.•

’

;ir

A-17 )•■-fintatl'-ijental - Clinics?(One Doctor)
yy. , ;/■ v^,p.
A
*

-

<,*

'V/..,. ',

•Vv-.-sj•■•'SpSci'aiist'“Dental Clinics
; A- A--1- Ai. ’;

':<■ .. '.<

; a"

<■

■

■■

9)’■• Polyclinics■ (two or.. core Doctors)
;
ai ■
ii.lo) ' SuperiSpecial'ity Hospitals
' ■ ••
r ■ 2’

•’

-.A tnA ;;••• I

■•'

‘

?

;u‘ ‘

■

■•/ill) Nursing Homes .with inpatient ^facility ■’
■

‘'

■'

?i"l 2 J'.Jiiteqh/.Hospitals

A'l’/.

/

i"'t ’

'■

eA,,/ ' -

1

■

INDIAN 'SYSTEM :-OP 1:T1)IC ICTS

.11) < Naturopathy' Clinic
;l.

2 ) y.4 yurvnd ic •

0
0

X ' Ao WO -

...VxnEini

■

■C;-;.'4) Honeopsthy..

-?••;■ 5) zYoga jSys.tsn

S»

•With or Without inp
!

facility

- 3 -

(3) Proper records of communicable diBnases theyhave attended
and also inform the concerned authorities about th^ race.

(4) They shall maintain the records of the free services they
have given for which they claimed excerptions from the
custems duty.
VI.

INFPFCTIOKj,

(1) Whenever the competent authority inspects the private clirice.l
establishment, he shcU-d be provided with all the information
required and also access to the records maintained.

RULES TO BE FR'/MED UPPER THE PRIVATE CUBICAL ESTABLISHMENT
A3T - 199~5

I

!

LICEBCIKG;-

(1) Rech application for the licence to be applied in the
Form-A

(2) Each applicant shall pay the fees prescribed as per
schedule. Vv1 '
(3) Each private clinicalct establishment shall pay the fees
■ annually end get the licence xcraockwd reneved as per
schedule.

'

(4) The licence will be granted in the Torm-B

(5) Each clinical establishment shall be given licences for
a particular services going tdberendered.
(6) Each application for the licensee shall be accompained
by a list of fees they are going to charge for the
different procedures they are- undertaking.
(7) Application for amendment in the fee structure to be
made to the competent authority with sufficient reasons.

(8' Improvements or additions to a private clinical establish­
ment will be considered as a fresh case for licencing
and separate licensee to be obtained incorporating the
impxuvemnts or additions.
(9) In case the licence is lost, they the private clinical
establishment shall get a duplicate copy of the licerace
after paying the prescribed fees.

II, STANDARDS TO BE MAINTAINED 1-

(1) Each private clinical establishment shall maintain the
standards ■prescribed regarding the space peraonel,
equipment, comfo.rts and services to the patient as per
schedule . > f
v'v '
(2)

Each private clinical establishment shall display the
clinical services it is going to offer.

(3)

Each priv.-te clinical establishment shall display the names
of the specialists rendering the services declared.

(4)

Each private clinical establishment shall not offer curative
or prevntive services other than the servicns for v/hibh
licence is granted.

(5)

Each clinical establishment shall restrict the clinical
services to the particular system of medicine and also to
the particular Branch of the Medicine for which licence is
granted.

■ •- c.„ —
(6) All the technical staff employed by .
entablir hn°nt should be registered inti
state Council like;

1) Karnataka Medical Council
2) Karnataka TTurlng Council
3) Karnataka Dental Council
4) Karnataka Pharmacists Council

.*
al

ctivu

\

-

(7) All para-Medical Staff must possess a -u‘
Training Cexrtifioate.

(8) There must be nufficient strength of stay ' fo
out the General sanitation end other so.

m

III.

/-I

FTTS;_

|

(1) 'Each clinical establiehnent should display th.- fj;», rt:r
it is gojng to charge for the various procndi
providing and the fees structure in the fcl
must he known to the patient before hand
(a) Fee structure for Domestic services’ A.
(b) Btax Fee structure for the procedure
(c) Professional Fees.
x

t

(2) T-’ there is an y amendment to the fee structv.y-meat must be approved by the competent author.?':,

IV. SERVICES;,
(1) In addition to the services for which the 1 ... ..
gi ont
all private clinical establishment shall rendc- ■
Aid
all the accident and MedicoSrlegal cases. They ■ u-rt give
evidence in the case called for from the judiciary,.

(2) All privste clinical establishment shall imp?
Rational Health Prorra-me irrespective of cost .
Religion.

11 th'. . y-ciy ??■

(J) All private clinical establishment shall divulg'g to the pac ? ■
or near relatives to diogonis and theorapoutic.ih'.y are go :?•?;
to do •

v. WAIETAIECF, OF RECORDS.
(1) All tilkKiasi private clinical establishment shall ma:."!.-.?.
proper records regarding admission discharge. di,
curative & preventive proedures, investigation. aid
fees paid by each patient.

(2)

Pnper birth and death registered have to be inay j'.. ,.:.u i
within 2^hours all private clinical establishment ch,’ 1
infor m the concern authority, cibout the Birth tz Berthe.

n u i.

•

to bo paid with private Clinical

1) Cort of Application fora D. 1OO/-

Initial

Deprral
Arraual.lv

250/-

1oo/-

3) I>aboratorios(ciir.ical)
500/4) Diagnostic Contres(lab Radiology-t 1 ,000/consultation
5) Scarring Contras
a)T7ith' cat actin F Ultra Doric
5,000/Investigation facilities

250/500/-

2) Clinics (one Doctor)

2,500/-

b)’’.'iti cut cat scan

2,000/-

1 ,000/-

6) Pl; yr i o the it ph y Centres
7) Blood Banks
8) Nursing Homos with Beds
a)Upto 10 bods (minimum)
b)11 to 20 bddr.
c)21 to 50 bods
d)5"I ard above

500/500/-

250/250/-

1 ,000/2,000/3,000/5,000/-

500/1 ,000/1,500/2,500/-

9) Suporspeciality Hospilrlr
a) Single speciality
b) With mom than or speciality
10) (Hitech Hospitals) wherein all
specialities ar well as rupor
speciality s.orvicon are given

10,000/15,000/-

5,000/7,500/-

20,000/-

1O,O(P/„

11) Poly Clinics & Consultation
Dooms (more than two special!ties''
12) Dental Clir.ics(One Doctor)
Specialist Dntol Clinics
1 3) Radiological Cnhtre

1,000/250/r00/500/-

500/1on/2 ’ ■/)

250 A

ITDJJAi; CKTVD c- DHDICIDD
al Fatuioprtlw Clinic
b Ayurvedic
c) Unani
o) Soalyster.

) W4+K .
. . . J,„„.n44.
I bith
xccrlitys
)
1OO/50/I "ithr‘ut ^tiert frcJlity
0

/

er /

ANNEXUKE-i

Competent authorities defind as Karnataka Gazetted
Extraordinary part IV 2c (ii) Bangalore dt.3-11-76 No.4352
G.O. NO.HJM/334/CGE/76 (ii) Class (2) on Section (ii) of
Karnataka Regulations Ordinance 1976 (Karnataka Ordinance
23 of 1976 is modified for the preset context in the lig)it
of HF.7,142 CGE 86, dt. 2-7-86, para 6.
COMPETENT AUTHORITY

I. Corporation Areas ;

A) Bangalore City area, Urban District.
1) Boint Director(Medical)

.... CHAIRMAN

2) Health officer, City Corpotation.. Member
3) Deputy Director(Medical
Education)
.. Member

4) Principal, Jayachamara jendra
Institute of Indian Medicine
Bangalore
5) President, Indian Medical
Association, Bangalore City
A Branch.

... Member

.. Member

B) Mysore City Corporation,Are a.
1) Divisional Joint Director of
... CHAIRMAN
Health & FW Services,Myso re Div.

2) Health Officer, Corporation of ... Member
City of Mysore
3) Superintendent, K.R.Hospital,
Mysore

... Member

4) Principal, Ayurvedic Hospital, ... Member
Mysore
5) President, Indian Medical
Association, local Branch,
Mysore.

... Member

;
Contd...2)

Page

2)

C) HuhH Dhorwar Corporation Area,
' ^Divisional Joint Director of Health
and F.W.Services, Belgaum Division.

2)Health Officer, City iQari>oration, Hubl’.
^Superintendent, K.M.C., Hubli.
4) Principal, Ayurvedic College

.

Hospital, Hubli,

. .i:..-.

5) President, Indian Medical Association
Local Branch, Hubli,

..

.

D) C-ulbarga City Corporation Area,

1) Divisional Joint Director of Health
and F,W.Services, Gulbarga Division.
2) Health Officer, Corporation, Gulbarga.

3) Superintendent, General Hospital, Gulbayr
(Dist.Surge on)
, ■
X"!
4) Dnfcneipai, Unftni Medical College, Gulbargs .

. .b;. ■

5) President, Indian Medical Association,
local Branch, Gulbarga.

H) Mangalore City Corporation Area,
1)Divisional Joint Director of
Health and F.W.Servims , Mysore

2)Superintendent (Diet.Surgeon),
V, Unlock Hospital, Mangalore.
3)
Health
j

,,

Officer, City'Corporation,
■ ' •
Mangalore.

Principal,
4)
College of Ayurvedic,
Ayurvedic Section, Kuthubadi, Udupi

Prosidont,
5)

Member

Indian Medical Association,
Local Branch, Mangalore.

con'

Meabei’..

pafre-3.
For all Districts other than Corporation areas and

.

the Bangnlore Urban District, ■
)Divisional Joint Director ef Health
and F. Vi, Services ,. of the concerned Division...

CHAIRMAN.

Surgeon of concerned District.

..

Member.

...

Member,

..

Member,

..

Member.

District
2)

>\5)District Health and Family Welfare Officer

of concerned District.1’
L

'

4)President, Indian Medical Association,
• i
local Branch, concerned District.

5)Principal, Collage of Indian Medicine
in respective Divisions,

Mysore
a)

Division:

-Principal, G.C.I.M,, Mysore.'-

Bangalore
b)

Division:

-Principal, G.C.I.M.,, Bangs lore, v—■"

Belgaum
c)

Division.

-Principal, Ayurvedic College
Belgaum, fgulbargd. Division.

d)
Gulbarga
Division;
<
-Principal, Tharanath Ayurvedic College,
Bellary.

Jurisdiction of Division includes revenue districts
of Division excluding corporation areas and
\

Bangalore urban district..

P

.
Director of Health a F.'.V,Services,

O

SCHEDULE, j

(See Rule

3)

Standards prescribed for the Private Muring Homes with in-patient
facility
1
A. Staff
1, There shall be availablethe services of registered medical

practioners as follows:

Bed Strength

Minimum Mo. of Medical
Practioners

Below 25

Two

25-50
50 and above

Pour

At the rate of tne for
every 20 beds beyond
50 beds

Provided that there shall be available on the premises one

registered medical pradftloner for attending emergrcy calls to patients
at all times; providdi f urthe r in a nursing home providing specialist

There shall be available on call at least ore registered

services.

medical practitioner possessing recognised specialist qualification
in that speciality.

There shall be available the services of one Or more nurssp

2,

possessing recognised qualification under the Indian Nursing Council
Act, 1947/ Auxiliary Nurse Midwives who have panned the examination
conducted by the Depnrtment and where in-patient treatmnt is given:
the nurse/Auxiliary Nurse Midwife patient ratio shall rot be lower

than 1 110.
3.

Their shall bn available the cervices of para-medical and

other staff possessing ‘recognised qualification as follows:-

Category of
para-medical staff

Condition on which
service of the category
shall be available

i) pharmacist
ii) X-Ray Technician
iii) Lab. Techr.iiien
iv) physiotherapist

If drug store is maintained
If X-Ray facility is provided
If Lab. Facility is provided
If Physiotherapy facility is
providdd.

Minimum No.

Or-':
One
One
0 r.c<
2

- 2 -

4. Therm shall be available the services of minimum number^
of attendants to look aft<r patients, aiaxning cleanliness a rd

sanitation of the premises at the rate of ore attendant for <wery
six beds at all times.

B. ACCOMMODATION

5.

The accommodation provided for out-patients ard inpatients

shall be suitable, adequate end wholesome, provided that minimum
accommodation shall be available as followsj ard the promises shall
be kept clen and hygienic at all times.

Category

Minumum provision

1. Waiting room
..
1oo Sq. ft.(9.2 eq (Mtrs.)
2. ■p’xair.ination-cuir.-prc’cripti' n.. 100 Sq. ft.(9.2 Sq.T’ts.)
w on
3. Operation Theatre

...

225 Sq. ft.(20.7 Sq. Mtrs.)

4. labour room
5. Ward

...

150 Sq. ft.(1?.8 Sq. Mtrs.)

...

60 Sq. ft. per bed (5;6 Sq.
Mtrs.)

6. lavatory

...

One for out-patient

*
s room
7. Duty Doctor

...

One

8. Nurse's Station

...

One for each group of beds.

addition of or." for every 1o beds

C.

F ACUITIES

6. The Operation Theatre if provided should bo safe ard
equipped with operation table ard instruments, anaesthetic equip­
ment, resuscitation equipment ard sterilisation equipment.

If provided shall have an obstetric

7.

The labour room.

8.

Facilities shall be available for routine examination of

table.

■ urine (for albumin, suxgar, microscopy) of blood <for Htifi complete
blood count) and motion(for ova. cyst and Microscopy).

9.

There ahull be available in the premises adequate quantity

of life saving drugs such as cortico sterioote, vas.ro prossor,

oxygon, antibiotics sodatircs ard I.V. Fluids for emergnrey use.

10.

There shall b° available wholesome portable water supply

at all times with provision of minimum of 225 litres p^r patient

per day.

11.

Thor's shall be available proper lighting and ventilation

in the promises.
..2.

- 2 -

12.

The in-patients shall he p to vide d with minimum ftvniture
and linen as followsj-

I

For each patients
■

Cot with mattress

...

one

...

One

i

Bedside locker

■i

■

1
<
:

Chair/Stool
Stool
Blanket
. •
Bed Sheets

■

...
...
...q

• ■ • ...

'

one
one
one
ona Two

r

Pillow with case

Counterpane

...

one

• - ...

One

There shall he available in reservethe following items
of linen for each patient.

Bed Sheets

Pillow cases
Counterpane

One

S

C H R D U L R

n

(See Rule 3)
I

Standards for Private Nursing Homes without in-patior± facility,
1. There shall be adequate provision in the nursing horn for

the maintenance of privacy during examination.

2.

Tho premisoa of the nursing homo shall bo c>an

3.

There shall be available the services of paramedical and

other staff possessing recognised qualifications as followsj-

1

Catgory of
Para-mdical staff

i) Pharmacist

..

Condition on wh'ch service
of the category shall
be available

i.inxEum Fo

If Drug Store is maintained

Oro

ii) X-Ray Technicians. . If X-Ray facility is provided

one

iii) Lab. Technician

. . If Lab. facility is provided

one

iv) Physiotherapist

. . If physiotherapy facility
ie npprovided.

ore

4.

The Operation theatre if provided should be safe and

equipped with operation table and instruments, anaesthetic

equipment, resuscitation equipment and sterilisation equipment.

— —z-z:'

.

/ •'Z,
’

R

■

—“

V

-

GENERAL STANDARDS FOR TEE ESTABLISHMENT OF ALL THE CLINICAL
ESTABLISHMENT
i

‘

1)

The person or pereors associated with the establishment of the
clinical establishment should be a fit and proper person.

2)

The premises and equipments 8’0 reasonable suitable and adequate.

3)

The premises where the private clinical establishment is actually
located should have no communications with any residential quarters

of a person not connected with the establishment.

4)

The general cleanlines of the thn premises including sanitary

arrangement, furniture and equipment is properly maintained.
5)

The persons employed to run the cli rical establishment are
properly qualified trained and sufficient in number as provided

in the rules.

6)

Up to date registers is maintained in Which names and addresses

and qualifications of all th" employees of the establishment arc
noted.

7)

Proper accounts are maintained of all receipts and expenditures.

FOR NURSING HOMES

1)

The floor space provided from each patient shall rot be less than
10 sq. mtrs. in a cabin or room, 8 sq. metre, in a cubical and

6

sq. mtrs. in a watil.

2)

Proper ventilatory, limiting, water supply must be provided.

3)

Proper arrangements must" be there for the safe disposal of the
waste products, such as;
T>

1) Biological Waste

4)

2)

Used needles, syringes aril Dreesin,-n.

3)

General Waste

4)

Human Waste.

;■

"Electric fans' to be provided or other moans of KaxkiEJ? cooling

should deployed.
5)

Sufficient number of water closets, Bathrooms, Toilets should

be provided.
...2.

- 3 inert meant for the treatment of male patients and female employee
ehall be employed in the treatment of Fmale patients.

I
4) "’’xaminatioan and treatment of Female patients are conducted in

the presence of a female agreed by the patients.
5)

Their? must be sufficient equipment to carry out the treatment.

6)

There must be sufficient space for th° treatment.

FOR CUBICAL LABOKATORITS

1) It should be under a properly qualified persons to conduct

the test examinations or analysis and the preparation of cultures

vaccines, serum or other Biological or Bacteriological products
undtrtbken by the laboratory.

2) Theis must be sufficient space to conduct all the exr minations,
3)

Laboratory must be well equippdd with the inctmisfits for carryir
out the investigations.

4)

Thero shall be facilities to treat emergencies with can occur

during any tests.
''

FOR RADIOLOGICAL ARD SCALTIEG CFfTEES

1) It should be under properly qualified pernors to conduct the

investigations and report.
2) There must be suffficent space for waiting-, cxanirat'on and
other infrrctnuctural facilities.

3)

4)

There'shall be sufficient and good equipment in. working coidition

Thero shall b= facilities to trofet the emergencies that can

arise during any investigation.
BLOOD BARK
Blood Banks shall run under a licence from the Drugs Controll'

un'er the drugs and cosmatics act.

It shall follow all the stand siu

proscribed under the Drugs on? Cofimatice Act,
. .. M

- 4 PrNTAL CLINICS
I

?)

If shall be managed by a properly qualified person.

2) It should be well equipped.

5)

Ther^ must be facilitfrsfor the treatment of emergencies that

can arise during the procedures.

4) There must be enough space for waiting, treatment and restin

and Rules
The standards/for the clinical establishments which come

under the Indian System of Medicines may be obtained from the
Director, Indian System of Medicine, Bangalore.

UNDER THE KARNATAKA PRIVATE CLINICAL ESTABLISHMENTS
(REGULATION) ORDER
I995
FORM 1 A *

I
(Sep Rule 5(1)
Application for permission to establish, run, maintain or continue
to run a Private Clinical Establishment und<r Section 5(1)

as per Schedules,

1. Name of the Private Nursing
Home/Hospital/Clinical Estab­
lishment

..

2.

Address in full

..

3.

Name, Age and Address of the
Manager & Telephone No.

4.

Details of staff:-

..

(i) Regl. Med .Practitioner

(

SI.No.

Nome

Age

Qualifications.
KMC .Regn.No.
& its validity

(ii)
(iii)

5.

Nurses/AFMe

(iv)

Other para medical staff

(v)

other staff

Details of accommodation &
equipments available
(i) Accommodation ixsqstpmsEtsxsx (Enclose a plan
of building wherever
possible)
(ii) Operating Theatre

(iii)

Equipment

6.

Facilities available

7.

Any other details

8.

Fee (details of Money order/
Cheque/DD.

place:
Date :

Signature of the Manager
RECOMMENDATION OF THE INSPECTING AUTHORITY

Date:
Date:

Signature
Decision of the competent authority

Signature of the competent
authority with neal.

/

UNDER THE KARNATAKA PRIVATE CLINICAL T STAHL ISIIP NT
(REGULATION)

/

ORDER : 1955

'

FORM »B'
Sen Rule 5 (5)
The private Clinical Establishment described below is
hereby granted permission under the Karnataka Private Clinical

Establishment (Regulation) Order, 1995

1. Name of the Private Clinical
Establishment
2. Address in full

5.

Name, Age, Address of the
Manager.

4.

Service

Place:
Date !

to be catered

Signature of the Competnht
Authority and Seal

SWABHIMANA

A Citizen - Local Government Initiative for a Clean Green
and Safe Bangalore
Volume 10

Newsletter - June 2001

(Private circulation only)

The 73"1 and 74"' amendment to our constitution is a significant effort to bring local governance nearer to the people
and encourage their participation in the process. It also instills a sense of responsibility and gives decision
making pov/ers to the people.

Every Municipal area is divided into tmiiloilal coii'.lilimnclnr; known (i’i W/nd'i

I’rmpln brlniirjiiiij Io a

particular ward will choose their representative (Councillor / Corporator) by direct elections, so that the
Municipality is composed of these elected representatives.

The idea of constituting these municipal bodies is to enable them to function as institutions of
self-government. These local bodies have been formulated about seven years ago and they are

still Io function as vibrant, local governing bodies. This, to a large extent depends on the public
participation and the quality of the representatives (councillors) people choose for their ward.

In the case of Bangalore, the city has been divided into 100 wards and there are 100 corporators representing people from the
respective wards

The Bangalore Mahnagara Palike is likely to go to polls in the month of November 2001. Public Affairs Centre and Swabhimana in
association with the interested and committed groups/individuals in Bangalore are planning to launch an information &

communication campaign to ensure greater participation of citizens and help them in making an informed choice so that we elect

the corporator who truly represents the majority of the electorate.
This time we are adopting a three pronged approach for the campaign:

" Enhancing the voters' participation by educating and motivating them
v

Choose the Right Councillor Programme that aims at providing the electorate with the information about the candidates standing

for the election
Preparing a citizen’s manifesto for the city as well as for the wards to send signals to the political parties to field good candidates

It's time we, the citizens of Bangalore remember that the bad representatives are elected by the good citizens who do not vote. Hence
PAC and Swabhimana invites interested groups and citizens of Bangalore to participate in the campaign, and support their drive for

meaningful elections. Those interested may contact Poornima DG or Sheila Premkumar @ 5537260 / 5533467 or

Govardhan @ 2225515.
Edited by Josephine Joseph and Sheila Premkumar, Swabhimana Core Group

The Publication of this newsletter has been supported by WASTE. Gouda. The Netherlands, under the Urban Waste Expertise Program (UWEP).

//b<W£/i£ss f2/4/ (2/4J

s /rftfi/e/Hesid

a summer camp in Vijaya Enclave, a residential colony. The

The two issues addressed by all civic clubs this year will be
Road Safety and Garbage. In addition to their activities on these
two issues, sessions will be held on other topics relevant to

children from the colony belonged to various schools and it

Bangalore City.

-*

Namma sundara bengaluru - In another first of its kind

Swabhimana and PAC under the banner of (CMCA) conducted

STRAY DOGS AND BANGALORE CITY

was important to conduct a summer camp in the colony as the

Newspaper dailies give us an excellent update on the various
programs taken up with respect to stray dogs;

there will always be an ongoing debate in the
methods adopted by one party or another.
Swabhimana conducted an independent study
in six health wards to ascertain claims. Three
wards with dustbins and three dustbin free wards (dustbins
removed under Swaccha Bangalore) were selected for the
study.
There wore no dilloroncon In the lonponcon of ineldniile in Ilin

various wards. There were stray dogs, though the numkfctin
the dustbin free wards were lesser and they claimed it^rs a
problem. But it was noted that residents themselves fed stray
dogs and were also aware of others feeding stray dogs.

children are an important factor for motivation in this area 17

Residents from three wards also claimed they were aware

children, both girls and boys from the ages of 12 to 17 were

about incidences that occurred in their area with respect to

present for the camp. Themes addressed at the camp were the

stray dogs.

same as those of the camps held last year. They included

activities with garbage being on the top of the agenda. Let's

Why was the response in the dust bin free wards no different
from those in the wards with dustbins? If there is no food, there
will be no stray dogs - in such a case as nearly 50% of
Bangalore is covered under Swaccha Bangalore, atleast 50%
should be stray dog free. In these wards not only did the people
feed stray dogs but those who were yet to get into the habit of
handing their garbage to the push carts, used empty plots and

wish them all the best.

roads to dispose their waste. To a large extent this is seen all

Wildlife in Bangalore, Trees of Bangalore, Pollution, Waste

management, Water and Electricity Conservation, Road Safety.
Road quality, Concept and Practice of Civic Clubs and Civic
Sense, Effective team work City Heritage and monuments: The

children were eager to form the Civic Club and start off the

over Bangalore.

Civic club update - Post 'Inspiration 2001’, the civic
fest for school students, many schools expressed their desire to
begin civic clubs in their schools. This

URBAN WASTE EXPERTISE PROGRAM (UWEP)

year the number of schools with the civic

The UWEP drew to a close in April 2001 after three years of
Integrated Community Based Solid Waste Management. Since
its inception, the project has attempted to bring together all the
stakeholders around the theme of waste

clubs will increase from 14 to about 30.
Volunteers were called for and a team of

30 volunteers and staff from Swabhimana

and PAC are ready to join forces to

management while achieving one of two goals
- expanding doorstep collection and community

increase civic awareness in schools
through these clubs. While introductory

mobilization to untouched areas in the ward
and consolidating on-going schemes for

sessions have begun in several schools,

many schools begin the children’s movement for civic

primary collection and transportation of waste. Programmes and
workshops have been held for different types of stakeholders in

awareness in July.

2

systems outside the project area, in particularly the city of
Bangalore (Non-project areas - dispensaries and maternity
homes run by the BCC, Dispensaries of Central
Government Health Services and select health care
institutions (medium sized hospitals, specialty hospitals,

the community - residents, school students, teachers, owners

of shops, hotels and marriage halls etc. The project has
created a number of opportunities to aim for improvements in
the method of waste management and monitoring of the
efficiency of the system in partnership with the municipality. The
final goal of the project is to achieve replication with
modifications as needed, at other wards and/or city level. This
rth large extent has been achieved because of the linkages
established with the BCC.

Trust hospitals, Nursing homos, nto ). Al Iho closn of lim

UWEP project, the HCWM Cell serves a total ol I25
institutions both within and outside the pilot project area,
either in the area of waste collection or staff training or both.
4.

One of the most important achievements of the UWEP program
at Nagapura (Ward 14) has been the links established with all
the cityTjevel initiatives on Solid Waste Management where
UWEP supported staff of CEE and Swabhimana have

months) per month from collection of user fees and sale of
recyclables (chiefly plastic waste) per month. Average

recurring expenditure per month for running the system is

functioned as key partners and resource persons. Both the BCC
and the pilot project have benefited from these linkages - the
former through the experiences and ideas generated and the
latter in terms of the recognition of the project that is crucial for
replication. For example, the ward 14 experiences have been
presented at ail important workshops of the BCC.

Rs 20,000 to 22,000 (a comprehensive costing exercise
has been initiated in March 2001)
5.

empanelled on the resource persons list of the Tamil Nadu
State Pollution Control Board)
6.

7.

Setting up sub systems (segregation,
containment, decontamination, temporary
storage) within thirty-one health care
settings in ward 7 (nine nursing homes;
fourteen specialty an out-patient clinics, six
diagnostic centres; two blood banks and twenty general
practitioners’ clinics). Since the start of the collection
program, 940 kilogrammes of sharps and 970 kilogrammes
of recylable plastic waste have been collected.

2.

Settings up systems outside (collection, transportation of
waste sharps, recylable waste) the institutions.

3.

Leveraging the experience towards establishment of similar

Evolving as a resource centre for health care waste in the
city, state and country. (Currently the HCWM Cell is

The second program was health care waste management in
ward number 7, Malleshwaram, the Health Care Waste
Management Cell of M S Ranmaiah College being the
.^plementing agency.
1.

Currently, the services rendered generate a revenue of Rs
25,000 (Based on the revenues generated in the last six

Forming a core group for advocacy endeavours in the city,
state and country.

Unique experiences are being documented (staggered

collection systems - This means that each segregated
waste fraction had its collection schedule. This prevents the
waste from being mixed up, cost-effectiveness of a simple,

integrated waste management process, involvement of
stakeholders).
8.

Website for the Pilot Project endeavours being launched.

9.

Segregation of waste sharps and plastic wastes has now
become a habit amongst the health care personnel in the
Pilot Project area.

10.

3

The waste handlers now operate under relatively cleaner
and safer environments.

fcdi'csstil rti t/ia uifjiHC.Q.ring iotw2 ofifaa
The Commissioner of the Bangalore Mahanagara Palike has introduced some new measures to make the ward offices of the en­
gineering department citizen friendly and more effective in resolving customer grievances. He lias directed all local Ward Offices Io
remain open from 8 a.m. to 9 a.m. to receive complaints from the public. AEES/JEs will receive complaints pertaining to their ward

in respect ol health, engineering, horticultural and revenue departments. All Resident Associations are requested to advise
their members to contact the nearest ward office and make use of this facility Details regarding this scheme were published
in the order of the Commissioner dated 14/6/01 and also in all the leading newspapers.

The Commissioner has also instructed the ward offices to display lhe list of tendered works.

Please give us your comments and feedback on the effectiveness of the system.

SOMETHING FOR YOU - CITIZEN'S CHARTER
A citizen's charter provides service standards and published performance measurements.

• ...EutLarid accurate information, choice where ever possible and users consulted.

-

Service deffVCry^witti courtesy and helpfulness

»

Good grievance redressa! mechanisms

°

Value for money

.....

The citizen’s charters ready and available at the respective offices at a nominal cost are
Karnataka Power Transmission Corporation Limited

v Bangalore Metropolitan Transport Corporation
What are in the pipeline and to be available shortly are Department of Telecom, Bangalore Mahanagara Palike,

Police, Transport Department and Bangalore Water Supply and Sewerage Board.

Swabhimana Core Group Members
Ms Almitra Patel - 846 5365 - almitrapatel@hotmail.com

Bangalore Environment Trust - Mr. G Govardhan - 222 5515

CEE - 286 2167 / 286 9094 - cee@Bangalore.vsnl.net.in

CIVIC - Mr. Vinay - 226 4552 ■ civicblore@vsnl.com

Public Affairs Centre - Ms Sheila - 553 7260 - pacindia@vsnl.com

REDS - Mr. Joe Paul - 221 4247 - chamindi@bgi.vsnl.net.in .

Waste Wise - Mr. Anselm Rosario - 525 5543 - msss@vsnl.com

UWEP - Ms Anjana Iyer - 333 6030 - anjana_iyer@vsnl.com'

BOOK-POST

Community Health Ceil

The Co-ordinator, Swabhimana,
Office of the Bangalore Mahanagara Palike,
Ground Floor Annexe, N.R. Square,
Bangalore 560 002.
Pager: 9622731409

367 Srinivas Nilaya
Jakkasandra 1st main 1st block Koramangal
Bangalore 350 034

4

DRAFT REPORT
FOR INTERNAL USE ONLY

MATERNAL AND CHILD HEALTH CARE FOR
v- 1 THE URBAN POOR IN BANGALORE
A USER FEED BACK SURVEY ON THE QUALITY OF CARE
BY

. - THE PUBLIC AFFAIRS CENTRE IN COLLABORATION WITH
SUMANGALI SEVASHRAM; RAG -PICKERS EDUCATION AND
DEVELOPMENT SCHEME; MOVEMENT FOR ALTERNATIVES FOR
YOUTH AND AWARENESS; CITIZENS ACTION GROUP; AND
COMMUNITY HEALTH CELL

JUNE 2000

INTRODUCTION & BACKGROUND

THE IMPORTANCE OF THE QUALITY OF CARE AND CLIENT
SATISFACTION IN THE FAMILY PLANNING AND MATERNAL AND
CHILD HEALTH SERVICES IN INDIA
Explosive population growth is blamed for all social ills plaguing the human
society, including global warming, environmental degradation, racial
conflicts, widespread hunger and poverty. One of the main rationales behind
the investment of public resources in family planning programmes is the
belief that a decline in population growth rate would lead to a faster rate of
economic development and thus, would also enhance a country's ability to
improve the conditions of its people. This belief is based on the reasoning that
a growing population requires increasing resources for such basic services as
education and health. Other rationales for investing public resources in family
planning .programmes include the improvements in maternal and child health
(MCH) and the basic human rightTo have access to the means of regulating
ones own fertility.

Conditions that promote high fertility include socio-economic disparities
within and among households. There is no unique set of prerequisites
necessary for fertility decline to occur. While socio-economic development
would ultimately lead to fertility decline and family planning programmes
have been shown to decrease fertility even under poor conditions, the best
results are obtained when the following conducive conditions exist ( Anirudh
Jain 1999):
a. a family planning programme that offers services and information of good
quality;
b. low infant and child mortality; and
c. high female literacy and education, at least up to the primary level

Despite government commitment to family planning, resource constraints
continue to be a serious impediment to higher quality services at all levels of
the delivery system. First of all, basic buildings and infrastructure are under­
funded and there are chronic shortages of most basic medicines and supplies.
A second set of constraints relates to gaps in program management as
reflected in such areas as inadequate staff training, weak supervisory support,
the frequent failure to adhere to acceptable standards, limited accountability
among program personnel and wide spread corruption. The problems
described are clearly not unique to India, but broadly characteristic of health
and family planning services in most developing- country settings. As many
studies have revealed, poor quality services are reflected in lower levels of
client satisfaction, a poor image and general distrust of public sector system
and weak commitment among family planning staff.

1

At the International Conference on Population and Development ( ICPD) at
Cairo in 1994, consensus was reached on a new agenda for population and
development. The ICPD placed the problem squarely in the development
context and focussing attention on individual needs instead of demographic
targets. Following the ICPD, in India, there have been paradigm shifts in the
family planning programme - From a focus in the past on achieving method­
specific contraceptive targets, often using coercive means, to provide client­
centered quality services. Client satisfaction has become the primary goal
with demographic impact a secondary, though important concern.
DIMENSIONS OF THE QUALITY OF CARE IN FAMILY PLANNING
AND MCH CARE SETTINGS

The quality of care framework developed by Judith Bruce (1990) has
stimulated worldwide interest in research on the quality of services provided
by various cadres of health and family planning providers. In this framework,
the following program elements are used to asses the quality of care received
by clients : accessibility and availability of services; availability of basic
facilities and essential supplies; choice of methods; information to users;
technical competence; client-provider interaction; continuity of services; and
appropriate• constellation of services, including treatment for sexually
transmitted diseases and MCH care.

In a study by Vera(1993) in Santiago, Chile, it was found that clients
considered the most important elements of service quality to be a clean and
hygienic place; prompt service; treatment as an equal by service providers?
useful information and the opportunity to learn; enough time to consult with
the _§taff; cordial, likable and friendly staff; and access to prescribed
medicines. Several Indian studies have reported that the rude behaviour of
health staff has been a major reason why women have not liked dr used the
government health services and compelled them to go to private doctors.
Government health functionaries usually blame the lack of equipment and
supplies for the poor quality of their services. Ramasundaram(1994) has
however observed that even when equipment and supplies were made
< available, clients continued to receive poor quality of care. He attributed this
• to the attitudes of health workers, who showed little respect for clients,
particularly if they were poor, illiterate or from lower social strata. Some
health workers even believed that because the government provided free
services and also gave cash incentives for sterilisation operations, the clients
had no right to demand good-quality services !!!!

Given this broad framework of quality concerns, the present study based on
user feedback, mainly focuses on the degree of satisfaction of the patients
and related aspects such as hygiene, access to basic medicines and supplies
and corruption in the maternity homes, India Population Project -VIII health

centres and the Urban Family Welfare Centres operating in the Bangalore
Municipal region.
BANGALORE
MAHANAGARA
PALIKE
INFRASTRUCTURE AND SERVICES :

-

HEALTH

CARE

With thirty maternity homes, thirty seven urban family welfare centers
(UFWCs) and fifty five health centers funded by the world bank under the
India Population Project -VIII ( IPP-VIII), the Bangalore Mahanagara
Palike(BMP) emerges as the major provider of family planning and maternal
/ child health (MCH) care services for the urban poor in Bangalore. Further
more, there are twenty five dispensaries and some ayurvedic clinics for
general ailments under the BMP.

The IPP centres and UFWCs focus mainly on health and nutrition education, A
antenatal/ postnatal care, family planning, immunization mother and child,
nutritional care of childrep_up to the age of five and medical treatment of ■
minor ailments and act as referral units for the maternity homes. Whereas, (
the maternity homes focus on delivery and Medical termination of I
pregnancy(MTP) and laboratory tests in addition to providing antenatal/ j
postnatal care, family planning non-surgical care for children needing
specialist attention and minor gynaecological procedures. It must be noted
that all the services at all the three facilities are supposed to be provided free
ofcost

■’

C

<

/

THE INDIA POPULATION PROJECT -VIII

The India Population Project-VIII(IPP-VIII) is a World Bank assisted project
and has been in operation in the city of Bangalore since May 1994. The Project
envisages expansion of maternal and child health and family welfare services
to the hitherto uncovered areas and population groups particularly the urban
poor-living in slums, through creation of one new health centre each for every
50,000 people. As planned, all the fifty five health centres have been created
under the IPP-VIII. The Project also aims to improve the quality of health
services being provided by the existing^rriatexnity homes of the Bangalore
Mahanagara Palike such as delivery, MTP and sterilization etc. for which
health centres act as referral units.

The fifty five newly created health centres are presently under the
administrative control of the IPP-VIII which makes available the services of
doctors, field staff and honorary link workers to the health centres. The
Honorary link workers are volunteers residing in the slums, where they
motivate mothers to utilise facilities and services for ante natal care, delivery,
family welfare, immunization etc.

3

j
I

’ Under IFF-VIII, high quality infrastructure including equipment and
—• provision of drugs, and the ongoing training of all the different categories of
> personnel for skill development in technical areas as well as public
{J communication are already in place. This is expected to significantly imptove
the quality of family welfare and MCH services for the urban poor in the
Bangalore municipal region.
CORRUPTION - A MAJOR BARRIER TO QUALITY CARE FOR THE
POOR:

In 1999, when 46 of the 55 health centres planned under IPP-VIII had been
functioning for over little more than a year, the World Bank felt the need to
hold consultations with the stake holders/beneficiaries in the targeted slums
to ascertain whether the health care needs of the community have been
adequately fulfilled. These consultations would also enable to document the
problems being faced by the urban poor in accessing the health care services.
In view of this, several stakeholdeff’bonsultations were conducted with health
7] center as the focus. Though the findings from these workshops, according to
!• the respondents, confirm free access to quality health care services at the IFF
health centres, the same is not true of maternity homes being run by
llBangalore Mahanagara Palike. None of the services like MTP, sterilisation,
I delivery are being provided free of cost and an " informal /unofficial user fee
" ( = bribe) was demanded in almost all cases. The desperate condition of the
patients and their families in a medical emergency is being exploited to the
maximum.
These experiences also lend support to the findings of a study by the Public
Affairs Centre published in May 1998 on " Bangalore Hospitals and the Urban
Poor - A Report Card " which revealed that about 89% of the respondents
interacting with BMP maternity homes admitted having paid bribes (speed
money) to access better services.

In another study by Jagadish . C.Bhatia (1995) on the " Constraints to service
quality in Rural Karnataka", all categories of workers have cited the issue of
widespread corruption during the in depth interviews and focus group
discussions. The Auxiliary Nurse Midwives (ANMs) complained that their
bills, arrears, and other claims were inordinately delayed unless they agreed
to pay a portion of their claims as " speed money ". Following are some
highlights of the comments made by an LHV with more than two decades
which is a telling tale of how deep rooted corruption is in the area of public
service delivery:
"In the past, although we had much less manpower, logistic support, service
prerequisites, housing etc., you will be surprised to learn that we used to work
?! well. However overtime the working standards deteriorated with the gradual
' erosion in the ethical standards of immediate supervisors and higher officials,
which paved tlie way to the institutionalization of corruption in the health

H

department. Today, to be corrupt is no longer considered reprehensible. Drugs
and equipment in the health facilities are misused without any hesitation. The
doctors are interested only in private practice and amassing wealth".

CIVIL SOCIETY INITIATIVE TO TACKLE CORRUPTION AND POOR
QUALITY SERVICES AT BMP- MCH CARE SETTINGS:
The Public Affairs Centre ( P A C) has been striving to improve the quality of
governance in India through its pioneering studies of citizen feedback on
public services popularly known as Report Cards, policy research, civil
society initiatives, advocacy action and advisory services. Corruption or the
"speed money phenomenon" has emerged as a major contentious issue
around which several initiatives have been undertaken. For most of these
efforts, Bangalore has been
P A C's testing ground to experiment with innovative approaches and
creative ideas.
The alarming practice of corruption at BMP maternity homes is a cause of
major concern for P A C as with7 the termination of World Bank assistance in
the year 2001, the IPP facilities are going to be integrated with the existing
system of the BMP for routine operation and maintenance. The two main
concerns arising out of this possibility are about: the state of infrastructure
and strong foundation laid by the IPP health centers under the administrative
regime of BMP; and the impact of corruption in terms of its potential to
invade and corrode the IPP facilities. In order to address these concerns,
P A C organised a preliminary consultation on " Access to quality health care
by the urban poor in Bangalore - tackling corruption and breaking barriers",
in August 1999.
An important strategy more so as an entry point articulated in the fwas to
carry out a User feedback survey to empirically assess the quality of care,
particularly thatoLthe service delivery process at the IPP health~centres~and
maternity homes . The study, if followed by an intensive Media advocacy
based on the findings was expected to draw the attention of policy and
decision makers on the reform measures required to tackle corruption and
improve the quality of family planning and MCH services in the Bangalore
Municipal region . Set in this backdrop, the present study has been a
collective effort of the Public Affairs Centre, Movement for Alternatives and
Youth Awareness, Sumangali Sevashram, Citizen Action Group, Rag pickers
Education and Development Scheme and the Community Health Cell, all notfor profit organisations concerned about the quality of governance and public
services especially where the poor are involved.

I

Methodology
This survey was carried out in two phases. The first phase involved getting
feedback from slum dwellers that had accessed the services of the Maternity
homes, Urban Family Welfare Centres (UFWC) and India Population Project
(IPP) Health Centres run by the Corporation of Bangalore. The Report Card
methodology was used to collect the feedback. The sample was selected using
multi-stage-sampling technique.

Phase I
Twelve maternity homes, and UFWCs were selected and 20 IPP Health
Centres were selected based on relevant criteria. 150 patients (women) each
for Maternity Homes, and UFWCs and 200 women for IPP Health Centres
were selected for the sample. These women gave feedback on the services
provided by the three kinds of providers.
Phase II
?This was a survey of the three kinds of staff - doctors, nurses, and other staff from 6 Maternity Homes, 6 UFWcs and 10 IPP Health Centres which yielded
responses from 22 doctors, 44 nurses and 22 other staff on various issues
related to maternity health care for the poor.

Major Findings
r'

I.

Overall Satisfaction with Services

> The overall rating of services provided by Maternity Homes, UFWCs and
IFF Health centres by people who visited them is given in the chart below.
Overall Rating of Services

> 71% of the users of IFF Health Centres have rated their services as good,
while 26% have rated them average. 60% of women who went to UFWCs
have rated their services as good while 39% have rated them as average.
xV 58% of the patients of Maternity homes consider the services provided by
them as'gobS'-while 33% say they are average,
>jfrfjfPP health Centres are on the whole rated better than the UFWCs and

.^^PMaternity Homes. For similar services provided by all three the rating is
’ the highest for IPPTlealth~Centres and lowest for Maternity Homes.

>

II.

Feedback on Service Delivery

A.

On free supply of medicines

> More of the patients that went to UFWCs (73%) and IFF Health Centres
(71%) are aware that medicines are to be given free than those who have
gone to maternity homes (63%).
> . While only 39% of the patients were given the medicine free of cost at the
maternity homes, 61% and 63% were supplied the medicines free at the
UFWCs and IFF Health Centres.

11 > Money was demanded for the medicines from 11% of the women at the
[/
maternitv homes while only 4 and 3 % reported being asked to pay money
for medicines at UFWCs and IFF Health Centres.
I f > The average amount paid for medicines was higher at Rs_94 at maternity
ii
homes than Rs. 30 paid at UFWCs. But the least amount was paid at IFF
i|
Health Centres (Rs. 15)

Information related to free supply of medicines
of Percentage of Percentage of
Tablets related aspects Percentage
respondents
respondents saying respondents
yes at maternity saying yes at saying yes at
UFWC
IPP Health
home
Centre
94
90
Whether advised to take 84
tablets
71
76
Whether
aware 63
medicines are to be
.given free
Whether
medicines
55
60
given
36
}
39
32
54
All
6
8
10
Some
None
How many of medicines
given free
39
61
63 •
All
Some
61
39
37
Whether
money 11
4
3
demanded
for
medicines
Average amount paid
Rs. 94
30
15
Whether asked to buy 84
75
80
medicines from private
shops

> AIL doctors, nurses and other staff at all three types of facilities say free
medicines are given to all patients all the time.

B. Feedback on tests done at Maternity homes

Status

Whether done
Whether informed of result
Whether paid
Average amount paid

of
Percentage
saying
respondents
yes/Rs.
Scan Blood Urine
test
test
65
8
71
85
70
76
7
38
13
176
21
21

> A large proportion of the women had urine and blood tests done at the
maternity homes. Scan was done for a smaller 8% of them. Most of them
said they were informed of the results in all the cases. Though these tests
are supposed to be free of charge ,38% of those who got a scan done, 13%
H of those who had a blood test done and 7% of those who had a urine test
done paid for the test. An average amount of Rs. 21 was paid for the tests
and Rs. 176 for the scan.

i

> The data indicates the practice of collecting fixed relatively smaller sums

for blood tests and urine tests and larger sums for scans at the maternity

homes.

C.

Feedback on Hygiene Related Issues

Percentage of respondents saying yes

Injection related aspects

Whether given injections
Use of disposable syringe
Payment for injections
Average amount paid
Hospital facilities related aspects

Availability of drinking water
Clean & Usable toilets

Maternity Homes

UFWCs

IPPs

84

93

11

93
70
07

Rs. 16

Rs. 16

Rs. 14

52

70
06

Percentage of respondents saying yes

Maternity Homes

UFWCs

IPPs

83

89

95

46

61

83

> Many of the women (84%) who visited maternity homes and 93% of those who went to UFWCs and IPP Health Centres were
given injections. Of these 11% paid for the injection at maternity Homes, 7% at UFWcs and 6% at IPP Health Centres. An
average of RS 16 was paid for the injection at Maternity Homes and UFWCs , and Rs 14 at IPP Health Centres.
> As in the case of tests a certain sum has been collected for the injection though it is to be given free of charge at all three
places.

Q
*7v
v

Despite use of disposable syringes being mandatory, half the w<
r-.who went to Maternity homes reported non-usage of dispo
‘ 'j
syringes. Usage of disposable syringes is more prevalent at IPP H
Centres and UFWCs at 70%.

> The patients for the Maternity homes corroborate the information g
by the staff regarding usage of disposable syringes.
• >u In UFWCs 40% of the doctors and 60% of the nurses reported us
I/ disposable syringes - which contrasts with what patients have said.

,

>

In the case of IPP Health Centres 92% of the doctors and 33% of

I nurses said they used disposable syringes. This varies significantly fr<
" what is reported by patients.
> However the staff do point out that even if disposable syringe^pe n
used they do use autoclaves to sterilize the injections.

> It is to be noted that in the times of the fear of AIDS and otlu
communicable diseases, there is an alarming level of unawareness turn
the patients on the issue. They have not realised that the syringes used fo

them are being sterilised and they are not disposable ones. That is wha
explains the contrast in what the patients reported and what the staf
said. In fact, most UFWCs and IPP Health Centres use autoclaves tc
sterilise the syringes and rarely use disposable syringes.

Availability of drinking water is reasonably good at all the three
facilities but the IPP tops with 95% patients saying they do have

drinking water. But when it comes to clean and usable toilets maternity
homes are clearly not as good as IPP Health Centres with 46% and£3%
women respectively rating the toilets always clean and usable&he

UFWCs are only marginally better than Maternity homes at 61%.

> All the staff at all three facilities have said there is drinking water
available and that toilets are kept clean and usable.

D.

Satisfaction with behaviour of staff

Percentage of respondents always satisfied with
behaviour of
Other
Nurses
Doctors
staff

Maternity Homes

73

73

73

UFWC

83

76

86

IPP Health Centre

95

81

92

'k

> Patients are generally quite satisfied with the behaviour of the staff at all
the facilities (with 73% of the women reporting being always satisfied and
the rest either never or sometimes satisfied). The satisfaction is however
significantly greater with
the
*
staff of IPP Health Centres. While users of
Maternity homes rate all three kinds of staff equally on behaviour, patients ir
at IPP Health Centres and UFWCs find doctors and other staff better //
behaved than nurses.
> Behaviour of staff does notfigure as an issue for the respondents. Staff at
the IPP Health centre are rated the best behaved by the patients.

E.

Waiting time at the facility

Time taken to attend to patients

Maternity home
UPWC
IPP Health Centre

35 minutes
28 minutes
23 minutes

> Patients at the maternity homes have to wait for about 35 minutes to be
attended to. The waiting is marginally less at UFWCs at 28 minutes. The
w&it at the IPP Health centre is the least at 23 minutes.
> The data on waiting time indicate a certain amount of crowding at the
facilities. For a centre that serves a geographically smaller area, the
ivaiting time at the IPP health centres could certainly be brought down.

Doctors, nurses and other staff at all the three kinds of places have quoted
not more than five to ten minutes as the waiting period for patients.

III.

Extent of Corruption

> Many of the patients have reported instances where they have paid a bribe
for some purpose or another. The various purposes for which they have
paid bribes are tabulated below. In general however, it can be said that

> Money was demanded for the medicines from 11% of the women at the
maternity homes while only 4 and 3 % reported being asked to pay money'
1
for medicines at UFWCs and IPP Health Centres.
> The average amount paid for medicines was higher at Rs 94 at maternity
U homes than Rs. 30 paid at UFWCs. But the least amount was paid at IPP
II Health Centres (Rs. 15)

I

Information related to free supply of medicines
of Percentage of Percentage of
Tablets related aspects Percentage
respondents
respondents saying respondents
yes at maternity saying yes at saying yes at
UFWC
IPP Health
home
Centre
94
Whether advised to take 84
90
tablets
76
Whether
aware 63
71
medicines are to be
given free
Whether
medicines
given
55
36
60
All
54
32
39
Some
10
6
8
None
How many of medicines
given free
All
39
61
63
Some
61
39
37
Whether
money 11
4
3
demanded
for
medicines
Average amount paid 1 Rs. 94
30
15
Whether asked to buy 84
75
80
medicines from private
shops

> All doctors, nurses and other staff at all three types of facilities say free

medicines are given to all patients all the time.

_____

13

and family planning are not provided free as they should be even if for
some patients is disturbing.
> At maternity homes even small things like providing hot water, giving an

enema, cleaning the room or the patient are not done for as many as 32°/o

of the patients without money changing hands.

>

When asked how patients express their appreciation almost all the staff

at all three kinds of places said they "say thanks".
> When asked if there is a practice of receiving gifts or money they mostly
said no (with the exception of one doctor and a few other staff)
>

When asked if they were aware of anyone demanding money for services

they all said no!(again with a few exceptions)

IV.

Usage of the Services of Maternity Homes, Urban Family Welfare
Centres (UFWC) and India Population Project Health Centres (IPP
Health Centre)

Purposes for the visit
Facility ->
Main purpose of
visits
Antenatal care
Immunization for
child
Delivery

Maternity Home

UFWC

IPP Health Centre

79%
55% '

67%
62%

73%
79%

94%

> Among the patients who had visited maternity homes, 94% had gone there
for their delivery and 79% for antenatal care. Among those who had
visited the UFWCs, 67% had gone for antenatal care and 62% for
immunization for the child. Of the women who visited IPP Health Centres,
79% went for immunization for the child and 73% for antenatal care.
> The above findings show that maternity homes are more popular among

women for antenatal care than the other two providers. This indicates
either a lack of awareness among the patients of the availability of these
facilities nearer their residences at the IPP Health centres or a reluctance
to go to a new place. In either case there is a need to educate the women
on the advantages of using the IPP Health Centre.

there is corruption in various forms in Maternity homes. There is evidence
of corruption in UFWCs and IPP health centres as well but not to as great
an extent as in Maternity homes.

Purpose for payment

Maternity Homes
For medicines
For scan
For blood test
For urine test
For delivery
For seeing the baby
For immunization of mother
For immunization of child
For family planning
For jnjections
Other reasons
Total
UFWCs
For medicines
For injections
For immunization for child
Other reasons
Total
IPP Health Centres
For medicines
For injections
For immunization for child
Other reasons
Total

Percentage
respondents
paid
11
38
13
7

69
13
OQ.
10
li
32

of Average amount
who paid

94
176
21
21
361_____________
277
18
.M
95
16
?

1089
4
7
0
2

30
16
0
1
152

3
6
2
0

15
6
13
0
34

9

> The level of corruption at Maternity Homes is much higher than that at
UFWCs and IPP Health Centres. One of the reasons for this could be that
UFWCs and IPP Health Centres do not involve admission. The reason for
which bribes are paid by most patients are for seeing the baby(69°/o) and
for the delivery itself(4S°/o). Other services like injections, family planning

medicines etc are also provided for payment of bribe but the extent is not
so large. As far as the average amounts paid are concerned they are quite
large for seeing the baby and for the delivery(Rs.361 and Rs. 277
respectively) while other bribes are smaller in value.
> There certainly is corruption at both UFWCs and at IPP Health Centres,
and nominally more at UFWCs for most reasons. However the fact that
even services such as provision offree medicines, injections, immunization

the main purpose for visit at UFWCs was Antenatal care and child
immunization. The main purpose for visit at IPP HCs was child immunization
and antenatal care
> most patients visiting MHs went on own(68%)
> Relatives and friends are chief motivators for visits to UFWCs
> Link workers bring 29% of patients to IPP HCs
J > 7% persons refused admission at MHs
> Immunization programs users say they benefit from - mainly pulse polio
(over 95%)

GIVING A FACE TO THE NUMBERS!!
Nagamma had a harrowing time af a young age of 19. She went for a
delivery to a maternity home expecting to bring home a baby in joy. It
turned into a nightmare. Upon arrival: in labor the doctor refused her
attention unless she was given money. The husband in a panic went and
mortgaged her jewelry and paid the'doctor Rs. 1000. The rudeness of the
doctor added to their misery. Once the money was paid, the doctor
conducted the delivery but it was too late. The baby had died.
The nightmare did not end there. The staff would not show the dead baby
to the aggrieved parents till some more money was paid. Can Nagamma be
blamed if she vowed never to go to a BMP Maternity Home again?

On the brighter side, at another Maternity Home one patient was badgered
in to paying a large sum for a delivery. Her family and friends got together
under the guidance of an NGO and sat in dharna till the Doctor returned
the money! Here's to hoping there are more and more incidents like this in
the future!

Major Conclusions
> The study very clearly brings out the distinct differences in service quality
between Maternity Homes and IPP Health Centres. While Maternity
homes do not score that well on cleanliness and hygiene, IPP health
Centres do. Basic medicines that are to be given free are not being given to
a large proportion of poor patients at Maternity hom.es, while at IPP HCs
most people get free medicines.
> The differences in quality of service are also indicative of poor discipline
and responsiveness among the staff at Maternity homes.
> The practice of corruption is far more entrenched in Maternity Homes
than in IPP Health Centres. Bribes are being demanded and paid for
almost every service being provided at Maternity Homes.
> The staff are not ready to accept the prevalence of corruption leave alone
trying to tackle it.

Referral to Maternity homes by UFWCs and IFF Health Centres
> Patients who had been to Maternity homes were asked who referred
them there. The response shows that most of them came there on their
own (68%), some were recommended by friends and relatives (8%) while
20% had been referred by IFF Health Centres and 4% by UFWCs.
> Among patients who visited UFWCs and IFF Health Centres, 63% and
64% said they were referred to maternity homes for delivery. Of these
81% and 67 % went for their delivery to maternity homes from UFWCs
and IFF Health Centres respectively.

Use of sources of reference

> This shows that while a reasonably large proportion of those who visit
UFWCs and IPP Health Centres are referred to maternity homes for
deliveries, there are still many women who come there on their own. One
probable cause could be their familiarity with the maternity homes and
therefore the confidence in them. This calls for intensive awareness and
motivational campaigns by the IPP staff among slum dwellers.
> The question as to why, when 64% of the patients are being referred to
maternity homes from IPP Health Centres, only 67% of them have
actually been to maternity homes for delivery is also raised. Is there a
block at the maternity homes or are they wary of going there out of fear
that they would not get proper treatment?

Other Interesting Findings

> Most users of maternity homes went for delivery(95%)

5

J6

PUBLIC AFFAIRS CENTRE

578,16th B Main, 3rd Cross, 3rd Block,
Koramangala, Bangalore 560 034, India.
Tel / Fax : (080) 5537260/3467, 5520246/5452/53
Internet mail: pacblr@blr.vsnl,net.in

29 November 1999

Dr.Ravi Narayan
Community Health Cell
No.367, Srinivasa Nilaya,
Jakkasandra ist main,
st
1 Block, Koramangala
Bangalore -560034

Dear Dr. Ravi Narayan,
Sub: Project on Access to Quality Health Care by the Urban Poor in
Bangalore - Tackling Corruption and Breaking Barriers
This is further to our meeting in October at our office. We are sorry about
the delay in designing a format for the assessment of the quality of health
care services being provided by the BMP maternity homes and the IPP(VII)
health centres. If you may kindly recall, the proposed assessment was
thought of as one of the key strategies for initiating action on the project.
As decided in the said meeting, the assessment was to be carried out by the
participant organisations and P A C had volunteered to facilitate this
process. Enclosed please find some guidelines for the assessment with a note
on the sampling design. Actual questions will be framed later. The note has
listed all the pertinent issues/themes that need to be covered in the
assessment. Please go through the same and suggest changes if any. Two
weeks from now, we propose a short meeting to finalise the themes and
issues and the sampling design. Thereafter, we can even conduct a one /two
day orientation cum training programme for the staff of the member
organisations who will actually conduct the field level assessment.

We look forward to your response at the earliest convenience

Best Regards

Programme Officer

v'//

Public Affairs Centre, November, 1999
Guidelines for the assessment of the quality of health care
services provided by IPPVIII and Maternity homes of the BMP
Decide sampling design - define respondent ie is the information
gathering restricted to feedback from patients or are we also using
observers to physically verify at the centre or maternity home?
If only patients who have used the facilities are to give feedback -

Preparation of two separate questionnaires for health centres and
maternity homes. Same questionnaire for health centre of corporation
and of IPPVIII.

MATERNITY HOMES

SUB HEADS:
hiC. ej&

General information

?

Referred from health centre
Referred from urban family welfare centre

f

■

t

AiX- ZCCaK.

by whom

?

L

place of residence

Accessibility
Distance from residence

Awareness of facilities that should be available
Staff strength by category ie doctors, nurses, other staff "
Special equipment - ie xray, lab etc
free issue of medicines

Satisfaction rating
Quality of service
Behaviour of staff - all categories
Any other aspect?

1

Public Affairs Centre, November, 1999
Dimensions of satisfaction
Time taken to attend/waiting time
Cleanliness, availability of beds

Corruption
Among -Doctors, Nurses, and Other staff
Whether paying, how much paying, to who,
and for What purpose

Other kinds of corruption whether they were referred to a private nursing home or clinic instead
of being treated at the maternity home

HEALTH CENTRE

SUBHEADS

Ganaral information
Nature of illness/reason for visit
Type of patient
Whether referred and to which hospital
Kind of treatment given

Verification related
Doctors availability
Other staff availability
Time taken to attend/waiting time
Cleanliness/upkeep

On immunization
Existence of days for immunization
Do doctors follow these schedules
Adherence to schedules
Information dissemination on importance of immunization, etc

Public Affairs Centre, November, 1999
■V

Overall service
Behaviour of staff
Other aspects?

Dimensions of satisfaction/service delivery
Same as above In maternity home!

Other topics that can be covered for both maternity homes and
health centres wherever applicable
Whether MTP done - if done at health centre!
Whether family planning operation done
Advice given
Whether abortion done - asked for it or was advised to get it done
Referred to private hospital or nursing home?
What reason given?
Kinds of building
Is there a pediatrician?
Is there a staff nurse?
Is there a Lab?
Availability of Lab technician
Do they attend well woman clinics?
Existence of creche
Vocational training for young girls
Link workers - are they link workers, dd they know of or any
SHE club membership
Medical check up in school
Has there been improvement in the last 5 years?
Willingness to pay

SkLccI «' v? dr

Public Affairs Centre, November, 1999

Suggested sampling plans
I. Respondents could be
1.
only married females
2.
married couples jointly - or either spouse
Advantage of choice 1 Is that the women are the patients) and they
would reply. But it is possible that the husband would have influenced
decisions or she may not know some of the information! "

Advantage of choice 2 is that we get a complete picture in case the
woman does not know certain information. The problem could be that
the wife is either too shy to talk or not allowed to talk and the husband
gives answers that she may not give if asked privately!
A judgement based on situation has to be made.

II. Location of interviews would determine sampling design
1.
catch patients at the centre or maternity home
2.
household survey
Advantage of first choice is that memory will be fresh and we can get
more numbers. Disadvantage would be that they might hesitate to
speak the truth at the venue. That could be avoided by taking their
address and meeting them at home.
Advantage of choice 2 - people will be more free and give useful
information. Disadvantage could be that we have to visit many houses
to get sufficient numbers of patients who have used health centres or
maternity homes. But, this method would give us an Idea of the usage
of the centres too.
Those who have used both facilities can be asked to fill in both
questionnaires/interview schedules. It is'also possible that there might
be people who have used both kinds of health centres. We can have ■
questions put in to check that.

III. The sample size - has to be decided based on the following
factors
1. number of maternity homes
2. number of health centres
3. number of urban family welfare centres
4. and the size of the population served by each of the above
5’. cost and time constraints
»

(J &
PUBLIC AFFAIRS CENTRE
25™ JULY 2000

Health Services for Poor Women

What Should BMP do to Improve Them?

BMP’s maternity homes represent the only decentralised set of health
facilities in Bangalore that are accessed by relatively low income women
and children. A network of outreach centres has now been created through
IPP 8 to expand and further strengthen the services of the maternity homes.
While this expansion and upgradation of the health facilities for the poor
need to be applauded, it is important that careful thought is given to their
proper utilisation, maintenance and effectiveness. This note will discuss the
system’s maladies, concerns about the future of these facilities and present
some thoughts on how to address them.

Statement of the Problem

There are two major concerns about the maternity homes and the way they
are managed. First, in the view of many observers, their quality of service
and responsiveness to patients leave much to be desired. Second, patients
complain about the different ways in which payments are extracted from
them although services are supposed to be free. If this is true, nothing could
be more unjust and inhuman. The patients come from the poorest households
that have very few options at their command. They are women in distress
who are being ill-treated when they are least able to defend themselves.
Since these are mere impressions and allegations about what goes on within
the system, it would be unfair to draw any conclusions without a systematic
investigation. It is for this reason that PAC undertook a comparative survey
of maternity homes, IPP Centres and UFWCs all over the city jointly with
several interested NGOs1. A total of 500 patients and 77 staff of these
facilities were interviewed. The major findings were as follows:
• The overall satisfaction of patients was the lowest with the services of
the maternity homes. Only a third rated them as good while 71% and
60% considered IPP centres and UFWCs respectively as good.

1 The NGOs that partnered with PAC in conducting the survey include REDS, MAYA, Sumangali
Sevashram and CHC.

/A<X>

L^>

<■

1

PUBLIC AFFAIRS CENTRE
25th JULY 2000

• Only 39% of the patients of the maternity homes claimed that they
received all medicines free as opposed to 63% in IPP centres and 61% in
UFWCs. Maternity homes also lead in taking payments for injections.
But the staff say that medicines are given free to all patients.
• Cleanliness of toilets is an indication of the standards of hygiene and
sanitation. Here, patients rated maternity homes the lowest (43%) in
contrast to IPP centres (83%) and UFWCs (61%).
• Maternity homes were rated the lowest also in terms of staff behaviour
towards patients. But the gap between them and IPP was much smaller
in this case.
• The most distressing finding concerns the prevalence of corruption.
While none of the facilities seems corruption free, maternity homes
stand out in terms of the severity of the problem. Payments are
demanded or expected by staff for almost all services, but most of all, for
delivery and seeing the baby. The proportions of people paying bribes
vary from one service to another. On the whole 90% of the respondents
reported paying bribes for one service or the other at maternity homes at
an average of Rs 700 each. The 70% pay for seeing their own babies!
One out of two pay for delivery.
• If a poor woman paid for all services, it would have cost her over Rs.
1000 for a delivery. It is reported that a nursing home might give her
hassle free and better quality service for Rs. 2000. A rough estimate of
the bribes being paid in all these facilities may be between Rs one and
two crores annually. A similar estimate based on the finding that 90% of
the women pay an average of about Rs 700 at the Maternity Homes
would put the total amount of bribes paid at about Rs 1. 6 crores. The
annual emoluments o the staff at the 30 maternity homes also amount to
about Rs 2 crores.
• Most of the staff denies the practice of corruption. They do complain
about the constraint of facilities, and shortage of staff, supplies and
resources. Doctors emphasized the need to improve the awareness of
patients, especially with respect to the need to be regular in their visits

The evidence presented above clearly points to the need to urgently reform
the municipal health care facilities for the poor in Bangalore. At the core of
the problem is the highly unsatisfactory state of the services of the
maternity homes. If the present conditions continue, the newly created EPP
centres will also deteriorate and become part of the pool of corruption and

2

PUBLIC AFFAIRS CENTRE
25™ JULY 2000

low quality that characterise the system. It will be a great pity if the fresh
investments being made for these centres are rendered unproductive by
continued apathy while paying lip service to the upliftment of the poor. On
the brighter side, reforming the maternity homes should be a
manageable task given their relatively small size and the compact
population they serve. The Chief Minister’s concern for good
governance and control of corruption offers a window of opportunity
for BMP to design and carry out an agenda of reform. If promptly
done, reforms will have a strong demonstration effect.
What Should be Done

It is for the BMP to decide how to deal with the problems posed above. To
assist in the process, PAC and several other experts and NGOs working
with the urban poor held a discussion to think about the options that might
be considered by BMP. A gist of these ideas is given below and can be
expanded in light of further discussion.
• A more effective oversight mechanism should be created to monitor the
activities of the maternity homes. A board of visitors consisting of 5-7
persons could play this role through quarterly meetings to review the
operations, needs and plans of each maternity home. A board can also
check and eliminate unnecessary overlaps between the maternity homes
and the outreach centres. The board should include 4-5 independent
experts and activists concerned about the urban poor and health. A
corporator and another official could also be nominated to the board. If a
board for each home is impractical, perhaps, a board could cover about 4
homes located in contiguous wards. These boards should report to the
Commissioner or his deputy.

• A patients’ charter should be created for the maternity homes. It should
publicise the services offered, time deadlines and terms of service, fees,
remedies in case of problems, patients’ rights and duties. This could be
the first service of BMP for which a charter could be designed on an
experimental basis. Staff should participate in this process and be trained
and motivated to implement it.

' Though the services are free, the reality is that the poor women are made
to pay for them in a majority of cases. They pay, but have no assurance
of quality or rights. Why not move to a system of contributions to a
3

PUBLIC AFFAIRS CENTRE
25th JULY 2000

health fund by the women ( some are allergic to the concept of user
charges)? The idea is not to recover the full costs of the services, but to
let patients share the costs (hence contribution) so that they have a right
to receive the services. Norms for the contributions could be published.
Delivery is a predictable event and not an emergency. They can save for
this event and pay rather than be faced with extortion when in distress.

The fund thus created should be used for the maintenance and
improvement of the facility where it is collected. It will be an incentive
for the doctors and staff if the money can be used to improve their
facility. Whether a part of the fund could be used to pay a bonus to the
staff is a matter for further consideration. Public hospitals in MP are
already working on similar lines.
In the case of the IPP centres, it is imperative that provision be made for
the diversification of their management and control. When they revert to
BMP, the issue is whether interested NGOs, foundations, teaching
hospitals, etc., could be brought in to operate the services with a
maintenance grant from BMP. IPP centres have the potential to become
community service centres as their infrastructure could be used after
office hours for meetings, teaching and even private practice and other
services beneficial to the community. If this approach is adopted, the
maintenance costs and BMP’s burden can be reduced as additional
income will be generated by the centres through the use of their facilities.
Good NGOs may have an incentive to work along these lines as it will
help further their own mission.

Even if all these actions are taken, there is a need to empower the poor
women to demand their rights and to stand up against abuse. The only
way to do this is by creating support groups of women in different slums.
Some NGOs have already agreed that they will play this role in their
areas of work. They have also expressed interest in operating help desks
in the maternity homes for patients. Support groups could prepare and
brief pregnant women and accompany them on visits to maternity homes.
This function properly belongs to the voluntary sector. IPP centres could
be used as a base for organising the support group activities.

4

REGISTERED
SOCIETY
DEVOTED
TO
0RGANBZA1WM

RESEARCH &
DEVELOPMENT
POWBTTZr

Genesis ^nt) Growth
The Centre for Symbiosis of Technology,
Environment & Management (STEM) is an
inter-disciplinary professional research group
registered as a society under the Karnataka
Societies Registration Act, 1960. STEM was
established as a non-profit organization in
1987 at Bangalore, India's 'silicon valley' and
the hub of high-tech sunrise industries.

takes Research Studies and conducts Executive
Training & Awareness Programmes in a
variety of disciplines.

Technology

Implementation of theoretical concepts in
development planning becomes faster with the
aid of the latest techniques. Projections in
futurology, helpful in long-term planning or
evolution of scientific norms in streamlining
Symbiosis, by way of meaningful interaction systems, becomes more meaningful with the
and effective co-ordination among the devel­ greater use of these sophisticated tools. The
opmental organizations, socio-political main fields covered are:
groups, bureaucracy and techno-managerial
•
Frontier areas and futurology
communities, is today recognized as a major
tool of sustainable national development. •
Development and employment
STEM, therefore, makes use of extensive inInfrastructure and human settlements
depth field surveys, analyses through state- of-the£a-rt computer technology, participative •
Techno-environmental management
managerial exercises like professional group
Computer systems
meetings, seminars and workshops, etc., in •
preparing specific result-oriented programmes
Environment
and plans on behalf of its clients.
Fixation of parameters for achieving environ­
STEM's clientele includes various Central and ment-friendly development has assumed
great significance in the context of the on-going
State Government departments, administrative
bodies and development financing institutions controversy between environmentalists and
as well as international organizations such as development planners. In-depth analyses of t^
the United Nations, WHO and the World Bank. following areas are relevant for the prepara­
tion of effective environmental management
STEM has successfully evolved the nucleus of plans:

technical know-how for the organization of
educational and training programmes,
documentation of research and consultancy
services, promotion of symbiotic approach
towards human settlements, and execution of
studies on futurology and forecasting.

Functional Areas

“

Conservation and preservation

0

Development

•

Engineering

•

Impact assessment

•

Pollution control

Management Council

Chairman
Sarma D.V.N.
Founder and former President, ORG,
ORG Systems & ASE Management
Services

Executive Director
Bhaskara Rao B.
Former Adviser, UN & Ministry of MRA
Town Planning, KSA, Riyadh, and
Professor & Dean, IIM, Bangalore

Bangalore 560095
Krishna Rao B.S.
Former Deputy General Manager,
HEC, Ranchi

Ph: 91-080-5533664
Fax: 91-080-5537664
Grams: STEMGROUP

Murthy B.S.
Managing Director, PADGRO, Ma­
dras
Raj S.D.
Former Director, School of
Architecture & Planning, Madras
and President, ITPI

E-mail: stemb@giasbg01 .vsnl.net.in

Branch offices
First Floor, BDA Complex,

Koramangala,

Bangalore 560034

Ph: 91-080-5522664 / 5537664

Members

Ramaswamy N.S.
President, CARTMAN, Bangalore
and former Director, IIM-Bangalore
& NITTE-Bombay

Bhaskara Rao N.
Chairman, Centre for Media
Studies and former President,
ORG

Rome Gowda K.S.
Former Director, Town Planning,
Karnataka, Chief Technical Adviser,
UNCHS & President, ITPI

Ph: 91-044-8254026 I 2349859

Rama Rao P.
Former Managing Director,
NABARD

Rao D.V.R.
Former Director, School of Planning
& Architecture, Delhi, UN Adviser
and
President, ITPI

Hyderabad 500380

25-A, Lady Madhavan Road,

Mahalingapuram,
Chennai 600034

STEM is fully geared to offer professional
assistance and services in a range of functional Management
Role of professional management has become
areas, such as Technology, Environment &
more pivotal with the advent of the New
Management, Applied Social Sciences and
Economic Policy (NEP). The thrust areas are.
Development Planning. Besides, STEM under­

Continued on back cover

1-1-710/1,
Gandhinagar,

Ph: 91-040-7611134

STEM

MAJOR RESEARCH STUDIES ON

Health & Environment

/''Water Quality Analysis: Phase-1 Villages for Karnataka Integrated Rural Water
Supply and Environmental Sanitation Project (KIRWS & ESP).
NGI Services for Community Participation and Health, Sanitation & Hygiene
Education (HSHE) Management for Karnataka Integrated Rural Water Supply &
Environmental Sanitation Project for Raichur and Shimoga Districts.

^Preparation of Project Implementation Plan for UP Health Systems Development
j^roject (World Bank Aided).

'■''''Baseline Studies for Strengthening Health Systems in Uttar Pradesh.

^'Identification of Safer Zones for Stone Crushing Units in Bangalore Rural & Urban
Districts.
'/Beneficiary Needs Assessment in Government Health Care Institutions in UP

'/Role of Private Sector in Health Care in UP.
/'Health, Sanitation & Hygiene Education (HSHE) Management Consultancy for the
Karnataka Integrated Rural Water Supply & Environmental Sanitation Project: (i)
Information, Education & Communication (/EC); (ii)Capacity-building (Training); (Hi)
Monitoring & Evaluation; and (iv) Documentation & Sharing of Experience.

'''Concept Paper on Reproductive and Child Health Project II in India.
^PUpgrading Secondary Level Health Care Facilities in the State of Karnataka.
A Research Study on "Implementation of Existing Environmental Laws in the Manage­
ment of Industrial Hazardous Wastes in the State of Karnataka - Bangalore as a
Case Study".

implementation Management of Karnataka Health Systems Development Project
(KHSDP).
Pre-Project Activities for Implementation of KHSDP.
Survey of Hospital Equipment in Government Hospitals in Karnataka.

iSurvey of Health Care Facilities in Non-government Sector - Karnataka.

Survey of Facilities in Secondary Level Hospitals in Karnataka.
Preparation of Project Formulation Plan for KHSDP (World Bank Aided).

(Please Turn Over)

Preparation of Project Formulation Plan for Karnataka Secondary Level Hospital
Development Project (KfW Aided).
Preparation of Project Formulation Plan for Family Welfare Project for Urban Slums:
Bangalore (World Bank Aided).

Preparation of Project Formulation Plan for Family Welfare Project for Urban Slums:
Facilities Survey & Design.
Motivating Villagers for Formation of Water and Sanitation (WATSAN) Committees
at Community Level.
Preparation of Project Formulation Plan for Strengthening of Family Welfare ani
Maternal & Child Health Services in Karnataka (World Bank Aided).
Andhra Pradesh Health Systems - Facilities Survey (World Bank Aided).

Municipal Services and Solid Waste Management: Bangalore, Hubli-Dharwad and
Gulbarga.

Integrated Tourism and Environmental Development of Shravanabelagola, Belur,
and Halebid.
Environmental Management Plan for Madras-Mamallapuram Coastal Stretch.

Status of Borewell Hand Pump Installations in Andhra Pradesh.
/

Formulation of City Health Project - Bangalore.
Slum Shelter and Environmental Improvement Programme - Bangalore, Hubli &
Gulbarga.
’

Integrated Infrastructure Planning and Programming - IIPP.

STEM

MAJOR RESEARCH STUDIES ON

Housing & slums

A Concept Paper on Slum Development and Upgradation Programme for Class I Cities
in Karnataka.
Directory of Indian Building Materials & Products with Information on Nepal & Bhutan Three Editions: 1994-1995, 1996-1997 & 1998-1999.
Computerisation of Data on Building Products & Producers.

Housing and Key Building Materials in India: A Long-Term Perspective: 1991-201 1
Study on Occupancy of Plots in Sites & Services Schemes in Tamil Nadu.

Study on Building Materials Adoption and Practices in Housing: Urban and Rural
Areas of Tamil Nadu.
Topology of Tamil Nadu Veedu - A Profile of Building Space & Materials.
Effective Demand for Housing in Tamil Nadu - Urban & Rural District-wise.
Housing and Land Development Programme (HALDEP) in Three Towns of Tamil Nadu.

Corporate Plan for Housing and Land Development Programme
Karnataka - 1991-2001.

(HALDEP),

v/'Baseline Survey and Beneficiary Needs Assessment - IPP VIII: Bangalore Urban Slums
(World Bank Aided).
Gender Analysis: Slums in Bangalore.

v--' Family Welfare Project for Urban Slums: Facilities Survey & Design.

Organization and Management of Water Needs in Bangalore Slums.
Organization Structure: Karnataka Slum Clearance Board.
An Appraisal Study of Delhi Resettlement Colonies.

'/'Slum Level Development Programme (SLDP) for Selected Slums in Bangalore.
Five Year Housing and Land Development Programme (HALDEP) for Seven Towns
in Karnataka.

Slum Shelter and Environmental Improvement Programme: Bangalore, Hubli &
Gulbarga.

(Please Turn Over)

Changing Trends in Key Building Materials.

Monographs on Building Products & Producers (36 Issues): Al - Acoustic and Thermal
Insulation; A2 - Adhesives and Sealants; A3 - Admixtures; A4 - Air Conditioning; A5 Aluminium Alloys; A6 - Asbestos Cement; A7 - Asphalt/Bitumen; Bl - Bricks and Blocks;
Cl - Cement; C2 - Concrete; C3 - Construction Chemicals; C4 - Construction
Equipment; DI - Door/Window/Almirah Fittings and Accessories; El - Electricals;
E2 - Environment-Friendly and Energy-Saving Equipment; Fl - Fencing; F2 - Ferrocement;
F3 - Fibre-Reinforced Composite Products; F4 - Fire Protection and Security; F5 - Floors
and Floor Finishes; F6 - Foundations; G1 - Glass; G2 - Gypsum; KI - Kitchen, Bathroom
and Sanitary Fittings; LI - Lifts and Escalators; L2 - Lime; Pl - Paints and Coatings;
P2 - Polymers and Plastics; P3 - Precast/ Prefabricated Products; R1 - Roofing Systems;
SI - Steel Alloys; S2 - Stones; T1 - Tiles; W1 - Walls, Partitions, Ceilings and Facades;
W2 - Water Supply and Drainage; and W3 - Wood and Reconstituted Wood Products.

_

MAJOR RESEARCH STUDIES ON

ST£7VI^> Rural & Regional Development
and Agriculture
Social Audit for Rural Infrastructure Development Fund (RIDF) Projects of NABARD
in Karnataka.
Design of Market Data Analysis for APIB - Case Study of Tumkur District.
Farm Forestry Evaluation and Suggestions to Improve Performance in Karnataka.
^^Health, Sanitation & Hygiene Education (HSHE) Management Consultancy for the
Karnataka Integrated Rural Water Supply & Environmental Sanitation Project: (i)
Information, Education & Communication (IEC); (ii) Capacity-building (Training);
(Hi) Monitoring & Evaluation; and (iv) Documentation & Sharing of Experience.

Integrated Tourism and Environmental Development of Shravanabelagola, Belur and
Halebid.

Identification of User Needs for Setting up of Agro-climatic Planning and Information
Bank (APIB).
Study on Agriculture Market Infrastructure & Credit Services in Selected Districts of
Karnataka.

Concept Paper on Reproduction and Child Health Project II in India.
“ Economics of Tobacco in India - An Overview.

Study on Infrastructure, Market and Prices: Northern Dry Region and Hilly and Coastal
Regions of Karnataka.
Preparation of Project Formulation Plan for KHSDP (World Bank Aided).

Preparation of Project Formulation Plan for Karnataka Secondary Level Hospital
Development Project (KfW Aided).

^/'Motivating Villagers for Formation of Water and Sanitation (WATSAN) Committees
at Community Level.
Waste and Marginal Land Development in Tumkur District.

Agro-climatic Regional Planning for Tumkur District.
(Please Turn Over)

Strengthening of Family Welfare and Maternal & Child Health Services in Karnataka
(World Bank Aided).
Concept Paper on Urban Development Programmes in the West Coast Districts of
Karnataka.
Computer Model for Optimum Utilization of Waste Lands.

Role of Agro-based Rural Market: Trade and Transport Interlinkages.

Population and Labour Force Projections for India (1981-2016) by Agro-climatic
Zones.
Assessment of Production and Consumption Patterns and Changes for Minor Millets
in Karnataka.

Environmental Management Plan for Madras-Mamallapuram Coastal Stretch.

MAJOR RESEARCH STUDIES ON

STEM^

Management Finance &
Project Appraisal

Social Audit for Rural Infrastructure Development Fund (RIDF) Projects of NABARD
in Karnataka.

Farm Forestry Evaluation and Suggestions to Improve Performance in Karnataka.

HSHE Management Consultancy for KIRWS&ESP (World Bank Aided).

^iarnataka Municipal Development Project for World Bank Assistance - Rapid
^Rppraisal Reports for 20 Towns.
A- Community Participation and HSHE Management for KIRWS&ESP in Shimoga and
Raichur Districts.
Financial Feasibility Study for Development of Mysore Mills Compound in Bangalore.
Implementation Management of KHSDP (World Bank Aided)

Techno-Economic Profile of IT Industry in Bangalore.

Five-Year Integrated Environmental Infrastructure Development and Capital Investment
Planning & Programming - Bellary Local Planning Area.
Five-Year Integrated Environmental Infrastructure Development and Capital Investment
Planning & Programming - Hubli-Dharwad Local Planning Area.
^^Integrated Infrastructure Development and Environmental Management for Ankola
Town, Karnataka.

A Research Study on "Implementation of Existing Environmental Laws in the
Management of Industrial Hazardous Wastes in the State of Karnataka - Bangalore as
Case Study".
Computerisation of Data on Building Products and Producers.

Integrated Plan for Infrastructure & Municipal Services (IPIMS) for Greater Mangalore
Urban Area.

Preparation of Implementation Volume & Setting up of Computer Planning System for
IPP IX.
Study on Occupancy of Plots in Sites & Services Schemes in Tamil Nadu.

(Please Turn Over)

Environmental Management Plan for Madras-Mamallapuram Coastal Stretch.

Directory of Indian Building Materials & Products with Information on Nepal & Bhutan:
Three Editions - 1994-1995, 1996-1997, & 1998 -1999.
Information Bank of Building Materials (IBBM).

Status of Borewell Hand Pump Installations in Andhra Pradesh.

Study on Planning & Social Impact: Exclusive Busway in Anna Salai Corridor.
Organization and Management of Water Needs in Bangalore Slums.

4

Project Identification, Feasibility and Finance Operating Plans for Local Bodies
(covering ten cities/ towns).
Corporate Plan for Housing and Land Development Programme (HALDEP) - 1991-2001.

An Appraisal Study on Delhi Resettlement Colonies.
Municipal Finances: Bangalore, Hubli-Dharwad, Gulbarga, Mysore and Mangalore.
Housing and Financing: Practices and Processes.

Organization Structure: Gulbarga Urban Development Authority.
Organization Structure: Karnataka Slum Clearance Board (KSCB).
Introduction of Commercial Accounting System for KSCB.

a

STEM

MAJOR RESEARCH STUDIES ON

Urban planning & Technology

Integrated Development Plan of Heritage Town - Madurai.
Integrated Development Plan of Heritage Town - Srirangam.

Development of Urban Settlement in Poorly Urbanised Taluk - Vilavankode.
Development of Urban Settlement in Poorly Urbanised Taluk - Vadipatti.

^development Plan for Least Urbanised Taluk - Usilampatti.

\/Karnataka Municipal Development Project for World Bank Assistance - Rapid
Appraisal Reports for 20 Towns.
Five-Year Integrated Environmental Infrastructure Development and Capital
Investment Planning and Programming - Bellary Local Planning Area.
Five-Year Integrated Environmental Infrastructure Development and Capital
Investment Planning and Programming - Hubli-Dharwad Local Planning Area.
Study on Techno-Economic Profile of IT Industry in Bangalore.

Financial Feasibility Study for Development of Mysore Mills Compound in Bangalore.

Integrated Infrastructure Development and Environmental Management for Ankola
Town, Karnataka.

^klntegrated Urban Development Plan and Environmental Improvement of Heritage
^^Towns of Tamil Nadu - Palani.
Integrated Urban Development Plan and Environmental Improvement of Heritage
Towns of Tamil Nadu - Rameswaram.
Urban Renewal Programme - Madurai.
Urban Renewal Programme - Tirunelveli.

Integrated Tourism and Environmental Development of Shravanabelagola, Belur and
Halebid.
Impact Evaluation of IDSMT Scheme in Uttar Pradesh and Karnataka.

Urban Sector Profile: West Coast and Udupi Profile.
Infrastructure Development Programme for Greater Mangalore (IDPM): 1996 - 2001.
(Please Turn Over)

Review of Implementation of Master Plans in Selected Class I Cities - A Search for
an Effective Development Process: Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal &
Karnataka.
Karnataka Urban Development Strategy for IDSMT.

Study on Building Materials Adoption and Practices in Housing: Urban and Rural
Areas of Tamil Nadu.

Integrated Infrastructure Planning and Programming in Small and Medium Towns
(IIPP).

Concept Paper on Urban Development Programmes in the West Coast Districts
Karnataka.
Five-Year Housing and Land Development Programme (HALDEP) for Three Selected
Towns in Tamil Nadu.

Integrated Plan for Infrastructure & Municipal Service (IPIMS) for Greater Mangalore
Urban Area.
Five-Year Housing and Land Development Programme (HALDEP) for Seven Towns in
Karnataka.
Formulation of City Health Project - Bangalore.

Integrated Development of Small and Medium Towns in Tamil Nadu.
Population Projections for India 2021.

Delphi Study on High-Tech Areas: Robotics and Lasers.
Changing Trends in Key Building Materials.
Long-range Macro-model for Indian Economy.
Approach Paper on Structural Plan for Bangalore.

Training & Awareness
Programmes
National Conference on "Strengthening and Implementation of National Law" in
collaboration with Environmental Law Institute (ELI), Washington.
Professional Meet on "Techno-Economic Profile of IT Industry in Bangalore".
Professional Meet on "Implementation of Existing Environmental Laws in the
Management of Industrial Hazardous Waste in Karnataka - Bangalore as a Case
Study".

Professional Meet on "Identification of Safer Zones for Stone Crushing Units in
Bangalore Rural & Urban Districts".
Round Table Discussion on "Profit and Pollution Prevention", in collaboration with
USIS, Chennai.
Health, Sanitation & Hygiene Education Training Programmes: District Level 12; Taluk Level - 56; Village Level - 935; State Level - 2; Folk Artists' Programmes;
and Environmental Curriculum Development for Teachers.
Executive Development Programme on "Integrated Infrastructure Plan and
Programmes - A Five-Year Capital Investment Programme for Large and Medium
Towns".

Round Table Discussion on "Environmental Management System in a Global Market
Plan" in collaboration with USIS, Chennai.

Executive Development Programme on “Development of Management Systems:
Habitat, Infrastructure and Urban Finance".
Executive Development Programme on “Metropolitan Development Systems: Land
Management and Resources".
Seminar on "An Objective Review of Implementation of Master Plan in Selected
Class I Cities - A Search for Effective Development Process" at Bangalore, Calcutta,
Bhopal & Ahmedabad.

Future Studies - "Forecasting Technology Assessment and Perspective Planning".
Professional Meet on "Building Material and Adoption Practices in Tamil Nadu".

A Series of Seminars on “User Needs of Information Bank of Building Materials
(IBBM)“ - Bangalore, Calcutta and Chennai.

Seminar on “Housing Policies and Programmes - Follow-up to National Housing
Policy".
(Please Turn Over)

Workshop on "Science and Technology for Achieving Food, Economic and Health
Security".
Professional Meet on "Environmental Management Plan - Madras-Mamallapuram
Coastal Stretch".

A Series of Workshops on the “Karnataka Health Systems Project".
Professional Meet on "Effective Demand for Housing in Tamil Nadu".
Professional Meet on "Family Welfare Project and Urban Slum Survey Findings for
Bangalore Urban Agglomeration".

Workshop on “Identification of Norms and Infrastructure Needs for Secondary Level
and Tertiary Level Hospitals".

National Seminar on “City Health Plan" and Workshop on "Preparation of Bangalore
City Health Plan11.
Decentralized Training Programme: Karnataka Infrastructure - Action Planning and
Programming.
Professional Meet on "Housing Financing - Practices and Processes".
Environmental Awareness of Slum Dwellers in Bangalore.

Workshop on “Integration of Education, Research and Industry for National Growth".
Seminar on "Waste Management in Cities".

Seminar on “Agro-climatic Regional Planning".
Orientation Course on "Commercial Accounting Systems" for Karnataka Slum
Clearance Board (KSCB).

Professional Review Meeting on "National Urbanization Policy" - Report prepared
by NCU.

Reporter

Since its inception in 1987, STEM has successfully completed a host of prestigious

assignments in key areas, sponsored by various Central and State government
departments and institutions, and international organizations such as the United

Nations and the World Bank. Consequently, a number of well-researched reports
on subjects of topical interest were prepared by STEM. In 1 996, STEM decided to

^^periodically share this large fund of information, it had accumulated, with develop­

ment planners, public administrators, technical managers, and other professionals.

The STEM Reporter was thus conceptualised and the first issue was released in

January 1996. Being totally project-centric, the Reporter is not brought out as a

regular dated periodical. It is more in the nature of an occasional monograph, with
each issue focussing on the highlights of one or two research studies falling in

one sector. As of June 1 999, a total of nine issues of the Reporter were brought out:

SR-01/96: Effective Demand for Housing in Tamil Nadu
'As SR-02/96: Family Welfare Project for Urban Slums in Bangalore
SR-03/96: Environmental Management Plan for Madras-Mamallapuram Coastal

Stretch
SR-04/97: Feasibility Study and Financial Operating Plan (FOP) for Local Bodies in the

State of Tamil Nadu
Jjf SR-05/97: Health Care Facilities in Non-government Sector in Karnataka

SR-06/97: Indian Building Materials & Products: Directory and Information Bank
SR-07/9 8: Management Consultancy for Health, Sanitation & Hygiene Education (HSHE)
for Rural Karnataka

SR-08/98: Housing and Key Building Materials in India: A Long-Term Perspective
1991-2011

SR-09/99: (i) Industrial HWM in Karnataka: Implementation of Existing Environmental
Laws - A Case Study of Bangalore; and (ii) Stone Crushing Sector in Bangalore

Rural & Urban Districts: Broad Review of Safer Zones, Alternative Enviro-Technological

Options

Copies of STEM Reporter are available on request.

STEM

Patronising Organisations
& Institutions

STEM's Research Studies are sponsored

State Government of Karnataka

or supported by a variety of public /

Dept of Health & Family Welfare

private institutions at the municipal,

Dept of Public Health Engineering

state, national and international levels:

Dept of Housing & Urban Development
Dept of Tourism

Government of India : Ministries,

Dept of Rural Development &

Development Organisations, and

Panchayat Raj/ Project Planning &

Financing Institutions

Monitoring Unit (PPMU)

Ministry of Environment & Forests

Directorate of Municipal Administration

Ministry of Urban Development

Bangalore Mahanagara Palike (BMP)

Ministry of Health & Family Welfare

Bangalore Metropolitan Regional

Dept of Science & Technology

Development

Authority (BMRDA)

Dept of Space/ ISRO/ RRSSC

Bangalore Development Authority (BDA)

Building Materials & Technology

Mangalore Urban Development

Promotion Council (BMTPC)

Authority (MUDA)

Agro-climatic Regional Planning Unit

Mangalore City Corporation (MCC)

National Bank for Agriculture and

Bellary Municipal Corporation

Rural Development (NABARD)
Planning Commission

Indian Human Settlement Programme
(IHSP)

National Housing Bank (NHB)
Housing & Urban Development

Corporation (HUDCO)

Hubli-Dharwad Municipal Corporation

Karnataka State Urban Planning
Organisation

Karnataka Housing Board (KHB)
Karnataka Slum Clearance Board
(KSCB)
Karnataka Urban Infrastructure

Development and Finance Corporation
Government of the National

Capital Territory of Delhi

(KUIDFC)
Technical Consultancy Services

Delhi Development Authority (DDA)

Organisation of Karnataka

Association of Metropolitan Development

(TECSOK)

Authorities (AMDA)

(Please Turn Over)

Office of the Deputy Commissioner,

Karwar
Office of the Principal Chief Conservator

of Forests
State Government of Tamil Nadu

Dept of Municipal Administration
Directorate of Town & Country Planning

Tamil Nadu Urban Development Project
(TNUDP)/ PMG
Madras Metropolitan Development

Authority (MMDA)

Pallavan Transport Consultancy Services

State Government of

State Government of Uttar Pradesh
Dept of Health & Family Welfare
International &
Overseas Organisations
UNICEF
WHO
World Bank
IDRC
HSMI, Rotterdam
IDPAD, University of Amsterdam
A
Mediconsult Management Sdn. Bhd.,
Malaysia
Kreditanstalt fur Wiederaufbau,
Germany
Environmental Law Institute, Washington
Sani Consultants, Germany
United States Information Services (USIS)

Andhra Pradesh

Office of the Commissioner of Medical

Services
Municipal Corporation of Hyderabad
Andhra Pradesh Health & Medical,

Housing & Infrastructure Development

Corporation (APHMHIDC)

Others
Operations Research Group (ORG),
Baroda
Indian Tobacco Association, Guntur
Tobacco Institute of India, New Delhi
Planning & Design Group (PADGRO),
Chennai

Research, documentation, analysis
and database
Corporate performance appraisal

HRD for optimum productivity and
performance
•

Finance and accounts

number of well-researched reports on subjects
of topical interest. These reports cover a wide
spectrum of disciplines such as:

•

Health & Environment

•

Housing & Slums

•

Management, Finance & Project
Appraisal

’

Rural & Regional Development
and Agriculture

•

Urban Planning & Technology

Project formulation

Applied Social Sciences
Provision of basic needs to the economically
weaker sections and tackling of population
explosion have become important components
of Applied Social Sciences. The key focal areas
are:
Demographic analysis and planning

Training & Awareness Programmes^
STEM has conducted a number of training and
awareness programmes for creating mana­
gerial resources, in a variety of disciplines,
by way of:

Economic planning and development

*

Community participation and
development

•

Awareness Campaigns

•

Executive Development Programmes

Health and environmental care

•

Professional Group Meetings

Poverty alleviation and socio­
economic appraisal & analysis

°

Seminars

•

Workshops

Development Planning
Design, planning and implementation are the
main inputs of Development Planning. The
critical areas include:

•

Urban, rural and regional planning

•

Policy research and evolution of
strategies

•

Housing and land development policies

•

Human settlement systems

•

Agro-climatic regional planning &
development

Pvofessionat Resources

_

The STEM Society is governed by a Mana^
ment Council consisting of experienced
professionals and functions under its overall
guidance. Its day-to-day activities, managed
by a multi-disciplinary core staff, are directed,
monitored and reviewed by a full-time
Executive Director. Besides, STEM has project­
specific teams comprising specialist central &
zonal co-ordinators, trained multi-lingual field
investigators and supervisors, backed by a
national network of experienced consultants
in a variety of disciplines.

Research Studies
STEM has successfully carried out a host of
prestigious assignments in key areas, on
behalf of various sponsors, culminating in a

In addition, STEM has excellent facilities for
computer-based statistical analysis & evaluation,
database management and documentation.

o

PUBLIC AFFAIRS CENTRE

578, 16th B Main, 3rd Cross, 3rd Block,
Koramangala, Bangalore 566 034, India.
Tel I Fax: (080) 5537260/3467, 5520246/5452/53
Internet mail: pacblr@blr.vsnl.net.in

|_/

"MONITORING THE QUALITY OF ROAD WORKS-A CITIZEN'S GUIDE”
Public Affairs Centre is a non-partisan and not for profit organisation dedicated to the cause
of improving the quality of governance in India. PAC’s focus in this regard is primarily on
areas in which the public can play a proactive role in improving governance.

We are very pleased to announce the publication of "Monitoring the Quality of Road Works
- A Citizens’ Guide”. This effort was sponsored by the Department of Science & Technology,
Government of Karnataka (DST-K). The preparation of the Guide has gone through rigorous
review, revision and inputs by technically qualified professionals such as Prof. C.E.G.Justo,
Emeritus Fellow and Visiting Professor at the Department of Civil Engineering, Bangalore
University.
The Guide is an attempt to demystify the task of monitoring the quality of road works so that
civil society can participate in ensuring transparency and accountability in this important
area of public expenditure. The Guide has a tremendous potential in enabling road users to
play a "watch-dog” role to achieve safe, durable and motorable roads. Citizens and tax
payers are the ultimate users and have a right to good quality roads. Rights cannot be
divorced from duties. It is in this context, citizen monitoring of the quality of road works
which is a culmination of both rights and duties attains critical importance as only they can
mount pressure for a positive change.

Information listed in the Guide relating to pothole repair, silting and maintaining drains and
countless other matters concerning road conditions can be applied by any person who is
concerned about the condition of public works and is willing to make civic authorities
perform their jobs properly. The practicability and validity of the Guide was field tested
over a period of eight months in Bangalore by a Citizens’ Panel comprising eminent civil
engineers and representatives of community organizations.

We look forward to a closer coordination between government and civil society in this area
and hope that the Guide will help make road quality monitoring a more public and open
process in which all stakeholders can be involved.
Copies of the Guide are available for sale at our Centre. If you are interested in acquiring a
copy, kindly send a DD in favour of Public Affairs Centre, payable at Bangalore.

The guide is available at the following rates:
Rs.50.00 for Citizen’s Groups/Community based organisations (postage extra)
Rs. 100.00 for others (postage extra)
US $50 for sale abroad (inclusive of postage)

G

THE POWER TO VOTE!
Dear Citizens,

URBAN LOCAL BODIES IN KARNATAKA ARE GOING TO POLLS SOON

YOUR PARTICIPATION MAKES A DIFFERENCE.
PROTECT YOUR VOICE, YOUR VOTE!!!!

Remember the distance between you and the Ballot Box is directly correlated
to the distance between good governance and anarchy.
“BAD OFFICIALS ARE ELECTED BY GOOD CITIZENS WHO DO NOT VOTE ”
Time and again this dictum has been proved true. Too frequently for comfort, with consequences that are disastrous

to say the least.

CAN YOU TURN THE TIDE? WE BELIEVE YOU CAN.
THE POWER to. bring in effective, competent, efficient, responsive & uncorrupt representatives is in your hands !!!

Should you not be concerned about the quality of elected representatives and the electoral process?

A B C OF VOTING: WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW
*

WHO CAN VOTE?

The Representation of People Act, 1950 empowers every citizen of India who is above 18 years with the right to
franchise.
>

HOW?’

By first registering yourself to be a voter. Qualifying date to enroll is 1 st January of the year of revision of rolls.
>

HOW DO YOU PROTECT YOUR VOICE, YOUR VOTE?

First, enlist yourself on the voters’ list. Second, verify the voters’ list BECAUSE PEOPLE CAN VANISH, SEXES
MAY CHANGE , AND THE DEAD CAN COME ALIVE ON THE VOTER'S LIST.

>

HOW ARE ELECTORAL ROLLS REVISED?

Intensive Revision:

Electoral rolls(or voter’s list) are revised once in five years during which a fresh list of voters is prepared by Election
Commission visiting each and every household to enumerate eligible voters. The previous list then becomes null &

void. Therefore, it is in your own interest that you cooperate with the enumerators. There are chances that some
households would invariably be left out in the process because when enumerators visit a particular house, it may be

locked or pet dogs and watchmen would not permit the enumerator's entry. And then enumerators might also make
mistakes. In Bangalore, the last intensive revision took place in the year 1995 and another is scheduled for the year
2001.

Summary Revision:

I

Electoral rolls are periodically updated either annually or just before any Elections. This is called summary revision
during which the Election Commission advertises and invites the eligible voters to register themselves and forthose

who are already on the voter's list to verify the list. During summary revision the onus will be on the voter to get
his/her name included, corrected or deleted from the voters’ list. Three summary revisions were conducted

since 1995.

y

WHICH FORMS TO USE?

USE FORM 6 to include your name; FORM 7 to object to the inclusion of somebody who you are sure is not residing
in your locality; FORM 8 to correct details about yourself; FORM 8B to delete the names of those who have passed

away or left the city.
>-

WHAT DO YOU DO WHEN SOMEBODY ELSE HAS ALREADY CAST VOTE IN YOUR NAME?

4

Cast a Tendered vote! You can seek a Tendered Ballot Paper as per Rule 51 of Representation of People’s Act from

the presiding officer at the polling station. After marking your choice of candidate/party, present your tendered vote to

the presiding officer. Do not use the ballot box.
WHAT DO YOU DO WHEN YOUR OFFICIAL DUTIES PREVENT YOU FROM VOTING?

Use Postal Vote. Following Government personnel are entitled to vote by postal ballot—

Voters on election duty : Use FORM 12 or 12B as applicable seven days in advance before the date of poll.
Voters on preventive detention : Send in application to avail this provision within 15 days of announcement of
election specifying name, address, electoral roll number and place of detention.
Special Voters : Defence personnel - Use FORM 2 to reach 10 days before the poll.

Service Voters : And their families who are GOI personnel but posted outside India-Use FORM 3.
Contact: Office of Election Commission, State Election Commission or Assistant Revenue Officer, Bangalore

Mahanagara Palike of your locality.

ISSUED IN PUBLIC INTEREST BY
PUBLIC AFFAIRS CENTRE
578,16th B Main, 3rd Cross,
3rd Block, Koramangala,

Bangalore- 560 034.

» PUBLIC AFFAIRS CENTRE

578, 16th B Main, 3rd Cross, 3rd Block,
Koramangala, Bangalore 560 034, India.
Tel I Fax : (080) 5537260/3467,5520246/5452/53
Internet mail: pacblr@blr.vsnl.net.in

Whose Vote is it Anyway ?
English, Colour, Video, 16 minutes

Citizen groups are fast emerging as the cutting edge of local governance; resident groups
in many cities are today demanding an active and creative role in deciding matters that
affect them individually and collectively. The 74th Constitutional Amendment Act of India,
provides ample scope for increased citizen involvement in local governance. Lack of
information, however, is a major barrier to effective participation. Nowhere is this more
evident than in city elections. Most people know very little about their prospective
representatives and are often unable to make informed choices. In this scenario, the role
of the elected representatives (Municipal Councillors) assumes added significance.
An innovative and radical experiment was conducted in Bangalore for the city Municipal
elections held in October 1996. In a move that signals political maturity and civic
consciousness, residents of the city tracked down the candidates to seek information from
them regarding the eligibility of their candidature. A set of relevant questions were asked:
Do you live in this ward? What is your source of income? Do you pay taxes? What is your
past record? What are your priorities for the ward? Are there any criminal or corruption
charges against you? This novel initiative called 'CHOOSE THE RIGHT COUNCILLOR!’ was
organised by Public Affairs Centre, Bangalore in association with several local NGOs and
Resident Groups. The Programme tested out in eight wards of the city has shown that civil
society institutions can respond to the challenge of ensuring transparency and be
proactive in the electoral process .

This experiment, for the first time, brought together citizen groups who had not known
each other before. It has created a network with potential for initiating further collective
action.
This short film captures the essence of the experiment and provides valuable and
interesting insights on its concept, strategy and conduct. It shows how information was
collected and disseminated through leaflets and neighbourhood newspapers, aided by the
proactive and critical support extended by citizen groups. The film narrates an educative
and interesting experience and could be used as an effective advocacy aid to stimulate
the ordinary citizens to make informed choices in elections and to encourage organised
groups to undertake similar efforts in other parts of the country.
The video film shot in high band U-matic format is of telecast quality; both NTSC and PAL
versions are available on request.

For more information contact:

PUBLIC AFFAIRS CENTRE, 578 16B MAIN ROAD, 3rd CROSS. BLOCK 3, KORAMANGALA
BANGALORE 560 034, INDIA . TELEFAX: 5537260, 5520246, 5525452, 5525453

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O PEET R-OAb

MAN OF THE YEAR ■ HARIVALLABH PARIKH

JUSTICE OF
PEACE AND
PROGRESS
Revolutionary veteran of
freedom struggle builds up a
river valley civilisation in
Gujarat. Single-handedly.
■ By R. PRASANNAN
UNDLI walked nine miles from Chaparia vil­
lage across the sun-baked hills on the
Gujarat-Madhya Pradesh border, carrying a
baby in her arms and dragging her three
other children along. Her angry father walked ahead
with his kinsmen, swearing revenge. Their arrows
were still sharp in the quivers in their homes, their
spirits as savage as they were in the days when they
had hunted for food.
Pundli’s estranged husband Kanju and his kins­
men from Nava village too had arrived at the open
court of Rangpur that autumn afternoon. The two
groups of Rathwa tribals kept away from each other,
in deference to the sanctity of the adjacent Anand
Niketan ashram, the hermitage of Harivallabh Parikh
where vendetta is as out of place as cardinal sins are
in heaven.
No one rose as ‘Judge’ Harivallabh, whom they
call Bhai (brother), walked into the court, clad in
saffron khadi dhoti and shirt with a white towel tied

P

PICS: P. MUSTAFA

An encounter with Madan Mohssj
Malviya at the age of 12 changed
Harivallabh’s life.

THE WEEK ♦ DEC 25.1994

13

MAN OF THE YEAR ■ HARIVALLABH PARIKH

PUNDLI AND KANJU
Kanju and the father-in-law affixed their thumb impressions; as Pundli came forward to giver hers,
Kanju took the baby from her—for the first time in six months.
around his head somewhat like an English judge’s
wig. The court was but a platform built around four
shady trees. The people sat patiently on the rugs
spread on the sand as Harivallabh rested his walking
stick against the tree and lowered his 70-year-old
body into the khadi-draped armchair beside a table
which served as his bench’.
There were no black-gowned attorneys, no dock,
no witness box and no gavel of order, but as Bhai
called out, “Where is Pundlibehn?" the crowd of
about 500 fell silent. Onecould. now hear the chirping
parrots on a nearby tree and'the gurgle of the water
in the Hirna river, on whose primeval banks Bhai is
building a new civilisation of justice and peace.
The case of Pundli and Kanju is as important to
building of that civilisation as the schools, houses
and hospitals, clothes, seeds and compost gas that
Bhai is helping them have. As Kanju and Pundli sat
facing the ‘bench’, her rancour poured forth: Kanju
had not bothered to fetch her and the children from
the house of her cruel father. At this the judge
intervened: “0, Kanjubhai, you have four children;
have you undergone the (vasectomy) operation?”
Kanju, who was angrily waiting to reply to Pundli’s
tongue-lashes, shyly replied, “No, Bhai". The judge
now addressed the crowd for two minutes on the
importance of small family and the hearing resumed.
As it turned out, Pundli’s father had got a bank

loan to buy four bullocks, two of which he gave to
Kanju to cheat the bank for another loan. When
relations soured, the old man asked Kanju for rent
on his bullocks. Offended, Kanju asked him for rent
on the water pump which he had lent the old man.
When Kanju began to beat Pundli for her father's
greed, she went home but was not welcome. At this
the judge smilingly intervened: “Ah, both of you are
rogues. Poor Pundlibehn is the sufferer in your
unholy war. Kanjubhai, why don’t you fetch her from
her house?”
, “1 didn't take her from her house. We had met at
the fair arid eloped,” replied Kanju. The judgegrabbed
at that: “Don’t you still love her and your children?”
Kanju pleaded that he had sent his people to fetch
her, but her kinsmen had insisted that Kanju should
himself come. The judge talked to both sides and in
about 10 minutes he declared: “Neither side shall
pay any rent as both have thieved on the govern­
ment. But Kanju has wronged his wife. He should go
and fetch her."
Agreeing that the verdict was fair, the assembled
villagers prevailed on the headstrong Kanju to ac­
cept it. In five minutes Dalpat Venkar, the only court
official, read out a written settlement. Kanju and the
father-in-law affixed their thumb impressions; as
Pundli came forward to give hers, Kanju took the
baby from her—for the first time in six months. .

“Harivallabh started the concept of iok adalat long before I mooted Ihe
idea on an all-lndia basis,” says P.N. Bhagwati, former Chief Justice.
1HE WEEK ♦ DEC 25. 1994

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I

MAN OF THE YEAR ■ HARIVALLABH PARIKH

DAWN OF CIVILISATION
They knew of no law except that of the arrow 45 years ago. Today murder is rare among the 20
lakh tribals in Baroda and Bharuch districts.
The Kanju-Pundli dispute would have started a
murderous (eud among the two Rathwa clans but for
Harivallabh and his open court. The average toll was
two murders a day when the young Harivallabh and
his wife Prabha had arrived in the area to set up a
Gandhian ashram 45 years ago. “They understood
no law except that of the arrow,” Harivallabh recalls.
“Every dispute ended in a murder. The murdered
person’s relatives would pay back with another
murder. All family, clannish and tribal scores were
to be settled before their two festivals, Divaasa in
the autumn and Holi in the spring; so there was a
spate of murders in the preceding weeks. And fresh
accounts were opened after the festivals.”
The custom prevails even today on the Madhya
Pradesh side of the border where Bhai’s message of
peace is yet to reach. But a murder occurs rarely in
the 20,000 square kilometres in Baroda and Bharuch
districts of Gujarat where more than 20 lakh Rathwas,
Tadvis, Naiks, Bhils and Dungra-Bhils are civilising
themselves, without the agony that accompanies
change.
“The state with all its coercive power cannot
reach these areas,” says the Baroda District Collec­
tor Inderjit Gautam. “And if it uses its power, there
would be armed revolts and extremist uprisings.
Harivallabh has single-handedly built up this ma­
chinery of justice which the rest of the country is

now emulating in the form of lok adalats (people’s
courts).”
In 45 years Harivallabh has settled more than
60,000 cases which means he has averted at least as
many murders. It was his success with the open
court that gave the idea of lok adalat to his old friend
P.N. Bhagwati who, as Chief Justice of India, imple­
mented it throughout the country to reduce the
backlog of cases in law courts.
Harivallabh “was the first person to start the
concept of lok adalat...,” Bhagwati wrbte in a message
to an Anand Niketan publication, “long before the
idea was mooted by me on an all-India basis. (The)
adalats which... Harivallabh is holding are real lok
adalats because the people participate in the con­
ciliatory and adjudicatory process... If only the ex­
periment... were to be replicated throughout India
on a massive scale, we shall be able to... remove, to
a considerable extent, the bitterness and strife af­
fecting rural life."

THE man who has virtually built a small river
valley civilisation of self-sufficient villages on the
upper reaches of the Narmada valley had not even
seen a plough in his childhood in Pratapgarh in
Rajputana where his father was the diwan. Once
when he broke his tooth while eating he asked his
friend, who was the son of a farmer, why there were

The son of a diwan went to Sabarmati with two servants who were to
wash his clothes. He saw Bapuji in loincloth and was ashamed of himself.
16

THE WEEK ♦ DEC 25. 1994

PRABHA
It took more than a year for Harivallabh to
touch his wife.
stones in rice. The friend joked that his father had
grown the rice underground and had no time to sift
the stones out. Young Harivallabh believed it!
It was a chance encounter with Madan Mohan
Malviya at the age of 12 that changed Harivallabh’s
life. He accompanied Malviya, who was visiting the
diwan, to the nearby villages and was shocked to see
the great man touching the untouchables. Malviya
did not bother to reply to Harivallabh’s questions
but gave him a small book on Mahatma Gandhi in
which he wrote: “Dear Harivallabh, 1 hope you will
become a social worker when you grow up; this
book comes with my blessings.”
The book impressed the young mind. Thinking
of becoming a disciple of Gandhi, he went to the
Sabarmati ashram with two servants who were to
' wash his clothes. “I saw Bapuji in loincloth and I was
ashamed. I sent back the servants.” But he still used
to leave his plates unwashed. Gandhi, rather cun­
ningly, sent Harivallabh’s teacher in the ashram
school to pick up the plates. “That shamed me again.
I started cleaning the plates."
Bapu wanted Harivallabh to work in Gujarat and
sent him to learn Gujarati. (Though his parents were
Gujarati Vaishnav, Harivallabh knew only Hindi
which was spoken in Pratapgarh.) As the college
closed during the Quit India movement, Harivallabh
went with a few friends to Karachi where they were

involved in underground politics. The movement
took him to Hyderabad, and forgetting Gandhian
non-violence, he blasted railway bridges and looted
mail wagons. The escape from Hyderabad was mi­
raculous. Harivallabh and two friends donned
women's clothes and got into a train.
Bapu condemned the violence and appealed to
the underground youth to own up their deeds.
Harivallabh went to the police in Ahmedabad and
offered to surrender, but insisted on raising the
national flag. The young British superintendent
agreed to a flag-hoist and surrender. Harivallabh
was eventually freed when Gandhi insisted that all
nationalists be released before he talked to the
Cripps Mission.
Duringtheunderground wanderings, Harivallabh
had met Mohanlal Parikh who ran a khadi shop in
Savarkundla in Saurashtra. Mohanlal wanted his
daughter Prabha to marry Harivallabh, who had
sworn before Gandhi not to marry until India be­
came free. Harivallabh agreed to a betrothal on two
conditions: they would marry only after Indepen­
dence, and Prabha would go, after the betrothed, to
the Wardha ashram for social service training. It was
then that he went to jail.
When he learnt on release from jail that Prabha
had not been sent to Wardha, he threatened to
break the engagement. The girl's parents appealed
to Gandhi at Sevagram. Gandhi summoned
Harivallabh and told him: “Understand their feel­
ings, Harivallabh. It is difficult for a conservative
family to send their daughter to an ashram. Now
instead of breaking the engagement, you marry
her.” The vow, Bapu reasoned with him, had been
taken before him and he was now permitting him to
break it. Harivallabh and Prabha were married in
March 1946, but he refused to touch her hand even
at time of the ceremonial joining of hands. After
marriage he sent her to Wardha and went to Kasturba
ashram at Korba.
It took Harivallabh more than a year to touch his
wife. That too, after Gandhi had told her to nurse
him when he lay injured in a futile fight to save seven
Muslims from a few fanatics.
Harivallabh was travelling on a train to
Ahmedabad, a month after Independence, when a
few Hindu soldiers of the Ajmer raja dragged seven
Muslims out of a compartment. Harivallabh jumped
in front of the Muslims and spread his hands out in
a protective gesture. He cried out to the other
passengers to come out and help him, but a heavy
jab on the back of the head with a baton floored him.
By the time Harivallabh was back on his feet, the
soldiers had killed six of the Muslims. He rushed
towards the seventh man, held him in a tight em­
brace and declared to the soldiers that they would
kill the old man only over his dead body. The sol­
diers simply pushed him aside, killed the old man
and went their way.
Harivallabh lay bleeding on the platform till
someone took him to Korba. Gandhi, who was fast­
ing in Calcutta for communal amity, heard of this

Whan Harivallabh learnt that Prabha had not gone to Wardha ashram, he
decided to break the engagement. Gandhi made him break a vow, instead.
THE WEEK ♦ DEC 25, 1994

17

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MAN OF THE YEAR ■ HARIVALLABH PARIKH

MARCH OF PROGRESS
Harivallabh has helped the tribals have schools, houses, hospitals, hybrid seeds and compost
gas. He has taught them to build dams to make water flow uphill.
and directed Prabha to go to Korba to nurse him.
Prabha arrived from Wardha with a friend. “She
massaged the back of my neck," Harivallabh recalls.
Thus began their married life.
Gandhi also arranged for Harivallabh’s treatment
at Dinshaw Mehta's nature clinic in Poona. He was
cured but the jab on the back of the neck remained
a permanent impairment. For many years, long ex­
posure to sun used to make him faint. It was thus
that Harivallabh began tying a kerchief on his head
in the fashion of the Pathans whom he had seen
when he had worked with Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan.
Interestingly, when Vinoba launched the Bhoodaan
movement, he told Jayaprakash Narayan to adopt
Harivallabh’s headgear for the Shanti Sena of vol­
unteers.
The honeymoon did not last long. As soon as he
recovered. Harivallabh set out for Kashmir where
Sheikh Abdullah was fondling secessionist dreams.
Harivallabh worked underground again, spying on
the National Conference, but went to Delhi after
Gandhi’s assassination.
The assassinated saint’s words rang in his ears
again: serve the most miserable section of Indian
society. He had heard about the tribals of the
Narmada valley and after learning more about them
from Balwantrai Mehta, he went to Kosindra in
Baroda district along with his wife. From there he

made his foray into the dark world of ignorance and
exploitation to set up his Anand Niketan at Rangpur
where his three children would be born.

THE young couple who arrived on a bullock­
cart in Mota Vata village on the Hirna in a cold
evening in 1949 had no idea of the bitterness in tribal
society. Harivallabh and Prabha knew virtually
nothing of the tribals, whom Mahatma Gandhi had
told them to serve. They had heard of those ‘savages’
from the people of Kosindra village on the forest
border where they had stayed for a fortnight in their
friend Trikkambhai Patel’s house. They had also
heard that many of the tribals were being kept as
slaves by money-lenders and landlords.
Their first experience in Mota Vata was unnerv­
ing. They were greeted with drawn bows. W’en the
tribals saw that Harivallabh was unarmed, the crowd
mellowed, but would not welcome him into the
village. Later he learnt that the money-lenders, who
had heard of his plans at Kosindra, had warned the
tribals that he was coming to cheat them of their
lands.
“I told them that I had come to help them, but the
hunting community had no concept of help or ser­
vice,” says Harivallabh. “I told them that I had come
from Gandhiji and Nehru. They had never heard
those names. I told them that the landlords and the

At Mota Vata the tribals greeted him with drawn bows. “I told them 8 had
come from Gandhiji and Nehru. They had never heard of those names.”
20

THE WEEK ♦ DEC 25. 1994

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MAN OF THE YEAR ■ HARIVALLABH PARIKH______________

THE TREE AND THE HOST
For a week in 1949, Harivallabh and Prabha cooked and slept under this
tree. Finally Bhagwan the Rathwa (right) invited them into his hut.
usurers were cheating them and that independent
India had no place for such cheats. They did not
understand what I meant by independent India."
In the end the tribals retired to their huts, leaving
the strange visitors out in the cold. After unloading
the grain that would see them through a week, the
couple sent the cart back to Kosindra and huddled
under a tree. For about a week they cooked and slept
in the open, with Prabha often talking of the futility
of the effort. Harivallabh told her to shut up, catch
hold of a few tribal children frolicking in the river
and give them an oil bath.
The plight of the couple finally moved a young
heart—that of Bhagwan, the Rathwa. One night he
asked them to come into his hut saying, “It is not
proper for a man and a woman to sleep under a tree”.
Bhagwan helped them build a small hut outside the
village. Slowly the ice melted.
As Prabha bathed the tribal children, washed
their clothes and taught the women to keep their
huts clean, Harivallabh moved around the village to
learn about the tribal culture. Prabha’s grindstone
was an object of curiosity for the Rathwas who had
not seen the grinding of grain. Farming to them
meant scattering a few seeds in the open. They did
not have the plough, the first tool of civilisation.
The only non-tribals they had seen were the
usurers who charged 300 per cent interest. “Unable

to repay the loans, the
tribals were losing their
land and becoming slave­
labourers," says Harivaliabh. "There were origi­
nally no landlords in this
area as the land belonged
to the tribals. But the usu­
rers acquired their land
and became landlords." The law of the land was that
of the arrowhead and the usurer’s word.
Harivallabh's first task was to rescue the tribals
from slavery. Every night hesat under a tree and told
them about the country, the freedom struggle and
tales from the mythologies. The tales highlighted
such themes as bondage and emancipation, love
and sacrifice and the values of social life. As trust
developed, he told them to ask the usurers for
accounts; they dared not, as an usurer had burnt
one of them alive for showing such temerity.
One day Harivallabh sent them to Kosindra to
buy writing slates. The landlords on the way told
them that Harivallabh would cheat them; they re­
turned angrily. He refused to tell them any story that
night and went on a fast. That touched the savage'
minds; they saw sacrifice. The next day they bought
slates. The written word was born in the Rathwa
land.

He gave the tribals the two tools of civilisation: the plough and the ?aw.
“Harivallabh started the Bhoodaan before me,” Vinoba Bhave once said.
22

THE WEEK ♦ DEC 25 1994

MAN OF THE YEAR ■ HARIVALLABH PARIKH

ONE UPON RIO
For the first time in the world a government has acknowledged the inherent rights of the aborigi­
nes over the forest by giving them 25,000 hectares.
On those slates Harivallabh also wrote each
one’s accounts with usurers. Then he took up each
case, writing to the usurers to appear before the
tribal panchayat and explain the accounts. And he
persuaded the police, through his friends in the
Congress, to file cases of cheating against the usu­
rers.
The struggle was no easy one. The lawless tribal
society was plagued by many ills. They kidnapped
one another’s wives and most such kidnaps ended
in a murder which would start a blood feud. They
burnt women whom their witch-doctor pronounced
as vampires; they had no idea of medicine and left
the ill to die.
In short, Harivallabh's task to civilise a savage
society. And so in 1949 he crossed the Hirna and set
up a small house on a tor at Rangpur which used to
be the hunting camp of the raja of Chhota Udepur.
This house has now grown into Anand Niketan
ashram whose 300 full-time workers and thousands
of tribal volunteers have shepherded more them 20
lakh people in 3,300 villages on to the path of enlight­
enment and progress.
From the beginning Harivallabh's attempt was to
give them the two tools of civilisation: the plough
and the law. For that he first had to fight the land­
lords and get back the tribal land. He then showed
the tribals the use of the plough in his ashram land.

But the other task was more difficult. The tribals had
no law except a fierce clannish code of honour
which only fomented the vendettas. Harivallabh
told them about Gandhian non-violence but the talk
went over their heads. Moreover, they had no faith
in the law of the state which came to them in the
form of thieving forest officials.
So Harivallabh began touring the villages set­
tling small disputes. The young men who came to
the ashram to learn reading, writing and farming
would inform him of any altercation in the
neighbourhood. “1 would then rush on my bicycle to
the village and talk to both parties to settle the
dispute before it turned into a blood feud,”
Harivallabh recalls. “Slowly they began to like it.
They knew it was better than going to the police and
the law courts scores of miles away where they
would have to cough up alot of money.” As trust was
gained, the judge' did not have to go around offering
help; people approached him in the ashram, and the
open court of Rangpur was born.
A few successes cemented that trust. One of the
early fights was with the Thakore of Boriyat, who
had invented ingenious forms of taxes (a tax on the
hearth, for instance). The villagers, unaware that
thakoredom had ended with Independence, used to
pay up. Harivallabh heard of this and asked the
headman, Phatu, not to pay. The Thakore's hoolj.

The village forests boast of a thick growth everywhere while ths
government forests are largely bald expanses.
24

THE WEEK ♦ DEC 25. 1994

SOLOMON’S THRONE
Harivallabh works for 18 hours a day, and he rarely leaves the swing sofa till all the day's cases
are heard. And Prabha is always at his side.
gans beat up Phatu, and the villagers brought him on
a cot to the ashram.
Harivallabh informed the police, but theThakore
had already bought them. He then wrote to the
newspapers about the Thakore who was collecting
hearth tax and beating up villagers. He also told his
friends in the Congress not to protect the Thakore.
For the first time in Gujarat, a Thakore was thus
arrested.
The incident shamed the Thakore's mother, who
wrote to Harivallabh apologising for her son’s sins
and seeking a solution. She would not agree to her
son apologising in the open court of Rangpur, but
agreed to a court sitting in her manor-house. Finally
the young Thakore, who was on bail, came out, wept
in front of the villagers, and agreed to stop the
ektortion and pay Rs 1,000 for Phatu’s medical ex­
penses. “We understood the feelings of the
Thakurani,” says Harivallabh. “The idea was not to
humiliate anyone but to seek justice. The Thakore
has since been one of the finest gentlemen in the
region."
Fighting the landlords was easier than fighting
the evils within the tribal society. One incident that
Harivallabh still remembers well is of Ravli, the
'vampire' wife of Ditya of Pandwa village. The witch­
doctor Unkaria, had pointed his finger at her when
two babies died in the village. The villagers beat her

up and left her for dead. Ditya complained to the
police but the inspector took money from the villag­
ers and advised Ditya to forget his farm and leave the
village.
When Ditya approached him, Harivallabh wrote
to the village headman requesting the villagers to
come to the court. When he found the police hostile,
he issued a ‘notice’ with copies to the newspapers.
At the next fortnightly meeting of the court, all the
villagers, the complainants, the inspector and his
constables were present. The villagers stood their
ground: Unkaria, they said, had entered Ravli’s
stomach and had found the remains of the dead
babies there.
Harivallabh took two tumblers, one containing
water and the other turmeric powder, covered them
with a towel and asked Unkaria which tumbler con­
tained what. Unkaria fidgeted for a while and admitted
his inability. The villagers realised their mistake and
Harivallabh followed it up with a speech on super­
stitions. The villagers admitted that they had given
the inspector Rs 700 to hush up the case and they
agreed to abide by the decision of the open court.
The inspector gave the money back, the villagers
readmitted Ravli and Ditya into the community and
compensated Ditya for his hospital expenses and
crop loss.
Such Livingstonian efforts helped dispel many

Anand Niketan has protected the tribals from the agony that accompanies
evolution from hunter-gatherer to settled farmer.
THE WEEK ♦ DEC 25. 1994

25

MAN OF THE YEAR ■ HARIVALLABH PARIKH
brid seeds and livestock are reared at the ashram for
distribution among the tribals.

SELF-RELIANCE
Anand Niketan's 300 full-time workers and
thousands of volunteers have shepherded 20
lakh people in 3,300 villages on the path of
self-reliance.
superstitions from the tribal mind. Meanwhile,
Harivallabh was persuading landlords to give away
their surplus land. When Vinoba Bhave launched his
Bhoodaan and Gramdaan movements, he walked
about 5,000 km across Gujarat
and collected 18,000 acres,
mostly in the tribal belt, for dis­
tribution among the landless.
“Harivallabh
started
Bhoodaan before me,” Vinoba
had commented on a visit to
Anand Niketan. While Bhoodaan
and Gramdaan were largely fail­
ures in the Gangetic plain, they
were grand successes in the
Narmada valley thanks to the
perseverance of Harivallabh and
his volunteers. They ensured
that the villages established lo­
cal councils and helped the tribal
farmers to wet and plough the
dry land. Since its establishment,
Anand Niketan has put a pre­
mium on scientific farming, hor­
ticulture and dairying. New hy­

ANAND Niketan’s main contribution has been
that it has protected the tribal folk from the agony of
an anthropological evolution from hunter-gatherer
to settled farmer. This transformation has been ac­
companied in most parts of the world by tlie disinte­
gration of tribal societies and the disappearance of
their cultures. Their interaction with the superior
technology of the outside world usually have tragic
consequences: the outsiders grab their lands; the
free-spirited tribes become slum-dwelling industrial
workers in towns or slaves of landlords; their women
land in the mean streets of life. Harivallabh, on the
other hand, has ensured that the tribals were not
alienated from their habitat while he catalysed the
inevitable transformation in the Narmada valley.
His mass satyagrahas forced the Gujarat govern­
ment to declare the tribals the owners of 5,000
hectares of forest in 1994; another 20,800 hectares
will be theirs next year. This is an achievement that
merits universal acclaim. For, this is the first time in
the world that a government has acknowledged the
inherent rights of the aborigines over the forest, a
hot debating point at the Earth Summit held at Rio de
Janeiro in 1992.
While the rulers and social workers in other
countries are still wracking their brains to make the
aborigines administer the forest, Harivallabh has
helped form 23 forest protection cooperative societ­
ies of tribals. “Another 50 cooperatives will be formed
next year when they get the promised 20,800 hect­
ares," says he. “Forest officials have been accusing
the tribals of cutting the trees for firewood. The fact
is that the tribals have all along been the protectors
of the forests which are their habitat."
The difference is perceptible even to the un­
trained eye. The village forests boast of a thick
growth everywhere while the government forests
are largely bald expanses. Anyway, Harivallabh's
tribals now do not have to col­
lect even the forest twigs for
firewood. About 2.5 lakh houses
have installed bio-gas plants with
the help of Anand Niketan. “A
standard bio-gas plant of four
cubic metres would meet the
entire cooking needs of a small
family and save about 20 grown­
up trees ayear,” says Harivallabh.

APART from being a mis­
sion of peace, Anand Niketan is
the sole civilising agent in the
upper reaches of the Narmada
valley. With its help a people who
believed that water could not be
made to flow up the hills have
built 27 check dams to wet the
uphill tracts. The tribal women
who were cutting twigs from the

Harivallabh has single-handedly built up a machinery of justice where the
state cannot reach, says Baroda Collector inderjit Gautam (above) J
THE WEEK ♦ DEC 25. 1994

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THE

LEADER

MAN OF THE YEAR ■ HARIVALLABH PARIKH

I

,
i

!

forests are now collecting fallen dry leaves to make
leaf-bowls which are sold in the markets of Baroda
and other cities. And in true Gandhian style, they are
encouraged to spin and weave their own clothes.
The young folk are trained in crafts like carpentry,
bio-gas plant repairing and mat-making in the ashram.
Harivallabh has no pretensions that his word is
law in the region. Law is the general will of the
villagers who, he says, are the wise men. He only
articulates that will, and catalyses and channelises
change. So instead of opposing the controversial
Narmada Project, he bargained and got land for all
the evacuees. “The evacuees were asked to select
the land they liked and establish their community as
it had existed in the original place. Even two tribal
shrines have been shifted stone by stone,” says
Harivallabh who had opposed and scuttled all the
dam projects which offered only cash for land.
Though he generally shuns honours,
Harivallabh's attitude is of cooperation with the
state. State agencies often consult him on develop­
ment programmes and he used to lecture occasion­
ally at the administrative staff college at Mussoorie.
Many civil service probationers have spent a fort­
night at the ashram for an experience in development administration. Prime Minister Indira Gandhi
once offered him a seat in the Rajya Sabha. When he
declined the offer, she insisted that he select a
worthy tribal youth. Harivallabh nominated Ramsinh
Rathwa, an ashram worker's son who had learnt
painting and was working at the Junagarh museum.
“His idea is not to fight the state, but to struggle

for a just state order for his tribals,” says the Baroda
Collector Gautam. “Messages like small family,
health, nutrition and bio-energy would have no
meaning to the tribals but for his interpretation.”
Often, the state uses his goodwill to run its writ.
About a year ago, a few tribal villagers objected to a
police camp on a hill and gathered with bows and
arrows. The police brass was thinking of opening
fire when an official contacted Harivallabh. He ar­
rived on the scene, asked the police to retreat, and
brought a few elders from other tribal villages to talk
to the mob. The tension was defused in a few hours.
“If we had used force, that would have been the
beginning of Naxalism in the region," says a district
official.
At 70, Harivallabh works 18 hours a day. The
court usually starts in the afternoon and functions
late intothenightbuthe rarely leaves his swing sofa,
this Solomon’s throne, till all the day’s cases are
heard. Prabha is always at his side except when she
tends to women’s welfare activities in Baroda where
her younger daughter Tapasi lives. The older one,
Yogini, too attends to ashram activities with her
husband Nagendra who is now the secretary of
Anand Niketan. Son Yogesh is in Australia.
If the sovereign state, as Hegel said, is the march
of heaven on earth, Harivallabh Parikh is only help­
ing his people to join that march. If civilisations were
built with the plough in the river valleys, they were
consolidated for peace by the law-giving Manu and
Moses, Hammurabi and Justinian'. Harivallabh's jus­
tice, too, dwells in peace.

COLLECTIVE WISDOM
Harivallabh did not oppose the Narmada Project; instead he bargained and got
land for all the evacuees.

THE WEEK ♦ DEC 25.1994

MAN OF THE YEAR ■ HARIVALLABH PARIKH

SCALES OF LOVE
The open court fosters reconciliation in a spirit of give and take
while sustaining tribal values and customs
HERE is nothing that Harivallabh Parikh en­
some haggling, decided that Bhavna’s father would
joys more than presiding over his court. It
return the ornaments and pay about Rs 1,000 to
meets twice a month, each meeting deciding
Dinesh. (“He was the aggrieved party in this case,"
the next date. There are no adjournments, posting
Bhai points out.)
or prolonged hearings.
That was not so in Dhani’s case. Her husband
No formal complaints, either. Complainants can
Vinu had gone to work in Surat soon after their
approach 'Bhai' any time in the ashram. Bhai listens
marriage. From there he informed her that he was
to them and writes to the other party, seeking their
not interested in her. He also beat her when he came
attendance at the next court session; if it is a case of
home occasionally. Finally she approached Bhai’s
prosecution, he keeps the police informed. Usually,
court. When his efforts failed, Bhai asked the village
after a reconciliation in Bhai’s court, the petitioner
elders to advise Vinu; he refused to listen even to his
withdraws the police complaint.
father. Finally the jury decided that Vinu would pay
The court assembles around one o’clock and sits
Rs 451 as penalty to Dhani. After she signed the
till all cases aredisposed of. The cases are of a varied
agreement Dhani removed her veil. (“The custom is
nature. Dholia felt aggrieved that, though his father
that all married women should be veiled; the unveil­
had divided the family land equally, his brother
ing symbolises her freedom,” says Bhai.)
Ranchod got the plot closer to the canal. Thus after
Divorces are followed by settlement of movable
years of cultivation, Dholia was
poorer than his brother. Ranchod
pointed out that the father had given
a bicycle to Dholia. After many fisti­
cuffs, Dholia complained to Bhai, who
then requested Ranchod and the fa­
ther to come to his court.
Bhai did most of the talking. He
told them that it was not good of
brothers to fight. He also pointed out
one reason for Dholia’s poverty: he
had four children. The talk was such
that it moved Ranchod’s heart. He
finally came up with, a suggestion.
They would cultivate both plots to­
gether and divide the harvest equally.
Bhai now turned to Dholia: “What
about the bicycle? Would you allow
Ranchod also to use it?" Pat came the
reply from Dholia: “Ranchod can take
it as his.” Years of enmity were for­
gotten in half an hour.
DHOLIA AND RANCHOD
Most of the cases aredivorce suits.
There were ripples of laughter as Dholia opened his shirt
Dinesh Thadvi’s plaint was that his
and showed where his brother (at the mike) had hit him.
wife Bhavna had not stayed with him
Soon, the years of enmity were forgotten.
for more than five days. Bhavna re­
plied that she had stayed for 20 days
and run away because he was a non-vegetarian.
property. Both sides would furnish a list of articles
Besides, he treated her with suspicion and refused
and gifts exchanged. The lists are read aloud in the
to visit his in-laws. She now wanted a divorce.
court, objections settled and the goods returned on
Bhai requested Bhavna and her father to give
an appointed day.
Dinesh another chance, but they would not. Dinesh
Landlords, too, have been approaching the open
insisted that she return the ornaments that his
court. For instance, Shankar Patel of Kosindra, a
sister had given her. (“Sometimes if a bride does not
cousin of former chief minister Chimanbhai, com.
have enough ornaments, the groom’s side helps,
plained that Soma Nayak, a tribal, and his wife Kokila
unlike the dowry-hungry city folk,” explains
had not come to work after taking an advance of Rs
Harivallabh.)
2,500. Soma argued that he had worked for a coupje
The case reached a tie and so Bhai ordered that
of months and had returned Rs 500. Finally the
the jury be formed. Both sides elected two elders.to
matter was settled with Soma agreeing to repay Rs
the jury. The four men met under a tree and, after
300 for which he had not worked. “This is a > eversa|

T

32

THE WEEK ♦ DEC 25. IWd

i

of roles, says Bhai proudly. “The tribals have be­
request the village headman, the police patel and a
come so conscious of their rights that the landlords
daya (wise man) to act as the parents and solemnise
are sometimes the aggrieved party.”
the union.
Sometimes, Bhai appoints fact-finding commis­
These three men will send a drummer around to
sions. Two Bhil villages had an old feud. Both had
collect rice, gram and utensils for the runaways,
their own forestry farms and one group sent its
who would by then have built a hut. As they enter it
cattle into the other’s. The aggrieved party ajrwith the gifts, they take an oath on how long they
proached the open court. A fact-findingcommission
would live together, usually up to the next Holi or
of ashram workers reported that 11,000 saplings
Divaasa, the autumn festival. By the appointed day
had been destroyed. Bhai made the offending village
they would have decided whether to stay together
to pay damages.
or part. Parting at this stage is without alimony.
Bhai insists that his machinery of justice is not
“1 rarely interfere with their customs," says Bhai.
competitive, but complementary to the state ma­
“They are a happy people on their own. I have been
chinery. Cases of physical hurt are usually referred
opposing only the superstitions that harm them,
like their blind faith in the witch-doctor. The only
to the police, and Bhai’s attempt is mainly to prevent
any vendetta that could follow a clash. A tribal
custom I opposed was the one that jarred in their
couple complained that their son had wandered
free culture. A widowed woman either had to marry
into a landlord's farm where the watchman chased
her brother-in-law or had to go back to her parents.
him. The boy had been missing since. Bhai referred
If the parents rejected her, her condition was miser­
the case to the police, advised the couple not to take
able. I had to fight for three years on one case to
make the people forgo the custom. Now no one can
the law into their own hands, and asked the landlord
and the watchman to help in tracing the boy.
force any woman into anything."
Dhudi would vouch for that. When her husband
Though the attempt is always to settle disputes
died in a mine two years ago, the company depos­
amicably and justly, Bhai does not deny the natural
ited Rs 50,000 in her name. Soon her brother-in-law
bias in favour of the weak, particularly the women.
began to harass her for the money. When she re­
“The tribal customs also help me in this,” he says.
fused to part with it, the
“These women are more
in-laws drove her out, but
emancipated than the ur­
kept the children.
ban women. There is :io
She approached Bhai.
stigma attached to a di­
He summoned the in­
vorce. And the tribal cus­
laws, who accused her of
tom is that the father has
being promiscuous but
to take care of the chil­
none of the villagers be­
dren, except infants, af­
lieved that. “Your eyes
ter separation. But if the
are on her money,” Bhai
woman insists on keep­
scolded the brother-ining the children, the man
law, and the villagers
has to pay her alimony.”
nodded in agreement. But
Arranged marriages
the case had another
are a rarity in the tribal
complication. Dhudi’s
society. Boys and girls
brother, who had married
usually meet at the dance
the dead man's sister, had
at the weekly market. If a
turned her out of his
boy likes a girl, he offers
house. Bhai decreed that
her jaggery. If she likes
he take her back, and
him she takes the jaggery
persuaded Dhudi’s faand dances with him.
ther-in-law to treat her
Similarly, if a girl likes a
well under his roof, so
boy, she offers him coco­
that they all could ben­
nut pieces.
efit from the money.
[f there is mutual ad­
Bhai takes about 45
miration, the couple
minutes to hear a case
takes a vow to meet next
and settle it. On an aver­
at an indh (a fair around
age, 15 cases are heard
fire, indh signifying
and settled in one sitting.
md/tan or fuel). At the end
Every settlement is
of the fire-dance, they run
marked by full-throated
away to the house of a
cries of “Mahatma Gandhi
kinsman who will inform
ki jai” and distribution of
the parents.
jaggery for which the
If the parents do not
DHANI OUT OF VEIL
court collects ten rupees
agree to the marriage, the
There is no stigma attached to divorce and the from the contending par­
runaways will send a
father has to take care of the children. After
ties. As Bhai says, “Settle­
drummer to inform them
signing the divorce settlement, Dhani removed ments are always sweet."
that they are going their
—R. PRASANNAN
her veil. The unveiling symbolised her freedom.
own way. They will then
THE WEEK ♦ DEC 25.

PAC
Public A

“Public Affairs Centre is truly an experiment
- a leap of faith, guided by a vision to

enhance the quality of our nation’s

governance through an active interaction
of civil society with the state. It is gratifying
that PAC’s strategy in pursuit of this vision

has taken off. The positive response to its
initiatives from many quarters and the

adoption of its concepts, tools and

messages in other parts of India and
elsewhere augur well for the future...”

Samuel Paul

Founder Chairperson
Public Affairs Centre

There is a growing concern that the dominant role of the
government in India has not been matched by high levels

of public accountability and good governance. This is

especially so in relation to public services that matter the

most to citizens. It is evident that the quality of governance
will improve only when civil society is aware and active in
^femanding greater accountability and performance from

agencies of the state.
Public Affairs Centre (PAC), a non-profit society established

in 1994, is dedicated to improving governance in India by

strengthening civil society institutions in their interaction
with the state. The Centre’s mission is to identify and
promote initiatives that facilitate a pro-active role by
citizens to enhance the level of public accountability and
performance. To this end the Centre is involved in:

0

Research on public policy, programmes and services
Supporting and networking with citizen initiatives
Providing advisory services to state agencies
Addressing themes of wider national concern
Sharing information with and building capacity in

citizens groups
PAC stands out as an institution that blends research and

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iJWRORY SERVICES
2gCITY BUILDING
Supplementing the research and action components, PAC

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Local :

Research led training support to theBangalore
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reforms.
Capacity building support to FEDCOT - a large

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the Public Delivery System.

National : Support to the Department of Administrative
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Advisory support to the Public

Administration Reform Programme in Quang

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ooice of people heard. PAC's dissemination strategy entails:

National and Regional Workshops for capacity building

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Media partnerships for wider dissemination
Video Documentation for strengthening advocacy components

PUBLIC EYE a quarterly publication with information, analyses
and perspectives on issues of public concern

Working Papers, Research Publications and Monographs

PAC took up Corruption, a contemporary issue of National
relevance in a project to develop a “National Agenda to Combat
Corruption" which culminated in the publication Corruption in

India:

Agenda

for

Action

(Vision

Books,

1997).

PAC has also produced a Video documentation titled Whose Vote

H

Is It Anyway? (English, Colour, 16 minutes). The film narrates an

interesting and educative experiment on bringing in transparency
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is Rs. 400 or US$ 30 for PAL and US$ 50 for NTSC.)

hese materials are made available both within India and
outside via Mail and the Internet. For more information

>ee Order Form on the last page.

PAC

PUBLIC AFFAIRS CENTRE
578, 16th B Main, 3rd Cross, 3rd Block,
Koramangala, Bangalore 560 034, India.
Tel: 91-80-5520246/ 5525453/ 5525452 Telefax: 5537260
Internet mail:pacblr@blr.vsnl.net.in

O fcYKS/10/01/91.

HOUSING THE LOW-INCOME POPULATION OF BANGKOK
Yap Kioe Sheng (ed.)

BANGKOK
1991

>

TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE

I. INTRODUCTION : LOW-INCOME HOUSING DELIVERY SYSTEMS IN BANGKOK
Yap Kioe Sheng

II.

THE SLUMS OF BANGKOK
Yap Kioe Sheng and Koen de Wandeler

III.

LAND SHARING : THE SENGKI CASE
Yap Kioe Sheng and Shlomo Angel

IV.

THE SUAN PRASID RESETTLEMENT PROJECT
Yap Kioe Sheng and Koen de Wandeler

V.

PRIVATE SECTOR LOW-COST HOUSING
Foo Tuan Seik

VI.

LOW-INCOME RENTAL HOUSING IN BANGKOK
Yap Kioe Sheng and Koen de Wandeler

VII.

CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES

The idea for this book developed out of an article which David
Satterthwaite asked me to write about Bangkok low-income housing
delivery systems for the journal Environment & Urbanization (vol.l,
no.2); a revised version is included in this book as chapter II. For
the article, I based myself on what David Satterthwaite and Jorge
Hardoy had written : "perhaps the best way to arrive at a better
understanding of how lower-income groups find accommodation in any
particular city is to identify different housing sub-markets and the
reasons for the development of each sub-market. '(..) Perhaps the
definition of these housing sub-markets is most usefully undertaken
through indicators relating to price for the occupiers, location with
regard to employment, housing quality and tenure."(Hardoy and
Satterthwaite, 1986: 8). As the point of departure to describe the
housing sub-markets in Bangkok, I took a paper which Shlomo Angel,
Koos de Goede and Stan Benjamin had written for Habitat, UN Conference
on Human Settlements, 1976 and which was later published in Ekistics
(Vol. no.): "The low-income housing delivery .systems in Bangkok".

In their article, the three authors wrote that these systems,, deliver
"housing solutions daily to satisfy the needs of the low-income
people. The (..) system (..) is made of several subsystems: the
workers' housing subsystem, the squatters' housing subsystem, the
rural commuters' subsystem, the filtered housing subsystem and the
public housing subsystem. These again are divided into several types.
(..). [Altogether they provide housing for all the low-income people
in the city. (..) The majority of [the system's] components rely
little on planners, engineers and other.professionals, receive little
attention from government housing agencies. Yet, because of this
delivery system, there is no 'housing shortage' in Bangkok. Everybody
is housed in one way or the other, and there are no people sleeping in
the streets. This system is reliable, and can provide a great number
of housing solutions, whenever they are needed."

Fifteen years later, these low-income housing delivery systems are
still largely in place, but information about the magnitude of each of
the subsystems was and still is not available. This makes it difficult
to determine if the relative importance of the each of the subsystems
has changed. However, it can be assumed .that changes have occurred, as
the overall conditions in Bangkok have changed dramatically in the
past few years. Probably the most important change of the past years
has been the economic development in Bangkok due mainly to a boom in
exports, in tourism and in foreign investment.

Thailand's economic growth of the past years which reached levels of
over 10 per cent per year, is concentrated in the Bangkok Metropolitan
Region. The investors, mainly from Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong and
Singapore, are attracted by the low wages (the minimum wage in Bangkok
is baht 96 or USS 4 -per day), the tax concessions and the low level of
labour organization. As a result, factories mushroom in the urban
fringe of Bangkok. Employment opportunities attract labour from the
rural areas to Bangkok. The standard of living in Bangkok is much
higher than the national average. According to the National Economic
and Social Development Board the per capita income in Bangkok in 1986

was US? 2,635, against US? 779 in the rest of Thailand. Some migrants
come only for a part of the year, returning to their village when
needed on the farm; others come for a couple of years to earn enough
money to make a large investment back home; most come to stay.
The area of Bangkok under the jurisdiction the Bangkok Metropolitan
Administration, has over 6 million inhabitants, but due to the rapid
economic and demographic growth the urbanized area now extends far
into the surrounding provinces. The population of the Bangkok Metro­
politan-Region is estimated at 8 million inhabitants. The long
distances and the traffic congestion make commuting to and from the
city centre time-consuming and this affects the poor particularly as
they cannot afford the loss of time and the cost of transportation.
However, to find affordable housing near employment opportunities is
often very difficult. The low-income groups in Bangkok have found
various new ways of housing themselves.

Chapter II describes the slums of Bangkok where some 1.2 million
people currently are finding accommodation. Slums provide housing at
affordable costs and in suitable locations. However, with the rapidly
increasing land prices, this housing delivery system is being
threatened. One way to preserve housing for low-income groups in the
centre of the city is land sharing. Chapter III is a case study of one
land sharing project: Soi Sengki. It shows how the different
households in a slum have different interests and paying capacities
and this determines to a large extent who benefits from a land sharing
scheme.

Chapter IV present another solution for slum dwellers under the threat
of eviction: resettlement with compensation. The chapter is a case
study of Suan Prasid Resettlement Project. With the rapid economic
growth in Bangkok, formal low-cost housing has become affordable to
larger sections of the population. Chapter V summarizes a study on the
role of private developers in the provision of low-cost housing in
Bangkok. Despite the increased affordability, home ownership is not
likely to be an option for many urban poor. Low-income rental housing
may be a more suitable alternative. Chapter VI describes the various
forms of low-income rental housing in Bangkok.

THIKA

BANGKOK

ting as noted above Is Increasingly observ«Wn many studies (see

Some low-income
housing delivery
subsystems in Bangkok,
Thailand

Guide to the Literature).

The conclusions presented here will perhaps not even be valid
for Thika by 1990. Almost all land between Thlka and Nairobi
has been subdivided between tens of thousands of owners in their
attempts to have land in time to secure their children or their own
retirement or to build a house for renting. Rarely was this done
with the motive of speculating in land. Much of this land has been
divided according to hastily designed and often poor quality plans
- many of them unapproved. There is a need for a specific new
type of 'preventive upgrading
*
in these subdivided but still sparse­
ly built up areas, where space for future communal facilities and
utilities may still be secured.

Housing areas in Thika 1985

Yap Kioe Sheng
Yap Kioe Sheng is Associate
Professor of Urban Housing
Development and current
Chairman of the Division
of Human Settlements
Development at the Asian
Institute of Technology (AIT)
In Bangkok. He obtained his
degrees from the
Amsterdam Free University
and worked in various
countries of Africa and Asia.
Prior to joining ATT, he
worked at the United Nations
Centre for Human
Settlements (Habitat) in
Nairobi. The author wishes
to express his gratitude to
Ray Archer and Koen de
Wandeler, both of the Asian
Institute of Technology, for
their comments and
contributions.

1 Hardoy J.E. and
Salterthwaite D (1986),
"Shelter, Infrastructure and
Services in the Third World
Cities". Habitat International.
Vol 10. No.3. pp 251-252.

2 Angel S., Benjamin D.
and de Goede K.H (1977).
"The Low-income Housing
System in Bangkok".
Ekistics, Vol. 44. No. 261.
p.80.

26

Environment and Urbanization, Vol. 1. No. 2. October 1989

I. INTRODUCTION
THE URBAN POOR in developing countries face tremendous
problems in finding adequate housing which is suitably located.
provided with basic infrastructure and services and has security
of tenure. ’ Most such housing, whether provided by the public or
the private sector, is too expensive for the low-income groups. As
a result, they settle for less than adequate housing. Since a suit­
able location for employment opportunities is a major
requirement, they accept housing with few or no basic services.
with little security of tenure and of inferior quality. Such housing
Is usually supplied by the Informal sector.
The types of housing supplied by the informal sector depend to
a large extent on the political, socio-economic, legal and physical
conditions of the city concerned. The low-income housing condi­
tions differ from one country to another and even from one dty to
another. Moreover, within a particular dty the low-income popu­
lation does not form a homogeneous group, but has a wide variety
of housing needs and priorities, catered for by a variety of infor­
mal housing delivery subsystems/1^ This paper describes some of
the low-income housing delivery subsystems In Bangkok.

II. THE LOW-INCOME HOUSING DELIVERY
SYSTEM IN BANGKOK
AT HABITAT, THE United Nations Conference on Human Settle­
ments in Vancouver in 1976. a report on Bangkok's low-Income
housing system stated that it “...delivers housing solutions dally
to satisfy the needs, of the low-income people. It Is made up of
several subsystems: the squatters' housing subsystem, the employee housing subsystem, the filtered housing subsystem, the
public housing subsystem and the rural commuters’ subsystem.
These again are divided into several types. Altogether they provide
housing for all the low- income people in the city."®

a. Squatters’ Housing Subsystem
These are wooden dwellings usually on unfilled land. The sub­
system is divided into three types:

Environment and Urbanization, Vol 1, No. 2, October 1989

27

- squatter settlements, built without
landowner's per­
mission:
- rental ’squatter settlements’ which are built with the consent
of the landowner to whom the dwellers pay a nominal rent (and
thus not strictly ’squatters’):
- boat houses which occupy a permanent location on the ca­
nals In the city.

b.

■housing shortage’ In Bangkok. Everybody Is housed In one way
or another, and there are no people sleeping on the streets. This
system Is reliable, and can provide a great number of housing sol­
utions, whenever they are needed."^
4. See reference 2. p.83.

III.

Employee Housing Subsystem

This is housing at or near the place of work. The subsystem is
divided into five types:
- workplace site houses: wooden houses built with permission
from the employer on the factory site and constructed by the wor­
kers for themselves and their families using second-hand
materials;
- factory site dormitories: usually crowded quarters where a
number of young single people share one room, with little space
or privacy;
- staff and servant quarters: quarters for maids, gardeners.
guards and other staff and their families within middle and highincome residential compounds or in the compounds of public
institutions and business premises: the quarters are provided as
payment in kind by the employer:
- institutional housing: barrack-type houses built for soldiers,
railway workers etc. and their families:
- itinerant construction workers' housing: temporary houses on
the construction site built out of the building materials to hand
by construction workers for themselves and their families.

c.

Filtered Housing Subsystem

These are dwellings created by dividing larger houses (in par­
ticular buildings with shops). Into small cubicles which are rented
to low-income households. This practice is prevalent in the older
parts of the dty. particularly in Chinatown.

d.

Public Housing Subsystem

These consist of walk-up apartment buildings, row houses,
single-family units and the like developed by the National Hous­
ing Authority (NHA) and other public agencies.

e. Rural Commuters’ Subsystem

3. See reference 2. pp. 79-84

28

A considerable number of people live in the peri-urban and
rural areas around Bangkok and commute to work in the city by
train, car. bus or boat/3'
The authors of the report concluded that “...the majority of the
system’s components rely little on planners, engineers and other
professionals, and receive little attention from government hous­
ing agencies. Yet. because of this delivery system, there is no

Environment and Urbanization. Vol. 1. No. 2. October 1939

The increase in
real income has
made it possible
for a growing
proportion of
Bangkok’s
population to find
accommodation in
the formal housing
market. But the
increase in land
prices has made it
more difficult for
the lowest-income
groups to find
affordable land and
housing in the city
centre.

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN BANGKOK

THIRTEEN YEARS LATER, this system is still largely in place.
The lack of information on the size of each of the subsystems in
the past and at present makes it difficult to determine changes in
the relative Importance of each of the subsystems. However, it
can be assumed that changes have occurred, because the overall
conditions in Bangkok have altered dramatically in the past few
years. The most important change is probably the economic
growth of Thailand which is due mainly to a boom in exports.
tourism and foreign investment, and which is concentrated in the
Bangkok Metropolitan Region and surrounding provinces.
This rapid economic growth has two Important consequences
for the low-income population and its housing conditions. No
doubt, low-income households have benefited from the economic
growth which must have resulted in an Increase in real Income
for the entire population of Bangkok. However, the rapid econ­
omic growth has also increased the demand for land, particularly
for hotels, shopping areas, office space and condominiums in
various parts of the dty, and for factories and housing estates on
the urban fringe. This has led to a sharp increase in land prices
in the Bangkok Metropolitan Region.
The Increase in real income has made it possible for a growing
proportion of Bangkok’s population to find accommodation In the
formal housing market. But the Increase in land prices has made
It more difficult for the lowest-income groups to find affordable
land and housing in the dty centre. Informal housing for the
urban poor is gradually being pushed towards the urban fringe.
This is not a problem for industrial workers who can find employ­
ment in the many new factories around the dty. However, many
low-income households are self-employed or employed in the ser­
vice sector and small-scale Industries which are concentrated in
the dty centre. They see their housing possibilities Increasingly
threatened. " “ -

IV.

SLUMS

IT IS CLEAR from the previous description of squatter housing
subsystems that what have been called ‘rental squatter settle­
ments’ are in fact not squatter housing at all, as the residents
occupy the land with the consent of the owner and usually
(though not always) pay rent. Nowadays, this subsystem is
generally referred to in Bangkok as slums (In Thai: ’salams’)
which, unfortunately, covers both land-rental slum and squatter
settlements. The land-rental slums are by far the most important
housing delivery subsystem In Bangkok.

Environment and Urbanization. Vol. 1. No. 2. October 1989

29

BANGKOK'

BANGKOK

Since Bangkok’s growth is mostly unplanned, many plots of
land cannot be easily developed because of their inaccessibility
(i.e. a lack of access roads and bridges). As these plots are cur­
rently not very valuable, the owners often allow low-income
households to occupy the land at a nominal rent or even free of
charge. The low-income family and the landowner may sign a
contract which allows the former to occupy the land and build a
house, but stipulates that the landowner can terminate the lease
by giving 30 days notice. Consequently, security of tenure in the
slums is low. However, despite this, many slums in Bangkok
have been in existence for several decades.
Sometimes the landowner provides a house as well as walk­
ways and electricity and water supplies, but usually the slum
dwellers have to build their own houses out of wood, corrugated
iron sheets and waste materials. The land Is usually unfilled and
the houses are built on posts because the plots flood during the
rainy season. Slum dwellers may rent out their house or one or
more rooms in their house to other families. Families also settle
in between the slum houses and, if they do not pay rent to the
landowner, may be considered squatters.
Slums are found on private land (65 per cent), on governmentowned land (28 per cent) and on land of mixed ownership (seven
per cent). Of a total of 383 government-owned slum land parcels.
311 are wholly or partly owned by five major landowners.15'
5. PADCO (1987), The Land
and Housing Markets of
Bangkok:. Strategies for Public
Sector Participation, Volume II,
Technical Reports. Bangkok.
p.5.10

6. Pornchokchai S. (1988).
"Spontaneous Settlements.
Canal Housing: Settlements
along Lad Prao Canal",
UNCHS-PGCHS International
Workshop on Housing,
Bangkok.

30

7. See reference 5. pp.1-8.

V.

Number of land parcels

Temples
Crown Property Bureau
Royal irrigation Department
Treasury Department
State Railways of Thailand
Other Agencies

118(31%)
74(19%)

Total

383(100%)

48(12%)
37(10%)
34 (9%)
72(19%)

What might be termed 'genuine' squatter settlements where
land Is occupied without the consent of the owner, form only
about 16 per cent of the total number of informal settlements in
Bangkok: land-rental 'slums’ are more consistent with Thailand’s
system of values which condemns any infringement of private
property rights. Squatter settlements are mostly situated along
the city’s ’klongs’ (waterways) which serve as irrigation and drain­
age canals and transportation routes. The strip of public land
along the ‘klong’ is rarely used and the urban poor, therefore,
consider it a suitable place to live.®
Together, slums and squatter settlements house about 20 per
cent of Bangkok’s six million Inhabitants. An analysis of aerial
photographs taken in 1974 and 1984 revealed that there were
some 632 slums and 108 squatter settlements In Bangkok in
1974. and that their numbers had Increased to 845 slums and
175 squatter settlements by 1984. The slums and squatter set­
tlements are, however, growing at a slower rate than the city as a
whole, and the share of slum housing in the total number of

Environment and Urbanization, Vol. 1. No. 2. October 1989

SLUM EVICTIONS

WITH RAPIDLY INCREASING land prices, an increasing number
of landowners decide to develop or sell their land. Thai society at­
taches great importance to avoiding conflict, so landowners often
stop collecting rent from the slum dwellers to signal that they in­
tend to terminate the lease contract, although it may take several
more years before they actually request the slum dwellers to
leave. This gives the slum dwellers time to prepare for the event­
ual eviction and can be seen as a form of compensation. With the
same view to avoiding conflict, many slum communities accept
that their stay on the land is only temporary and agree to leave
when ordered to do so by the landowner.
If the community does not accept the eviction order, a fire may
destroy all or most of the mainly wooden houses In the slum. The
standard contract between slum dwellers and landowner stipu­
lates that the lease is automatically terminated if a fire destroys
the houses. Moreover, the building regulations of the Bangkok
Metropolitan Administration state that structures destroyed by
fire cannot be rebuilt within 45 days, in order to allow officials to
investigate the causes of the fire. For the land owners, fires are
thus an effective means of evicting slum dwellers from their
property. Slum dwellers who return to the site to rebuild their
houses become virtual squatters on the land they occupied for
years.
Aerial photographs show that 150 slums disappeared between
1974 and 1984. A survey conducted by the National Housing
Authority to assess the rate of shim evictions in Bangkok revealed
that, in the period 1984-1986. more than 5,000 slum households
were evicted from 49 (mainly squatter) settlements. In the same
period, nine slums (1,500 households) underwent demolltiori, 12
communities (1.200 households) received a court order to vacate
the land, 43 communities (8,000 households) received eviction
notices, 10 slums (3,000 households) were situated in expropria­
tion areas and 72 communities (14,000 households) had heard
rumours of pending evictions. In 843 of the 1,020 slums, there
were ho clear signs of eviction.®

TABLE 1: THE LARGEST PUBLIC LANDOWNERS OF SLUMS'
Owner

residential units decreased from 25 per cent to 18 per cent in the
period 1974-1984.171

8. See reference 5, pp.5. 12.

VI.

LAND SHARING

THE REDUCED POSSIBILITIES for renting land in the inner-city.
due to the increase in land values, have forced the urban poor to
look for new ways of housing themselves. Some slum com­
munities have been able to turn the increased land values to their
own advantage. While most slum dwellers still agree to vacate the
land after receiving an eviction notice, non-govemmental organfzations (NGOs) in Bangkok have convinced some slum
communities not to give up the land so easily. Emphasizing the

Environment and Urbanization. Vol. 1, No. 2, October 1989

31

BANGKOK

The developer
offered
compensation to
the residents of
200 baht per
square metre of
built-up land. More
than 80 families
accepted the offer
and moved out.
The others formed
an organization to
negotiate better
compensation,
possibly in the
form of
land-sharing.
32

BANGKOK

right of the urban poor to live in the city,
NGOs have intro­
duced a new approach called ‘land-sharing’.
Land-sharing is an agreement between slum dwellers occu­
pying a piece of land and the landowner to share that land
between them. The slum dwellers agree to vacate the commer­
cially most valuable portion of the land they occupy so that the
landowner can develop or sell it. The landowner agrees to sell the
other portion of the land to the slum dwellers at a price below its
market value. This approach has received the support of the Na­
tional Housing Authority (NHA) and has succeeded, in a limited
number of cases and in a variety of circumstances, in providing
land for housing the city's poor. Below are some examples of
land-sharing schemes.
The population of Wat Ladbuakaw built their houses on 1.6
hectares of private land. In 1964. the landowner stopped collect­
ing rent and. in 1978. a fire destroyed 500 houses. After the fire,
some 300 families rebuilt their houses but the landowner sold the
land to a developer who started evicting the residents and offering
compensation ranging from 375 to 6,250 baht. . About 220
families accepted the offer and left. In 1982. the National Hous­
ing Authority (NHA) proposed ‘land-sharing
*
and 0.32 hectares
were sold to the NGO at 500 baht per square metre although the
market value was 900 baht per square metre. The residents are
now paying 455-650 baht per month over a period of five years to
the NHA to purchase the land. They have built their own houses
on 67 plots ranging in size from 34 to 60 square metres.
The Klong Toey slum was built on land belonging to the Port
Authority of Thailand (PAT). When the Port Authority needed
land for a container terminal, it began to evict 1,780 families. Fol­
lowing action by the community, supported by local NGOs, and
under pressure from the government, the Port Authority agreed to
lease 10 hectares in Klong Toey to the National Housing Authority
at 0.25 baht per square metre per month for a period of 20 years.
The NHA developed a sites-and-services scheme and leased the
plots (ranging in size from 60-108 square metres) for 60-1,100
baht per month to the slum dwellers. They built their own houses
with loans from two NGOs and with technical assistance from the
Royal Thai Army. About 1,080 families have been rehoused in this
area.
In 1979, a developer started evicting the 500 families from the
Manangkasila slum which had been built on Treasury Depart­
ment land. The developer offered compensation to the residents
of 200 baht per square metre of built-up land. More than 80
families accepted the offer and moved out. The others formed an
organization to negotiate better compensation, possibly in the
form of land-sharing. In 1982. the landowner agreed to lease
0.67 of the 1.75 hectare site on a yearly basis to the Manangkasi­
la Credit Union Housing Co-operative which was made up of the
remaining 198 families. Each family made a down-payment of
700 baht and pays a monthly rent of 0.5 baht per square metre.
For the very small plots (20-40 square metres), the NHA designed
a two-and-a-half-storey house, of which 150 have been built.
The Crown Property Bureau owns the land where the Rama IV
slum is situated. In 1966. fires demolished many houses. The
landowner told the residents to vacate the land and leased it to a
developer, although not all the inhabitants’ lease contracts had

Environment and Urbanization, Vol 1,No.2, October 1989

9. Panroj Islam P. and Yap
K.S. (1989), "Land-sharing as.
a Low-income Housing
Policy". Habitat International,
Vol. 13, No.1. pp.117-126.

10. Bangkok Post, 27 April
1989.

11. Angel S. and Yap K.S
(1988), The Sengki LandSbaring Project: A Preliminary
Evaluation, Report submitted
to the United Nations Centrefor Human Settlements (Habitat)
in Nairobi (Kenya). Bangkok.

12. See reference 9. p.122

expired. When the contracts expired and the developer tried to
evict the 700 families, the slum dwellers mobilized political sup­
port. The struggle received extensive publicity and backing from
local and international NGOs. In 1981. the developer agreed to
designate 2.4 of the 8.43 hectares for the construction of four
eight-storey buildings for the slum dwellers who were to be given
20-year leases on the flats. However, by 1989, the construction of
these buildings had not yet begun.
*
9’
In 1980, the Crown Property Bureau started evicting the 159
families who lived in the Sam Yod slum. The community or­
ganized Itself and solicited support from NGOs, politicians and
the National Housing Authority. In 1982, one of the NGOs pro­
posed a land-sharing scheme which the residents rejected. In
1986, the NHA prepared a new plan with four-storey buildings to
resettle 192 families. This plan was accepted by the landowner
and the community leaders. In early 1989, the Crown Property
Bureau and the NHA told the slum dwellers to vacate the site for
the construction of a shopping complex, a car park and the flats.
This will take two years and the slum dwellers will have to find
temporary accommodation elsewhere whilst their flats are being
built.ll0) .
S
The land on which the Soi Sengki slum is situated belongs to
the King’s Property Bureau (KPB) which did not try to evict the
slum dwellers, but refused to renew the leases after a fire de­
stroyed the settlement. In 1984. the Bureau agreed to sell 0.6 of
the 1.1 hectares to the slum dwellers who formed a co-operative
and bought the land in 1987. Having made a downpayment of 20
per cent, the co-operative is now paying the Bureau 75,000 baht
a month over a period of five years. A total of 143 households
have been selected for the scheme. The plots have been demar­
cated, but no houses have been built yet;- as some of the
lowest-lncome households have difficulty in paying for their plots
and other households claim larger plots than those which have
been allocated to themJ11^
Land-sharing represents an interesting approach to securing
land for housing the poor but it must be stressed that only in the
above six cases were slum communities able to achieve land­
sharing. and that in three of the six cases the agreement has yet
to be fully Implemented. Moreover, many households originally
living In these six slum communities could not wait for the out­
come of the negotiations and left before an agreement had been
reached. In many slums, land-sharing is not possible because the
area is too small to partition or the reconstruction of the settle­
ment is too expensive for the slum dwellersJ12)
Land-sharing also tends to ignore the heterogeneity of the slum
population. A slum usually houses people renting land, people
renting houses and squatters who do not necessarily operate in
the same housing submarket. It accommodates households with
very different Income levels who can afford different forms of
housing: some may be able to buy a plot in the scheme, some
may already own land or a house on the urban fringe, while
others may be too poor to take part in the project or may prefer to
rent land.

Environment and Urbanization, Vol. 1, No. 2. October 1989

33

BANGKOK

BANGKOK

VII.

13. Business, 1989-90-91, pp
223-224. ■

34

RESETTLEMENT

IN VIEW OF the rapidly increasing land prices, landowners nowa­
days may offer *01000
baht or more to households which are
prepared to vacate their land immediately. Many communities
now Initially resist such a buy-out and ask for higher compensa­
tion. Some have succeeded in obtaining compensation of 40.000
baht per household. This may be sufficient to buy a plot of land
on the urban fringe, but it is not usually enough to also finance
the construction of a house. A recent example of this kind of re­
settlement is the Klong Koom Resettlement Project. .
Three slum communities with a total of 110 households occu­
pied land belonging to the State Railways of Thailand (SRT).
Although located not far from the city centre, the land had not
been developed due to a lack of access roads. In December 1988.
a new road (Rama IX Road) was opened in the area and this in­
creased land values considerably as the land was now accessible
and available for development. The State Railways leased 14 hec
tares of land to a private developer who planned the construction
of shopping villages, hotels, an office condominium, a department
store, restaurants and supermarkets at a total estimated cost of
1,500-2,000 million baht(13)
In October 1988, the State Railways and the developer offered
the three communities 8,500 baht per household to vacate the
land. The communities rejected the offer and proposed land-shar­
ing but this, in turn, was rejected by the State Railways and the
developer. In February 1989. the offer was Increased to 10,000
baht per household together with a strip of suburban land run­
ning alongside a railway line, 20 metres wide and long enough to
resettle all the households. The communities also rejected this
offer. They demanded compensation of 40,000 baht per house­
hold and requested that the National Housing Authority buy a
plot of land which they had identified as affordable and suitably
located in Bangkapi in the north-east of Bangkok. However, as
negotiations continued, more and more households accepted the
10,000 baht compensation and houses were demolished. One of
the three communities fell apart when its leader accepted 12,000
baht and left. Soon afterwards, the other families dismantled their
houses and moved away. Three families found shelter'under a
bridge nearby.
The remaining two communities persisted and negotiated com­
pensation of 18.000 baht per household which they used to buy
1.1 hectares of land in Bangkapi. In May 1989, the 40 remaining
families from Rama IX Road (and 50 other households evicted
from slums in Juay Kwan and Pratnunam) resettled on the land
which they bought for 375 baht per square metre. The land is
cheap because there is no public access to the plot and the exist­
ing unpaved road runs over the property of four different
landowners; the price of better situated land in that area is about
1,000 baht per square metre. The National Housing Authority
prepared a layout plan with 80 square metre plots and raised the
access roads. However, to date, the plots have not been filled,
there is no proper water supply, no electricity and no drainage.
The families have made a down-payment of 10,000 baht for the
land and have received a loan from the National Housing Auth­

Environment and Urbanization, Vol. 1, No. 2. October 1989

ority which they pay back at a rate of 650 baht per month: after
two years, a bank will take over the loan. The residents from
Rama IX Road have 8,000 baht compensation left for the con­
struction of their houses. This is obviously Insufficient and most
families have, therefore, built their houses with materials from
their former slum settlement.

VIII.

14. See reference 5. pp.4, 6-7.

INFORMAL LAND SUBDIVISIONS

THE KLONG KOOM Resettlement project resembles the informal
subdivisions which are common on the urban fringe of Bangkok.
Land subdivisions consist of unfilled plots served by paved or un­
paved raised roads, water from a well and electricity. The
developer, who may be the original landowner, a broker, the vtl lage headman or a business company, usually negotiates with the
owners of adjacent plots for free right-of-way to the land in ex­
change for road access at the edge of their plots. Narrow lanes
are thus laid wherever landowners are most co-operative, often
resulting in a haphazard road network.
. In. the late 1960s, land subdivisions gained a bad reputation as
developers failed to transfer the plots to the buyers, while others
failed to deliver the services which had been promised. In 1972, a
decree was issued to curb malpractice in the subdivision and sale
of land. In addition, regulations were set requiring minimum plot
sizes, wide and properly paved roads, drainage, sewage treatment
and public amenities. However, these regulations increased the
cost of land subdivisions and pushed their price beyond the
means of many households.
Fortunately, many small developers continued to subdivide
land in the old manner using a loophole in the decree which
exempts a subdivision of nine plots or less from the regulations.
The developers obtain one or more land parcels and divide each
parcel into nine plots: each plot is then transferred to relatives
and acquaintances. Once the new deeds have been obtained.
they again submit each plot for subdivision into nine plots until
the desired plot size has been achieved. In this way, the sub­
divider can circumvent the regulations and provide minimum
infrastructure such as narrow lanes without proper drainage/14^
For lower middle-income families in Bangkok, informal subdi­
visions are an important submarket as they provide plots at an
affordable price; they are a form of private sector sites-and-servlces project.
The infrastructure conditions in the land
subdivisions may not be very different from those in a rental slum
with unpaved roads, unfilled land and minimal infrastructure but
there is security of tenure because the families own the land. A
disadvantage of most informal land subdivisions is their remote
location on the urban fringe. However, some are located near in­
dustrial areas and provide housing opportunities for factory­
workers.
As the Bangkok Metropolitan Region is quickly becoming in­
dustrialized, the number of factory workers is increasing,
particularly in the north and south-east of the dty. Due to the
high demand, factory worker housing has developed on land sub­
Environment and Urbanization, Vol. 1. No. 2, October 1989

35

|

BANGKOK

divisions in the area. An employee of a facWiy buys a plot of land
in the subdivision and Initially lives there on his own. When he
discovers the high demand for low-cost accommodation, he adds
a row of six to 12 rooms to his house to rent to his fellow factory
workers. Most of the structures are single-storeyed, but some are
double-storeyed. They are built of wood or cement blocks with
each unit usually occupied by a single family and the water sup­
ply coming from a deep well.

IX.

15. Department of
International Economic and
Social Affairs (DIESA) of the
United Nations (1987),
Population Growth and Policies
in Mega-Cities: Bangkok.
Population Policy Paper No. 10.
New York, p 27.

16. See reference 5. pp.1-25

36

LOW-COST HOUSING

THERE HAS BEEN rapid growth in Bangkok’s private housing
market in recent years. Although private developers did not enter
the market until the late 1960s. they rapidly increased their pro­
duction from 18.690 housing units by 1974. to 122.490 housing
units by 1984. In the early 1980s. the demand for middle-income
housing, particularly in the suburban areas, began to weaken due
to rising construction costs, high land prices, high commuting
costs and the unavailability of housing finance. To reduce con­
struction costs, developers started to build townhouses and
condominiums. However, the market for such units became satu­
rated/15^
In the 1980s. developers moved into the low-cost housing mar­
ket and produced large numbers of complete land-and-houslng
units in the outlying suburbs for less than 250,000 baht, despite
increased land prices. Most of the houses cost 175,000-200,000
baht with a down-payment of 50,000 baht: monthly repayments
are 1.750 baht on a 15-year mortgage loan at 11.75 per cent in­
terest. A significant number of the houses cost 150.000-175,000
baht, with a down-payment of 46,000 baht and monthly repay­
ments of 1.500 baht. Although beyond the means of the
lowest-income groups, these houses extend the range of people
who can afford to purchase houses and are an important con­
tribution to the housing stock.
According to the National Housing Authority, the private sector
houses constructed in 1980 could be afforded by households
earning 10,000 baht or more per month. These households
formed only 15 per cent of the population of Bangkok in 1980; in
other words, private sector housing was unaffordable by 85 per
cent of Bangkok’s population. In 1987, the private sector was
producing housing units which required monthly repayments of
1.500 baht and. therefore, were affordable by households with an
income of 6,000 baht per month. Such households now form 55
per cent of the city’s population. Many see this development as
evidence that, without market restrictions, the private sector is
able to produce affordable housing for lower-income groups.[16)
However, the low-cost houses produced in 1987 differ marked­
ly from the houses built in 1980. The plots and the floor areas of
the 1987 low-cost houses are smaller than those of the 1980 lowcost houses: the 1987 houses are almost exclusively row houses:
and the projects are located further away from the city centre.
Moreover, several temporary rather than structural factors have
contributed to the downward trend. As the banking system ex­
perienced high liquidity, the Government Housing Bank offered

Environment and Urbanization.-Vol. 1. No. 2. October 1989

BANGKOK

17. "Double-digit Growth
Again. Economic Review 1989
Mid-Year", Bangkok Post.
p.19
“ ' .

mortgage loans at 11.75 per cent. This forced commercial banks
to lower their rates from an average of 16 per cent in 1980 and
local finance and Insurance companies also started to compete in
the mortgage Ioan market. The price of building materials was
also relatively low, partly due to the low oil prices.
The situation Is now changing again/175 The arrival of new In­
dustry from Japan, South Korea, Taiwan and Singapore and of
capital from Hong Kong has Increased the demand for offices and
high-income housing. This has resulted in a boom in the con­
struction of office buildings and condominiums which has pushed
up the price of land and building materials. It is. therefore, likely
that the down-market trend in housing construction has been
only a temporary phenomenon. Furthermore, many families in
Bangkok have a household income of less than 6.000 baht per
month and, therefore, cannot afford private sector low-cost hous­
ing. They still have to resort to more informal housing solutions
such as slums and squatter settlements.

X.

CONCLUSIONS

THE INCREASING DEMAND for land in Bangkok is gradually re­
ducing the opportunities for the urbah poor to rent land In the
more central locations they need for cheap access to jobs or in­
come earning opportunities. Although landowners are still willing
to rent land to the urban poor on a temporary basis, these new
slums are situated ever further away from the heart of the city
and its informal economic opportunities.
For some slum dwellers this is not a serious problem. Because
of Thailand’s rapidly growing economy, they can now afford to
buy a plot of land in an informal subdivision, or even a private
sector low-cost house, and to pay the additional transportation
costs. Other slum dwellers have not benefited so much from the
economic development but, rather than being evicted from the
city, they ‘played the market’ by capitalizing on the high demand
for land and by bargaining for a share in the increased land
value. This enabled them to buy rather than to rent land in the
city, either on the original site (land-sharing) or at an alternative
location (resettlement).
Consequently, three new land-and-houslng delivery subsys­
tems have developed in Bangkok in recent years:
- a subsystem for low-cost land-and-housing units in private
sector schemes;
- a subsystem for semi-serviced plots in informal land subdivi­
sions:
- a subsystem for commercially less attractive plots of land for
sale rather than for rent, mainly in the suburbs.
The size of these subsystems is small relative to the housing
needs of Bangkok’s low-income population, and their future is
uncertain. For most low- income families tn Bangkok, they rannot provide adequate housing. These families will probably
continue to live in land rental slums, with ever higher densities
and deteriorating housing conditions or they will move to new
land rental slums located further from the city.

Environment and Urbanization. Vol. 1. No. 2, October 1989

37

ID 12-y

S'. 4..

TUJ-Cl----[jod a1 DUO
‘0 o D1.' I 1 El DOO
a :□ !□ DOO
0 on 1 DO
nu
]d|DD
n
]□
r 1c
Ths hutment dwellers of Bombay constitute over 50 % of its
/population. They ure ths workers on a daily wage who subsi■ dize the economy of the city with their cheap labour and
[their zero cost living conditions., Today the Maharashtra
'government and the Bombay Municipal Corporation have laun­
ched a multi-faceted campaign against them. Their motives
to get them off land in Bombay, the builders' paradise.
CPDR held a seminar on The Housing Problem and the new
Ordinance on Unauthorised Constructions., Given below are
excerpts from the papers presented..

HOUSHG: Choast-Bfame te wcfes?
7;-;

"ART'Desai

■■............

■■■
...........................

.............

...........................

tion being carried on by tho State
through tho Five-Year Plans.

THIS PAPER ATTEMPTS TO HIGHLIGHT
both the basic features of urban
development in India
since 1947,and
the social implications of this mods of
urban development.

Indian society noeds a faster rate of
urbanisation to enable it to be lifted
to a reasonable stage of prosperity.
Ths following tables are presented to
About 77 percent of India’s population
provide a concrete statistical picture
still lives in the rural areas with ag­
of Indian urban development.
riculture bs its main cccupation.Rural
India is characterised by two axtremsss
Provisional data from the 1901 Census
one,a small class-of landowners who have
only confirm the trend of urban deve­
te'ornersd-the major share“of~iahd“’aficl rslilatad “resources, iTif ^structural and inlopment as indicated in the three
jetitutional facilities,and who control
(earlier decades from tho data presented
/above.Forinstanc,e,of the total population {various organisations and institutions,. 3
D"of 684 million in 1901,23.7 percent
two,a massif' class of disposseoad
)lived in urban areas against 20 percent
peasantry increasingly being transformed
Jin 1971.Similarly,clustering of urban
into landless labourers desperately
; population in the larger urban centres
searching for work and for an escape
! continues unabated,and,in fact, ie being
from their oppressive social, political
accentuated.Towns with a population of
and cultural conditions.
20,000 and more (i.o. Class I,II and III
Due to those unbearable conditions and
towns) which absorbed 82.4 percent of
the lack of alternative sources of.live­
the total urban population in 1971,nou
lihood,those pauperised g?.'oupo of peasa­
absorb 86 percent of the total urban
ntry ,landless labourers,artisans and
population.
othorsjQro forced.to roam from either
rural to rural areas or from rural to
Crucial Features of Urbanisation
urban areas,particularly to big cities.
ThjS—J'f light "...oil, 2di.str.Qss" migration <
Deta presented hero reveal corfain
is taking place at an increasing rate,
crucial constant foaturcs of urbanisa­
The percentage of urban population whic

3

has incrased from 17 to 23 cf tho total
. population since 1947 is not» a, .symptom
! of ths progressive pull and bettor
■ j. ivlrig’conam-pmr^' ■thczEltieo.but an
' indication that the planned development
i ,feV-'tFie-r’oring -fl'ass3s"can neither pl’c ■
/Xv’idb employment oppo rcuhitia5~iro~r~~ut 11 -•
p ~ther mc.■ 1tvs humen_lailOii rn_p we r
&vail able in both rural andurban areas.
The <incapaci't'v of the State to develop
thejmsnufacturing sector and tho empioymetFfelaiedto'i'f, results in inade­
quate availability of goods and servi­
ced nocesscry to develop an adequate
infrastructure of power,transport,sani­
tation ? lighting
*
healths educational and
recreational failitioa so neceosery for
proper city living.

Tho central and state govornwento oro
pursuing a policy of establishing Metro­
politan Regional Development Autharltdoa
backed by various complementary institu­
tions which accelerate tho process of
concentration by consciously evolving
huge metropolitan complexoa.Similarly,
vthere ia a conscious policy of’creating
jnew yrban centres,including twin cities,
port cities,industrial cities,capital
/cities,etc.,thus increasing the c.onccnjtration of urbanisation. Those new
urban centres come ih for spacial treat­
ment by public bodies to create codtly
complex infrastructures that will help
tho private sector to.launch industrioe,
Or sometimes they start capital inten­
sive) industries thomselveo and attract
-ti girdle of private sector enterprises
Thepattern of urban development is not
and a complex of various services •» •
harmonious or balanced.Thorate of growth transport, shopping, recreational, etc co­
of the veious classes of urbansettlemen- operated by theprivate sector with its
t.s is unbalanced and uneven.The bigger
attendant chase after profits and a

Statintical Profile of Urban Development
Growth rate of .""total population (numbers in millions;
percentage of total
in brackets)
T at al
Rural.
Urban
Vs a??
62.44(17)
758765 (;33)
195f
361.09
360,30!.82)
73.94(18)
1961
439.24
547.37
19.71
438.50!;eo)
108,79(20)
Clasaificntiqn of Urban India by Six Classcis - 1971

Urban classes
(according to

No. of
towns

Population
Ratio to
(in millionsQ^total
urban_ _

142
190
617
931
756
277

57.02
13.22
18.88
13.10
5.70
0.87

population)

i « over one lakh
li~ 50,000 - 99,999
HI-20.000 - 49,999
1 V=» "• 0 n 0 0 0 * • 19,993
V - 5,000 - 9,999
VI- below 5,000

52.41
12.15
17.36
12.04
5 <, 24
0.80

comparative neglect of tho quality of
services 'provided.

the town the faster its rate of 'growth
*
Today, of about 3,000 urban settlements
only a few cities with populations of
over a lakh each,absorb more than 55
percent of tho urban population as a
whole.

I his process of unbalanced urban deve­
lopment with its attendant phonomana
.characterised as "tho crisis of urban

4

living1' can bo grasped only if wo take
note of the fact that it is a product
of the economic,industrial and urban
policies adopted by the State.
The path of development prusued by tho
ruling classes has generated a jlistorted economic development resulting in a
concentra t io n~gT~a3sets ITT f eu' han~ds~bn ’
cne~'side/and" pauperisation^ of'Jt'fie major­
ity on tiioother,driving them to the ten­
sions bfunemp'idyment or uridefemploymerit,lumpen activities.,begging, garbage
collection,"etc’.',thus treating diverse
situations w.ith.reapect-to shelter,eespntial commodities ..and--services..- This class configuration emerging as a
direct result of government policies is
creating a wierd pat’tern of urban living
which takes on a dual appearance.At one
end, an urban sector.of the corrupt rich
with its dazzling posh localities} at
the other, end the urban sector for the
majority of the urban population,compri­
sing the lower middle_clasa and _working_-

4
■h

classes,with dilopidated ch-awls, slum
end pavement dwellings.Locking adequate
purchasing power,they cannot afford
□heltor,amenities,facilities and servi­
ces even for a basic docent existenco.

The inadequate supply of land space and
dwelling area for the overwhelming maj­
ority of the poor citizens in urban .
areas classically illustrates the unjust
approach both by the government and tho
private suppliers of those commodities.
(Host of theland is cornered by the pro­
prietory classes and the State that re­
presents them.They reap enormous profite
especially on speculation.

fl bitter,desperate and increasingly
fierce struggle by the poor for securing
a resting place for their tired,emacia­
ted bodies takes place in urban areas.
Ths growth of shanty-towns,slums,hutmen­
ts, bustees and other such dwellings,
many of them on pavements,proliferate
from year to year.

a

Kann an Srinivasan
TteRE IS A GENERAL CLAIM MADE
Htoday for "sang urban planning".
The-earlier thesis that slums wers
sn inevitable consequence of devel. epitent and that in a gsnoration or
two everyone would catch up has
been discarded. The new approach is
te see victims without villains.^
save en unenlightened government'.
With publicity and reason wc shall
deal with the historical inherit­
ance of poverty,, and institutional
inadequacies , such as bad planning.
Mow is-such planning to be dons?
Urban specialists answer the queetjiun of how to “stimulate housing
production"? channelise savings,
peneve impediments such as rent
control, which discourage investsent; unfreeze regulated land to
permit the buyer and sellsr alone to
seke a free choice. Remove the conattaints which prevent a free
EierlcBt, arid the market will then
eater' to all this unsatisfied
demand - flats for some, serviced
sitae for others? old buildings
rill bs repaired, and slums will bo
upgraded, As wo all suffer today,
it is said.that we shall benefit
equallystomorrow with a wall-ordered
city.

makes ths transition to modern city
it io necessary and possibles for
tho government to manage ths procosa
efficiently. We should look to tho
state to do something about housing?
as for instance, we should expect it
to compel the rationalisation of ths
textile industry.
Both those notions are ultimately
false, and .have the effect of being
diversionary.
>
•
■
THE LAND DEVELOPMENT INDUSTRY

Lot us look at land development in
the city. Slums look like housing
of a sort. But they are only inci­
dentally ao, " and under elumo", aa
it is called, a certain stage in the
land development industry. Govern­
ment statistics show only 2% of
slum dwellers employed as construc­
tion workers, but in this other
sonso ail of them are workers in tho
construction .industry.-Slum dwslioro
.are workers where they live. Thio
second means of livelihood is
entirely unpaid, but there io no
choice, since this is their only
chance of shelter.

Slum dwellers must encroach on and
develop land,' hold it encroached as
"vacant non-vac ant", to deny
development except when it becomes

Another argument runs; the city is
an"engine of growth", and all
depends on the citios. fls Bombay

6"

necessary. The ownership and
cont;ol of the asset of urban land,
by those mho will price the land®
and determine the rent, is a signi­
ficant means of exploitation. for
all of labour produc above that
minimum required for life is appro­
priated by the employers of labour;
Value is created by tenants,
appropriated by landlords,, Slum
duellers cannot avail themselves of
the protection of rsnt control. So
most of the city’s workers are
actually paying full rent, what the
market decides to ths point of
great misery. Rent' is an ordinary
part of the workman's cost of living
is like money paid for food and
clothing; but it is also appropri­
ation of surplus value, for the
surplus is not all acquired at tho
workplace by tho direct employers
of labour. It is also surrendered
at thg place of residence to their
subordinate interests, working
through the machinery
of the
various political parties.
Slum duellers develop land expen­
sive and labour intensive work by
clearing forest or scrub, torracing
hillsides, or as in Bombay,reclaim­
ing marshy land (most of Bombay
has at one time been under water).
Periodic controlled releases of
legal construction onto the urban
market are made through the perio­
dic clearances cf shanty towns.
Surplus value is finally extracted
when slumdwellers are demolished
end uprooted for each new legal
development, which channels land
into a speculative market; 15,000
flats arc produced a year against
an annual demand of 45,000.
So 'formal', that is, legal housing
pro duction, and the informal
illegal section of the industry,,
depend closely on one another,
Landlords and property developers
who control tho encroachment of
land then control the development,
the deliberately restricted supply
through clearance, and last, the
pricing of urban land.
There are vary high returns oh
Investment; this is along with
films, the manufacture of certain
controlled industrial products,
and smuggling, the mos.t profitable
industry in India. According to
a Government estimate, flat prices
per square foot on Nepean Sea Road
range between Rs. 650 to Rs. 1000,

in Bandra between
Rs. 350 to 750
and in Borivali and Kandivali
between Rs. 225 to Re. 400.^Yet
construction costs have never
exceeded Rs. 100 to Rs. 13-0. One
can estimate profit levels.'of 100/1
to 1,700% and more, over 3 to 5
years. These are not shelter prices
they are investment prices in a
scarce, controlled commodity.
In tho last five years, most of tha
building in Central Bombay has boan
carried out by. YUsuf Patel and Haji
Mastan yiho made thsir money in
smuggl c- . Similarly, earnings in
other industries, taxied and unt’axsd
are bound to be irtvastod in thia
most lucrative enterprise. Bombay
Dyeing has'an interest in "Nav.ankores" which has used 24 hectares
of land to put up 2500 flats in
Naiad and Goragaon; another 296
hectares of land is to be similarly
davalopod. Tata Housing Development
Corporation has announced construc­
tion of flats in Pare!, priced
between Rs. 8 to Rs. 10 lakhs. In
an interview on 10th Duly, Ths
director-in-charge explained that
"tha Tatas have always sought to
provide the basic amenities of life
to tho citizenry'- food, clothing,
and now shelter." And more applic­
ations have been made in the last
5 years to the Competent Authority
(Urban Land Ceiling) for building
in Bombay by S.P.Godrsj, Sunabai
Godroj Foundation, Godrej Soaps,
Godrej.and Boyce and tha Godrej
'Trust, than by any other group or
party. Investors ara bound to gain
returns which are superior to the
manufacturing and service indus trios.in tho property market.

WHAT WILL THE STATE DO1:
The argument has been mads by some
that the city is a vehicle of
modernization, since, compared to
the countryside, income levels are
higher, labour is organised and a
higher level of welfare prevails.
So we must look to the Government
to organize facilities and to take
rational and equitable decisions.
The-Industrial Location Policy
for- Bombay Metropolitan Region was
issued on 27th January, 1977, and
has been amended on 25th May,. 1977
20th August, 1977' and 28th Febru­
ary, 1979. Definitions of conform­
ing and non-conforming 'industries,
smallmedium and large scale, the

i'oquirsnsnt for housing labour and
penalties for defiance have all
been modified ropoatodly. •Quito
apart from thia, there have boon
major exemptions to this policy,
such as the two permissions to ,
Tata Thermal Power to expand from
330 (TH3 to 1330 FilWo The first was
granted by the Janata Government,
the second by ths Congress (l).
Other instances", as a policy
decision, the excise duty on
power looms was reduced; also the
celling on licensing requirements
has been raised from Rs. 1 to Rsa3
crore.
Oatwoen becembor 1969 and September
i98'i the number of Bnnk offices'in
Bombay increased from 456 to 949;
deposits from Rs. 96,392 million to.
Ra. 555,760 million and advances
from Rs. 97,617 million to
Rs, 466,679 million.As policy. .
decisions, 45 exemptions from the
floor space index norms have been
granted, under section 13(4) of the
BURDA Act. Each and ovary such
decision has a direct and inevitable
consequence on employment.

Uo see therefore, ths gfeat arbit­
rariness of 'the State. It creates
employment, yet denies shelter as
a right to those who must work
in Bombay. The Governments use of
its own vacant land shows how much
it is a conspirator. It is ono of
the largest landowners in Greater
Bombay. It does not naod the Urban
Lend Coiling or any other Act of
Parliament, to put its vast holdings
in Goregaon, Borivali, UJorli, and
Colaba to public use. Not only does
it build flats exclusively for the
.upper end middle classes, but it
deliberately hoards its own vacant
land so that the "housing'-1 market,
and the profits which depend on
curtailed supply, remain undisturbed

Action by the state is not only
required in the market maroly to
offset certain occasional external­
ities. Externalities, monopolies
and maldistributions of income
dominate tho main urban markets in
land, buildings, and essential
services. Urban land gats its
market value,, so called, not from
its physical nature, nor from its
owner’s outlays. This market value
is determined by public and private
investment in the area. Investing
in property is essentially finding
put about, and then influoncing

investment'and locational decisions,
Sa it is really
only knowladgo
and manipulation of externalities,,
In Bombay it is specific parcels of
development rights under the land
use plan required by ths Maharashtra
and Regional and Town Planning Act
1367 which aro traded on the market.
It io a regulated private market,
in which the market has choaon the
regulation.
Tho ideal efficiency of the froe
market would eeem to require divis­
ibility and interchangeability. But
every urban location is unique.
It has eomo inherent monopoly value.
In bidding for such a location, as

tions and private companies pay any
price, since they are roally quite
unaccountable to tho general public
end commercial bidders bid high
because of an elastic capacity to
increase the price of their own
goods and services. Than the mono­
poly in their trade translates into
power in the urban market, limiting
greatly the choice of other poten­
tial bidders.

Tho entire complex of economic
systems which characterises a dev­
eloped market, working rules,
policing, judicial functions - has
not evolved as a set of market
conventions, but it has bean created
by the government'. Ths classes which
wanted certain arrangements, such
as ownership, contract of .limited
liability, did not set these up
through market methods. From tho
very beginning they have had to use
the mechanism of the state. So,
regulation is not simply an exog­
enous imposition. Tho framing, tho
administration and judicial over­
sight of such laws are, after all,
determined by existing class forces
So it is not necessary to consider
whether constraints can be removed
so that the "buyer and the seller
alono" may determine what is opti-

Conspicuous by its absence is any
"free choice", leading to social
efficiency.
„

It is therefore an irrelevant
choice whether to have "government
intervention" in a free market, or
to set a monopoly market free,
as the state in this respect is
net distinct from the market.
The expectation of "efficiency and
equity" is really that the cities
should make a decision distinct
from the rest of ths country that
the state- can be diverted to servo
a social purpose without compro­
mising its essential design. But,
first, it cannot be shown.that this
multiplier" is optimum as more jobs
nay well be created with an altarnative investment. Second it is not
possible to avoid the object of'
State action: the intention is
relevant. Such spin-off jobs are
not created in order to expand
employment.
The pyramid of labour
employed and underemployed, enables
employers to pick and choose, to
demoralise organised labour because
there are so many others. The
purpose of this.whole pattern of
development is to provide markets,
raw materials and intermediate
manufacturing facilities. It is,
essential for such an economy that
workers here must live at the
margin. To the organised labour ths
comparison is made with the unorg­
anised; and to all the cities’
workers, the comparison is made with
the rural poor.
Let us
look-at the much-touted
“sites and services" programme. A
pilot project, assisted by the World
Bank, is now being undertaken. It is
meant to become the general solution
to Bombay’s housing problem. Ivan a
number of progressives see it as a
feasible plan. Out a serviced sites
cchema will not work under ths
present circumstances, for the first
requirement is that the sites should
ba accessible. But these are at
places such as fJulund, Dombivli,
Ambiirnath, Ulhasnagar, Thana, Uashi,
•urbhe, and Panvel. Those who can
least afford to commute, must now
commute farthest. A. second require­
ment is that it should satisfy the
entire demand for shelter. In any
situation of scarcity the serviced
site holder will naturally increase
his meagre over all income, by
selling and returning to his old

. p 1 ac e.

A stated reason for thia policy
urged for .many third world countries
by the IBRD
is low wage levels.
It is therefore taken aa a given
truth that these wages cannot bo.
raised. But if the State indeed
possessed what is called the
"political will" to intervene in
lend,, it could more easily enforce
higher wages for workers. Yet in
the
less tightly controlled, loea
profitable industries, it
has not
even ensured the statutory minimums
lUhy then should
we ever expect
this State to intervene in the
building industry which has the
highest profit levels of all and
to destroy builders' control over
prices - to break it up for the
sake of an equitable distribution
of urban land?
THE LAID ABD THE STATE

The State makes laws, the only
purpose of which is to perpetuates
the unfroe market. In the enact­
ment, the judicial interpretation
and the administration by the Govt.,
there prevails no rule of law, but
only the
iron rule of the
market.

The Urban Land (Ceiling and Rsgulc.
ation) Act of 1976, has been gener­
ally misuderstood as being a land
acquisition
act. So people say:
"Lot the Govt, implement its own
law." But, as the dissenting
justice Tulzapurkar asked (in
fflaharao Sahib Bhim Singh v/s Union
of India (UJP Wo. 3S0 of 1977) if
this is meant to distribute land to
the poor, why do they come so low in
the list of priorities, for allot­
ment after acquisition? "Industry"
is first, followed by several others,,
such as "Public institutions".
Exemptions are to be granted to
"weaker Sections of the Society" end
in"the public interest". Both terms
are entirely undefined. In ths Act1,
itself "Weaker Section Housing" is
defined as 000 sq. ft', and there is
no test of income. Such flats have
even been built in Malabar Hill.
Exemption is virtually as of right,
for when a landowner is refused,
"natural justice" will demand that'
the Govt, has a defined public
purpose superior to the landowners
own for
*
the land which is within
its purview. And the Government Has

nnno which can be so proven in tho
terms of the act. Yet, in the last
7 years since the Act' came into
force, only a controlled trickle of
building permissions has issued
every year. Virtually the same number
of flats have been built annually,
before 'end after the Act, that the
private sector would have in any
case undertaken.
Year

No.of FIs ts

Y e ar

No.p.f Flats

1973-4

13841

1980-81

13000
approx©

•’174-5

16667

1981-82

13000
approx®

J975-6

14499

1982-83

13000
approxo

1976-7

16043

1977-3

13758

1978-9

12289

The Act' has not frozen development.
It has only
centralised claarance
in one state authority, sinco all
transactions in urban land-vacant, '
encroached, to be redeveloped-above
500 sqo metre, are now subject to
■ government approval'. In fact, a
certain element of risk .and uncer­
tainty may have bean reduced by this
regulation enabling better planning
of investment and productions.

Because of the Rent Control Act,
landlords do not improve their
buildings'. But that doos not mean
that it curbs private enterprise.
Dilapidated buildings serve the
" market’s purpose admirably..If there
isera no control, landlords would
raise rents and throw out tenant's
who could not pay; as rent is
controlled, the working class and
.'that section of tha middle class
which does not
own its accomo­
dation, lives in increasingly
broken down buildings. They live io
them till they collapse, and each
collapse is a frosh release into tho
market. Controlled rent, in thia
context, really means controlled
collapses. About 200 buildings fall
every year, and landlords can antic­
ipate
extra-ordinary wind fail
profits in the sale of full consump­
tion of floor space index. The
horror of people's lives in old
buildings is only a side effect.

Tho Maharashtra Regional and Town
Planning Act of 1966 provides for a
Development Plan. This plan defines
the categories of ’authorised’ and
’unauthorised’ development. These
are in violent contravention of
reality. What people can actually
afford to build is considered unauth­
orized in order to deny shelter. Dy
h< sections .52 to 55 anyone living
in a Zopadi ejan have it summarily
■ demolisfiecJ. Tf he tries to rebuild,
; he can be~arrested without a warrant,
j refused bail, and sc.nt to jail for
j three years,._aa._uii±'.i all demolitions,
I the intent is insecurity and terror.
' Surplus value is most easily extraci ted from a working class too
harrassed to assert its rights.
Tho same development plan provides
for "public housing". Yet the term
is so loosely, defined that it embra­
ces private housing, including
luxury flats and shopping centres.
Most of this variety of public
housing has been carried out in
central Bombay,

On September 11, 1979, Yusuf Patel
asked the Govt, for permission to
put up the Kedy Co-operative Housing
Society and the Patel and Sony
Arcade Luxury flats and shopping
centres at the junction of Maulana
Azad Road and Old Be'llasis Road in
Nagpada. It is a site reserved for
public housing in the Development
plan. Yet, on December 1, 1979, the
Maharashtra Urban Development
Department wrote to Patel that the
"Govt, has no objection to allowing
the land under reference which is
reserved in tho development plan for
’public housing’ being developed
by a Cc-op. Housing Society.”
But there is a specific B.ffl.C. resol­
ution (No. 191 of July 10, 1966)
which says that "In view of the
/[ accepted principle that persons
/ • displaced from tho city proper should
/ be offered rehousing within ths city
/
proper, and the paucity of housing
!
reservation in ths city (Vizs 486
I
acres) no more reservations in the
city should be released for coI operative housing.”

So, belatedly, on January 7, 1960,
exercising its powers under section
154 of the Maharashtra Regional
Sown Planning Act, the Government
issued a
circular, Henceforth
’Public Housing’ meant ’Private
Housing’ as wall.

the law oaye that tho accomodation
must bo convenient or nearby. If tho ■
occupier does not leave, oven this ,
offer expires and the officer io to
use ell necessary force to throw
him out. The preamble of a law Is
held to be primaryi

Armed as he is with the blessings
of four successive government and
Congress (l) and Congress (S) cgd
□anata Ministers of Housing and
Urban Development, Patel Bns put up
many such buildings. Some others
ere "Seby Bang",, a 20-Storey block
next to the Anjutnan-i-Islam Girls’
High School, the three-block
"Bustan Apts" further down Bollasis
Road. Yet further down,"AM POTIA
APTS"; Naval Tuch Apartmprits at 23,
YfflCA Road; among others on Nair
Road, the block curiously named
Shirin Villa; or on Tardea Road.
ths Soonauialla Building Complex®
This pattern is repeated over and
■ver. It is apparent to anyone who
visits the area
around Bombay
Central Station. Old buildings are
being'demolished in an area extend­
ing from Nair Road, to Tardeo to
Grant Rond and Byculla Bridge. Plot?
are "cleared" by harrassing and
intimidating the residents; commun­
ities of lower and
. middle class
families are broken up. Hotels,
luxury npartment buildings with
car- parks are put up: "redevelop­
ment" in terms of the Act.

so the spirit of the filSIB
Act of 1973 should be apparent!
"existing slums are becoming a source
of dongdr to the health, safety and
convenience of the slumdwellers, and
also to the surrounding areas, and
generally a source of nuisance to
the public."

,

The Maharashtra Vacant Lands (Prohi­
bition of Unauthorised Occupation
and Summary Eviction) Act 1975 was
brought in because "the number of
unauthorised occupants on vacant
lands in the urban areas in the
State was rapidly increasing and waa,
causing grave danger to the public
health and sanitation, and peaceful
£
life of the inhabitants of such
”
arsas." Severe penalties are levied
for occupying vacant land; and thooo
who came after 1976 are to be
summarily evicted. And, finally,
there is the Maharashtra Housing and
Area Development Authority Act 1976
which is for "planning and Develop­
ment of certain areas in a balanced
manner, with sufficient attention to
ecology, pollution, overcrowding and
amenities required for leading a
wholesome life ..." It contains
powers for "housing, repairing and
reconstructing dangerous buildings
and carrying out work in slum areas"
*
powers for land acquisition, demol­
ition and eviction; but no right to
any shelter.

The Bombay Municipal Corporation
Act, T888, contains provisions for
demolitions in Sections 314, 354A,
and 378A. As the lain stands today,this is an unfettered right to
demolish, even where demolition
violates the right to life. The
exercise of the Municipal Comm­
issioner's power denies the right
to shelter. Though section
354
and 354 RN of this very Act' confer
the authority to set up housing
schemes for the poor, to acquire
land or buildings and to order
construction, this is only read as
c discretionary power. The power to
demolish is not read as a coda
with the obligation to provide
shelter. This is a law uninformad
by natural justice.

WHO PAYS FOR BOMBAY?

the Maharashtra Slum Areas (improverient; Clearance and Redevelopment)
Act claims to “make better provision
for the improvement and clearanca
of alum areas in the state and
•chair redevelopment for the protec­
tion of occupiers from eviction
end distress warrants." When ths
competent authority requires
removal for the sake of "improve­
ment", he may as far as practic­
able offer alternative accomodation.
But he is not under an absolute
obligation to do so, and nothing in

jO

The Municipal Corporation of Greater
Bombay has the largest budget of any
municipality in India, larger in
fact than several states. The budget
estimates for 1983-84 are Rs. 384- 28
crore income and Rs. 356.04 expenditure. Budget "A" is ths principal
budgot. Its basic components are
octroi, a consumption tax levied on
many goods entering Bombay, and the'
general tax, which is a property
tax. Tho estimated total income (of
’A') for 1983-84 is expected to
bo Rs. 208.4398 crore. Out of that,
General tax is Rs. 39 crore and
Octroi Rs. 124 crore. This ratio of
property to octroi has been changing;
over the years there is a distinct
trend.

able value is collected

TABLE
General Tax
Revenue

Net Octroi Coilection
70-1
71-2
72-3
?3-4
74-5
75-6
76-7
77-0
78-9
79-00
80-1
°1-2
.2-3
83-84

15.05
17. a 8
19.40
21.65
24.51
28.06
43.61
49.51
54.93
65.73
73.50

1.24.00

’

16.34
18.09
18.22
20.27
20.93
24.53
26.89
29.64
29.22
31.87
o S o 00
- (N.A.)

39.00

Octroi is levied on 60 classes of
goods; by weight ad-valorem,
“lumber, literage and even length
(film). By weight, 22 items cont­
ribute 7.41% of Octroi, and thirtytwo value-added items contribute
89.69% of the Octroi income. Soma
of the items by
weight are:grain, flour, pulses, cereals,
sugar, gur, tea, coffee, Shikakai,
paper, washing soda, t'amarincT
powder, charcoal and molasses.

Some of those bv value: Pickles,
biscuits, dahi. cream, electric
bulbs, soap, polishes, spoons,
needles, locks, plates, glassware,
tobacco, jute, leather goods,
sewing machines.
The B.fn..C. has assumed that
property is an in-elastic source of
revenue, and that it has taxed to
the maximum statutory percentage
possible on Octroi. It intends to
switch an increasing number of
items from taxation by weight to
taxation by value. Since last yoar
we have all been paying this
enhanced tax on a variety
of
goods, including sugar, vanaspati,
tea, coffaa, washing and caustic
soda and paper, various industrial
products which go into ths small
scale sector; and petrol, diesel
and kerosene which have been
switched to weight. Last year this
shift is meant to have earned
Rs. 1.2 crores. This year it is
expected to be Rs. 22 crores. In
ths property taxes, the residen­
tial component of Rateable value
is Rs. 61 crore (44%), the commer­
cial sector is Rs. 36 crore, tha
industrial is Rs. 15 crors (11%).
Twent'y-wix per cent of the Rate-

What' is the consequence of all
'this? The whole question of
/corruption in Octroi is essentially
q diversion. Property taxes aro
^progressive; consumption taxes
?;with this particular composition
^inherently regressive. The burdon
-is most disproportionately borne;
zand this will increase from year to
/year.' Wore and more itams of mass
.consumption will slip on to tha list
■•■for value taxation. Those who pay
the largest portion of their income
are those who can least afford to
p ay.
How aro property taxes levied? Upto
26% of the rateable value is charged
No property in the city has been
reassessed in the last 4 decades.
Apparently the valuation base is ;
land value' at the time of purchase
plus building value at time of
erection plus- 7 per cent capitalis­
ation. So ths yield is close to
constant. New properties are
assessed by a
Reasonable
rent" for residential properties
is multiplied 2 times foi' office
building's, 1.5 times for shops and ■
hotels.

As a result, we have such undorvaluing of property. The various
textile mills are assessed at a
value of Rs. 2 to Rs. 4 lakhs each;
a very large cigarotte factory in
Central Bombay is assessed at
Rs, 27,GOO/- and a silk
mill
Rs. 2800/-. One of the large
“j industrial houses engineering unit
in the Western suburbs has been
i—^assessed at Rs. 1 per square metre
which makes it Rs. 86,000/-. A
tractor manufacturing unit, Rs.1.17
/lakh,
a TNG Pharmaceutical
company, Rs. 68,000/- (at 75 p, per
soo rno )q
The further consequence of linking
■commercial and industrial properties

value is this. House;alone pay
44% of all property, ta.
an unusually high figure for any municipal­
ity.
Banks, officas and shops
rmake up 20% of total RV: all hotels,
■1.6%; cinemas 0.7%. All workshops,
-refineries and factories together
are 6%. This excludes textile mills
which are assessed at no more than
1.6% of the rateable value for
Bombay. Even the industrial chawls
al one have contributed nearly twice

and industry. And, since tho
classification between residen­
tial, commerce and Industry is
prims facie valid (unlike class™
ification by locality or flat
size) it should be upheld by any
Court of Law. This is a very
modest proposal for rationalise
atiorl of taxation?"within the
existing system". It is very
obvious that1 octroi collected at
Nakas all around Bombay, io a
very inefficient tax. So with
property as a base, we should
have elasticity, convenience,
economy and equity in raising
resources.

that at 3J» of total property
taxes. That tax is linked to tha
root they pay.

Evon thio fraction ths mills do not
pay. Tho half-yearly demand from
the textile mills is Rs. 58 lakhs
cut of which, as of February 16,
19B3 (the budget speech) only Rs.
45 lakhs had been paid. No penalty
has been levied on any mill, nor.
has any property been attached.

The capacity installed by the B.ffl.C.
for the mills is charged at Rs. 15
crore a year. On representation
from tha Mill Owners Association,
the mills- are to be charged at 25%
of average consumption. In the
exercise of his discretion ths
Municipal Commissioner had agrsod
that they may pay only 50% on
eervice of bills, and the balance
in 4 instalments after ths strike
is over, and normal conditions are
deemed to ba restored. Out of a
normal recovery of Rs. 15 crores,
less than 3 crore is expactsd. X
do not think that even ths B.ffl.C.
Act can truly bo said to confer
ouch an unfettered discretion to
waive taxation.

Hom remote this is from tha realm.
of possibility can betshown with
an instance. It is proposed
(Budget Speech February 16, 1903,
para 12 (ill))to raise Rs. TO
crore for budget' ,TA’, by"increas”
Ing-tho fines and licence
charges on hawkers, m order to
make up the short fall from the
mills' and other property taxes.

Yet another instance. The BRIC is
vigilant about hawkers. Yet the
Road iransport Officer shows
72,507- more motor vehicles in
Greater Bombay than the Corporation
has counted (220,057). The wheel
tax by statue is leviable without
discretion. Yet only 26% of it was.
collected from all the city’s cars,
lorries and motor cycles^ Rs. 1.03
crore instead of Rs. 7.04 crors
by tha BRIC’s own figures.

Taxation should at the minimum,
pay for the cost of services
provided. This is not true of the
property taxes. A recommendation
c;ade by ths B.irt.C.’s own budget
consultants was that industrial
properties be revalued 4 times
■te 63 crores, and commercial
properties be revalued 3 times to
Is, 108.30 crore (residential
revaluation is not analysed). This
was worked out using a "real
©state pries index based on a
sample survey of builders, realpotato broksrs and occupants of
properties." Attentively an
attempt could be raado to find
out what ths market could boar,
by taking the market valua of
land and buildings. Certainly
there would be no need to aver
abolish all rent controls in ths
city. Commercial and industrial
properties aloes could ba froe
from it, by amending section
«S4 (1) of the Bombay Municipal
Corporation Act, and section TO
of the Bombay Rent Control Act.
Xt is an entirely irrelevant
consideration that ths housso of
tha rich are not taxed mors. Tha
essential Sectors are ccmmerca

lUe have known that workers’ wages
subsidise production. But now we
see that in every,sensa they pay
for the city. We need not here
draw conclusions about the para™
sitic nature of a system which
finds itself unable to tax land dnd
property.
WHAT CAN BE DONE

Choices are open to Third World
Cities. Adequate and hygionic
human living conditions aro
entirely possible. They aro within
the resources of the municipal^’
ities.High costr shelter is too
expansive for the poor in poor
countries. By contrast, low-cost.
shelter is replicable, and can
therefore become the general pattern.
Cheap local materials can be used;
so too, local skills in carpentry,
cottage industry, metal work.

12

weaving, thatching,plastering. With
such local self-sufficiency,
national priorities can be more
rational; cement and stsol can go
to dams, and other major projects.
But this will then become no more
than part of the general argument
that Third World Cities must re­
orient their priorities. It is
always said ’if they havo the
political will to do so.’

C VEN IF ALL THE PEOPLE WHO
lived in slums and on pavements were to be.provided with
houses, thero would still be some
•vacant land left over in Bombay,
And this is according to the
government’s own estimation.

fl survey was carried out by the
Urban Development Revenue Depart­
ment in January 1960 to ascertain
how much land would be required to
rehabilitate those who have
occupied land which is considered
essential for public welfare
purposes.
The survey showed that the vacant
land available, owned by the
Housing Board, private landlords
and some trusts and associations,
could accommodate about 12,17,532
huts and 6 lakh people. Whereas in
Bombay, only 4.7 lakh people live
in slums and on pavements.

Of the vacant land available, that
owned by a few landlords is estim­
ated to total 1432.S hectarss. This
alone can accommodate more than
12,400 tenements. In Borivli and
Dahisar, Vikalal and Co-.; 3.C.
Poraira at Kandivili; F.E.Dinshaw
at filalad; Byramjee Jeejeebhoy at
Poisar and Pahadi', and Shamrao
Velkar' at Gorai together own 849.6
hectares of land, which can
accommodate 424,600 tenements.
Secondly, 87,600 tenements can ba
built in Andheri district on ths
183.2 hectares owned at fflogra,
Kandivli, Oshivara, filadh Island
by Byramjes Deejeebhoy, Nagardas
Bhuva and ii1. Norsa. In Kurla
district, 400 hectares of vacant
land are availabla on which about

"Political Will" is a ouphemism.
If there is an absence of an
organised public pressure, surely
it is because sons interests are
mors organised, Thon, to say that
the general public, or those who
are denied rights should "organise'5
does not tell us this. If a certain
control over prioritise and
resources is so vital to class
interest why would that class ever
peaceably suffer change?

2 leikh^tenomonts can bo accbmmodated.

In Borivli district, 312.8 hectares?
in Andheri district, 150.8 hectares?
and in Kurla district, 45.6 hoctaros aro owned by ths State
government and ths Housing Board.
On this vacant land, 50,51,62
tenements can ba built.
Thio is only a moderate estimate.
(For eg., the land available
with private landlords is estim­
ated at 1433 hectares, but the law
suits pending in court to seek
exemption under the Urban Land'
Ceiling Act cover a total of 2953
hectares). Even this estimate
excludes land reserved for industries
under the Development' Plan.

Secondly, marshy land which cannot
be used supposedly, is also
excluded from this estimate. The
industrialist Godrej has brought
thousands of hectares of land under
this category and .succeeded in
getting exemption under ths Urban
Land Ceiling and Development Act.
Thirdly, land is also kept under
reservation for vague and sometimes
false purposes. No valid reason can
be given for reserving land for
defence purposes at Colaba, for
instance. This land if utilized, ctsn
accommodate the majority of pave­
ment
dwellers. In the same manner,
land occupied by the racecourse at
fflahalaxmi and the UJellingdon Club
as well, as by the Raj Bhaven can ba
cited as improper uses of precious
land. Even if the land kept
reserved under the blanket term
’’public welfare® were to be excluded,
the land available in the city
would amount to 9577. hectares. This

was reported by the Keshwani
Commission in 1977.
The government’s priorities in <
utilising land owned by it can®bo
jwoll exposed by tho example of
Aarey milk Colony. This colony ■
covoro 1370 hectares of land and
■.moot of it is vacant. Incidentally,
all the slums in Bombay occupy tho
osmo amount of land. The milk
.supplied by AaroyJ is’_O,O32b of tho
■ •- • —•-- — -—\ i[*

total milk supplied by the Schomo'
for fflilk^Production for entire
Bombay, Thio whito olophant conoumoo
15o3 lakh litres of water, which
‘pould satisfy the needs of 1.3 lakh
people in Bombay. And,from thio
land, thc< Government has ollottod
"110 hoctaroo for the construction of
'tho Filmcityl Porhapo building a
Rlracity io mors important than
- nvr.ui ri^nc| houeae,_____________

r>smo8ishmg •
bCW
e.-P --

PASetestian
J T WAS UNAUTHORISED
AKASHDEEP
noor Grant Road Station,It csaBh=»
eC onto tho railway tracks,killing many.
jfesahdeep5o io not an ioolatod case. • ’
There ore thousands of bulldingo in
Btsrabay which have been conotructod ■ . rgsinst tho rules and regulations of tho
.Bsmbay municipal Corporation.But tho
authorities turn a blind eyo towardo
them because they aro constructed and
'Paintainod by powerful sections of tha
‘society which have thoir own lobbies in
ths ruling hierarchy.

See the contrasts
On .lune 6,1933,the govarnmant of SaharaK-htpa promulgated an. Ordinance to deal ,
with tho "unauthorised development" and
"large seals formation of alumo,on both
nubile and private lands.“A few days
f'jster theissuunco of the urdinanco tha
police swooped down on tha alum dwellere
at Cuffe Parade and Nariman Point and
errasted one hutidrod and twenty pooplo
without warrant;tholr crims -they did
not own or posses land.

This now Ordinance was by way of an
amend moot to tha filaharaahtra Regional
nod Town Planning Act (ffiRTP Act).The
statement of objectsand reasons for tho
emend mont stotaa that what are required
to deal with largo scale formation of

umo are "dotsrrent penalties" and
"upeody poworo for demolition,,diacontinucnce and removalo“

.The penalty for "unauthorised devleopwent",so-called,ha§ been increased from
a fine to a throe-year term of imprison­
ment. Theroforojit automatically becomes
,a cognizable offence .Uihich means that
any policeman may arrest witjout warrant
•The offence has eloo been made non-bail’ablo(Obotructing demolitions in any way
will now carry a one-year term of impri­
sonment. and a fine of one thousand
rupoeo.)
Ths term "development" in the Act has
- boon ro-defined to ir^uda reclamation
since, in the euburbo,slum-dwallors
reclaim marshy lend to erect their huto.
Tho ecopa of illegal development which
can be penallead has boon extended from
three yearo to eevan.
Soc.21 of tho Act provides for develop ment piano for regions,cities and towno
in fflaharaahtra stats.Those devolopemnt
piano aro nothing but land-use maps.Tho
land-usso map for Bombay indicates,for
instance,where roads,parks,schools and
.hospitals should be built.Any construc­
tion which is not in accordance with
thio land-uoe map will bo unauthorised

14

^’-slopment.Consequently all the struocures in the slums and on tho pavements
c.ro "unauthorised development"’.

the Ordinance claims that the authorit­
ies qre not suificiently armed to deal
with "unauthorised development" although
powers to deal with such development
sxict under various legislations such as
the Bombay Municipal Corporation Act,
ths Vacant Lands Act.,the Bombay Police
Act and the Slum Ar<?as Act.

Who

live h slums?

'-'ho are the people who live in
slums? Are they criminals? Why do they
live in slums? Is it because of some
perversity in their character?
.-.The people Ln rural India migrate to
urban centres for ths same reasons for
\ which they did during the British rules
bi ths usurpation of their land by land1 lords,the destruction of handicrafts
\ and village industries and ths lack of
i industri-iisation in ths rural areas
i which would absorb the persons displaced
'—from their traditional employment.
The industrial centres require tho
existence of cheap labour.The impover­
ishment of villages and tho existence
of destitute labour in urban centres
are ;ns natural consequences of the
economic development which India follows
today.

There is no law in India which compels
employers to their employees with
accomodation.Most of the people who live
in slums are workers employed in indus­
tries in and around the city of Bombay.
About half of the Class IV employees of
the Municipal Corpora.!;ion of Bombay and
about half of ths police constables in
the city live in slums.When a slum was
demolished last year it.was found that
almost all tha residents of that slum
were Municipal workers.A journalist
drew the attention of the municipal

Commissioner to this fact.The response
of the Commissioner to this was reveals
ingshe said he would issue a circular
to all tha employees of the municipal
Corporation that no municipal employes
should henceforth iiva in slums!
filr.Ribeiro,the Commissioner of Police..
'•Z has reportedly said that he apprehended
that.,when ordered to demolish slums,
"7 policemen may sympathise with the slum
dwellers and may disobey the order of
demolition because many of the police­

men lived In slums.Tho' story of the
Mayor of Bombay (farmer) who lost an
expensive suit of clothes when huts on
the pavement before his house were
demolished ,as the dhobi who washed hit)
clothes lived in one of these huts,io
now well known.
If wa go around Bombay it can bo' seen
that the domestic servants in tho poah
buildings aro sleeping on the pavemanta
Therefore it is obvious that the slum
dwellers and pavement dwellers are
essential to the city as it is today.
Still,why do tho authorities wage a war
against the slum and pavement dwsllere?
Do they really intend to throw out
about four million residents of ths
slums from the city? Or do they really
mean to arrest all -these four million
people under tho new law? Wo.If the
authoriities carry out their policy ip
right earnest,the industries in Bombay
will suffer seriously.

Therefore,the only explanation which
can be given for the tenacity of tho
authorities in demolishing slums is
.that they want to terrorise the hapless
people who are constrained to live in
slums end to keep them at subsistence
level so that they can never raise theiv
voice against the injustice perpetrated
on them. This would enable the author­
ities to deter new migrants from coming
to tho city as well.

’ihm
is jgnouqh
land .
. ■ ■,.....
___ _
It is said that there is no land in
Bombay.la this true? Tho gross arsa of
Bafnbay is about^S, 000 hectares of whidl^
about 12,000 ht^iptareo form residential
areas,>Tho estimate of vacant land avail-.
able for accomodation varies between
3,000 hectares and 10,000 hectares.

Approximately four to seven million
people in slums livo in about 0,00,000
dwelling units.The total area which
these dwelling units would require at
the.rate of 15 sq.metres per unit is aq
little as 1,200 hectates.In fact ths
total area required for all of Bombay’s
1.7 million dwelling units (calculated
at the rate of 55 sq.metres per unit)
is less than.6,000 hectares.

The population of Greater
Bombay will be of tha order of 15
million in tha year 2000 A.D.The number
of dwelling units at that time would bo
around three million.At 40 so. matron
per unit the total residential requires
ment in the year 2000 A.-.D. would be
12,000 hectares which is equal to the
total residential area available within

the city todey.The only conclusion from
a consideration of these figures which
can be reached is that there ie suff­
icient land for housing in 8om(?ay,But
the problem ie not simply one of finding
the land but of finding ths institutions'
Bl devices for delivering residential
land to those who are in nosd of it?on
terms which ere fair and reasonable.

that only those who have properties
can avail themselves of their right'tc
life.
Then whet happens to Article 14 of the
Constitution which guarantees equality
before the law and tho equal protection
of the laws? Can Indian citizens be
classified as propertied and propertilees to decide their right to lifoTDid
those who framed the Indian Constitution
envisage that such a classification was
'
***
just and fair?
j--

What has the government doneln this
respect? There are many legislations
which empower the state government to
acquire and allot land in public inter­
ests the -Land Acquisition Act,1B94,
The Universal Declaration of Human
the filaharashtra Slum Areas (Improvement,
Rights,1946,from which the Indian Con­
Clearance and Redevelopment) Act,1971,
stitution copied the Fundamental Righto
the Maharashtra Housing and Area Deve­
/and Directive Principles,has recognised
lopment Act,1976,and the Urban Land
/ right to shelter as oris of the human
(Ceiling and Regulation)Act,1976.All
/ '■'rights,Can India,which claims to be the
these legislations are languishing in
> largest democracy in tho world,deny this
the statute bocks.They were intended
basic human right to her citizens?
not for implementation but for hoodwink­
ing the masses.
The right to life guaranteed by the
Constitution is a right to lead onesi3
own life with human dignitydt ie wall
It must be noted that 91 parties account
accepted that one can lead his life
for mors than half ths land which can
dignity only under certain circumstanceq
bo declercd surplus and acquired under
We may not be able to force the govern--'
the Urban Land Ceiling Act,of whoi/.juat
went to provide every citizen with
27 account for over one third of this
certain neccassitias of life.But we
land,This will enow who calls the tuns
must ba able to stop the government if
when it comes to the planning of tho
the government trios to deprive the
city,
'■
people of whatever meagre necessities of
life they do have.

Demolitions

and

the ■ Constitution.

In tho sixth Five Year Plan, the Planning
Commissioner has 'defined the poverty "
lino at a monthly Income of Rs.80 -per
capita at 1977/83 prices.Today this •
works out to approximately Rs,135oA
family un.it of five members,according to
this calculation,ncods an income of Rs.
456 per month to be living at the pov-'^
arty lino.The High Power Steering Group .
for Slums and Dilapidated Houses colcul*
ated that the average? income per month
per household was Rs.419.They also said'
that the average monthly Income of a
worker in a alum was only Rs.2S5.The
,
only shelter- which such an incoms can
afford is obviously a slum or a pavement
dwelling.

‘ArticTe~21 of the Constitution declares
that no person shall be deprived of hie
life or liberty except according to
procedure established by lewtit haa
bean laid down by the Supreme Court
that the procedure established by law
must bo fair end just.

Most cf the people who live in the
slums of Bombay do not legally own or
possess any land anywhere in india.If
they can ba evicted or thrown out
from the city because they do not have
land of their own,they can be thrown
out from anywhere else in thecountry
for the same reason - a precedent is
set for this in Bom'oay<>And it is axiom­
atic that no living thing can survive
without a place to sleep.Even snakoo
( Nobody may have a fundamental right to
have holes to live in;birds have tree
i live in a particular placewhether it is
tops to perch on.But there are four io
j a slum or pavement.But everybody has >a
seven million people in Bombay-, who are I right to live somewhere.And this place
must be e place which .is near the place
denied,legally,even holes.Thon where
do they live? How do they realise thoir | .of work.If people aro dumped in a remote
right to life guaranteed by the Consti- ■ place where there is ho work for them, •,
they will have to starve to death which
tution of India? This will affectively
will again be a violation of their right
mean depriving the slum dwellers of
to life.
their right to life.It will also moan

.1^

ISSN 0379—0347
fl'

No. 27 January 1989

United Nations Centre for Regional Development

Nagoya Japan

URBAN DEVELOPMENT AND HOUSING UNIT (UDHU)

Metropolitan Metamorphosis Conference in Nagoya
■'ee hundred participants from nineteen countries
and one territory, and from World Bank and UN/DTCD
attended the Nagoya International Conference on
Metropolitan Metamorphosis and Development which was
held on 20-26 October 1988, in Nagoya City, Japan.
The conference was organized by UNCRD, the City of
Nagoya, the Eastern Regional Organization for Plan­
ning and Housing (EAROPH), and the Japanese Society
for Planning and Housing (JASOPH), with the support
of the Ministry of Construction, Government of
Japan.

Participants discussed the rapid growth and devel­
opment of today's metropolises and the major changes
that have taken place within them.
Through an
examination of the metamorphosis of these metropoli­
tan areas from a development perspective, attempts
were made to formulate guidelines which could be
useful in assisting metropolitan planning and man­
agement in the 21st century. The results of this
conference should be of particular interest in
developing countries, where most of this metro­
politan growth is expected to take place.
conference was divided into two parts; the first
of which was the Eleventh Congress of the EAROPH,
which lasted from 20 to 23 October. The congress,
revolving around the theme "Plans, Projects,
and
Programmes in Managing Metropolitan Metamorphosis
and Development," was to conduct an analysis of
metropolitan case studies based on the professional
expertise and experience of EAROPH members. Follow­
ing opening speeches and keynote addresses from
Radinal Moochtar, Minister of Public Works, Govern­
ment of Indonesia, and Takeyoshi Nishio, Mayor of
Nagoya City, participants undertook two days of dis­
cussions on twenty-nine presentations on selected
themes. The third day was comprised of a panel dis­
cussion,
"The Challenges Ahead: Call for a New
Generation of Planning Tools, Appropriate Technolo­
gies and Participatory Systems," followed by an open
forum, "Towards the Creation of Urban Amenities
Waterfront Development."
The second part of the conference was a UNCRD Inter­
national Expert Group Meeting with the theme of Im­
plementing Issues, Strategies,
and Policies
in
Managing Metropolitan Metamorphosis and Development:

An Assessment of a Strategic Areal Development Ap­
proach. This meeting was designed to analyse metro­
politan policies from the standpoint of planning and
implementing agencies, introducing the Nagoya City
experience and a number of examples/irom developing
countries which are taking part in'an ongoing UNCRD
project.
After three days of intensive deliberations during
which, in addition to the presentation of nineteen
papers,
a panel discussion, "Managing Metropolitan
Metamorphosis and Development: Charting New Hori­
zons for Strategic Areal Development" was conducted,
a Conference Declaration was drafted. At the clos­
ing session of the conference this declaration was
discussed in detail by the participants. The final
draft was then unanimously adopted.
The full text of the Nagoya Declaration 1988 is
follows:

as

Recognizing the immense problems and opportunities
which arise from continuing metropolitan metamorpho­
sis due to population increase and rapid social and
economic changes, and recognizing also the substan­
tial tasks which lie ahead in searching for better
and more appropriate solutions, this conference:
(1)

Calls on all governmental and nongovernmental
bodies and the professionals in related fields,
to actively promote international understanding
and cooperation and the exchange of information
and experiences aimed at the upgrading of the
quality of life in our cities;

(2)

Recognizes the continuing shortage of adequate
professional resources to manage and plan for
metropolitan development, and declares
its
support for the further development of institu­
tions
for continuing education,
technical
training, research, seminars, and conferences
at an international level; and for the sharing
of information on methodologies and results of
innovative and useful metropolitan development
projects;
(Continued on page 2)

UNCRD News letter

2

January 1989

UDHU

Metropolitan Metamorphosis
(3)

Declares its support for the strengthening of
international and national institutions such as
UNCRD.
the EAROPH, and the JASOPH in
their
works on metropolitan development;

(4)

Declares its support for the early establish­
ment by the City of Nagoya of a Nagoya centre
for metropolitan studies, which could become a
model
for similar research centres in other
cities dedicated to researching and resolving
the problems of world metropolises; and calls
on all governments and international
institu­
tions including EAROPH and UNCRD to lend their
full support to such a centre;

(5)

(6)

Calls for the establishment of an international
metropolitan development
fund as a means of
further advancing the goals and recommendations
of this
conference to support programmes of
technology exchange and mutual assistance: and

Congratulates EAROPH for the establishment of
an educational fund for the purpose of provid­
ing continuing professional education.
and
calls on all governmental and nongovernmental
bodies in the EAROPH region to lend their fur­
ther support to this fund.

Selected papers from this conference are currently
being edited at UNCRD for inclusion in
forthcoming
publications; principally, the Autumn 1989 issue of
Regional
Development Dialogue (HDD),
"Metropolitan
Metamorphosis
and Development," guest edited by
Peter Hall, Professor of Geography,
University of
Reading, U.K.

Participants:
Stephen Hains,
Stephen
Hamnett,
Donald Jack Hopgood,
Malcolm M. B.
Latham,
and
Andrew Young (Australia); Nazrul Islam (Bangladesh);
John E. Cox
(Canada);
Dai Fu-Dong,
Liu Xiao-Shi,
Weng Zhi-Xiang, Yu Min-Fei, Zhao Shi-Xiu, and Zong
Lin
(China);
Peter Runkel
(Federal Republic of
Germany); Kenneth Wai-Kai Kwok and Reginald Yin-Wang
Kwok
(Hong Kong); Jamal H. Ansari, K. S. Bains,
K.
K.
Bhatnagar, K. P. Bhattacharya, S. K.
Chandhoke,
C.
S.
Chandrasekhara, Satya Roy, Nayan S.
Saini,
Syamal K. De Sarkar, Bratish Sengupta, and A.
Thaha
(India);
Soenarjono
Danoedjo,
Noersaijidi
M.
Koesoemo,
Radinal Moochtar,
and Sutikni
Utoro
(Indonesia); Pierluigi Crosta and Armando Montanari
(Italy); Eiichiro Adachi, Toshio Asano, Teru Fukui,
Kiyotaka
Hayashi,
Yoshitsugu Hayashi,
Masahiko
Honjo,
Takashi Inoue, Akira Kato,
Shogo Kawakami,
Toshio Kitahara, Keisuke Kiuchi,
Tadao Kobayashi,
Hirohide Konami, Masateru Kuroda, Mitsuyoshi Maeda,
Kazuo Majima, Hiroshi Mimura, Yasuo Miyakawa,
Kenji
Mizutani,
Haruo Nagamine, Tadashi Naka,
Ken Nakagawa,
Takeyoshi Nishio, Yasuo Nishiyama,
Motojiro
Sato,
Tetsuo Seguchi, Shuji Shimoda, Reiji Suzuki,
Hiroshi Takebayashi,
Tadashi Ushijima,
and Shiro
Yokoi
(Japan); K. C. Leong, Ong Hong Fong,
Khalid

Ruslan,
and Lakhbir Singh Chahl
(Malaysia);
John
Duthie (New Zealand); A. Sattar Sikander (Pakistan);
Nathaniel von Einsiedel
(Philippines);
Myong-Chan
Hwang,
Lee Hwa-Young, and Chung-Sup Yoon
(Republic
of Korea); Tan Lien Seng (Singapore);
Nettikumarage
Don Dickson and Lalith Lankatillake
(Sri
Lanka);
Sunthad Somchevita and Wiwat Sangtian
(Thailand);
Peter Hall
(U.K.);
Meyer S.
Frucher and Frank
Schnidman (U.S.A.); Michael M. Cernea (World Bank);
and Zhong Shukong (UN/DTCD).
Chief coordinator:
Hidehiko Sazanami,
UNCRD Director;
coordinator:
Hideaki Hoshina. Physical Planner; assisted by Monte
Cassim,
Research Associate;
Nobuaki Goshima and
Itsuaki Ozeki,
Associate Experts;
and Yoshifumi
Muneta and Shovan Kumar Saha, United Nations Re­
search Fellows.

List of Papers

Part I:

Ansari, Jamal H.
Metropolitan Metamorphosis in India and
tion of Planning Responses

Bhatnagar, K. K.
Planning for the National Capital Region:
Indian Experience

Evolu­

The

Bhattacharya, K. P.
Metropolitan Metamorphosis and Development
Observations on Calcutta:
The Need for Appro­
priate Planning and Management

Cernea, Michael M.
Metropolitan Development Compulsory Population
Relocation:
Policy Issues and Project Experi­
ences

Chandhoke, S. K.
Social Planning for the Development of a Metro­
polis:
A Case Study of Delhi
Dai Fu-Dong
Strategic Guidelines and Urban Investments:
Shaping Metropolitan Metamorphosis and Develop­
ment in Shanghai
Danoedjo, Soenarjono
The Role of the Structure Plans and the Evalua­
tion of Urban Development Programmes and Proj­
ects in the Metamorphosis and Development of
DKI Jakarta

Dickson, Nettikumarage Don
Strategic Planning Efforts in Managing the
Metamorphosis and Development of the Colombo
Metropolitan Area, Sri Lanka

Duthie, John
The Performance of the Master Plan and District
Planning Schemes in Shaping the Metamorphosis
and Development of Auckland

UNCRD Newsletter

January 1989

UDHU

Metropolitan Metamorphosis - Papers Presented
Einsiedel, Nathaniel von
The Impact of the Light Rail Transit (LRT)
Metro Manila’s Growth and Development

on

Hains, Stephen
A Planning Profile of the City Adelaide,
with
Reference to
the Effects of the North-East
Guided Busway
Hamnett, Stephen
Metropolitan and City Planning in Australia
1988:
An Overview

in

Jjwang, Myong-Chan
Metropolitan Metamorphosis in Seoul:
Viewed
Against Four Decades of National Development
Islam, Nazrul
Metropolitan
Major Urban
Bangladesh

agement in Metropolitan Regions in
Countries

Developing

Saini, Nayan S.
Urban Planning in Ahmedabad:
Its Role in
Managing Metropolitan Metamorphosis and Devel­
opment
Sato, Motojiro
Projects and Programmes in Managing Metropoli­
tan Metamorphosis and Development in Japan

Schnidman, Frank
Resolving Platted Lands Problems:
Experience

The

Florida

Sengupta, Bratish
East Calcutta, The Building City
Metamorphosis:
The Impact
of
Development Projects in Dhaka,

Koesoemo, Noersaijidi M. and Soehadi
The Metamorphosis of Metropolitan Jakarta
Its Strategy Towards Future Development

and

Kwok, Kenneth Wai-Kai
Shaping the Growth of the Hong Kong Metropolis
Kwok, Reginald Yin-Wang
Planning for Metropolitan Transportation of
Hong Kong:
Impacts of Infrastructural Redevel­
opment

Latham, Malcolm M. B.
The Development and Metamorphosis of
as Australia's National Capital

Tan Lien Seng
The Impact of the MRT System on Urban
ment in Singapore

Develop­

Thaha, A.
Role of Transport Planning in Combating Physi­
cal Degradation and Social Crimes in Metropoli­
tan Hyderabad:
A Success Story from India
Weng Zhi-Xiang
The Improvement of Urban Environment in
polis Shanghai

Metro­

Canberra

ffee Hwa-Young
Metamorphosis and Development of Seoul:
Focus
on Developments of South Seoul and the Olympic
Facilities

Liu Xiao-Shi
The Impact of Transportation Development Proj­
ects on the Transformation of Urban Areas in
Beijing
Moochtar, Radinal
Metropolitan Metamorphosis and Development:
Overview

Nishio, Takeyoshi
Metropolitan Development in the Great
Age of Socioeconomic Factors

Sikander, A. Sattar
Metamorphosis and Development of Pakistan's
Capitals:
Karachi and Rawalpindi-Islamabad

Wiwat Sangtian
The Impact of Transportation Development Proj­
ects on the Transformation of Human Settlement
Patterns in Bangkok
Young, Andrew
Immigration:
A Commitment to Australia -- A
Review of the Report of the Committee to Advise
on Australia's Immigration Policies

Yu Min-Fei
Spatial Characteristics of Environment
in Urban Life

Styles

An
Zong Lin
Development and Control:
Chinese Metropolises

The

Strategy

for

Turning

Part II:
OOng Hong Fong
Metropolitan Metamorphosis and Development in
Peninsular Malaysia:
The Case of Kuala Lumpur

Rcoy, Satya and Sarkar, Syamal K. De
New Horizons in Urban Project Planning and Man-

Adachi, Eiichiro
Metropolitan Policies and Its Tasks in Japan
(Continued on page 4)

UNCRD Newsletter

*i

January 1989

UDHU

Metropolitan Metamorphosis - Papers Presented
Chahl, Lakhbir Singh
Revitalizing the Harbour Front Area of Central
Georgetown in Penang:
A Collection and Analy­
sis of the Socioeconomic and Physical Inventory
of Assets

Chandrasekhara, C. S.
Integrating Tradition with Modern Metropolitan
Needs in Strategic Areal Development Projects
and Programmes:
An Evaluation of Its Potential
in the Indian Context

Cox, John E.
Ottawa-Carleton Regional Transit:
A
CostEffective Transformation of Traffic Patterns
Crosta, Pierluigi
An Evaluation of Milan’s Strategic Areal Devel­
opment Plan Experience in the Context of Metro­
politan Development and Conservation

Frucher, Meyer S. and McMillan, Jon
Lessons Learned from the Case
Battery Park City

Experience

of

Hall, Peter
A Conceptual Framework for Strategic Areal
Development in Managing Metropolitan Metamor­
phosis and Development:
From a Global and
Historical Perspective

Kuroda, Masateru
Future Perspective on the Metropolises in
Context of National Development

the

Lankatillake, Lalith
Integrating Urban Livelihoods and Environmental
Concerns into the Million Houses Programme
(MHP) Settlement Areas in Colombo

(Continued from page

3)

Santiago, Asteya
The Subdivision-Based Approach for Developing
Central Business and Commercial Districts in
Metro Manila:
The Case of Makati
Sazanami, Hidehiko
The Challenges of Implementing Strategic Areal
Development in the Contemporary Asian Metro­
politan Context

Shimoda, Shuji
Perspective for New Isewan Bay Metropolitan Re­
gion and Aichi Prefecture in the 21st Century
Sunthad Somchevita
Preserving for Posterity the Heart of a

Metr^^

politan Area in Bangkok:
Lessons
Learned
Through the Development and Conservation of
Rattanakosin Island; and Appendix

Utoro, Sutikni
Homes, Jobs and Mobility:
An Evaluation of KIP
in Bandung in the Light of Future Challenges

Yokoi, Shiro
The Financing of Areal Development Projects in
Developing Countries:
The Role of Private
Banks
Yoon, Chung-Sup
The Eulchi-Ro 2nd Street Civic Centre Urban
Renewal Project in Seoul:
Evaluation of the
Planning Tools, Technical Standards and Par­
ticipatory Systems Employed

Zhao Shi-Xiu
Policies and Measures for the
Large Cities in China

Development

of

Mimura, Hiroshi
The Integration of a Conservation Ethic into
Managing Metropolitan Metamorphosis and Devel­
opment:
An Evaluation of Strategic
Areal
Development Approaches in Kyoto

Montanari, Armando
Development and Territory in Southern Europe:
Growth of the Large Metropolitan Areas,
the
Housing Shortage, Local Policy,
Self-Building,
and Illegal Housing (1984-85)
Nakagawa, Ken
Future Policies for Urban Development in Nagoya
City

Runkel, Peter
Experiences from Implementing the Bebauungsplan
in the Federal Republic of Germany

Panel Discussion during Part II of International Conference

January 1989

UNCKD Newsletter

UDHU

Improving the Metropolitan Environment
The major objectives of the research-cum-training
project on Improving Metropolitan Living Environ­
ments by Strengthening Housing Sector Activities are
as follows:

(1)

(2)

*

(3)

To understand the prevailing mechanisms for im­
proving metropolitan living environments
in
developing countries, and evolve new strategies
for strengthening their performance in a sus­
tained manner.

To assess the overall performance of the hous­
ing sector in achieving such
improvements
through an evaluation of:
(a) The operational
practices and technical performance of selected
housing projects
from
the current
housing
programme in the metropolis under study
(first
year); (b) the performance of the housing sec­
tor against
the background of social
and
economic change in the metropolises under study
(second year); and (c) the performance of hous­
ing policies and programmes in the metropolises
under study with a view towards strengthening
them (third year).
To provide housing administrators concerned
with the metropolises under study:
(a)
An
international forum for the exchange of ex­
periences and generation of innovative perspec­
tives
for improving metropolitan living en­
vironments in developing countries
(interna­
tional
training seminars); and (b) a national
forum where the above experiences and prescrip­
tions can be reviewed and assessed in terms of
their
implementation possibilities in
the
metropolises concerned (country seminars).
To strengthen the human resource capacities for
managing
metropolitan
living
environments
through the development of practical
training
exercises, based on the findings of this threeyear project.

Commencing with an outline of the broad
trends of
the metropolitan housing programmes over the past
decade, the study will focus on the current housing
programmes
in Asian developing countries.
Two re­
presentative projects will be selected for study in
each metropolis, one of them directed at
the lowincome groups (0-20th income percentile),
and
the
other at middle-income groups
(21st-6Oth income
percentile).

Based on an understanding of the operational prac­
tices and technical performance of each housing
project selected, the study teams will discuss how
improvements can be made over time to enhance the
living environment of the project beneficiaries.
In
this regard, country study teams will consider the
processes by which housing improvements are made at
different levels of society,
the
factors
that
facilitate such processes,
and how
they may be

strengthened and introduced into housing project
design and planning for low- and middle-income
groups.
Finally,
this phase of the study will attempt to
draw lessons of general relevance in applying these
project-based findings to the overall improvement of
metropolitan living environments.

Ten metropolises have been selected
for study:
Bangkok,
Beijing, Colombo, Dhaka,
Delhi,
Jakarta,
Karachi, Kuala Lumpur, Metro Manila, and Seoul.
Country study teams will be organized within imple­
menting housing agencies in each of these metro­
polises.
Each team will be comprised of a highlevel policymaker and two senior officers having
considerable field and policy formulation experi­
ence.

The findings of each study team will be presented at
the international housing training seminars planned
to be held at UNCRD during the three years of the
project.
The first International Training Seminar
on Improving the Operational Practices and Technical
Performance of Selected Housing Projects will be
held on 13~25 March 1989 in Nagoya.
Following the discussions and
recommendations at
these seminars, study team members will
return to
their respective countries to further refine and
finalize
their study reports.
The finalized study
reports will constitute the basis for discussion at
the annual country seminars.

UNCRD hopes
to organize three to four country
seminars
annually in selected countries to present
the final country study reports to a wider national
audience of administrators, academicians, and allied
professionals.
For further information, contact:
Hidehiko Sazanami, UNCRD Director or Monte Cassim, Research Asso­
ciate .

UNCRD News le tter

6

January 1989

INFORMATION SYSTEMS UNIT (ISU)

Integrating IS/IT in Local/Regional Planning
On 31 October—*1 November 1988, thirty-six partici­
pants from nine countries and from other United Na­
tions specialized agencies and international,
re­
gional,
and nongovernmental organizations met in
Singapore at an expert group meeting organized by
UNCRD and the Asian Mass Communication Research and
Information Centre
(AMIC) and cosponsored by the
National Computer Board (NCB) of Singapore.
The
theme of the meeting — integrating information sys­
tems/ technology
(IS/IT) in local/regional planning
was elaborated on by the keynote speaker,
Tan
Chin Nam, Chairman of NCB, in his address, "IT and
Global Economic Linkages."

In
the context of Singapore,
because of
the small size of our country,
the word
'regional'
has an obvious
international
connotation.... IT plays an important role
in supporting this business globalization
aspect of regional development.
IT is. in
fact,
a critical element of
the infra­
structure supporting the coordination of
business operations on a global scale.
The kind of global business scenario which
I have described would be impossible with­
out a corresponding IT infrastructure.
Government has a meaningful role to play
in developing the information infrastruc­
ture
to support the globalization
of
business.

ments
fall into the first two classes.
However,
many decision support applications may have been
undertaken without widespread dissemination of the
use of DSS concepts for forecasting.
The degree to which IT impacts on planning effec­
tiveness may be largely controlled by the nature and
quality of data.
Data management should focus on
guaranteeing a valid representation of the social,
economic,
and environmental conditions which form
the
basis of planning.
Top-down
technocratic
definition of the data needed to meet information
requirements should be avoided.
Data management
processes which encourage representation of the
social groups directly impacted by planning shoiA)
be encouraged.
Care must be taken that technocrats
definition of data requirements do not systematical­
ly eliminate unique and site-specific development
considerations which may have the most impact on the
local population, or eliminate the needs of those
elements of society, such as women,
whose direct
input
to formal governmental planning may
be
limited.

RECOMMENDATIONS
The expert group meeting recommended the
action:
(1)

Appropriate technology and methodology should
be developed in a participatory manner to aid
local villagers in systematically identifying
development needs within their community.
The
use of appropriate technology would allow the
villagers to better communicate their ideas and
needs to the government technocrats responsible
for delivery of services.

(2)

Over the last five years,
UNCRD has organized
two international seminars and two expert group
meetings on IS/IT. These seminars and meetings
have resulted in a large number of papers,
which should now be reviewed and analysed
for
major themes, such as implementation guidelines
in the use of IS/IT in local and regional
planning.

(3)

Communication materials on the use of IS/IT
local
and regional planning should be
veloped.
Those materials should focus on
plaining IS/IT to the planner and
to
policy-making
and political
elements
planner supports.

(4)

Discussion during the meeting has
revealed a
number of free or low-cost software packages
which can be implemented and used in local
and
regional planning.
UNCRD or its designated
counterpart international organization
(10),
intergovernmental organization (IGO), or non­
governmental organization (NGO) should act as a

UNCRD is pleased to present here the conclusions and
recommendations of the meeting:

CONCLUSIONS
All participants
represented at this meeting ex­
pressed a clear commitment to the use of IS/IT in
local and regional planning.
However, this
commit­
ment takes many different forms, from national-level
systems to support macroeconomic planning to local­
level community systems incorporating villager input
into project identification and
implementation.
With the exception of,
perhaps,
Singapore,
the
degree of commitment of
the managerial/technical
elements within the governments exceeds the commit­
ment of the political components.
This creates
problems of resource allocation and justification
for most IS initiatives within the public sector.
Although all governments have embarked on IS/IT pro­
grammes,
central coordination and
control
is
minimal.
In most countries, this has led to prob­
lems with current applications, however, as the use
of IS/IT diffuses within
the government serious
technical
compatibility, and data-sharing problems
may arise.
Within
the proposed
typology
of
transaction,
information management, and decision support systems
(DSS),
most of the current systems in
the govern­

following

in
de­
ex­
the
the

January 1989

UNCRD News letter

1

ISU

Integrating IS/IT
clearinghouse for freeware, review operational
packages,
and investigate a data base of pro­
fessional
resources in IS/IT for support of
local and regional planning.
(5)

(6)

fl

(7)

While holding four meetings on IS/IT, UNCRD has
reached many planning professionals who are
interested in using IS/IT.
The UNCRD or its
designated
counterpart
IO/IGO/NGO
should
develop a network of these professionals
to
diffuse information about IS/IT between nation­
al governments.
Recognizing the training requirements for pur­
poses of integrating IS/IT in development plan­
ning, UNCRD, in collaboration with concerned UN
agencies,
should give priority attention to
identify these training needs and take appro­
priate measures to implement them, taking into
consideration existing resources and facilities
in countries in the region.
UNCRD should assist planning agencies in
the
identification of appropriate technology,
im­
plementation, and training in the IS/IT field.

Participants:
N. Seshagiri (India); Rosian Zaris,
Frank van Steenbergen, Moehammad Budiman, and Peter
Gardiner
(Indonesia); Nik Ibrahim bin Nik Mahmood,
Abdul Rahman bin Jamal,
and Mohd.
Yunus Tamin
(Malaysia); Daisy Elena F. Aho and Rachel Polestico
(Philippines); Claud Burril, Chan Foo Tuck, Hing Ai
Yun,
Kanapaty Pelly P.,
Faridah Khoo,
Kenneth
Kraemer, Lee Kwok Cheong, Lim Kah Aih, Lim Siew Bee,
Lim Swee Say, Loh Chee Meng, Christine Tan, and Wong
Seng Hon (Singapore); R. B. Morapaya
(Sri Lanka);
Kitisak Sinthuvanich and Mana Sithikornkul
(Thai­
land) ;
Michael Batty (U.K.); Jerry C.
Coiner and
poyce J. Elam (U.S.A.); Khalid Shams (APDC); Erasmus
D.
Monu
(IIRR); Koto Kanno and Delia E.
Torrijos
(UNESCO);
Colin MacAndrews (UNDP/World Bank Proj­
ect) ;
and Chin Saik Yoon and Maria Ng Lee Hoon
(IDRC).
Benjamin V.
Lozare,
AMIC Joint Deputy
Secretary-General;
and Hidehiko Sazanami,
UNCRD
Director and J. S.
Edralin,
Information Systems
Planner, coordinated the meeting.

List of Papers

Aho, Daisy Elena F.
Use or Potential of Information Systems/Technology in Regional Planning in the Philippines

Batty, Michael
Informative
Information
cess

Planning:
The Intelligent Use of
Systems in the Policy-Making Pro­

Coiner, Jerry C.
Information
Planning

Systems Applications

in

Regional

Elam, Joyce J.
Critical Success Factors in Developing and
Using Optimization-Based Decision Support Sys­
tems in Local/Regional Development Planning in
Developing Countries

Kitisak Sinthuvanich
Information System
Thailand

for Rural

Lee Kwok Cheong
The Computerization
Service

of

the

Development

Singapore

in

Civil

Monu, Erasmus D.
Delivering Relevant Development Information
the Rural Poor

to

Morapaya. R. B.
Regional Planning Situation Report on Sri Lanka

Nik Ibrahim bin Nik Mahmood
Information Systems and Technology for Regional
Planning in Malaysia
Patel, Nitin and Shams, Khalid
New IT Applications for Decentralized
ment in Asian and Pacific Countries

Develop­

Polestico, Rachel
Community Information and Planning System

Rahman bin Jamal, Abdul
Integrating
Information
System/Information
Technology in Regional Development Planning in
Malaysia:
A Quick Review

Raman, K. S.
Application of Information Technology in
and Medium Enterprises in Singapore

Small

Rosian Zaris, Dading Sugandhi, and Gardiner, Peter
Development of an Urban and Regional Planning
Information System:
A Case Study
Seshagiri, N.
The Role of Information Systems in Development
Planning in India:
A Case Study of DISPLAN on
NICNET

Yunus Tamin, Mohd.
SETIA:
An MIS Tool Promoting
Malaysia

Development

in

8

UNCRD Newsletter

January 1989

ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT UNIT (EPMU)

Solid Waste Management Seminar
The International Expert Group Seminar on Solid
Waste Management in the Context of Metropolitan
Development and Management in Asian Countries was
held on 5"9 September 1988 in Beijing.
This seminar
was designed to support research into
the growing
problems of solid waste disposal
and
resource
recovery in large Asian cities, and to initiate dis­
cussion of common issues faced by these cities, with
possible solutions.

The seminar was jointly organized by UNCRD,
the
Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences,
and
the Academy of Urban Construction.
The orga­
nizers had further resource support from the Natural
Science Fund of China, the Ministry of Urban and
Rural Construction and Environmental Protection, and
the National Environment Protection Agency of China.
The meetings were held at the Chinese International
Center for Economic and Technical Exchange.

Public cooperation was said to be the keystone of
effective waste recycling.
Environmental education
for a global environmental ethic must reach every
citizen and must include specific attention to the
problems of SWM.
Cities should carefully examine the range of appro­
priate options available to them, based on an under­
standing of local, regional, and national economies,
and
the resources for social and administrative
organization.

Group III discussed various issues related to Man­
power Development and Public Education for Improvig^
SWM in Asian Metropolises.
Two categories
Wr
recommendations were given by the group:
(1)

- A strategy for manpower development and im­
provement should be formulated for urban SWM,
taking into account maximum utilization of
existing training programmes and facilities
in the country and overseas.

Discussion sessions were broken up into
three
groups.
Group I on Policy Issues on Solid Waste
Management
(SWM) in the Context of Rapid Urbaniza­
tion in Asian Metropolises discussed SWM problems
and issues in various Asian cities.
The following
recommendations were made:
(1)

(2)

(3)

- Regular training courses on technical aspects
of SWM should be provided at the national
level for participants from provincial and
local governments.

Further comparative analysis should be done
under the initiative of UNCRD, on SWM practices
in Asian cities in the context of rapid urbani­
zation and its associated social and economic
changes.
The compendium of facts and
figures on
the
state of the art of SWM in Asian metropolises
should be extended and refined through collabo­
ration with managers and researchers in the re­
spective countries and metropolises.

Detailed case studies on SWM should be under­
taken at least in three locations, e.g., one in
China and two in other Asian metropolises.
The
case studies should not only analyse the tech­
nical
aspects of SWM, but also assess its in­
stitutional and organizational arrangements and
financial aspects.

Group II focused discussion on the theme of Promot­
ing Resource Recovery in Asian Metropolises.
It
concluded that solving waste production and recycl­
ing problems is both an individual and a societal
responsibility.
It involves changing people’s life­
styles to produce less waste and recycle more
materials,
manufacturing and using less harmful
materials, and cooperating for global environmental
improvement.

Promoting recovery and recycling in every way was
said to be integral to municipal SWM.
This entails
better coordination of the actions of individuals,
enterprises,
institutions,
community groups,
and
government authorities.

Training/Manpower Development

- At the local government level, efforts should
be made to provide training opportunities for
junior technical personnel, including period­
ic
training courses using local resource
persons.
(2)

Public Education
- A section,
division,

or

unit

of

publS

affairs should be established (or its capa­
bility enhanced if it already exists)
within
the department of cleansing or SWM at
the
local government level to promote public edu­
cation activities.
- Local governments should coordinate public
education activities carried out by various
nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and com­
munity groups.

- The cleansing or SWM department should pro­
mote awareness and training of key persons,
such as politicians and community leaders in
order to gain their understanding and sup­
port .

A major issue that arose in every session was
the
extent to which the capital-intensive approaches of
affluent cities are appropriate for Chinese cities.
The debate can be illustrated with reference to
incineration of urban wastes.

January 1989

UNCRD News letter

9

EPMU

Solid Waste Management Seminar
The social issues that received the most attention
were those relating to the activities of poor people
who make a living by gathering wastes
from the
streets and garbage dumps.
There were differences
of opinion about the waste pickers among the Chinese
participants.
Some thought that they represented a
social problem that
the city governments
must
address, and others argued a laissez-faire position.
Foreign participants, and especially those who had
referred to pickers in specific cities
(Manila,
Bangkok,
Bombay, Colombo) were asked about current
policies towards garbage pickers in these cities.

During the day's field trip to two dump sites and a
Ransfer station, participants were able to see
the
Waste picking phenomenon for themselves.

Regarding recycling as a component of SWM,
it was
thought that all cities represented could improve on
recycling,
even
those Japanese cities
that have
gained a high degree of public and private enter­
prise cooperation in source separation.
No one
wants to see people having to "unscramble" mixed and
contaminated wastes, such as occurs in dump picking.
But cities like Shanghai and Guangzhou reported
that, because of changing policies of waste collec­
tion companies and rising standards of living,
the
past traditions of voluntary waste separation are
declining.
It was felt that considerable attention
will have to be given to public education on
the
need for source separation and recycling in the
future.
The training of municipal staff, their status, work­
ing conditions, and pay were other topics of discus­
sion.
Most Asian cities would like
to improve
training and conditions, but lack the resources
to
miake significant changes in current practices.

The research capabilities of large Japanese cities
were the envy of all other cities represented.
Some
Chinese cities are also much better able to under­
take research on a range of waste management
topics
than other poor Asian cities.
The workshop partici­
pants agreed that further exchange of information
and collaboration in the design of research studies
would be beneficial
to all
large Asian cities.
UNCRD continues to support and encourage such col­
laboration.
The workshop participants consisted of invited ex­
perts
from China and other Asian countries.
There
were seventy-five delegates altogether, and over 100
participants at the workshop.

Invited experts:
Christine Furedy
(Canada);
Liu
Hongliang, Shi Qing, Shi Yang, Wang Baoxiang,
Yao
Jinlong,
and Zhang Ze Lu (China);
C.
D.
Kotnis
(India); Sukehiro Gotoh, Yoshikazu Kawashima,
Haruo
Matsumura,
Shofu Miyashita, Motoo Shindoh,
Yasuji
Suzuki,
and Hitoshi Terashima (Japan); Abdul Ghani
Mohd.
Rais and Hisashi Ogawa
(Malaysia);
Benjamin
Cervantes Gabriel and Bindu N. Lohani (Philippines);

Loh Ah Tuan (Singapore); N.
S.
Jayasundera (Sri
Lanka);
and Guenter Tharun and Somchitt Trivichien
(Thailand).
Chief coordinator:
Hidehiko Sazanami,
UNCRD Director;
assisted by Kenji Oya,
Programme
Specialist,
and Satoru Kunieda, Hiroshi Mizoguchi.
and Itsukazu Suzuki, Associate Experts.

List of Papers

Furedy, Christine
Social Consideration in Solid Waste
in Asian Cities

Management

Gabriel, Benjamin Cervantes
A Case Study on Improving Solid Waste Manage­
ment in the Context of Metropolitan Development
in Metro Manila

Ghani Mohd. Rais, Abdul
Solid Waste Management:
Lumpur, Malaysia

City Hall

Kuala

of

Gotoh, Sukehiro
Issues and Factors to be Considered for Im­
provement of Solid Waste Management in Asian
Metropolises

Jayasundera, N. S.
Case Study of Solid Waste Management
City of Colombo

in

Kawashima, Yoshikazu and Miyashita, Shofu
Solid Waste Management: The Case of
Japan

Nagoya,

Kotnis, C. D.
Case Study:
The State of the
Waste Management in Bombay

Art

of

the

Solid

Liu Hongliang
Suggestion for the Urban Refuse Treatment Pro­
gramme Through an Ecological Engineering Way:
Feasibility of Technologies and Design of Na­
tional Environmental Refuse-Park in a Northern
Suburb of Beijing
Loh Ah Tuan
Solid Waste Management in Singapore:
Study
Lohani, Bindu N.
Solid Waste Management in Asian
Problems and Opportunities for
covery and Management

A

Case

Metropolises:
Resource Re­

Ogawa, Hisashi
Selection of Appropriate Technology for
Waste Management in Asian Metropolises

Solid

(Continued on page 10)

UNCRD Newsletter

10

January 1989

EPMU

Solid Waste Management Seminar
Shi Qing
Treatment and Disposal of Solid
Comprehensive Technology in China

with

Wastes

Shi Yang
The Status Quo of Municipal Solid Waste in Bei­
jing and Measures that Should henceforth be
Taken
Shindoh, Motoo and Suzuki, Yasuji
Solid Waste Management in Kitakyushu City

Somchitt Trivichien
Case Study on Composting of
Waste in Bangkok

Municipal

Solid

River/Lake Basin Workshop
The Second Expert Group Workshop on River/Lake Basin
Approaches
to Environmentally Sound Management of
Water Resources: Focus on Policy Responses to Water
Resources Management Issues and Problems will be
held on 16-25 January 1989, in Bangkok and Hat Yai,
Thailand.
The workshop is
jointly sponsored by
UNCRD, the International Lake Environment Committee
(ILEC),
the United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP),
and the National Environment Board
(NEB),
Government of Thailand, in association with Chula­
longkorn University,
Bangkok and the Prince of
Songkla University, Hat Yai.

The workshop is designed to:
(1)

Takimura, Akira
Waste Management and Protection of
Environment

the

Yagi, Yoshio
Waste Management in Japan

Yao Jinlong
Exploring
sources

the Utilization of

Urban-Waste

Zhang Ze Lu
A Study on the Management of Solid
Shanghai

Wastes

second-year

casW

Examine strategies and approaches to water re­
sources development and management in river/
lake basin contexts, with special focus on the
institutional and organizational arrangements
within which management strategies and policy
instruments are formulated and implemented; and

(3)

Suggest an operational framework for developing
curricula and materials that can be adopted by
developing countries for training development
planners and water resources managers.

Terashima, Hitoshi and Matsumoto, Yasuyuki
Public Cleansing Services in Tokyo

of

findings of the

(2)

Tanaka, Masaru and Matsumura, Haruo
Policy Options for Promoting Resource Recycling
in the Asian Developing Countries

Wang Baoxiang and Hao Zhongliang
The Existing Problems and Countermeasures
Solid Waste Disposal in Chinese Cities

the

studies and related resource papers undertaken
by collaborating institutions and experts;

Urban

Tharun, Guenter
Approaches to Manpower Development in the Field
of Solid Waste Management in Asian Metropolises

Review

Discussion at the workshop will focus on the follow­
ing questions:
(1)

What policy actions have been taken to respond
to the water resources management issues and
problems
(particularly those delineated and
analysed on the basis of the first-year’s case
studies)
in terms of management strategies,^
policy tools and instruments for putting the
strategies into effect, and institutional
and
organizational arrangements for policy formula­
tion and implementation?

(2)

How and to what extent has environmental and
social assessment information been reflected at
the various stages of water resources develop­
ment and management (both at the stages of plan
formulation and implementation)? What proced­
ures and mechanisms were adopted?

(3)

What institutional and organizational arrange­
ments have been adopted to facilitate the inte­
gration of land-use decisions with water re­
sources management?

(4)

How and to what extent have conflicts asso­
ciated with water use and allocation been miti­
gated and resolved? What strategies and policy
tools were used?

Re­

in

(Continued on page 17)

UNCRD Newsletter

January 1989

11

REGIONAL DISASTER PREVENTION UNIT (RDPU)

Second Research/Training Seminar
The Second International Research and Training Semi­
nar on Regional Development Planning for Disaster
Prevention was held on 27-29 July 1988,
in Nagoya
and Shimizu, Japan.
Organized by UNCRD and cospon­
sored by the Institute for Social Safety Science,
Japan,
and the Earthquake Engineering Research In­
stitute,
U.S.A.,
the seminar aimed to
promote
disaster countermeasures in metropolitan contexts,
as well as to strengthen community resistance to
natural disasters and to create safe residential
environments in developing countries.

Participants were divided into groups for discussion
issues organized around the following themes:
Theme I:
Preparedness Planning and Management (Pre­
Disaster Measures)

Issue 1:

Policy problems in earthquake prediction

Issue 2:

Public and private preparedness

Issue 3:

Earthquake vulnerability/damage estimation

Theme II:
Emergency Planning and Management
Disaster Measures)
Issue 4:

Fires resulting from earthquakes

Issue 5-

Short-term emergency responses

(Mid­

Theme III:
Rehabilitation and Reconstruction (Post­
disaster Measures)

Issue 6:

Longer-term recovery

Jhe seminar consisted of two days of wide-ranging
deliberations,
followed by a round-up session.
An
Open Forum on Urban Hazard Reduction was held on the
third day.
A field visit took place after the Forum
which allowed participants
to learn more about
countermeasures against the Tokai earthquake at
the
Operations Room of the Shizuoka Prefectural Govern­
ment .

Participants:
Gharib M. Hamada (Egypt);
Anand S.
Arya
(India);
Dradjat
Hoedajanto
(Indonesia);
Aliakbar Moinfar
(Iran);
Masanori Hamada,
Haruo
Hayashi, Kunihiko Hirai, Ikuo Hori, Hirokazu lemura,
Shigeru Itoh,
Eiichi Itoigawa,
Toshikatsu Iwami,
Hideki Kaji,
Hiroyuki Kameda,
Nori taka Katatani,
Tsuneo
Katayama,
Kazuhiko
Kawashima,
Masami
Kobayashi,
Shigeaki Kobayashi, Tetsuo Kubo,
Yoshio
Kumagai.
Katsuhiko Kuroda,
Michio Miyano,
Tohru
Miyazawa,
Toshio Mochizuki, Shuji Mukunoki,
Hitomi
0.
Murakami, Masaya Murakami,
Yoshiteru Murozaki,
Masatake Naganoh,
Itsuki Nakabayashi,
Yoshiteru
Nojima,
Yujiro Ogawa,
Tatsuo Ohmachi,
Ryutaro
Ohsawa,
Keiichi Okamoto, Takashi Saitoh,
Tadanobu
Sato,
Ai Sekizawa, Akenori Shibata,
Yasuo Shioji,

Shunsuke Sugano, Toshiroh Sugiyama, Tsutomu Takeda,
Isao Tsukagoshi, Shigeki Unjoh, Susumu Yasuda,
and
Hiroaki Yoshii (Japan); Felipe Lara-Rosano (Mexico);
Gianfranco
Ottazzi
(Peru);
Satyendra P.
Gupta
(Thailand); Ahmet Emin Aktan. Haluk M. Aktan, Thalia
Anagnos,
Eileen Baumgardner, Frank T.
Blackburn,
Patricia A.
Bolton,
R.
D.
Borcherdt,
Frank W.
Borden,
Juliet Carrara,
Mehmet Celebi,
Oris H.
Degenkolb, Richard K. Eisner, Paul J. Flores, Edward
S.
Fratto,
Terence P. Haney,
Glenn 0.
Johnson,
Fredrick Krimgold, Randolph Langenbach, Le Vai Lund,
Shirley Mattingly, Jack F. Meehan, Robert A.
Olson,
Jane Preuss, Henry R. Renteria, Christopher Rojahn,
Richard J.
Roth,
Jr.,
Charles Scawthorn,
Guna
Selvaduray, Anselm Smolka, Paul Somerville, Kathleen
J.
Tierney, Thomas Tobin,
Susan K.
Tubbesing,
Loring
A.
Wyllie,
Jr.,
and Arthur J.
Zeizel
(U.S.A.); and Vladimir Mihailov (Yugoslavia).
Chief
coordinator:
Hidehiko Sazanami,
UNCRD Director;
assisted by Jun Izumi, Research Associate.

List of Papers
Issue 1:

Borcherdt, R. D.
Criteria for the Issuance of Public Warning
Based on Short-Term Earthquake Predictions Near
Parkfield, California, U.S.A.
Flores, Paul J.
Policy Implications of Earthquake Reduction
Hori, Ikuo
Seismic Microzoning and Aseismic Design
Kawasaki City
A Phased Evacuation System

Mattingly, Shirley
Policy
Problems of Earthquake
Local Government Policy Issues

Prediction:

Mihailov, Vladimir
Seismic Risk Reduction Through Urban Planning
Moinfar, Aliakbar
Earthquake Prediction Abilities in the
Plateau

Iranian

Mukunoki, Shuji
Japanese Earthquake Countermeasures:
tions Now and in the Future

Direc­

Okamoto, Keiichi
Earthquake Measures in Urban Policy

Somerville, Paul
Prediction of Damaging Earthquakes
Areas:
An Inverse Problem

in

Urban

(Continued on page 12)

UNCRD Newsletter

12

RDPU

January 1989

Papers Presented

Sugiyama, Toshiroh
Countermeasures Against the Anticipated Tokai
Earthquake:
The Case of Shizuoka Prefecture

Yoshii, Hiroaki
Social Impacts of Earthquake Warnings

Issue 3:
Aktan, Ahmet Emin
Seismic Vulnerability Evaluation and
of RC Buildings

Upgrading

Issue 2:

Aktan, Haluk M.
Nonbuckling Slip Braces for Seismic Rehabilita­
tion

Eisner, Richard K.
The Role of Regional Coordination in Public and
Private Preparedness: Earthquake Preparedness
in California

Anagnos, Thalia
A Methodology for Rapid Visual Identification
of Seismically Hazardous Buildings
in
the
United States

Fratto, Edward S.
Earthquake Vulnerability
Damage "User Needs"

Celebi, Mehmet
Seismic Monitoring of Structures:
A
Element of Urban Earthquake Hazard
Programmes

and

Estimation

of

Hamada, G. M.
Impact of Earthquakes on Oil Wells in the
Gulf

Suez

Necessar^
Reduction

Degenkolb, Oris H.
Estimation of Earthquake Vulnerability/Damage

Hayashi, Haruo
Help Needed and Help Provided:
The Case of the
Nihonkai-Chubu Earthquake, 1983

Gupta, Satyendra P.
Earthquake Vulnerability of
Countries

Langenbach, Randolph
The Problem of Historic Preservation in Seismic
Areas

Hoedajanto, Dradjat
Simple Model for Shear Response of RC Panels

lemura, Hirokazu
Innovative Dynamic Control of Structures

Miyazawa, Tohru
Company Preparations for the Tokai Earthquake
Ogawa, Yujiro
Protection
Disaster

Asian

Developing

Kameda, Hiroyuki and Nojima, Nobuoto
System Aspects of Urban Seismic Disaster

of Cultural Inheritance from

Urban

Ohmachi, Tatsuo
A Strategy for Japanese Earthquake Preparedness
Planning
Olson, Robert A.
Preservation in Peru: Impacts of
Spence Prediction

Preuss, Jane
Assessing Vulnerability
from Tsunami

and

the

Reducing

Katatani, Nori taka
Current Computer
Methods

Utilization

in

Prediction

Kobayashi, Masami
What of Design Safety in Urban Structures?

BradyKubo, Tetsuo
Evaluation of Seismic Performance and Retrofit
of Reinforced Concrete Buildings in Japan

Damage

Roth, Jr., Richard J.
Insurance Experience and Exposure Regarding
Large California Earthquake

a

Saitoh, Takashi
Disaster Preparedness in Minato Mirai 21

Shioji, Yasuo
Disaster Preparedness Activities of the Keihin
Designated Area Disaster Preparedness Confer­
ence
Tobin, Thomas
Public and Private Earthquake Hazards Reduction
in California

Kuroda, Katsuhiko
Land-Use Planning Under Natural Hazard Risks
Lara-Rosano, Felipe
Evaluation of Earthquake Resilience of
Systems:
A Fuzzy Sets Approach

Network

Lund, Le Vai
San Fernando Earthquake: February 9.
1971
Water Lifeline -- Lessons Learned; and

Whittier-Narrows Earthquake: October 1, 1987 —
Water Lifeline Systems
Meehan, Jack F.
School and Hospital Vulnerability and Rehabili­
tation

January 1989

n

UNCRD Newsle tier

RDPU

Papers Presented
Miyano, Michio
On the Characteristics of Human Casualties
to Earthquakes

Murakami, Hi torn! 0.
A
Diagnostic Assessment
of
Seismic Risk for Household Units

Due

Comprehensive

Murakami, Masaya
Seismic Capacity of Existing Medium- and LowRise Reinforced Concrete Buildings and Damage
Due to Prior Earthquakes in Japan
Naganoh, Masatake
A Study of Disaster Prevention Planning in Big
Cities:
Some Problems of Earthquake Prevention
Planning in the Littoral Districts
Development
Project

Ottazzi, Gianfranco
Shaking Table Tests of Improved Adobe
Houses

Kumagai. Yoshio
A New Simulation Model for a Post-Earthquake
Urban Fire Corresponding to Any Wind Condition:
A Winds-Puff
Mochizuki, Toshio
Dangerous Factors in Living Environments Relat­
ing to Human Casualty

Scawthorn, Charles
Fire and Hazardous Materials Following
quake:
U.S. Perspectives

Takeda, Tsutomu
Estimate on Fire Outbreak in Case of Earthquake

Tsukagoshi, Isao
Fire Protection of Wood Frame Building and Fire
Spread Between Buildings

Masonry
Issue 5-

Rojahn, Christopher
Damage Estimation for Existing Buildings
Sato, Tadanobu
Systematization of Databases Related to Natural
Disaster Science

Carrara, Juliet
Potential
Hazards and Resources
Universities and Research Centres
Surrounding Areas

Colleges,
Pose for

Haney, Terence P.
California Earthquake Response Planning

Shibata, Akenori
Assessment of Earthquake Hazards in Miyagi Pre­
fecture

Hirai, Kunihiko
Rescue by Sea

Yasuda, Susumu
Countermeasures Against Liquefaction for
Facilities

Iwami, Toshikatsu
Real-Time Information System for Seismic
Fire

Zeizel, Arthur J.
Earthquake Loss:

Urban

Estimation Methods

Issue 4:
Baumgardner, Eileen
Hazardous Material Risk: Current Planning
Earthquake Hazard Reduction

and

Blackburn, Frank T.
Earthquake Preparedness
Francisco

San

in the

City

Borden, Frank W.
Status of Earthquake Planning for Los
Fire Department

of

to

Hazardous

City

Krimgold, Fredrick
Issues of Emergency Response to
quake Disasters

Urban

Murozaki, Yoshiteru
Voluntary Activity in Emergency
Recovery

Response

Earth­

and

Nojima, Yoshiteru
Development of Comprehensive Information System
for Urban Disaster Management (CISUDIM)
Ohsawa, Ryutaro and Iwata. Takashi
Seismic Risk Mitigation System for
Pipeline Network

City

Gas

Angeles

Renteria, Henry R.
Governmental Response to the Earthquake Problem

Itoigawa, Eiichi
Stochastic Model for Fire Spread in Urban Areas
Based on Firebrand Effects
Kobayashi, Shigeaki
Earthquake
Damage
Facilities

Earth­

Materials

Sekizawa, Ai
A Systematic Approach for the Optimum Fire
Fighting
Operation Against Multiple
Fires
Following a Big Earthquake
(Continued on page 14)

UNCRD Newsletter

14

January 1989

RDPU

Papers Presented
Selvaduray, Guna
Hazardous
Materials
Emergency Response

Issues

Earthquake

in

Issue 6:
Arya, Anand S.
Repair and Strengthening of Earthquake Damaged
Buildings:
A Component of Long-Term Recovery
Programmes

Bolton, Patricia A.
Social Factors
Earthquakes

in Housing Recovery

in

Urban

Johnson, Glenn 0.
Pre-Event Planning for Earthquake Reconstruc­
tion:
An Umbrella for the Future of Our Cities

Kawashima, Kazuhiko
Post-Earthquake
Bridges in Japan

Repair

Methods

of

Highway

Nakabayashi, Itsuki
Recovery of Livelihood Following Earthquake and
Fire in Recent Japan

Smolka, Anselm
Earthquake Insurance:
Data Requirements
Managing the Catastrophe Risk

for

Sugano, Shunsuke
Seismic Capacity and Response of a Reinforced
Concrete School Building in Mexico City,
Which
Suffered the Earthquake of 1985
Tierney, Kathleen J.
Earthquake-Generated Hazardous Materials
leases:
Research and Policy Issues

Re­

Tubbesing, Susan K.
Social, Psychological, and Public Policy Issues
During Post-Earthquake Recovery and Reconstruct^
tion
Unjoh, Shigeki
Evaluation of Seismic Vulnerability of
Bridges in Japan

Highway

Wyllie, Jr., Loring A.
Repair and Strengthening of Buildings for
Performance in the Next Earthquake

Good

INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT UNIT (IDU)

Industrial Estates Research
A Research Project on Industrial Estates and Region­
al Development in Developing Countries:
Implica­
tions for Policy and Planning was recently launched
by UNCRD.
The objectives of the research are to:
(1)

Elicit information from developing countries on
their experiences in the field of industrial
estates development, and prepare a comparative
analysis based on these experiences;

(2)

Examine in depth the extent to which industrial
estates have been relevant to the attainment of
national and regional objectives;

(3)

Recommend methods of cooperation and integra­
tion of efforts at local and regional levels in
achieving efficiency and effectiveness in in­
dustrial estates development in relation
to
regional and national development; and

(4)

Discuss lessons learned from industrial estates
development experiences and formulate recommen­
dations
for future policy-making and planning
for regional development in Asian countries.

The study will analyse the following:
(1)

General overview of government policies on in­
dustrial location and on industrial estates
development in relation
to industrialization
efforts;

(2)

Government regulations and
centives and support;

(3)

Planning and development considerations:
Loca­
tional,
provision of physical
facilities,
design, and construction;
ft
Operation and management aspects:
Issues ano^'

(4)

requirements:

In­

problems;
(5)

Consequences or effects in terms of socio­
economic and physical/environmental impacts
national,
regional, and local, in particular,
regional development performance as a result of
industrial estates; and

(6)

Policy implications for future action.

The project will consist of country case studies
to
be prepared by scholars/researchers
from selected
universities or research institutions in Indonesia,
Japan,
Malaysia,
Philippines, Republic of Korea,
Singapore, and Thailand.
The inclusion of Japan and
the Republic of Korea as case studies would provide
some lessons for comparison with experiences in the
ASEAN region.
Results of the study will be pre­
sented at the Expert Group Meeting on Industrial
Estates and Regional Development in Developing Coun­
tries:
Implications for Policy and Planning, to be
held in Bangkok on 22-26 August 1989.
Coordinator:
Josefina M. Ramos, Regional Development Planner.

UNCRD Newsletter

January 1989

15

INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT UNIT (IDU)

Pacific Rim Conference

TNCs in the ASEAN Region

The first International Conference on Comparative
Regional Development Studies in the Pacific Rim was
held on 10-17 July 1988.
It examined
the issues
relating to the transformation of the structure of
local industries in the Pacific Rim countries.
The conference consisted of two symposia,
two ex­
perts' group workshops, and one forum, held in Gifu,
Nagoya,
and Tokyo (see Newsletter,
no.
26,
July
1988).
The purpose of the conference was to enhance
mutual understanding of economic issues in the
Pacific Rim nations.
conference presented case studies of representaW-e urban areas of the U.S. Comparisons were drawn

with respective regions in Japan, focusing on the
implications of the revitalization of local econo­
mies,
the future of Japan-U.S. economic relations,
and
trends towards the internationalization of en­
trepreneurial
activities.
Also presented were in­
terim reports prepared by the ASEAN Study Teams
for
the UNCRD Research Project on Industrial Transforma­
tion and Regional Development:
Challenges
Facing
ASEAN Countries.

Partial List of Papers
Glickman, Norman
The International Economy and the American Sun­
belt
Harrison, Bennett
Reassessing the "Massachusetts Miracle":
The
Sources and Patterns of Employment and Economic
Growth in the Revitalization of a "Mature" Region
Markusen, Ann
Bowing Out,
Bidding Down and Betting on
the
Basics:
Midwestern Responses to Deindustriali­
zation in the 1980s

Rodwin, Lloyd
Introduction of the Symposium Objectives
Overview of the American Experience

Sassen, Saskia
The New Finance and Business Service

and

Economy:

New York City

Thurow, Lester
Deindustrialization

and

Regional

Economic

Transformation
The
UNCRD Newsletter is published seoiannually
(Summer and Winter) by the United Nations Centre Cor
Regional Development. Nagono 1-47-1. Nakaraura-ku,
Nagoya b50. Japan. Cable: UNCENTRE NAGOYA: Telex:
J59620 UNCENTRE; Phone:
(052) 561-9377: Pax:
(052)

561-9375-

Following the launching of the Research Project on
Transnational Corporations in Southeast Asia,
an
expert group meeting was held in Manila on 14-16
December 1988. The meeting discussed in general.
industrialization policies and transnational corpo­
rations (TNCs) in Indonesia, Malaysia,
Philippines,
Singapore, and Thailand.
In addition, a draft sur­
vey questionnaire was prepared to be used for an indepth
analysis of TNCs
concerning
government
policies, management practices, personnel policies,
structure of TNCs, and impacts on technology trans­
fer,
management system, employment,
and sociocul­
tural and political impacts.
The urban economy and employment structure in South­
east Asia, particularly in large cities, have over
the past three decades been affected by the pro­
liferation of TNCs, growing industrialization,
and
the increasing interdependency of economies.
South­
east Asia has been one of the fastest-growing areas
and,
therefore,
its management capacity and its
interactions with TNCs are of tremendous interest to
other developing countries.

Generally,
the implementation of industrialization
policies in Southeast Asia can be divided into five
groups, namely:
General investment promotion,
pro­
tection and control, export promotion.
industrial
decentralization,
and other related measures.
The
meeting discussed these policies as an introduction
to a more detailed analysis of TNC operations in the
five coun tries.
The final report is expected to be presented at the
Expert Group Meeting on Transnational Corporations
in the Urban Regions of Southeast Asia:
Issues in
Transfer of Technology and Management to be held in
Bangkok on 22-26 August 1989-

Participants:
Ahmad D. Habir (Indonesia);
Yasutomo
Morigiwa
(Japan); Goh Ban Lee (Malaysia);
Casimiro
Miranda, Jr. (Philippines); Habibullah Khan
(Singa­
pore) ;
and Waranya Patarasuk (Thailand).
For fur­
ther information, please write to:
Hidehiko Sazanami,
UNCRD Director or Josefina M.
Ramos.
Regional
Development Planner and Project Coordinator.
---------

UNCRD’s Seven Operational Units ------------ ,

UNCRD recently reorganized its programmes into seven
major operational units.
The seven operational
units provide a framework within which UNCRD can
identify, design, and manage research and training
projects. These units include:
(a) Urban Develop­
ment and Housing Unit (UDHU); (b) Regional Develop­
ment and Management Unit (RDMU); (c) Environmental
Planning and Management Unit (EPMU);
(d) Regional
Disaster Prevention Unit (RDPU);
(e) Information
Systems Unit (ISU);
(f) Social Development Unit
(SDU); and (g) Industrial Development Unit (IDU).

UNCRD Newsletter

16

January 1989

REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT UNIT (RDPU)

Urban/Regional Linkages in Asia
UNCRD has recently launched a research project
to
examine the nature and implications of a major
emerging trend in Asian metropolitan regions,
i.e.,
the rapid expansion of metropolitan regions covering
extensive areas and forming extensive zones of mixed
rural and urban activities and land use.
These re­
gions, characterized by intensive rural-urban inter­
action,
also exhibit a growing tendency
towards
blurring the neat
rural-urban distinction.
The
emerging developments have important implications
for employment promotion and poverty alleviation as
well as for industrialization and regional economic
growth.
These developments also raise important
policy questions, in particular, planning for re­
gional development.
The proposed
tives, namely:

(1)

research has three

principal

objec­

To analyse the emerging trends in labour mar­
kets and employment in "mega-urban" regions in
selected countries from different subregions in
Asia (especially in relation to demographic and
land-use change and economic growth);

(2)

To survey and analyse urban/regional linkages
in terms of labour force movement,
commodity
flows, and information; and

(3)

To examine the implications of these develop­
ments for regional planning and, in particular,
policy challenges for local, regional, and na­
tional governments.

The study will focus on:

(1)

Utilizing census and labour force surveys
to
establish national trends in labour markets and
employment for the last two decades or so.
Particular attention will be paid to gender and
occupational changes in terms of urban-rural
divisions;

(2)

Utilizing census and labour force data to
establish the main features of shifts
in the
structure of labour markets and employment in
the "mega-urban" regions;

(3)

Utilizing available information to examine
the
emerging trends in the regional economy through
analysis by sector (agriculture, industry,
and
services), with particular attention on trans­
port.
Questions such as what are the emerging
linkages between agriculture and nonagricul­
ture,
what has been happening to industry in
these regions, and what are the emerging trends
in female employment, will be examined;

(4)

Examining the major emerging linkages between
the city and regional economy and their impact

on the process of industrialization and employ­
ment generation;

(5)

Evaluating the factors which promote and foster
(or hinder) labour market and employment inter­
actions between the city and regional economy,
and examining the implications of these for
industrialization and regional development; and

(6)

Clarifying the challenges for national, region­
al,
and city/local governments
arising from
the emerging urban/regional linkages.

During the first phase of the project, case studied
of regions centring around or located between some
of the following cities will be undertaken:
South­
east Asia
(ASEAN):
Jakarta/Bandung
(Indonesia);
Kuala Lumpur/Penang
(Malaysia);
Manila
(Philip­
pines); and Bangkok (Thailand).
South Asia:
Lahore
(Pakistan);
and Colombo (Sri Lanka).
East Asia:
Pusan/Southeastern
Coastal Region
(Republic
of
Korea).

This phase of the project will focus on examining
various characteristics,
recent developments and
emerging issues on rural/regional employment
link­
ages ,
and trends in labour markets.
State-of-theart surveys on the selected regions will be con­
ducted by focusing on most of the issues raised
above.

Several experts on urbanization and industrializa­
tion will also be commissioned to prepare analytical
papers dealing with various conceptual issues on the
subject from a comparative perspective.

the ExperU^
Phase I
results will be presented at
Group Meeting on Emerging Urban-Regional Linkages ii^B'
Asia, to be held on 16-19 August 1989 in Bangkok.
Coordinator:
Planner.

Wilbert Gooneratne,

Senior

Economic

January 1989

UNCRD Newsletter

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT UNIT (SDU)

Social Dimensions of Industrialization
The first meeting for planning the design of UNCRD's
Research Project on the Social Dimensions of Indus­
trialization in ASEAN Countries:
Implication for
Regional Development Policy and Planning was con­
vened by UNCRD, on 25-27 August 1988, with the col­
laboration of the University of the Philippines
(UP)
at Los Bartos.
The meeting was held at the
Chancellor's Office and the University Guest House,
College, Laguna.

The objective of this research project is to examine
the
social changes resulting from the
indus­
trialization process in metropolitan regions in
^SEAN countries, and the impact of this process on
^Me living conditions and life-styles of those
directly or indirectly involved, and on society in
general.
The purpose of this meeting was to delineate the
focus and scope of the research to be undertaken, as
well as to discuss the approach and methodology that
will be used.
After presentation of preliminary
papers and discussions, guidelines for the country
case studies were drawn.
It was agreed that the

scope of the research should consist of a general
description of industrialization focusing on the
manufacturing sector, and that the methodology to be
used should include both available secondary materi­
als and interviews with key informants.
Research currently under way will be completed by
the end of May 1989.
Deliberation on these studies
and on commissioned theoretical papers will
take
place at the Expert Group Meeting on Social Dimen­
sions of Industrialization in ASEAN Countries, to be
held in Bangkok on 22-26 August 1989-

The meeting was attended by the following research
team members:
Azizah Kassim
(Malaysia);
Ledivina
Vidallon-Carirto
(Philippines);
Peter S.
J.
Chen
(Singapore); and Suntaree Komin (Thailand).
Corazon
B.
Lamug,
Director of Research,
UP Los
Bartos
attended
the first day's deliberations.
Riga
Adiwoso
Suprapto,
research
team
member
from
Indonesia,
was unable to attend the meeting.
For
information,
please contact the UNCRD Director or
Chakrit N. Padungkarn, Deputy Director and Project
Coordinator.

Seventeenth International Training Course at UNCRD
Aimed at an interdisciplinary regional development
approach, UNCRD's Seventeenth International Training
Course in Regional Development Planning will be held
in Nagoya from 3 April to 1 June 1969
*
The course
is designed for mid-career and senior government
officials,
professionals,
practitioners,
and re­
searchers involved in local and regional development
^^lanning, research, and training.
The subject areas covered in the course include:
The meaning of development;
regional development
theories,
concepts,
and approaches;
the regional
planning process; economic, social, and demographic
analysis;
planning for strategic sectors;
land-use
planning;
environmental planning;
planning
for

River/Lake Basin Workshop
(5)

What mechanisms have been adopted to facilitate
local community participation in the process of
water resources management?

(6)

What have been the major anticipated and un­
anticipated consequences -- economic,
social,
and political — of the water resources manage­
ment policy efforts?

The workshop will be organized into two parts:
Part
One on Policy Responses to Water Resources Manage­

disaster mitigation; regional social planning;
lo­
cal-level planning; regional plan and budget inter­
facing and coordination; project planning,
manage­
ment, and evaluation; and lessons from the Japanese
experience.
These themes are elaborated throughout
the course using various instructional methods, such
as
formal lectures,
group discussions,
problem­
solving exercises, study tours, and workshops.
In
addition, participants are exposed to a computerized
simulation/game
exercise
that enables them
to
comprehend the regional development planning process
systematically through cycles of simulated plan
formulation and negotiated decision making.
This
year's
training course coordinator is
Wilbert
Gooneratne, Senior Economic Planner.

(Continued from page 10)

ment Issues will be held on 16-21 January 1989 in
Bangkok; and Part Two on In-Depth Review of Strate­
gies and Approaches to Water Resources Management:
Focus on the Songkla Lake Basin of Thailand will be
held on 23-25 January 1989 in Hat Yai. Thailand.

Chief coordinator:
Hidehiko Sazanami, UNCRD Direc­
tor;
coordinator:
Md. S. I.
Khan,
Environmental
Management Planner; assisted by Kenji Oya, Programme
Specialist; and Hiroshi Mizoguchi and Itsukazu Suzu­
ki, Associate Experts.

UNCRD Newsletter

18

January 1989

STRATEGIC ASSISTANCE PROGRAMME

China Study
Phase I
of UNCRD's China Regional
Development
Strategies Study project was concluded with
the
third
training seminar held in Wuxi
in September
1988.
The primary purpose of the study was
to
develop teaching materials
and conduct
training
seminars on the socioeconomic, spatial, and physical
aspects of planning,
as well as
the managerial
aspects of enterprises.
The study focused on Wuxi
region,
including one city and three counties in
Jiangsu Province.
This phase of the project aimed
at upgrading planning skills through a systematized
approach to knowledge and information.
The
first training seminar was held in August 1986
in Wuxi.
The development experience of Japan and a
profile and future perspective for the Wuxi region
were discussed.
This was followed by joint field
investigations in Wuxi region and in selected cities
along the Pacific coast of Japan.
An interim
meeting was held at UNCRD in June 1987, to outline
teaching materials on data reliability and appropri­
ate techniques.
A second training seminar was held in August 1987 in
Wuxi.
The
findings of field investigations were
discussed,
and principles, basic approaches,
and
policy measures were identified.
Structural models
and evaluation criteria were formulated on the basis
of these findings.
The report on Wuxi's development strategies
finalized at a second interim study meeting.

was

Phase II is now under way, with requests
from
the
Government of the People's Republic of China to ex­
pand the scope of the project to the national level.
Chief coordinator:
Hidehiko Sazanami, UNCRD Direc­
tor; coordinators:
Hideaki Hoshina, Physical Plan­
ner
and Toshihiro Yogo,
Agricultural
Planner;
assisted by Takeshi Arai, Research Associate;
and
Shi Shi-min and Zhao Hui, United Nations Research
Fellows.

Pacific Islands Training Courses
UNCRD and the Republic of the Marshall Islands will
jointly conduct Training Courses on Sectoral Devel­
opment Planning and Implementation, pnd on Local
Government Planning and Financial Management on 7"24
February 1989 in Majuro.
The training courses are
aimed at middle- and senior-level sectoral develop­
ment planners/administrators and local government
officials.

The Training Course on Sectoral Development Planning
and Implementation aims primarily at familiarizing
participants
with overall development
planning
issues in the Marshall Islands, and at providing
training in the area of project planning
and
management.
The course on Local Government Planning
and Financial Management is designed to meet current
training needs at the local government level and
covers topics relating to plan formulation, project
planning and management, and programming/budgeting.
In addition, a work programme for the formulation of
local government plans during the 1989_9O period
will be identified.
Chief coordinator:
Hidehiko Sazanami, UNCRD Direc­
tor;
assisted by Roswitha Newels,
Associate Re_
searcher.
™

Pacific Islands - Research
The objective of the first phase of this operational
research project was to elaborate a comprehensive
and rigorous subnational planning model for island
economies with its supporting regional accounts or
data base.

Initially, UNCRD conducted empirical studies on the
institutional structure, the instruments,
and
the
procedures for subnational planning in four selected
Pacific island countries, namely. Federated States
of Micronesia, Marshall Islands,
Solomon Islands,
and Vanuatu.
A first expert group meeting on this project was
conducted at UNCRD on 18-22 July 1988,
to discuss
the design of an operational planning model for re®
source allocation for subnational development in
Pacific island countries.
It was agreed to elabo­
rate the economic relationships in the rural and
urban sectors of small island economies in the
Pacific as a basis for formulating a Regional
Economic Model for Island Countries (REMIC).
The project's second expert group meeting,
convened
at UNCRD on 5“9 December 1988, focused on:
(a)
Re­
viewing the REMIC model; (b) issues affecting the
model's practical application; and (c) discussing a
proposal
for
training in subnational
planning
systems.
It was recommended that the second phase
of this project should provide for the preparation
of training materials
(including relevant
case
studies and teaching aids) for a phased delivery of
training in subnational planning and implementation.
It was stressed that the approach of the REMIC model
should be emphasized, and that a pilot training
series should be conducted for purposes of testing
both the REMIC model and training materials pre­
pared.
(Participants

list, page 19,

col.

1)

UNCRD Newsletter

January 1989

13

STRATEGIC ASSISTANCE PROGRAMME

Symposium on Technology

Reviving Local Self-Reliance

UNCRD and the Economic Commission for Africa
(ECA)
are sponsoring a regional Symposium on Technology
Development and Transfer for Rural Development to be
held in Arusha, United Republic of Tanzania,
on
27 February-3 March 1989.
The symposium is orga­
nized in collaboration with the Centre on Integrated
Rural Development for Africa (CIRDAFRICA), Arusha.

An International Seminar on Reviving Local SelfReliance:
Challenges for Rural/Regional Development
in Eastern and Southern Africa will be held in
Arusha,
United Republic of Tanzania,
on
21-24
February 1989The seminar is being organized in
collaboration with the Centre on Integrated Rural
Development for Africa (CIRDAFRICA) based in Arusha.
The seminar will take place at the Arusha Interna­
tional Convention Centre in Arusha city.

The symposium is designed to provide a forum for
policymakers,
planners, and researchers to delibe­
rate on the role of technology in rural development
and
the appropriate mechanisms for the transfer,
B/elopment,
and diffusion of technologies
for
ccelerating rural development and uplifting the
quality of rural life in Africa. The symposium will
also examine the role of subnational strategies in
the development and transfer of technology.

«

Discussions at the symposium are expected to revolve
around the following major issues:
(1)

The main features and impact of past technology
policies on the rural economy and society;

(2)

The technology and food and agriculture
in Africa;

The seminar is being convened to provide a forum for
discussion of the case studies and concept papers
prepared under the UNCRD Research Project on Local
Strategies and Rural/Regional Development in Eastern
and Southern Africa, launched in 1987, as the second
phase of the UNCRD African research project (see the
July 1988 issue of the UNCRD Newsletter,
no. 26).
The seminar is also intended to provide a forum for
policymakers, planners, researchers, and representa­
tives of development agencies and nongovernmental
organizations
(NGOs) to exchange ideas and experi­
ences on the vital question of promoting local selfreliance for accelerating rural/regional development
in Eastern and Southern Africa.

crisis

(3)

National- and subnational-level frameworks
technology development and transfer; and

(4)

The role of indigenous technical knowledge.

The principal objectives of the seminar are:
for

Participation is expected from planners,
policy­
makers,
and academicians from Eastern and Southern
Africa.
Several staff members from UNCRD, ECA,
and
CIRDAFRICA will also attend the symposium.
For
^retails,
please contact
the UNCRD Director
or

(1)

To assess the importance and spread of differ­
ent types of local strategies and
responses
adopted by rural populations in different coun­
tries of Eastern and Southern Africa,
and
to
examine, in detail, their multiple dimensions,
including the contribution they make
to the
local economy and society;

(2)

To examine the implications of such selfreliant local strategies for rural and regional
development; and

(3)

To identify appropriate roles and mechanisms of
support by the state, regional, and local gov­
ernments,
international development agencies,
and NGOs.

Wilbert Gooneratne, Senior Economic Planner and Sym­
posium Coordinator.

Pacific Meeting Participants
(Continued from page 18)

Participants:
E. Klaassens, W. I. Morrison, and A.
van Westen (Federated States of Micronesia); H.
M.
Gunasekera
(Marshall
Islands);
S.
Tabriztchi
(U.S.A.);
Augustine Garae
(Vanuatu);
A.
Toda
(JICA, Japan); and Peter B. Corbin (UN/DTCD).

For further information, contact Hidehiko Sazanami,
UNCRD Director or Roswitha Newels,
Associate Re­
searcher.

Participants
in the seminar will be mostly from
Eastern and Southern Africa and will consist of a
broad spectrum of experts drawn from among policy­
makers, planners, and scholars involved in or work­
ing on issues related to rural/regional development
and planning.
In addition,
representatives from
selected
international organizations,
bilateral
agencies,
and NGOs will also be invited to attend
the meeting.
For further information, please con­
tact:
Hidehiko Sazanami, UNCRD Director or Wilbert
Gooneratne,
Senior Economic Planner and Project
Coordinator.

UNCRD Newsletter

20

January 1989

UNCRD Staff News
Departure

New Staff

After almost nine years as Development Administra­
tion Planner at UNCRD, G. Shabbir Cheema
took a
joint appointment last August as Research Associate
at the Population Institute of the East-West Center.
and as Associate Professor of Urban and Regional
Planning at the University of Hawaii,

During his period of service at UNCRD,
Cheema
coordinated several cross-national research projects
on various aspects of urban and regional development
policy and administration, the results of which have
been published and disseminated by and
for UNCRD.
Cheema also participated as part of the teaching
staff for UNCRD's annual
International Training
Course in Regional Development Planning, coordinated
country-specific training and research programmes in
Indonesia,
Malaysia, Pakistan, and the Pacific is­
land countries, and provided advisory services
to
developing countries.
UNCRD staff and friends extend Cheema and his family
best wishes for a successful future.

Hideki KAJI
Hideki Kaji (Japan) joined UNCRD's expert staff as
Senior Disaster Management Planner in September
1988.
He is Professor at the Institute of Socio­
economic Planning,
University of Tsukuba,
Japan.
Kaji received a B.Eng. degree in 1965.
a M.Eng.
degree in 1967, and a Doctor of Engineering degree
in 1970 from the Tokyo Institute of Technology.
He
served as researcher at the Building
Research
Institute.
Ministry of Construction from 1972
to
197^, as Associate Professor at the Tokyo Institute
of Technology from 1979 to 1978. and as Associate
Professor at the Asian Institute of Technology
(AIT), Bangkok from 1978 to 1981.
Kaji is seconded
by the Government of Japan.

Md. S. I. KHAN

Nd. Sayeedul Islam Khan (Bangladesh) joined UNCRD in
November 1988 as Environmental Management Planner.
Khan did his B.Sc. in Civil Engineering from
the
Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology,
Dhaka in 1963, and Doctor of Science degree in Civil
Engineering from Nagoya University, Japan in 1980.
He worked as Planning and Design Engineer in
the
Bangladesh Water Development Board from 1963
to
1970,
and then joined Rajshahi Engineering College
where he worked as Associate Professor.
Khan
obtained a scholarship from the Ministry of Educa­
tion.
Government of Japan,
and pursued advanced
research and higher studies from 1976 to 1980.
Upon
completing the doctorate degree, Khan returned
to
Bangladesh,
where he worked as consultant and was
involved in several water resource and rural devel­
opment projects financed mainly by the Asian Devel­
opment Bank (ADB) and the Japan International Co­
operation Agency (JICA). until he joined UNCRD.

Ananda KUMARA
K. K. U.
Ananda Kumara (Sri Lanka) recently joined
UNCRD's Industrial Development Unit
(IDU)
as a
United Nations Research Fellow.
He has a B.Sc.
(Hons.)
in Science,
a Post Graduate Diploma in
Statistics, and a M.Eng. (Industrial Engineering and
Management).
Currently, he is a doctoral candidate
at the Tokyo Institute of Technology.
Kumara worked
as lecturer at the University of Kelaniya,
Sri
Lanka.
Prior to joining the university, he served
in managerial and consultancy positions in several
private international organizations.
His current
research interests are in organizational
and em­
ployee performance, with emphasis on the Japanese
work environment and its transferability to develop­
ing economies.

21

UNCRD Newsletter

January 1989

UNCRD Staff News

(Continued from page 20)

Shigeto Moto
(Japan)
joined UNCRD as Associate
Expert in November 1988, on secondment from the
Kagoshima Prefectural Government.
Moto is a gradu­
ate in Economics from Saga University.
He has
served in the Secretariat of the Personnel Adminis­
tration Committee, the International Exchange Divi­
sion, the Planning Division, and the Social Welfare
Section of Oshima Branch Office in Kagoshima Prefec­
ture.
He also served in the Accounts Section of the
Saga Prefectural Police Department.
He will be
assisting the Regional Disaster Prevention Unit
(RDPU) during his stay at UNCRD.
Shigeto MOTO

Kazuhiko Nakazawa (Japan) joined UNCRD as Associate
Expert in November 1988, as part of the Regional
Disaster Prevention Unit (RDPU).
Nakazawa is
a
graduate in Architecture from the Science University
of Tokyo.
In 1980,
he joined
the Tokyo Fire
Department through which he has served at various
fire stations in the city.
In 1984-85.
Nakazawa
undertook studies in disaster prevention planning in
urban regions at the University of Tsukuba as part
of his job training with the Tokyo Fire Department.
He is on secondment from the Disaster Prevention
Planning Division of the Tokyo Fire Department.

Kazuhiko NAKAZAWA

Aya Okada (Japan) joined UNCRD as a United Nations
Research Fellow in January 1989She is mainly
assisting UNCRD's Social Development Unit (SDU)
in
research projects on social development issues in
developing countries.
Okada has just completed a
M.Phil. degree in Development Studies at the Insti­
tute of Development Studies (IDS),
University of
Sussex,
U.K.
Prior to this, she worked for the
Bhternational Development Center of Japan (IDCJ) in
Tokyo.
She also has a B.A. in International Rela­
tions from Tsuda College in Tokyo.

Aya OKADA

Vincent L. ROTGfi

Vincent L. Rotge (France) joined UNCRD as a United
Nations Research Fellow in January 1989 under the
Urban Development and Housing Unit (UDHU).
He holds
a professional diploma (D.P.L.G.)
in Architecture
from the £cole Nationale Superieure des Beaux-Arts,
Paris, and a master's degree in Environmental Design
from Yale University,
where he studied under a
French Foreign Office Scholarship and received a
Yale
University
Christopher
Tunnard
Memorial
Scholarship award in the field of urban planning and
development.
He also holds a M.Phil.
degree in
Geography and Development Studies from the ccole des
Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales,
Paris.
Rotge
worked as project specialist for a nongovernmental
organization in England, and as an architect for the
Andrault et Parat Architects in Paris.

22

UNCRD Newsletter

January 1989

UNCRD Staff News
(Continued from page 21)

Shovan Kumar SAHA
Shovan Kumar Saha (India) joined UNCRD as a United
Nations Research Fellow in July 1988.
He is in­
volved in the activities of UNCRD’s Urban Develop­
ment and Housing Unit (UDHU).
Saha has a bachelor's
degree in Architecture from the University of Delhi,
and a diploma in Town and Country Planning from the
School of Planning and Architecture,
New Delhi,
where he specialized in Urban and Regional Planning.
Saha has worked for both the government and private
sectors in a variety of architectural and planning
projects.
He is currently on leave from the School
of Planning and Architecture, New Delhi, where he is
Assistant Professor of Planning.

SHI Shi-min

Shi Shi-min (China) joined UNCRD as a United Nations
Research Fellow in October 1988.
He obtained a B.A.
degree
(Economics) from Henan University in 1977In 1982 he came to Japan, where he took up studi^r
at the Department of Economics, Nagoya University
He recently completed the academic requirements
for
the doctorate course in Business Administration.
He
is assisting in UNCRD's China Regional Development
Strategies Study Project.

-----------------------UNCRD Calendar of Events
Second Expert Group Workshop on
River/Lake Basin Approaches to
Environmentally Sound Manage­
ment of Water Resources
(jointly sponsored by UNCRD,
ILEC, UNEP, and Thailand National
Environment Board)

16-25 January 1989

Bangkok and Hat Yai

Training Courses on:
(1) Sectoral Development Planning
and Implementation; and
(2) Local Government Planning and
Financial Management

7-24 February 1989

Majuro, Marshall
Islands

Second Expert Group Meeting on
Industrial Transformation and
Regional Development in the
Pacific Rim (jointly sponsored
by UNCRD and the Organizing
Committee for the International
Conference on Comparative
Regional Development Studies
in the Pacific Rim)

14-17 February 1989

Singapore

International Seminar on
Reviving Local Self-Reliance:
Challenges for Rural/Regional
Development in Eastern and
Southern Africa

21-24 February 1989

Arusha, United Republic of Tanzania

Symposium on Technology Development and Transfer for Rural
Development (in collaboration
with Economic Commission for
Af rica)

27 February-3 March
1989

Arusha, United Republic of Tanzania

January 1989____________________

UNCRD
Calendar of Events

UNCRD Newsletter

____2

International Training Seminar
on Improving the Operational
Practices and Technical Per­
formance of Selected Housing
Projects

13-25 March 1989

Nagoya

International Workshop on
Urbanization and Population
Distribution Policies in Asia
(in cooperation with East-West
Center)

26 March-1 April
1989

Honolulu

Country Training Workshop on
Local Social Development Plan­
ning

March-April 1989

Manila

Third Expert Group Seminar on
Regional Development Planning
for Disaster Prevention

April 1989

Tokyo

Seventeenth International
Training Course in Regional
Development Planning

3 April-1 June
1989

Nagoya

Country Seminar on Strengthen­
ing Provincial Planning in
Sri Lanka:
Challenges for
Regional Development

June-July 1989

Colombo

Expert Group Meeting on Emerging
Urban-Regional Linkages in Asia

16-19 August 1989

Bangkok

Expert Group Meeting on Social
Dimensions of Industrialization
in ASEAN Countries

22-26 August 1989

Bangkok

Expert Group Meeting on Trans­
national Corporations in the
Urban Regions of Southeast Asia:
Issues in Transfer of Technology
and Management

22-26 August
1989

Bangkok

Expert Group Meeting on Indus­
trial Estates and Regional
Development in Developing Coun­
tries:
Implications for Policy
and Planning

22-26 August
1989

Bangkok

International Conference and the
Third Expert Group Meeting on
Industrial Transformation and
Regional Development:
Chal­
lenges in an Era of Global
In terdependence

September 1989

Autumn 1989
International Seminar on Inte­
grated Water Management in Urban
Areas (jointly sponsored by UNCRD,
Nagoya University, UNESCO, and
Ministry of Education, Government
of Japan)

(Continued on back page)

International Training Seminar
on the Application of Geographic
Information Systems to Regional
Planning

3-6 October 1989

Nagoya

January 1989

UNCRD Newsletter

24

Recent UNCRD Publications
Periodicals

ning and Management for Prevention and Mitiga­
tion from Natural Disasters — Japanese Expe­
riences. 1988.
(US$20 for developed countries;

Regional Development Dialogue

(Annual subscription rate (1989): USS5O - Developed
countries; USS3O - Developing countries)
Vol. 9, no. 3, Autumn 1988
"Innovative Planning Strategies for Metropoli­
tan Development and Conservation,” edited by
John P. Keith and M. W. J. G. Mendis
Vol. 9, no. 4, Winter 1988
"Employment, Livelihoods for the Urban Poor in
Asia:
Issues and Strategies in Metropolitan
Planning,” edited by Yue-man Yeung
Special Issue 1988
"Regional Development Policies and Planning
Africa," edited by R. A. Obudho.

US$15 for developing countries)
Training Modules:
Local Social Development Plan­
ning.
2 vols.
Vol. 1:
Perspectives-,
Vol. 2:
Techniques.
1988 (One set, US$30 for developed

countries; US$20 for developing countries)

Meeting Reports

"Innovative Planning Strategies for Metropolitan
Development and Conservation."
International
Seminar. Kyoto, Japan, 14-17 November 198^£4
1988 (US$4)

in

Vol. 10, no. 1, Spring 1989
"Financial Structure and Management of Asian
Metropolises: Issues and Responses," edited by
G. Shabbir Cheema.
(forthcoming)

"Eastern
Africa Rural
Development
Experience:
Strategies in Local-Level Development." Report
of the Proceedings of an International Seminar,
Nairobi,
Kenya, 30 June-3 July 19871988
(US$4)
"Report of the International Symposium on
Social Development, Yokohama, Japan,
March 1988." 1988 (US$4)

UNCRD Bulletin, 1988-89

Local
22-26

Books

Working Paper Series
Planning for Crisis Belief:
Towards Comprehensive
Resource Management and Planning for Natural
Disaster Prevention.
4 vols.
Vol. 4:
Plan-

UNCRD's Publications for 1988

WP88-1 Tilak, Jandhyala
"Educational Finances
(US$2)

in South

Asia."

1988

Regional Development Dialogue, 1988 and Special Issue

UNCRD Calendar of Events

(Continued from page 23)

International Hillside Cities
Conference (jointly sponsored by
UNCRD and the City of Nagasaki)

4-7 November 1989

Nagasaki

Seminar on Regional Planning
in the Federal District of
Brasilia

6-10 November 1989

Brasilia

SDA's ROLE IN CHEATING CLEAN CBIE8
Mis Almitrs H PsteA oO Korhnur, Bangalore Sn(A)77
Member, Supreme Court Committee for Solid Waste Management in Class 1 Cities

» The best way to kaep streets clean is not to lot them get dirty in the first place.
» The best way to minimize dumping problems is to troat waste as wealth and
recycle 83 much as possible. Dona sines Vedic times, it is now being forgotten.

These solutions are spelt out in India’s latest national policy for handling garbage.
The Ministry of Environment has Issued, in September 2000, India's first
"Municipal Solid Waste (Management & Handling) Rule
*
2000“ under
our Environment Protection Act. Some highlights:

It applies to all towns and cities ov&r 20,COO population.1
All their local Solid Waste Management (SWM) Plans will now have io be framed
in conformity with these Rules.
There i$ a special role apelt out for Development Authorities In Schedule III;

'‘Site Selection

1, In aroae falling under tha jurisdiction of "Dovolopment Authorities’1,
. Q.f. ^u^h
to Identify
the landfill sites and hand over the sites to the concerned municipal authority
for development, operation and maintenance.
Elsswhsrs, this responsibility shall lie with the concerned municipal authority.”
“7. Tha landfill slta shall be larga enough to last for 20-25 ysara.”

’9. A Buffer Zone of No-DaVelopment ahsli be maintained around landfill site
and shall ba incorporated in the Town Planning Department’s iand-usa plans."
“2. Selection of landfill sites shall be based on environmental issues2. Tha State
Urban Development Dept shall co-ordinate with the concerned organizations for
obtaining the necessary approvals and clearances."
1 Every Municipal Authority shall be responsible for the implementation of these rules and for
infrastructure development tor collection, storage, segregation, transportation, processing and
disposal of municipal solid wastes.
The DM or DC of each district has overall responsibility for enforcement of the Rules wiinin it.
For metropolitan ettiaa (over 10 lakh population), the Secretary Urban Development of tha
State IUT baa overall responsibility.
The State Pollution Control Board will grant authorization for setting up waste processing and
disposal facility Including landfills, and will monitor air and water quality and compoot quality.

2 Salsctlon of landfill sites shall be based on examination of environmental laaues ... away
from habitation clusters, forest areas, water bodies, monuments, National Parka, Wetlands, places
of important cultural, historical or religious Interest.
Prior approval of airport or airbase authorities is necessary If the sits Is to be located within 20
krn of an airport or airbase.

2

1, Procuring a site as par MSW Rules for its CMCs. to be shared perhaps with
newly-added areas of the BCD, is the single most Important and Immediate ■
tg.sk of the BOA.
Sines such sites may lie in or near former or existing villages, It is very important to
win their confidence. Villagers nearest to a waste processing or disposal should
be made members of a site-management committee since they know the local
conditions and solutions best and must have a forum for problem-solving.
Based on kPol1uter-Pay3” principles, the villagers should receive some benefit from
othara’ waste being dumped near them. The municipalities / CMCs that use a site
should pay for compost which can be supplied to the villages, perhaps one ton per
year or season, per family or per acre of cultivated land nearby. This will not only
ensure production of a quality product, it will also promote the marketing of
compost which Is such an important aspect of waste-processing operations.

2, BDA can team from the Swachha Bangalore experience and provide, in each
of its existing & future layouts, enough space for ths following facilities:
(a ) Enough space at each Ward Office or Block Office for secure parking of
doorstep - waste - collection vehicles, repairs and supplies

(b ) Earmarked space for dry-waste-aortlng and collection by waste-pickers.
Since this role is left to the informal sector, their collected dry wastes will surely
spill over onto prime space like footpaths or vacant sites, causing civic conflict and
hardship to the poor if designated spaces are not earmarked In advance for their
activities, (e.g. Pimpri-Chinchwad has provided this under the corner of a flyover).

(c ) BDA must earmark spaces (a little away from danse habitation zones) for
decentrelteed composting, which is the most cost-effectivs way to minimise
transport costs and manage segregated wet waste.
(d ) BDA must earmark zones for waste-recycling industries, to encourago
legitimate eco-friendly operations that can save a growing city from being buried
in future pollution,

3,

BDA must provide adequate and suitable spaces in its areas for the planned
management of spacial wastes:

(a)

epace in markets for garbage-take-away lorries or tractor-trailers to park,

(b)

space for managing wastes from decantrallssd-slaughtorlng practices

{c) space for installing a common hoapltal-waote-processing site,

1

28=08

PLMITRA PATEL

3 080 3465365

fi> 00'.

3

(d ) spaces for cremating both humans and dead animals,

(e) space to dispose of inert wastes like debris, construction & demolition wastes,
(f) arrangements for transporting hotel/ kalyan mantapa food wastes to pig­
geries and veg-fruit-market wastes to cattle or sheep farms or to composting sites,
(g ) space for collection and temporary drying of useful fuel-wastes like coconut­
shells, sugsrcane-juice-stall wastes, garden wastes
(h ) Zoning space for relocating existing piggeries and cattle-sheds In their
territory away from areas planned for new urbanisation, to prevent the mistakes
of the past that the BCC has to live with. This politically sensitive issue must be
thoughtfully handled to accommodate the needs of all sections of society.

4, Zoning of hawking zones especially for street - food vendors, is
absolutely vital for good waste-management in newly-formed urban areas. BDA
simply cannot dodge this sensitive issue and pass the buck to future residents
who will have uniformly NIMBY attitudes (‘Not In My Back Yard").
5, Zoning of hlgh-density affordable housing is even more Important, so that
the working poor upon whom civic life depends can house themselves without
creating new -slums.
Areas must be either designated or permitted where
densities of 300 families per acre are allowed, in tiny row-house plots with minimal
set-back and lanes just wide enough for three-wheelers.

The poor need not and should not be provided low-cost housing. They should
merely be enabled to invest their own resources in their own low - cost
progressively - upgraded homes, once land-tenure is assured on small sites with
affordable building rules. Trunk Infra - structure must reach these sites
first: power, water, drainage (see 7 below)
6, Zoning of adequate housing for migrant labour sngsged In construction of
BDA projects like ring roads, flyovers and bridges, as this labour often stays back
and its unplanned housing needs form the seeds of future slums.
7, Building bye-laws for group / apartment housing that mandate the recycling
of liquid wastes.
Spaces must be provided for decentralised oewagsmanagement Otherwise cities will never be free of sewage in open storm-water
drains even In new areas.

20:03

3 030 3465365

ALMITRA PATEL

f? 002

4

3, BDA must help strengthen the finances of CMCs by prompt handing-over of
their BDA layouts to CMCs as soon ae 50% occupancy Is reached, so that the
CMCs can start collecting property taxes etc from them. Presently BDA holds on
to these areas till its last few sites are sold, but meanwhite the burden of
servicing BDA colonies without any income from these layouts falls unfairly
on the CMCs.
9, BDA must plan ahead for ctean layouts. Their sale deeds must insist on
citizen cooperation in dry-wet waste separation at the household and shop/market
level. Sate deeds must require those purchasing ground-floor commercial spaces
to take full responsibility for the day-and-night cleanliness of their respective
frontages (upto the road centre, as at Chandigarh).
10, Finally BDA ( or any Development Authority or Improvement Trust) must take
full ownership and responsibility for waste-management In an inhabited area under
its own control from day one, until the area is handed over to any othar local body.

11, Cleaning services, if contracted out, must be given only io professional
service - providers who do this for a living. Only such schemes are viable long­
term. (Hosamani and Mewa Lal will provide examples of this later.) Chennai’s 7year contract to Onyx for 3 out of 10 wards is another good and viable example.
Soft loans repayable in 5-7 years or the expected duration of BDA control, may
need to be made available for this.
12, “Pilot projects’that are obviously unviable, unsustainable and non-replicsble
aven at Inception, because they require grant funding for both capital as well
as operating expenses, must be avoided at all costs. They are a criminal waste
of national or international resources. Worse, they deceive new residents Into a
false sense of security that conservancy services for them are permanently In
place. Exorbitantly expensive solutions, costing lakhs of rupees for a few
thousand families, force them to get locked into unaffordable options that are
inherently doomed to fall. BDA will thus create filthy layouts, not clean ones.

3.3.2001

Almitra Patel

•

vs-.
^p*

>
\*

I

Planning Commission
(Housing, U.D. & Water Supply Division)

A.-DRINKING WATER SUPPLY & SANITATION
Drinking water supply and sanitation is not only a basic necessity of life, but also
crucial for achieving the goal of "Health for All". The Ninth Plan envisages to provide potable
drinking water to every settlement in the country, besides taking all possible measures for rapid
expansion and improvement of sanitation facilities in urban as well as rural areas. Tliis would
be achieved through an appropriate mix of Central and State investments, institutional finance,
strengthening of operation and maintenance system and more importantly the involvement of
communities at various stages viz., planning, implementation, operation and maintenance. The
Ninth Plan outlay for water supply and sanitation sector is Rs 39538 crore - Rs. 30024 crore
under State and UT Plans (Rs. 12264 crore for rural and Rs. 17760 crore for urban) and Rs. 9514
crore under Central Plan (Rs. 8650 crore for rural and Rs. 864 crore for urban).

URBAN WATER SUPPLY & SANITATION
As per the report received from the State Govts, through the Ministry of U.D. &
PA the urban population having access at the beginning of the Ninth Plan to drinking water
supply and sanitation facilities were 90% and 49% respectively. However, the service levels of
water supply in most of the cities and towns are far below the desired norm, particularly the
smaller towns. The coverage figures are based on average supply level and therefore does not
truly reflect the inter-state and regional disparities within the States and even within die city
itself. The poor, particularly those living in slums and squatter settlements are generally
deprived of basic facilities. Similarly in the case of urban sanitation, though about 49% of the
population had access to sanitary excreta disposal facilities, only 28% had through sewerage
system and the balance 21% through low cost sanitary latrines. Even where sewered, the same
are partial and without adequate treatment facilities in most of the cases. In the case of solid
waste disposal, only about 60% of the generated waste is collected and disposed off every day.
Of this, only 50% is disposed sanitarily. Separate arrangements for safe disposal of industrial,
hospital and other toxic and hazardous wastes arc generally non-existent.
General Problems of Urban Water Supply & Sanitation
• many UWSS providers are not financially viable and are unable to maintain services without
extensive subsidies;
• existing UWSS Services fall short of full coverage of population and are often of low quality
due to insufficient funding of O&M. Percentage of revenue generation to O&M cost in the
cities of Calcutta, Delhi, Nagpur, Pune, Ludhiana, Lucknow and Kanpur in March 1998 were
only 14, 43, 48, 49, 40, 50 and 78 ; and
• environmental degradation - the resource, as it is currently used, is increasingly insufficient
and over-exploited.

These problems are because most UWSS managers lack the necessary management skills,
autonomy and accountability for their performance.
Recommended Strategy for improvement
♦ democratic decentralisation through municipalization of responsibility;
• commercialisation and private participation in service provisions;
• market oriented financial systems, including developing of direct access to capital markets
through bond issues, new forms of financial intermediation and leveraging public resources.

Requirement of Funds

Drinking Water Supply -100%
Coverage.

fM CTPre)
26301

Sewerage
- Short-term 40207 )
and sewage
Plan(5 Yrs)
)
Treatment, low cost
)
Sanitation, Solid Waste - Long-term 177300 )
Management, Surface
Plan(2025AD)
Drainage, industrial waste
Management etc.

Source
As assessed by
W.G. for the 9
* Plan.)
National Mission on
Environmental Health
and Sanitation(1995)

RURAL WATER SUPPLY & SANITATION

As per the reports received from the State Govts, through Deptt. of Drinking Water
Supply, out of 14.31 lakh identified habitations in the country, 11.63 lakh have been covered
and 2.33 lakh "Partially Covered" leaving 0.34 lakh "Not Covered" habitations as on 1.4.1999.
However, as per the Action Plan received recently from States by the Deptt. of Drinking Water
Supply, these figures have been updated as 0.38 lakh NC , 2.68 lakh PC and 11.25 lakh fully
covered habitations. Of these, about 1.69 lakh habitations are having water quality problems.
In terms of population, about 87.5% rural population had access to water supply facility. As
regards rural sanitation, the population coverage is comparatively very low at about 16% with
low cost sanitary latrines, which includes coverage through private initiatives as well as the
Government intervention.
General Problems of Rurpl Water Supply
» Depletion of groundwater table due to over exploitation of ground water for agriculture.
e Sources go dry, particularly due to deforestation.
® There is at present no links with watershed development or forestry programmes at the field
level.
® Heavy emphasis on new construction and poor attention to maintenance.
a There is not much community involvement - programme is supply -driven.
o Most of the States are not willing to charge for water .
o Neglect of Traditional Water Management Strategies.
® Increasing incidence of Quality problems.
Recommended Strategy for Improvement
• Sufficient funds need be provided, especially for repairs and rehabilitation.
® Water to be managed as an Economic Good.
• Operation and Maintenance to be decentalised to Panchayat Level.
• The Community to Own and Manage the systems - People should share cost
o Greater use of surface and sub-surface water through rain water harvesting.
• There should be some legislative control on over-exploitation of groundwater.
• Top most priority be given to recharge schemes through watershed approach..

Requirement of Funds

In the Action Plan prepared by the Department of Drinking Water Supply based on the
information received from the State Governments to provide water supply to ail the "Not
Covered", "Partially Covered" and Quality Affected" habitations including rural schools,
operation and maintenance of assets created etc, a huge requirement of Rs. 43900 crore lias
been projected for five years from 1999-2000 onwards. This requirement is based on the
guesstimate . Of this, Rs.29900 crore is meant for coverage of all the NC and PC habitations,
Rs. 13500 crore for quality affected habitations and Rs.500 crore for other support activities.
This requirement appears to be on very much high side and needs to be critically examined .

INTEGRATED URBAN ENVIRONMENT
IMPROVEMENT PROJECT

“INTEGRATED URBAN_ENV5RONMENTJMPRO¥EMENT PROJECT”

Quality of life in an urban setting can only be improved by a sustainable

programme for environment management. In an attempt to bring about better
management of Civic Amenities in the newly developed areas in Bangalore city, the
BDA has launched an innovative scheme involving the residents of these layouts,
NGOs and the concerned Government bodies. This Project titled 'Integrated
Urban Environment Improvement' is aimed at developing environment
management plans for the four BDA layouts of Brindavan (HBR), Kalyan Nagar
(HRBR), Bhuvanagiri (OMBR), Kasturi Nagar (East of NGEF) and some
neighbouring areas. This is a pilot project being implemented with assistance from
the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (NORAD). The
project is being implemented by the BDA in co-ordination with NGOs such as
CEE, TERI, Waste Wise, TIDE, Residents groups I associations, etc.
Broadly this project comprises : An Integrated Management Plan for
Waste Utilization and Disposal, Preparation of Geographic
Information System , Open Spaces and Community Spaces Management.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT:
The Karnataka State Council for Science and Technology has been identified by the
Government of Karnataka as the agency for overseeing the implementation of this
project. All important decisions relating to the project are taken by an Apex Com­
mittee and a Project Implementation Committee will oversee the
implementation of the project.

ORGANISATIONS INVOLVED:
Bangalore Development Authority (BDA) is the principal, planning and
development agency for the Bangalore Metropolitan Area.
Centre for Environment Education (CEE) is a national institution set up in 1984
as a Centre of excellence in the field of environmental education by the Ministry of
Environment and Forest, Government of India. CEE South, the southern regional
cell functions from Bangalore.

Tata Energy Research institute (TERI) is a registered non-profit research
organisation set up in 1974 involved in energy conservation and environment
management programmes. Its regional cell functions from Bangalore.

Mythri Sarva Seva Samithi is a non-profit organisation involved in social and
economic assistance programmes for waste retrievers and street children.
Waste Wise is a Solid Waste Management Project promoted by Mythri.

Technology Informatics Design Endeavour (TIDE) is not for profit society
devoted to promoting sustainable development through technological
interventions.

Cooperation from other NGOs and Government agencies will also be sought to
implement the project.

Community Participation:
The core strength of the project lies in community participation without which it
would not be possible to sustain the benefits beyond the project period.
Community participation is envisaged through resident bodies, clubs,
mahila mandalis, etc. Over a period of time it is hoped that community would
become self-sufficient to manage the local environment.

Project Activities:
Solid Waste Management (SWM) :
* Evolving a better system of SWM in the layouts by involving the residents,
NGOs and concerned Government agencies.
* Community based projects like composting of segregated wet waste.
* Educational and training programmes for various target groups.

Geographic Information System :
* Development of a computer based information system that combines both
geographic (map) and attribute data elements, to facilitate spatial analysis.
* Design and development of user friendly software applications for maintenance
of services, for multiple users such as residents, civic authorities, NGOs, etc.

Management of open spaces :
* Development of parks, open spaces in the project area.
* Development of shrubs plantations along medians and lands beneath high
tension line as green gardens.
* Propagation of alternative methodologies for water harvesting and supply
systems and other conservation measures.

3

For further information on the project
you may contact:

Commissioner,
Bangalore Development Authority
T. Chowdaiah Road,
Bangalore - 560 020.
Ph.3360843
Fax 3345799

Centre for Environment Education
Southern Regional Cell,
143, ‘Kamala Mansion’
Infantry Road,
Bangalore - 560 001
Ph. 2869094,2869907
Fax 2868209
Tata Energy Research Institute (TERI)
2nd Floor, L.N. Complex,
10/1, Palace Road,
PO box 154,
Bangalore - 560 052
Ph.2255722, 2257009, 2250548
Fax 2255760

Technology Informatics Design Endeavour (TIDE)
23, West Park Road,
Malleswaram,
Bangalore - 560 003
Ph.3315656
Fax 3344555
Waste Wise
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Attach’
Subject:

’Pervin Jehangir" <pjenangir(crrediffrnaii.corrie
"subhash shah" <tralux@vsnl.com>
Tiipsdav June 17t 9003 n n1 PM
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Fw: 4 messages

— Original Massaga —
From: pervin
To: zia haieebhov
*
Sent
Tuesday June 17 2003 4 33 PM

1)
uear rriends:

PUKAR (Partners for Urban Knowledge Action & Research) and The Bombay
Paoerie invite vou to "Squatter Cities", a public- lecture and
perceptions, political conditions, and people’s experiences slum and
squatter settlements in different cities throughout the worid.

ROBERT NEUWIRTH is a freelance journalist and writer from New York.
He is current!'7 workinc on a book on the evervdav life of slum and

squCtivCr settlements in different ports of the world. Ho hoc lived in
slums in Nairobi. Rio de Janeiro, Istanbul, and he presently lives in
$anjay Gandhi Nagar in Goregaon East, in Mumbai. He has been a staff
reporter on daily newspapers and weekly news magazines, and his work
has published in the Village Voice. New York Times, New York Daily
Mpwc Wirpd
Mflna7inp»
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at Raiker's Island Jail as a Professor at City University of New
York. His forthcoming book, for which he received a grant from the
Macarthur Foundation, will be published in 2004 by Routledge.
The discussion wii! he moderated hv DEVIKA MAHADEVAN, who works with
SPARC ^Sociot1* for the Promotion of Ares Resource Centres) on
documentation activities. She studied at Brandeis University and the
London Schooi of Economics (LSE) and is from Mumbai.

16th June, 2003 in protest of-wiegitimafe approprie (jon of the institute. About 150 persons participated in a

/-/-in
O/ 1 O/ V J

Pa or/
*

9 nf
* 4

’.rah. rhs>?
p*nesar'of!- —if• Sahrrsr
— «■»
■*• > w. — aimc
* — W*sit• **csvinn
—~ “ • • rho t'^andhipn
•—*■•■ —>• **
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Wl Rn
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M'** W> \/ars>ns»ci
- — ■ "•■• • "W. W • from
....... th^>
.. • —. J»2WS Of

iCjoOioG>c«3' terrorism o> tnc Sangh Parivaar. The first day saw a substantia! police force on the ^^nc^mr~ids o«
ihe Cctmpub but iiiey appealed tentative leyaiuiny the matiei and then luie ir'i it. The Saiyayrariib yave full

co-operation to the administration in maintaining peace ano order and pursued their agitation in truest
soirit of the Gandhism in defence of which they were fighting.
i he ayiiatiunibtb view ihib battie nut ab jubi. another one but part of a iaryer buuyyie of ir'iCfeabiny

ideological terrorism of tne Sangn Panvaar, ana a systematic and systemic uprooting of Ganahian thought
and practice.
Backdrop of ine Maiier

Gandhian Institute of Studies Varanasi located in the rTecincts of Sarva Sews Sangh, was founded by
Jays Prakasn Narayan in 1SG0 to promote research m Gandhian thought and its practice. In a travesty or

iaws of iand. the institute has been appropriated by handful of people, some of whom are in no way
related to the Institute.

1

Thp. insrifuf® is located on the land of Sarva Sp.wa Sangh and not on that of government

2.

I he buildings and other assets ot the institute were developed by U.P. Gandhi Smarak Nidhi and
funds solicited by JP for the purpose.

3.

Tne institute is an autonomous body of which the registration has been renewed
z Renewal no. 803,2003' File no. 2.11137; Dated 31/01/2003'

£

Due to political pressure and manoeuvring a letter had been issued from Registrar Office Lucknow
for rescinding its registration renewal

b.

I he institute incumbents had lodged a petition against the above at Allahabad High Court.

o.

A stay order was issued by the court on the issue of rescinding the registration renewal of the

institute.
ify-r^cr
OQeco
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7.

W» A~ V W J

Even before this, some people had advanced a petition for dissolving the

Society of the institute at the Fourth Additional District Court The High
Court issued a Slav Order aoainst this of which the details are;
Order No. 13628. 2003 Date 22/4/2003

Prof Kusumiata Kedia, who deciares herself io be the Executive Director of the institute was

6.

suspended and later dismissed from the Institute on grounds ot lack ot discipline, breach of duty and
activities detrimental to the Institute’s spirit, mission and existence.

9

iCSSR (indian Council for Social Sciences Research) had been that giving grants to the institute
since 19// has been stopped doing so since 1999.

But funds have been arrangcCi from somo akernativo sources and thus tho demand or the Satyagrahis is

insr the aii Hindrances Towards me smooin functioning of the institute (iike iock-out etc) be removed and
people indulging in such illegal and unrighteous activities be directed out ot the Institute campus.

r\Ul!U! 5 LAJ 5 5 3! 8 lilies; CJUCIJS SSL LO’! ! US IS!J 8

user rriends,

A year has passed for Shaheed Navlin's brutal killing . who fought for justice and rights of the adviasis
marginalized. She has set an exa.mole before us bv sa.crificino her life for the above cause and we
*-•' IVUIU « IV
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To remember her sacrifice, the above committee has organized a public meeting on 19"' June. 2003 at
■which the -well-known writer Vijay Tendulkar. Trade unionist Shri. Gajanan Khatu and Vivek Monteiro will
HnHn=>cct tr»<a n.'a^nofinn

YuUr picSciiCe win yiV8 iTiOtivetiOn cu'id Strength to the SCtiViStS whu are in Struyyie for the downtrodden

ana the marginalized. Piease come in large numbers to condemn terror tactics of tne iand /builder iobby.

Venue: Jadeja Hall. Nallsopara (W) Behind Nagaroalika Office.
i ime:

p.m.

In Solidarity

Sub' Matlocal Human Riohis Education Workshop
Greetings from ihREC and dk i u
IIiz^i i
111 lieu

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II IO

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Gl IU I CGUVJI 114.11 iy II IC

irnpuilance of human rights education. iHREC. Trie internaiioriai Human Rights Education Consortium

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uunuuuuny <d nve-uay icbiueiuidt nitaiiunai nurnan r\iyiiu> Euuuauun vvunwsnup in iviumudi num inc iur"

of October to 14ia of October 2003. The theme for this workshop is “Human Rights education and training
for educators at the non-oovemmental level".
tnciosea are tne details about me Workshop, ihe format of the registration form is aiso enclosed. Kindly
fill in the details (preferably on a separate sheet of paper) accordingly and mail it to us along with the
r-es/vcTrfstio”)

irrupt Kv -•
^i3*--------.!• iiw
OAR* Too
mnictrorinn
hs»\/a in ho noid nifhor hw xa/ov nf a demand
„• — -- ----------------- ■ -o—------------------------------- ----------- ---- —------ |------------- ---------------- -j —j -■ —------- — • —

• -->—--------------- ------------------------------- —

nuinuei uf p<=» Liuipanib iu 30. kindly apply ai uie eanic&i.
\n/c» wnijid no nisjd tn nrnwido piny fijrthnr iRfoRT!2t!OR OR this program. YOU C2R COR.taCt US V!2 01712!!

VsjFii.CO1T1 j or writo to ug st iho sbovc i"i"iOotIORoci oddrcGG. Our contsct numbers orc. "Tolophono
f iui i ibei -91 -22-26756953/ Telefax-91 -22-26 / 49023

Ws rsc-usst vou to forw2rd this i.RformstioR to 2!! vour nartRor orcjaRiz2tioRs, ’.ndividua! groups who mav
I I IL\yl

11 I L.C<1 UUIf>CUl.ll IV III II 11x3 V» Kj«I IXOI I'-ZfV.

Best wishes,
Aiiwyn L>:siiv;

6/18'03

MANUAL
of

Socio-economic Status Scale
( Urban )

B.

KUPPUSWAMY

JH ST TH TT 5T

MANUAL
of

e

Socio-economic Status Scale
(Urban )

B.

KUPPU^’/Alv. r

MANAS AYAN
32, Netajl Subhash Marg, Delhi-6.

1962

Introduction

Measuring Socio-economic Status : A Review

Standardising the Scale
The First Draft

-fc

Determining Weightage

■fc-

Using the Scale

★

The Inventory

*

The Score Card
The Scije_

-fc-

Validity of the Scale

★

References

Copyright, 1962.

All Rights Reserved.

No part of

manual is to be reproduced without permission.

Introduction
The importance of the knowledge about the social environment.
of the individual is being increasingly realised by research workers
tn the fields of social sciences. Economists realised long back the
importance of the socio-economic background of the individual in.
determining his economic behaviour. Psychologists know well that
•-there is high positive correlation between intelligence and occupa­
tion. Educational research has shown that the aspirations as well the
achievements of a pupil are related to the group or the. class to,
which he belongs or with whom he identifies himself. Sociological
researches have probed into the relationship of behaviour, like
adoption of new practices, with factors in the socio-economic
environment of the individual.
The increasing importance of the knowledge of the social back­
ground of the individual shows the need for measuring this variable
in the last decade or two. Attempts have been made to estimate
the socio-economic status of an individual. These attempts are
based on three assumptions :

(a) that there is a class structure in society,
(6) that status positions are determined mainly by a few com­
monly accepted symbolic characteristics, and

)

(c) that these characteristics can be scaled and combined usingstatistical procedures.

Most of the indices have been developed in the United States
of America for application primarily to the contemporary urban
industrial class structure of that country where a good deal of

research regarding stratification has been made in the recent decades.

Many variables have been identified in relation to social pres­
tige. We know that in this country social prestige is attached to the
The author is grateful to Dr. Pareck and Mr. Ojha for their many
valuable suggestions in the preparation of the manuscript for the press.

2
amount of the income as well as the source of income. In an office
or a factory a man earning twenty-five rupees or fifty rupees more
than another feels that his prestige is higher. The source of income
is also a very important factor. The man who gets an income from
the property he has inherited feels that he has higher prestige than
a person who has acquired his own property. A third source of
prestige is on the basis of whether a person is paid daily ‘wage’,
weekly ‘wage’ or monthly ‘salary’. The difference between the two
words ‘wage’ and ‘salary’ is indicative of this.
Similarly prestige is associated with occupation. The coolv,
the ditch digger and the barber have very low status. Even the
plumber and carpenter who are skilled workmen are having a low
social prestige. On the other hand the physician, the engineer, the
lawyer have high social prestige. (4).
The lower the education one has, the lower the prestige. The

person who finishes his technical education as a carpenter or electri­
cian does not command as much prestige as a person who has had
the M. A. Degree or the B. E. Degree.
In every society, titles, membership of some voluntary organi­
zations, type of house in which a person lives, the area in which
the house is situated, the ownership of electric fans, radio etc. all
add to the social prestige.

Measuring Socio-Economic Status : A Review
There have been several attempts to develop scales to measure
prestige. Long ago Taussig (9) tried to build up a scale on the basis
of income. Others used standard of living. Occupation was also
used as a basis. Cattell (2) found that social prestige had .97 corre­
lation with I. Q, .93 with income, .87 with years of education and
.85 with birth restriction. He also divided the various occupations
into ten groups and assigned to the following five classes : Upper
U%), Upper Middle (25%), Middle (36%) Lower Middle (25%)
and Lower. (7%). Cantril (1) found the following distribution on
the basis of social class identification : Upper 4.9%, Upper Middle

3
10-5%, Middle 65.8%, Lower Middle 11.1% and Lower 7.7%. Sims
(7) first used 23 items like education of parents, occupation of
parents, possession of telephone, books etc. He later (8) modified
and gave a list of 42 occupations and the subject was asked to res­
pond to each occupation. Warner and his associates (10) used four
variables-occupation, source of income, type of housing and neigh­
bourhood. Hollingshead (3) used three indications, viz. residential
address, occupation and education.

Standardising the Scale
The present scale was standardised primarily for use in socio­
economic investigations in. Urban parts of India. The need of stan­
dardised scale was being badly felt by research workers in social
sciences in India. The scale' was prepared mainly to provide a
simple instrument which could be used without spending much
time and effort and to obtain a correct measure of socio-economic
status of a person.

The First Draft
While preparing the draft of the Scale, attention was paid to
the minimum variables to be kept in the scale. Experience of the
author showed that the three important variables contributing to
the socio-economic status in urban areas are : education, occupa­
tion and income. So these variables were selected for the scale.

Each variable was scaled on a 7 point scale, by providing equal
wveightage to the different variables and by assuming equal interval
metween the different points of the scale. The 21 items (7 points
for each of the three variables) are shown in Table 1.
To begin with, an arbitrary weightage of 7 to 1 was given to
each of the items in each of the three variables. Thus the total score
ranged from 3 to 21. The social classes were divided into the five

following groups
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.

Upper
Upper Middle
Lower Middle
Upper Lower
Lower

TABLEI

-

Preliminary .weights ofthe Scale Items

PRELIMINARY
WEIGHTAGE

ITEMS

A. Education

7 )
6
. 5
4

...

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Professional degree, Master’s degree and above
B. A. or B. Sc. degree
Intermediate or Post-high school diplomas
High School or its equivalent
Completion of full course of elementary edu­
cation or middle school
6. Literacy or going to elementary school for a few
years
7. Illiterate

...

3

1

B. Occupations
1. Higher Professions like engineering, medicine,
law. administration etc.
2. Semi-Profession
3. Clerk, Shop keeper, farm-owner etc.
4. Skilled work
5. Semi-skilled work
'6. Un-skilled work—domestic-servant, farm
labourer, casual labourer etc.
7 Unemployed dependant, beggar, vagrant

...

'

. .............

6.
5
4

3

2
...

C. Monthly Income
1. Above Rs. 1000
2. Between Rs.'750 and Rs. 999
3. Between Rs. 500 and Rs. 749
4. Between Rs. 300 and Rs. 499
5. Between Rs. 101 and Rs. 299
6. Between Rs. 51 and Rs. 100
7. Below Rs. 50

7
6
■5
• •

■ f
'

■ ■■

•

"

.".

4
3
2
1

Determiriihg:-Weightagc
On the basis of the author's clinical experience the scale was
tried. It was found that the weightage for the professional group
was not satisfactory. The gap in status between the semi-profes­
sional people and the professional people was not adequately repre­
sented by the weights of 6 and 7 respectively. So the weightage for
the occupational groups was revised, giving 10 for the professional
feroup and retaining the rest.
It was also found that uniform weightage for the seven income
groups was not satisfactory. So the weightages for the first three
groups were changed from, 7, 6 and 5, to 10, 8 and 0 respectively.
As far as the educational groups were concerned it was found that
no change was necessary. The revised weightage for the various
items was modified and appear in Table 2.
The author then requested two highly experienced voluntary
social workers to try the scale. They took up a concrete individual,
gave the social status of the individual and then gave the education,
occupation and income of the person. It was found that the
scale worked quite satisfactorily for all the groups except the
first two viz., the upper middle and the upper. As a result
of this the weightage for the top two income groups were
changed from 8 and 10 to 10 and 12. Thus on second revision, the
weightages became 12, 10 and 6 for the top three income groups
.while the weightages for the last four groups remained as in the
original. It was found that there was no necessity to change the
weightages for the education groups and the occupation groups.
The final weightage appears in Table 3.

Data were obtained from a club admitting only members with
high social prestige. The scale was also applied to the parents of
120 children studying in Middle Schools and 300 children studying
in High Schools of Mysore city, and to 203 ~ radio-owners in.the
same city. The data from these sources are given in Table 4.
Thus it has been shown that each of the three variables con­
tributes in a significant manner to the total score and,that it is .not
possible. tQ..eliminate any one of the yari.abje§,..ho.\v,e.ver mo.dest' its.

6

TABLE 2

Revised weightage of the Scale Items

ITEMS
A.

2.
3.
4.
5.

6.
7.

WEIGHTAGE

Education
Professional degree, Master's degree and above
B. A. or B.Sc. degree
Intermediate or Post-high school diplomas
High School or its equivalent
Completion of full course of elementary edu­
cation or middle school
Literacy or going to elementary school for a few years
Illiterate.

6

5
4
3

2

B. Occupation
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

7.

Higher Profession like engineering, medicine,
law, administration etc.
...
Semi-professions
''...
Clerk, Shop-owner, farm-owner etc.
...
Skilled work
...
Semi-skilled work
...
Un-skilled work—domestic-servant, farm labourer, casual labourer etc.
...
Unemployed dependent, beggar, vagrant
...

...
...
...
...
...

10
8
5

3

;
"

■ ■■

1

. Monthly Income
C.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Above Rs. 1000.
Between Rs. 750 and Rs. 999.
■ Between Rs. 500 and Rs. 749.
Between Rs. 300 and Rs. 499.
Between Rs. 101 and Rs. 299
Between Rs. 51 and Rs. 100.
. Below Rs. 50

...
..’
...

....
...
...
...
...
...

10
8
6
4
3
2

1

TABLE 3
Final weightage of the scale hems

WEtGHTAGE

ITEMS

A. Education
1. Professional degree or Hons, M. A. and above
2 B. A. or B. Sc. Degree
3. Intermediate or Post-High School Diplomas
4. High School certificate
5. Middle School completion .
6. Primary school or literate
7. Illiterate

...
...
...
...
...
...
...

...
...
...
...
...
...
...

7
6
5
4
3
2
1

...
...
...
•••
...
...

...

10
6
5
4
3
2
I

•••
...

...
...

B. Occupation
1. Profession
2. Semi-Profession
3. Clerical, Shoe-owners, Farm-owners etc
4. Skilled worker
5. Semi-skilled worker
6. Unskilled worker
7. Unemployed

...
...
...
...
...

C. Income
1. Above Rs. 1000 per month
2. Between Rs. 750 and Rs. 999
.3. Between Rs. 500 and Rs..749
4. Between Rs. 300 and Rs. 499
5. Between Rs. 101 and Rs,. 299
. 6. . Between R?. .5.1 and Rs,.1.00 ..
7. Below Rs. 50

•••

•••

■
...

12
10
6
•••
~~'4‘
•••
3
•••■..
?

8
contribution maybe. It appears as its education contributes the
least and occupation the most because at higher levels occupation
involves education.

Using the Scale
As has been discussed earlier, the scale can be used by
collecting information on the socio-economic variables regarding an
individual or his father and then completing the Score Card with
the help of the information collected. The use of the two instru-J

ments is explained here.

The Inventory
Both forms
*
can be used as self-administering forms in the
case of literate persons. Form A may be used as a schedule to be
completed by the investigator by asking questions especially in the
case of illiterate persons. As will be seen Form B requires the
students in schools and colleges to fill up the particulars regarding
their parents or guardians. The Inventory is self-explanatory. The
various items relating to education, occupation and income may be
completed. Need to give correct responses may be emphasized.

The Score Card
The Score Card summarises the information obtained in the
Inventory for purpose of finding out the status score of the indivi­
dual. The various categories may be carefully completed in th<^>
Score Card.

Education
With respect to education categorization depends upon
the length and type of education. In the top category post­
graduate education as well as high grade professional education are
put together. The lower grade professional education which is post
•There are two forms of the Inventory. Form A is meant for adults who
are either earning or who are out of employment. FormB is meant only for
students. Research workers interested in measuring Socio-economic status of
students may use Form B.

9
TABLE 4

The Distribution for the five groups on the Revised Scale
Parents of high

Parents of middle school children

1 (a)
*
Socio-econo­
mic status

1 (b) *

school children

Club Members

Radio owners

F

O'
/o

r

%

Socio-econo­
mic status

F

%

F

°/
zo

F

0/
/o

I

2

1.7

17

5.7

I

2

1.0

16

34.0

7

3.4

II

29

24.2

55

18.3

II

53

26.5

27

57.5

49

24.2

III

54

45.0

114

38.0

III

90

45.0

4

8.5

94

46.3

IV

33

27.5

105

35.0

IV

51

25.5

0

0

50

24.6

V

2

1.7

9

3.0
__

V

4

2.0

0

0

1

0.5

120

100.2

300

—

200

100.0

47

100.0

203

1000

Total

100.0

* Middle School children were taken from two groups separately, signified by (1 a) (1 b).

F=Frequency

10
high school will be put in the third category.
Those who have education in old type Sanskrit or other langu­
age Institutions will be categorized depending upon the duration of
the course. For example the person who has passed the Vidwan
Examination may be put in the fourth category. Additional quali­
fications will entitle him to go into higher categories.

Occupation
Here the problem of categorization involves many compli­
cations. The lowest category consists of persons who are unem­
ployed irrespective of their general and professional education or
training.

All persons who are doing work which involves neither educa­
tion nor training will come into this category e. g, watch-man,
peon, cooly, domestic servant etc.
To the semi-skilled group belong all those persons who need
some training to do their routine jobs efficiently e.g. Factory or
Workshop Labourer, Laboratory and Library Attender, the car
cleaner etc. The petty shop-keeper may also be put into this cate­
gory because he cannot pursue his occupation, without some train­
ing regarding where to purchase, how to purchase and how to sell.

The skilled workers are those with a long training in a rather
complicated work. The mason, the carpenter the mechanic, the
radio serviceman, the engine driver, the car driver, the telephone or
telegraph operator, all come into this category.
In the next group we have persons with some training in
arithmetic and probably also in reading and writing. The work
here is also essentially of a repetitive, nature. The clerk, the typist,
the accountant are typical of this group of workers. They must
have some general education and some training. The elementary
school teacher also comes into this group. The shop-keeper as well
as the farm owner comes into this category. They cannot continue
in their occupation unless they know how to keep accounts and look
after the routine management. Many of Railway occupations like

<(

ano

V

unit

n

Station Master, Guard etc., also go intd"-thjs_ categor-y^Similarly
the news’ correspondent, the salesman and the insurance agent may

also be put into this category so long as they operate at the routine
level. If they show greater initiative, they move into higher cate­
gories.

The Semi-professional group consists of occupations which
involve post-high school or college education. They may also in­
volve lower grade professional training. But the jobs are essentially
of a routine nature. We might put into this group not only mech­
anical and electrical engineers of the technological institutions, but
also the High School Teachers, the Lecturers in the College, the
Junior Administrators the Junior Medical practitioners, Insurance
Inspectors, Commission Agents, Musicians, the Research Assistant
etc.

Finally, we have the professional group. This group is involv­
ed in decision making processes and in laying down policies and in
executing them. They also imply creative work. Most of them
have very high general as well as professional education. But this
may not be always necessary. Historically as well as even in con­
temporary life we have seen many men who have risen to high
eminence in the military, business, and administrative fields with
hardly any general or professional education. But all of them in­
volve high organizational ability controlling a large number of
human beings. Many professions also involve dealing with vast

sums of money. To this category belong the doctors, senior admi­
nistrative officers, senior lecturers, Readers and professors, Princi­
pals of Colleges, Advocates, Engineers, Planters owning or mana­
ging large estates, expert Musicians, Newspaper Editors, Auditors,
Architects, Managing Directors of industrial and business firms,
Bank Managers etc.

Income
It’must be recognized that while it is easier to obtain exact
information regarding education and occupation, it is rather diffi.

cult to get exact information regarding income. On the other hand

.12
the categories are very clear .because they inyohje .members. The
.only safety, is that the items are. broad, so. that slight ertprs-will not
.greatly affect the weightage on this variable.and much less.the final
S.E.S. score.

The appropriate weightage Scores given against the items
may be encircled for each category. The scores may then be entere
in the last column. Addition of these three scores will give the
final score which determines the status category. The corresponding
Status category out of the five categories of the Scale appearing
at the end of the Card may .be encircled and may also be put in the
relevant box on the top of Score-card.
. A detailed analysis' of the members of the club, the radio
owners and parents of the school children showed that the second
income group ranging from Rs. 500 to Rs. 999 was not discriminat
ing sufficiently, consequently a • change was . made as shown in
Table 3. . Thus we find that.there was no revision in weightage for
education groups, one revision in weightage for the occupation
groups and two revisions for the income groups.
The Scale

The final form of the Socio-economic Status Scale (Urban)
contains 7 items in each of the 3 variables. The scale can be used
by collecting information about an individual’s socio-economic back
ground in a specially devised Information Inventory. Then the
score card can be completed and the status score of the individual
can be worked out. The scale on the basis of the total score is as
follows :

26-29 I ”
16-25 II
11-15 III
5-10 IV
Below 4 V

It is assumed that the difference between categories is more
■'significant that differences" within-'each' category. It is further
•assumed that -the'weighted' scorers-of-the three-variables cotild’be
added m‘order to-gef-the-final'score "for socio-economic status. It

13
is also asstim'ed that education,.? occupation.' and tire income are. the
three essential'variables which determine the socio-economic’ stattis
in a modern society. The merit of the present scale appears to be
its objectivity; Social prestige is now defined in an operational

manner and the variables selected are capable of being objectively
ascertained. Of course'it must be realized that the income variable’
is not so easily ascertained. Depending on cricumstances'there may
be. an over or an under-estimation. However, since the income'
groups are broad,-error in • estimation may not affect considerably
the income score itself and hardly the total score. This is' one of the
merits of the scale proposed.
<- ' '<■' '•
' "

Validity of the Scale
Several methods were- used • to‘ test the validity of the scale.
These are discussed below :

(a) Malching against outside criterion
The validity, of the scale was. tested . by requesting seyeral .
teachers and students in the. University . campus to give the class.
estimate of the persons they’know well'and then the actual educa­
tion, occupation and income’ were ascertained and .the. class.estimate
given on the basis of the socio-'ec'o'nomic status scale'. It was found'
that the scale worked satisfactorily for the social classes.
,

-

’■

’ '

'

:

(£>) Distribution patterns

■

■' - ■'

’■

u.

.;

The scale was given to two-research students for application
to the families-of'the children they were studying. lt was found
that, the parents .of children.'studying in the high schoolsand
middle schools gave a normal probability distribution as far as
socio-economic status was concerned; Further the proportions are.
more or less the same in the two distribution. Similarly the distri­
bution of the radio owners is fairly, normal. The.data appears.in the

Table 4.

;i”

>

'From'the above-table we find-’that the distribution in all the
groups except-the club members is according, to normal probability'
curve. The fact that nearly 92% of the members of the club belong

either to the I (Upper) or II (Upper Middle) categories is very
significant. This is an indication of the validity of the scale.

It is very significant that there is a close correspondence
between the distribution of the socio-economic status of the indivi­
duals owing radio sets in Mysore city and the distribution of the
status of the parents who send their children to the middle schools
and high schools. Probably a study of the distribution of SES
among the parents of the primary schools will show a different
distribution. It may be hypothesized that the proportion in the
V category (Lower-Lower) will increase.
(c)

Comparision of dichotomous groups

A heterogenous group of twenty persons were interviewed.
Each person was asked to indicate the names or the initials of three
persons, who, in his estimation, had very high status in society.
Then he was asked to give the names or initials of three persons
who held, in his opinion, the lowest status in society. After obtai­
ning the names or initials of these six persons, the rater was asked
to give the occupation, education and income of each person. In
this manner information was obtained regarding 93 persons. 44
being of ‘very high’ status and 49 of ‘very low’ status.
The data of these two dichotomous groups was scored in
accordance with the categories used earlier. The only difference
was that the weightages given were not used. Instead the arbitrary
weights from 7 to 1 with which the investigation started, were used.

Means of these scores for each of the three variables were
computed for the high as well as the low group. The means and
the differences between them are given in Table 5.

The mean differences^ which are highly significant, show the
discriminating power of the categories. However, the mean diffe­
rences suggest that income might be the variable that distinguishes
the two groups more than the other two variables, occupation and
education.

15
TABLE 5
Variable, Means and Mean Differences for the two groups
Variable

Mean for high
group

Mean for low
group

Mean difference

Occupation

5.27

2.43

2.84

Education

' 5.93

2.82

3.11

4.98

1.84

3.14

Income

In order to ascertain the appropriate weights for each of the
three variables, a discriminant function analysis was made. (II) As
a result of this it was found that 5, 1 and 3 are the weightages of
the three variables-occupation, education and income-determining
the dischotomy. Next an attempt was made to determine the extent
to which each variable contributes to class affiliation. It was found
that 64% was from occupation, 14% from education and 22% from
monthly income. Next an attempt was made to find out if there
will be a significant loss in forecasting efficiency if information
regarding education, which contributes the least, is eliminated.
It was found that when all the three variables are used the multiple
biserial If.is .885 while it is .733 when income is eliminated, .742
when education is eliminated and .667 when occupation is elimina­
ted. The partial correlations substantiated the above conclusion
(r1 23=.534, r2.13=4.78 and r3.21=.488).

16
REFERENCES

1.

Cantril, H. Identitication with social and economic class. J Abnorm. Soc.
Psychol. 1943, 38.

2. Cattell, R. The concept of social status. J. Soc.
3.

Hollingshead and Redlich.
Wiley, 1958.

Psychol. 1942, 15

Social Class and Mental inlless. New York :

4.

Krishnan, B. Social prestige of occupations. J. roc. and educ. Guid., 1956.

5.

Kuppuswamy, B. A Scale to measure Socio-economic Status. Ind. J. Psycho­
logy, 1959, 34.

6.

Kuppuswamy, B. and Srinivas. An Analysis of some variable involved in
Socio Economic Status. Educ and Psychol; 1960.

7.

Sims. 5 C. I. Rating scale. New York : World Book Co. 1952.

8.

Sims. Score card for socio-economic status cited by Vovinie-Fimdamenlals
of Measurement.

9.

Taussig. Principles of economics. London : Macmillan, 1928.

10.

Warner et al. Social class in
Associates, 1949.

11.

Wert et al. Statistical methods in educational and Psychological Research.
New York : Appleton Century Crofts, 1954.

America.

Chicago :

Science Research

176

KARNATAKA MUNICIPAL CORPORATIONS ACT, 1976

S. 256(2)

(2) The Corporation may, in the execution and for the
purposes of any works beyond the limits of the Corporation
sanctioned by the Government exercise all the powers which it
may exercise within the city throughout the line of country
through which conduits, channels, pipes, lines or posts and wires
and the like run, and over any lake or reservoir from which a
supply of water for the use of the Corporation is derived and
over all lands at a distance not exceeding two kilometers beyond
the high-water level of any such lake or reservoir, and over any
lands used for sewage farms, sewage disposal tanks, filter and
other works connected with the drainage of the city.
255. Provision for removal of filth.—(1) The Commissioner
shall.—
(i) provide or appoint in proper and convenient
situations, depots or places for the temporary deposit
of rubbish and filth and for the final disposal of filth
and carcasses of animals;
(ii) provide dust-bins for the temporary deposit of
rubbish;

(iii) provide vehicles or other suitable means for the
removal of carcasses of animals; and
(iv) provide covered vehicles or vessels for the removal of
filth.

(2) The Commissioner shall make adequate provision for
preventing the deposits, places, dust-bins, vehicles and vessels
referred to in sub-section (1) from becoming sources of nuisance.
256. Public notice ordering deposit of rubbish and filth by
occupier.—(1) The Commissioner may by public notice, direct
that all rubbish and filth accumulating in any premises in any
street or quarter of the city specified in the notice shall be
collected by the owner or occupier of such premises, and
deposited in a box or basket or other receptacle of the kind
specified in such notice to be provided by such owner or
occupier and kept at or near the premises.

(2) The Commissioner may cause public dust-bins or other
convenient receptacles to be provided at suitable intervals and
in proper and convenient situation in any street or quarter in

s. 258(b)(1)

KARNATAKA MUNICIPAL CORPORATIONS ACT, 1976

177

respect of which no notice issued under sub-section (1) is for
the time being in force, and may by public notice direct that all
rubbish and filth accumulating in any premises, the entrance to
which is situated within fifty meters of any such receptacle shall
be collected by the owner or occupier of such premises and
deposited in such receptacle.
257. Removal of rubbish and filth accumulating in large
quantities on premises.—When any premises are used for
carrying on any manufacture, trade or business or in any way
so that rubbish or filth is accumulated in quantities which are,
in the opinion of the Commissioner, too considerable to be
deposited in any of the methods prescribed, by a notice issued
under Section 256, the Commissioner may.—

(a) by notice require the owner or occupier of such
premises to collect all rubbish and filth accumulating
thereon, and to remove the same at such times, in
such carts or receptacles, and by such routes as may
be specified in the notice to a depot or place
provided or appointed under Section 255; or
(b) after giving such owner or occupier notice of his
intention, cause all rubbish and filth accumulated in
such premises to be removed, and charge the said
owner or occupier for such removal such periodical
fee as may, with the sanction of the Standing
Committee, be specified in the notice issued under
clause (a).
258. Provision for daily cleaning of streets and removal of
rubbish and filth.—The Commissioner shall provide.—

(a) for the daily surface-cleaning of all public streets and
the removal of the sweepings therefrom; and
(b) for the removal of.—

(i) the contents of all receptacles and depots and
the accumulations at all places provided or
appointed by him under Section 255 for the
temporary deposit of any of the things specified
therein; and

CH
I

178

KARNATAKA MUNICIPAL CORPORATIONS ACT, 1976

S. 262(2)

S. 263(4)

KARNATAKA MUNICIPAL CORPORATIONS ACT, 1976

179

(ii) all things deposited by owners or occupiers of
premises in pursuance of any notice issued
under Section 256.

sub-section (1) he shall be punished with imprisonment for a
term which may extend to three months or with fine which may
extend to three hundred rupees, or with both.

259. Rights of property of Corporation in things deposited
in receptacles.—All things deposited in depots or places
provided or appointed under Section 260 shall be the property
of the Corporation.

(3) Nothing in this Act shall apply to any person who
employs or allows himself to be employed for carrying night-soil
as headload or by the manual handling thereof in any hospital,
clinic, nursing home or other similar institution or as a member
of any organisation engaged in social service or to any person
who himself carries or collects night-soil for the preparation, use
or manufacture of manure.

260. Directions as to removal of rubbish and filth and
preparation of compost manure from rubbish and filth.—In
cases not provided for by any notice issued under Section 256,
the Commissioner shall lay down.—
(a) the hours within rubbish and filth may be removed;
(b) the kind of cart or other receptacle in which rubbish
and filth may be removed; and

(c) the route by which such carts or other receptacles
shall be taken.
261. Maintenance of establishment for removal of rubbish
and filth.—(1) The Corporation shall maintain an establishment
under the control of the Commissioner for the removal of
rubbish and filth from privies which are not connected with a
public drain.

(2) The Corporation shall, if so required by the Government
make provision for the preparation of compost manure from
rubbish and filth.
262. Prohibition of the practice of employing persons for
carrying night-soil as headload.—(1) Notwithstanding anything
contained in this Act or in any other law, custom, usage,
agreement or practice to the contrary, and save as provided in
sub-section (3), no person shall employ or allow himself to be
employed for wages or salary for carrying night-soil as headload
or by the manual handling thereof.

(2) Any person who contravenes the provisions of sub-section
(1) shall be punished with fine which may extend to twenty-five
rupees and with further fine which may extend to five rupees
for every day on which such offence is continued, after the date
of the first conviction and if any person is convicted for the fifth
time of an offence for the contravention of the provisions of

263. Prohibition against accumulation of rubbish and filth
on premises, etc.—(1) No person who is bound by any notice
issued under Section 256 or Section 257, as the case may be, to
collect and deposit or remove rubbish or filth accumulating on
any premises shall allow the same to accumulate for more than
twenty-four hours.
(2) No person shall deposit any rubbish or filth otherwise
than as provided in a notice issued under Section 256 or 257 as
the case may be.

(3) No person shall, after due provision has been made
under Sections 255 and 258 for the deposit and removal of the
same.—
(a) deposit the carcasses of animals, rubbish or filth in
any street or in the verandah of any building or on
any unoccupied ground alongside any street or any
public quay, jetty or landing place or on the bank of
a water course or tank; or

(b) deposit filth or carcasses of animals in any dustbin or
in any vehicle not intended for the removal of the
same; or

(c) deposit rubbish in any vehicle or vessel intended for
the removal of filth except for the purpose of
deodorizing or disinfecting the filth.

(4)
No owner or occupier of any premises shall keep or
allow to be kept for more than twenty-four hours otherwise than
in a receptacle approved by the Commissioner, any rubbish or
filth on such premises or any place belonging thereto or neglect

180

KARNATAKA MUNICIPAL CORPORATIONS AcW?76

S. 264

to employ proper means to remove the rubbish or filth from or
to cleanse such receptacle and to dispose of such rubbish or filth
in the manner directed by the Commissioner or fail to comply
with any requisition of the Commissioner as to the construction,
repair, paving or cleaning of any privy on or belonging to the
premises.

(5) No owner or occupier shall allow the water of any sink,
drain or privy or the drainage from any stable or place, or any
other filth to run-down on or to be put upon, any street or into
any drain in or alongside of any street, except in such manner
as shall prevent any avoidable nuisance from any such filth
soaking into the wells or ground at the side of the said drain.
264. Contribution from person having control over places
of pilgrimage, etc.—Where a mosque, temple, math or any place
of religious worship or instruction or any place which is used
for holding fairs, festivals or other like purposes in the city or
in its neighbourhood, attracts on particular occasions, a large
number of persons, the Commissioner shall make special
arrangements whether permanent or temporary which may be
necessary in the interest of public health, safety or convenience
and require the trustee or other person having control over such
place to make such recurring or non-recurring contribution to
the funds of the Corporation as the Government may determine.

S. 267(3)

IATAKA MUNICIPAL CORPORATIONS ACT, 1976

CHAPTER

181

XIV

Streets

265. Vesting of public streets and their appurtenances in
Corporation.—(1) All public streets in the Corporation reserved
under the control of the Government, with the pavements, stones
and other materials thereof and all work materials, implements
and other things provided for such streets, all sewers, drains,
drainage works, tunnels and culverts whether made at the cost
of the Corporation fund or otherwise, in or alongside or under
any street, whether public or private, and all works, materials,
implements and other things appertaining thereto and all trees
not being private property growing on public streets or by the
side thereof, shall vest in the Corporation.
(2) The Government may, after consulting the Corporation,
by notification withdraw any such street, sewer, drain, drainage
work, tunnel, culvert or tree from the control of the Corporation.
266. Maintenance and repair of streets.—The Corporation
shall cause the public streets to be maintained and repaired and
may make all improvements thereto which are necessary or
expedient for the public safety or convenience.
267. Powers of authorities in regard to streets.—(1) The
Commissioner may, subject always to such sanction as may be
required.—

(a) layout and make new public streets;
(b) construct bridges and subways;

(c) turn, divert, or with the special sanction of the
Corporation and the Government permanently close
any public street or part thereof;
(d) widen, open, extend or otherwise improve any public
street. *

(2) Reasonable compensation shall be paid to the owners
and occupiers of any land or buildings which are acquired for
or effected by any such purposes.
(3)
In determining such compensation, allowance shall be
made for any benefit accruing to the owner or occupier
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