MIGRATE WORKERS AND THEIR HEALTH

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Title
MIGRATE WORKERS AND THEIR HEALTH
extracted text
RF_COM_H_80_SUDHA

H. - S’O -

■'THE STATES

Migrant worries
The influx of migrant workers is leading to social tensions in Goa. Chief Minister Manohar Parrikar
says the onus is on the contractors to provide facilities for the workers they bring in.
RAVI SHARMA
recently in Panaji

ROM Ponnuswamy Marianadian to
Mario Nathan, the change of name was
not easy for the tailor bom in Thiruvennainallaur town in Villupuram district in Ta­
mil Nadu. But he did it to survive in his
adopted land, one ot the coundess migrants
who have made Goa’s capital Panaji their
l^ie. Mario Nathan sounds more Goan.
l^Pe been here for 18 years, have a ration
card and even learnt Hindi and Konkani.
But I m stij/. considered a ghati, the local
slang for dfuntiy bumpkin. Hopefidly, my

F

new name will change chat,” he says.
Thousands of migrants like Mario
Nathan, especially those involved in petty
trade or working as labourers in the con­
struction industry, agriculture, fishing and
road building, are trying their best to melt
into the local population, but widi little
success. The migrants working in the orga­
nised and unorganised sectors in the State

are estimated at 3.3 lakhs, up from 1.55
lakhs in 1991; die 2001 Census puts the
State’s population at 13.44 lakhs.
Mario Nathan changed his name of
almost 40 years primarily to increase his
chances of getting a residential site under
die Ambedkar Awas Yojna, a social security
scheme of the State government diat gives
the domiciled homeless 100-square-metre
plots ar subsidised rates. It was also a mask
to escape from hostile natives who increas­
ingly believe that diey are being swamped
by “uncivilised migrants” in the daily job
stakes in urban centres such as Panaji, Vas­
co da Gama, Madgaon, Mapusa, Murmagoa and Ponda and in beaches such as
Calangute, Vagator and Anjuna.
Migrants are also blamed for die spun
in the crime rate. Unfairly so, says DirectorGeneral of Police Amod Kanth. “Most of
the law and order problems involving mi­
grants are ‘migrant on migrant’. Yes, some
migrants may be involved in theft and so
on, but in proportion to the population it is

well within control and certainly not alarm­
ing. The majority of rapes that have taken
place are from within the local
community.”
At the meeting of Chief Ministers of
the Bharatiya Janata Party in September in
Delhi, Goa’s Manohar Parrikar said a small
State like Goa could not afford to bear the
burden of thousands of ‘cheap’ migrant
workers. Though he claimed then that he
was misquoted by the local press, he told
Frontline that “too much of migration
[could} cause social tension”; if slums
sprang up there would be “resentment
among the local Goan people”. Parrikar
said his government was trying to create
conditions - such as increased mechanisa­
tion in the construction industry - diat
would “automatically bring down” the
number of people migrating to Goa for
work.
Said Parrikar: “I cannot stop migrants
from coming to Goa, nor am I forcing any­
one out. But I am trying to create condi-

Seasonal workers from Karnataka in a paddy field near Fort Aguada. They hail from Zinid taluk in Bijapur district and were
forced to migrate by drought conditions.
FRONTLINE, DECEMBER 3, 2004

51

A migrants’ colony at Kattebaina near Vasco da Gama.

tions whereby migration is not encouraged. ciety. It stems from the failure of the ‘Tenant/Seasonal Visitors Verification’
But it is not in the economic interest of the government to manage society, civic issues form introduced by the Parri’iSar govern­
ment in 2000. Though they are mandatory
country’ to have low-paid jobs convened and the infrastructure.”
Migrant bashing and playing up re­ for all, including native Goans who change
into migration. When you have migrants
residence, and require the person to men­
who earn Rs.2,000-2.500 a month, you are gional chauvinism have appealed to rhe
straining the resources in that area. And it is middle classes and politicians. It was the tion details of any arrest or conviction, be­
costing the government a great deal more Congress government of Luizinho Faleiro sides native address and references of two
that legislated for 80 per cent reservation for persons in Goa and in the place of origin,
than what is earned by those individuals.
So, while migration [of technically qualified natives in Goa’s industries. But Faleiro is only the non-Goan worker in the unorga­
people] at the higher levels may be desirable critical of Parrikar’s stand on migrants. He nised sector is targeted.
While the lower rungs of the police
or affordable, low-economic-impact migra­ said: “Parrikar’s statements on this have to
be condemned. Migrants come here not to machinery view the requirement as volun­
tion is economically detrimental.”
Said Christopher Fonseca, general sec­ idle but to work; they are setting right a tary', Parrikar told Frontline that “every
retary’ of the All India Trade Union Con­ shortage. The Parrikar government has newcomer to a locality had to report him­
gress (Goa) and State secretary of the failed to create adequate jobs and training self to the (jurisdictional) police”. He said it
Communist Party of India: “How can the facilities and is trying to divert the attention was not voluntary but compulsory under
Chief Minister want only technically qual­ of the public by blaming migrants for every' Section 144 of die Code of Criminal Proce­
dure. “The Goa police itself [is] a voluntary
ified people? This is selective fascism. While ill.”
capital has free access, why shouldn’t la­
Migrants are also discriminated against force and is not fully aware of this being
bour? This is against the very grain of nor­ when it comes to filing, in police stations, compulsory,” he added. Justifying the^fej
mal processes in society. This anti-people the ‘Verification form (T-Form)’ and the to seek out such details, Parrikar said iWas
mindset is unscientific, lacks
perfectly legitimate for the
informed debate and is seep­
government to keep tabs on
ing into institutional and po­
who was coming to Goa.
litical parties, leading to
chauvinism and uncalled for
HERE is little doubt that
attrition in society'. It is a vio­
Goa needs its migrants,
lation of basic human rights.”
especially if its dreams of in­
It was “we who called
dustrialisation are to become a
these migrants in the first
reality. Every important post­
place”, he said. “They are cre­
liberalisation project - the
ating wealth in the State, [and
Mortnugoa Pott Trust, Goa
are] not sponges on our econ­
University, die Konkan Rail­
omy. Some of these migrants
way - and now the refurbish­
have been here for 30 years,
ing of buildings and roads on
yet the arms of the govern­
the Panaji waterfront at a cost
ment
(departments
like
of over Rs.120 crores for the
Health, Labour, Civil Supplies
International Film Festival of
and Housing) haven’t touched
India beginning on Novem­
them. Parrikar has not under­
Constructlon workers from Midnapore in West Bengal on the
ber 29 have all been possible
waterfront In Panaji. Behind them is a mobile toilet.
stood the social dynamics of soonly because of migrant la-

T

FRONTLINE. DECEMBER 3, 20M

Lt Kattebaina, migrant fishermen with the Goan boat owner (left). Migrants say non-Goans are not allowed to own boats.

hour. MosyJ not all the labourers involved
in road aiivl building construction and in
fishing and agriculture are from Maharash­
tra and the northern districts of Karnataka
and had come in the decades gone by. To­
day’s migrants are mainly from Andhra
Pradesh, Kerala, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh,
Orissa, Jharkand and West Bengal. They
endure the taunts and the discrimination
because work is available in plenty- and die
wages (around Rs. 100) are better than what
they get back home even if they are lower
than what the natives get.
Said Mohammed Jaffer, a migrant
waiting at the main tinto (road intersec­
tion) in downtown Mapusa: “I left Muzaffarpur in Bihar five years ago. There the
wages are low, and there is no regular work.
_t^re work is available and the wages, at
°
a day, are good. We spend Rs.50
amRave the rest. We come here (to the
tinto) every morning and contractors take
us to the construction sites. Of course,
some days we don’t get work and some­
times the contractors cheat us.” Most of the
migrants working in the unorganised sector
have a similar tale to tell. A combination of
unemployment, low wages and die failure
of the rains forced, them to migrate.
Said Mahadevappa Basavaraj from Gadag (Karnataka): “Many of us have land in
our villages, but what is the use when there
is no rain? The choice was to work either in
Goa or in Bangalore. The Karnataka gov­
ernment should do something for us, give
us some foodgrains and money so that we
can restart our lives. Even the sale of Kan­
nada newspapers has been stopped in the
Mapusa market. We don’t know what is
happening outside. We have been forced to
come here and do menial jobs. The police
FRONTLINE, DECEMBER 3, 2004

harass us....”
Santosh Kumar of Jaunpur in Uttar
Pradesh runs a small provision store at Kat­
tebaina in Vasco da Gama. He said the
police beat him up recendy because he had
given “an interview to a television channel”
on the government’s decision to demolish
hutments in nearby Baina.
But according to Anthony Pacheco, an
autorickshaw driver from Mapusa, the po­
lice are not doing enough. “Eight months
ago the police asked us for our suggestions
on how to solve the overcrowding and un­
ruliness in Mapusa. But nothing has hap­
pened," he said. “These people (migrants)
are dirty; they spit everywhere, block the
tinto and roads, and are thieves. All that the
police do is pick some of them up every
Saturday and then release them... We
want them to leave. But why will they?
They are getting more money here than
they" can get in their hometowns, and the
liquor here is cheap.”
Though the building industry is in the
hands of native Goans, contractors seek out
migrant labour. Said Chandrakandi Bearkeaker, a contractor in Mapusa: “Most of
the migrants are honest and hardworking.
The same work that they do will take a
local worker double the time and I have to
pay a higher wage. The natives want to do
only mechanical jobs, such as working with
a drill, driving a bulldozer, and so on. But
who will remove rhe sand, carry it out,
transport the bricks?”
Social scientists say it is nor surprising
that rhe natives are not interested in lowend jobs. Traditionally, in any society it is
migrants who do the low-end jobs. Manohar Parrikar agrees. “Physical work is not
the strength of the Goan population,” he

says. But Goans do the same jobs when
they go as migrants to West Asia or Europe.
Owners of fishing trawlers are on the
lookout for cheap labour. While migrants
from Kerala and Andhra Pradesh demand
around Rs. 100 a day, those from Karnataka
work for Rs.80 or Rs.90. But now fisher
folk from Orissa are ready to work for
Rs.60 (which is double what they get in
Orissa) and this has sparked off unrest
among die migrant communities. Said
fisherman Odappa Chelevadi, whose father
was a migrant from Karnataka’s landlocked
Basavanabagewadi: “These people (Oriyas)
not only accept lower wages, but are pre­
pared to stay on the trawlers for many days
at a stretch. So the owners are using them.”
Chelevadi is upset that though he was
born in Kattebaina, and even has a ration
card, he cannot buy a boat. Only' ethnic
Goans can. “In 1994 some Keralities tried
to put out dieir own launches, bur these
were burnt by the natives ar nearby Kariwada,” he said.
With hardly 5 per cent of die ethnic
population employed in agriculture, sea­
sonal migrants working in large teams, es­
pecially from northern Karnataka, are an
integral parr of the operations. According
to Goa’s Chief Secretary Dev Singh Negi,
the government is trying to encourage
more natives to get back to agriculture by'
offering incentives to grow horticultural
crops. Parrikar said he was considering an
amendment to the Agricultural Tenancy
Act, 1964, so that landowners can contract
out their land for a limited period without
die fear of losing it. This, it is felt, would
encourage unemployed youth to get into
agriculture. Currently, almost a third of the
State’s 1.77 lakh hectares of cultivable land
53

A history of migration
OA is one of the more prosperous
States, with a per capita income of
Rs.49,673, the highest in the country.
But in common with the rest of India is
the lopsided development. While some
sections have benefited immensely,
others continue to languish.
Nevertheless, development has act­
ed as a catalyst in attracting migrant
workers, who are grudgingly seen as a
necessary evil. But they are an integral
part of Goan society. An attempt a few
years ago to drive away the migrants
who cleaned the streets of Vasco da Ga­
ma boomeranged, with the whole city
turning into a garbage dump.
Native Goans worry' that their
identity will vanish in the face of a mi­
grant assault. Most native Goans, more
so the Catholics, talk of a distinct Goan
identity'; a western, Latino, Catholic
image that has been successfully played
up by the tourism industry. During the
violent Konkani agitation of 1987 the
message sent across to all Goans was to
protect “our golden Goa”.
Said Percival Noronha, 80, a for­
mer bureaucrat who served both under
the Portuguese and under Indian ad­
ministrators: “We were ruled from Por­
tugal for 450 years and 23 days. We
were a closed shell. The result of this is
that we are different from other Indi­
ans. While our ethos is Indian, there is
no denying the fact that our manners,
our way of thinking, is western.”
Intellectuals have also wittingly or
unwittingly seconded this perception.
For example, Ajay Noronha’s recent
play on paedophiles is titled ‘Baile’
(Outsiders). Going by the title, one

would assume‘that outsiders were re­
sponsible for the paedophilia on Goa s
beaches. In actual fact, the local people
are the guilty’ ones. Small things like
this have constantly reiterated rhe feel­
ing that it is ‘outsiders’ who have
brought their perversions to Goa.
Percival Noronha said that even
during the Portuguese times migrants
were smuggled in from Maharashtra
and Karnataka to work in the mines.
Over the centuries, Goa has shown
two strong trends in migration. Many
educated and even less-educated Goans
favour out-migration, primarily going
abroad seeking better employment op­
portunities. This trend started in'the
1850s, became rampant in the early
part of the 20rh century, and lasted
over a hundred years. Out-migration
was especially high in the coastal areas,
with the main reasons being poverty
and the desire to seek better social and
employment prospects. There is also
the explanation that the stagnant econ­
omy of Portugal and its colonies meant
that people “acquired education and as­
pirations, but no jobs”. The out-migra­
tion contributed significantly to the
high internal migration to the agricul­
tural belts in the coastal areas from the
hinterland.
Migration into Goa was caused
chiefly by major projects and heavy
government spending, especially in the
1960s and 1970s, during the first phase
of the building of infrastructure in
what was until then a stagnant colonial
backwater. The Portuguese, unlike the
other European colonialists, were not
known for industrialisation. While out­
migration has dropped since liberalisa­
tion, in-migration has boomed.

is lying fallow as the owners fear that con­
tracting it out may jeopardise their rights.
According to Roland Manins, coordi­
nator of Goadesc Research Centre, a non­
governmental organisation, the govern­
ment must have a clear policy on migrants
and spell out the requirements char con­
tractors have to fulfil before they bring in
migrant workers. “The Social Welfare De­
partment, the Directorate of Health Ser­
vices and the Women and Child Welfare
Department should be asked to monitor
the conditions of migrants belonging ro the
unorganised sector,” he said. “Right now
contractors just bring in groups of workers
and dump them after their project is over.

The government should also liaison with
the States from where these migrants
come.”
While providing welfare measures to
migrants is the crux of the issue, Parrikar
agrees that contractors should be responsib­
le for the migrants they bring in. He said:
“Contractors bring one group of migrants,
leave them here after a project and bring in
another group for their next project. They
are supposed to provide facilities like water,
housing, toilets and creches, which they do
nor. We are forcing them ro provide these
facilities as per the law. This will not only
act as a barrier to bringing in an irrational
number of workers, but also reduce the

RAVI SHARMA_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

G

54

Migrants are not the only cause for
worry for those concerned about Goa’s
“unique’ identity”.
Although the Goan population has
more than doubled in the last four dec­
ades since Portuguese rule ended from around 5.55 lakhs in 1961 to
13:4 lakhs now - Goa’s fertility rate,
which is already well below replace­
ment level, has been falling, according
to the National Family Health Survey
of India report. According to the re­
port, the State’s Total Fertility Rate
(TFR) of 1.77 is the lowest in India,
while the national average is 2.85. TFR
indicates the average number of chil­
dren a woman has in her childbearing
years.
According to the Sample Registra­
tion System undertaken by the
of the Registrar-General and Cens^J
Commissioner in 2002, the State’s
birth rate of 14 live births pe* 1,000 of
the population is the lowest aSiong all
the States, with the national average be­
ing 25. Clearly, migrants have made a
fair contribution to the increase in
Goa’s population.
The unemployment figure in Goa
stands at 1.03 lakhs, with another
50,000 people in sectors such as fisher­
ies, agriculture and tourism, all seasonal
activities, underemployed. Have mi­
grants taken away these jobs? Says Alito
Sequeira, who teaches sociology in Goa
University: “Migrants do not compete
for the jobs that the natives want, but
since they are the weakest socio-eco­
nomic group they are targeted.”
According to some Congress poli­
ticians, one reason why the ruling BJP
is targeting migrants, many of whA&
have voter identification cards, is
most of them are seen as Congress vot­
ers. Many migrants still talk fondly of
voting for Indira Gandhi’s party.

requirement of migrants. If they do not
[provide these facilities) they will be black­
listed.” Parrikar said the escalation in a pro­
ject’s cost because of the enhanced facilities
was not a cause for concern. Bur can he
take on the contractor lobby?
The attempts at cultural protectionism
have not turned xenophobic, nor has ir
been allowed ro slip into what the Shiv
Sena did in Mumbai in the 1970s and
1980s. But cm Goa, which is so dependent
on migrants and its bigger neighbours for
almost everything, even rice and milk, af­
ford to do "that? After all, there are more
Goans outside Goa than there are non­
Goans in Goa.
FRONTLINE. DECEMBER 3. 200-1

Asian Migrant Workers Health:
A REGIONAL STUDY OF THE
SITUATION, UNDERLYING FACTORS AND EXISTING RESPONSES

Project conducted by the Asian Migrant Centre, in partnership with the Migrant
Forum in Asia (MFA) and other research partners (addfootnote: Project partners to
be finalised at the Health Strategy & Planning Meeting, Bangkok, Nocember2003.)
RESEARCH FRAMEWORK—FIRST DRAFT

I.

Research Problem & Key Questions

Migrant workers suffer physical, mental and psychological ill-health, largely due to
the present mode of mass labour migration, which is premised on the trade and
commodification of human labour, and the fact that migrants are only able to
access jobs perceived to be low-status and ‘3D’ (dirty, dangerous and disdained).
Migrant workers are treated as mere economic tools and are uprooted from the
support systems of the family and community. Women migrant workers in
particular, are faced with added vulnerabilities to all forms of violence against their
bodily integrity and personhood1.
The continuing denial and erosion of.*he rights of migrant workers, particularly to
life, health and well-being is evideritvd by: high rates of occupational accidents and
work-related diseases; the steady stream of migrant deaths; the high incidence of
mental, emotional and psychological stress and distress; the disintegration of many
migrants’ families; and migrants increasing vulnerability to HIV/AIDS, diseases
and infections.

Migrants health problems are compounded with the general health situation around
the world, which has been profoundly affected due to the effects of corporate
globalization. Privatization and patent regimes have affected access to health
facilities and resources for the majority of people. Intensifying patterns of work and
eroded rights for workers has had an effect on the health and well-being of working
people, especially marginalized communities such as migrant workers.
In this general context, this research aims to address the following key questions:

1) What are the specific health realities, situation, problems, and issues confronted
by Asian migrants and their families?
2) What are the underlying factors, causes, risks, and vulnerabilities that give rise
to these health realities?
3) What are the existing health programmes, services, and response strategies
available to migrants and their families? How do we evaluate these responses and
the gaps in them?
1 ‘Conference Declaration & Recommendations—8'1' Regional Conference on Migration: Migration and
Migrant Workers' Health and Well-being, '9-11 October 2002, Dhaka, Bangladesh.

4) How have trends within the overall, deteriorating global health situation affected
the health situation and needs of Asian migrant workers?
II.

Research Objectives

General Objectives
To conduct descriptive regional research based on the above research problems and
questions, using partners, resource persons and researchers in 21 Asian countries.
Specific Objectives
. To research and describe the health situation of (a) migrants onsite, (b) pre­
1)
departing, and (c) returning migrants and migrants families. This involves:
Describing both overall health realities and migrant-specific health realities in
the area of research.
Analyzing all symptoms of health: (a) physical health (b) occupational health
and safety (c) reproductive health (d) psycho-social health
Comparing, if possible, the situation across jobs and/or countries.

.2) To research the underlying factors, causes, risks and vulnerabilities that give rise
to the health realities. This involves:
Identifying the underlying factors that specifically affect the health situation of
migrants.
Analyzing a variety of underlying factors, including: (a) structural policies/laws
(b) behaviour/practice/values/social and cultural (c) occupational (d) situational
(particularly for migrants, e.g. separated from family, in a different
country/culture)
Comparing, if possible, the situation across jobs and/or countries.

. To research the existing responses to migrants’ health realities. This involves:
3)
Describing and evaluating existing programmes, policies, practices, services,
and response strategies by migrants, migrants’ organisations, NGOs, IGOs,
governments, and the private sector.
Researching, if possible, migrants’ own coping strategies for their health
problems and issues.
.4) To investigate the strategic costs/impacts/implications of migrants’ health
realities, problems, and situation.

. To publish the results of the research:
5)
- As a resource book (2 volumes). This will be designed to help: deepen the
understanding on migrants’ health issues, contributing to information &
analysis, and informing policies, agendas, and/or action plans by relevant
groups.
- To produce a documentary video highlighting the health situation and realities
of migrants.

.6) To carry out the research and publication of it in a participatory, action-oriented
manner, guided by human rights, gender and health frameworks as discussed at the
8th RCM.
.7) To implement key recommendations of the 8lh RCM, and help build the
foundation for continuing work by MFA and other migrant groups on migrant
health issues in Asia; to create a working group/MFA task force/network of Asian
partners focusing on migrants’ health.
III. Framework of analysis

1). The research framework shall be grounded on a combination of concepts:
Health: As defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) and reiterated in the
8lh RCM, health is not only the absence of disease, but the overall well-being of a
person2, in this case the migrant and their family. This entails a holistic rather than
purely physical (or biological) approach to health, which would cover all aspects of
health, namely: Occupational Health and Safety (OFIS), Reproductive Health (RH),
and Psycho-Social Health (PSH).

A thorough definition of‘health’ must also consider socio-economic factors,
including access to economic resources & health resources, and how these are
affected by a person’s ‘social-status’ (race, gender, age, occupation etc.)
Migrants’ Human Rights: Health is taken to be a basic human right3. Therefore,
migrants’ right to health is universal, inalienable, indivisible, and all migrants are
entitled to full protection of their health. In the case of migrants, the right to health
protection and well-being is closely linked to the right to life, given the kinds of
occupations and living environments they are constantly exposed to because of their
status as migrants.

The issue of migrant workers’ health rights and needs should be viewed in the
context of MFA’s 4-level strategy. This involves addressing migrants: 1). As
individuals, 2). As a group, 3). As part of a community, 4). As part of the wider
society. Responses to the health realities of migrants and their families should also
be designed based on these multi-leveled needs.
Gender: Women and men have particular health needs and rights, and ‘health’ as a
basic human right is inherently gendered. Reproductive and sexual rights of
migrants also have to be surfaced and highlighted, all within a gender-fair
2 Written in the Preamble to the Constitution of the World Health Organization as adopted by the
International Health Conference, 1946.
3 As defined in the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and the 1990 UN Convention on the
Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers.

framework of analysis. This should recognize and take into account how gender
affects division of labour, as well as access to and control over resources, rights,
and privileges. It should also consider social roles, stereotypes, and positions related
to or determined by gender.

IV. Scope

Definition of ‘Migrant Worker’: The scope of the research will be address,
analyze, and map the problems of regular and irregular migrants (including
undocumented, smuggled, and trafficked workers) and their families. The research should
try' to cover all the key 3D (dirty, dangerous, disdained) or “low-status” occupations in
the country, such as.
V. Research Methodology
The research should incorporate the following methodological framework:

Descriptive Survey: The health situation in the selected country should be
documented in a descriptive way. Rather than using scientific representative
baseline sampling, the research will be mainly a description of available
information on prevailing health realities and situation.
Key Informants: The research should involve information gathering from and
interviews of the following key informants: migrant groups, NGOs, health
specialists, hospitals, government agencies, IGOs, private sector actors (e.g.
insurers, health service providers etc.)

Focus Group Discussions: The research should involve focus group discussions
with migrants and relevant NGOs.
Secondary Information: Research should also be gathered using secondary
sources such as newspaper reports, published work, government reports, UN
documents, etc.

RESEARCH ON MIGRANTS’ HEALTH
Research Objective

Data needed

A). Investigating the
health realities &
situation of migrant
workers.

1). Socio­
demographic profile,
gender disaggregated

2). Physical
(biological) health
profile of migrant.
3). Environmental
profile: details of
migrants’ living
conditions.
4). Reproductive
health profile: details
of health, knowledge,
and decision-making
issues regarding
migrants’ sexuality
and reproductive
rights.

5). Psycho-social
profile.
6). OHS Profile.
Details of migrants’
working conditions.
Safety issues of
working in the
occupation the
migrant is in, and
hazards to physical
health as a result of
occupation. Effects of
occupation and
workplace realities on
all aspects of health.

7). Patterns, trends,
changes in the
physical health

Sample Research
Questions
1). What is the socio­
demographic profile
of the migrant? E.g.
their age, class &
ethnic origin,
education, original
work/occupation,
current work etc.

2). What is the
physical health
history of the
migrant? What are
the physical health
factors (e.g. birth
rates, death rates,
infant mortality rates,
life expectancy,
fertility rates etc.) in
the country?
3). What kind of
environment does the
migrant live in? (e.g.
What kind of area
does the migrant
live? With who, and
among whom? What
are the living
facilities and
conditions like?)
What are the
implications of these
for their health and
safety?
4). Are migrants able
to exercise their
rights to the highest
standard of sexual
and reproductive
health? E.g. can they

Gender
Concerns
2). Gender­
specific health
statistics,
problems &
concerns.
3). Gender
division of
labour roles,
stereotypes,
positions, and
their effects on
migrants’ health
problems, status.
(e.g. different
industries and
living
environments for
men and
women).

4). What role
does gender play
in terms of
making decisions
related to sex and
reproduction?
What are the
different
reproductive
health issues,
problems, and
needs for men
and women?
(E.g.
Contraception,
abortion,
unwanted
pregnancies,
RTIs and STIs
etc.)

situation of sending &
receiving country.

make decisions on
sexual and
reproductive issues
free of
discrimination,
coercion, violence? If
not, what is their
reproductive health
reality? What are
their main concerns,
problems, and needs
in terms of
reproductive health?
What is their
knowledge of and
access to information
about sexual and
reproductive health,
e.g. contraception,
“family planning”,
prevalence and
screening/prevention
of STIs, cancers etc.?

.5) How does the
social environment
affect the migrant’s
emotional and
psychological state?
E.g. What are the
onsite social
perception of migrant
workers? Of the
industry the worker is
in? Does the migrant
have a social support
system (eg. friends,
social contacts) to
rely on?
.6) What effects do
migrants’
occupations have on
their health and
safety? Are they
subject to unsafe or

5). What are the
specific psycho­
social needs and
problems of men
and women
migrants. E.g.
Gender
roles/perceptions
and attitudes
onsite.

unhealthy working
conditions (e.g.
dangerous chemicals,
machinery, etc.)? Is
the work environment
unhealthy in other
aspects (e.g. what
kind of work does the
migrant perform? For
how long? What kind
of contract or
arrangement do they
have? What is the
management like?
Psychological abuse,
high number of
working hours, lack
of leisure time.).

7). What kinds of
trends can be seen in
the health realities
among the general
population in recent
years? Has there been
a general
improvement or
decline in health and
well-being in the
country?
How has the
migrant’s physical
health been
affected/changed by
their status as a
migrant?
Are there diseases or
other physical health
realities particular to
the country they are
in? To their industry?
Among migrants in
the receiving and
sending countries?

To research the
underlying factors
involved (i.e. those
factors that
contribute and give
rise to health
problems and
realities). These can
include underlying
causes, risks, and
vulnerabilities.

1). What underlying
factors and those
particular to migrants.

2). Relevant structural
factors, and policies &
laws that contribute to
or cause health
problems and needs.
4). Possible
normative,
behavioural, social,
cultural factors.

5). Occupational
factors.
6). Situational factors.

1). What kinds of
underlying factors are
there that affect
and/or lead to RH,
OSH, PSH problems?

2). Which underlying
factors are general,
and which are
specific to migrants?
3). Can you identify
structural or
institutional factors,
as well as policies &
laws that affect the
various aspects of
migrants’ health?
How?
4). What kinds of
underlying social,
behavioural, and
cultural factors could
affect migrants’
health?

5). Are there
underlying factors
related to migrants’
occupation that affect
their health?

6). What kinds of
situational issues (e.g.
separated from
family, in a different
country/culture) are
specific to migrants
and lead to health
problems and needs?
C). Researching
existing
programmes,

1). Details of existing
migrant health
programmes, services,

1). What are the
existing health
programmes,

1). What gender
issues arise when
looking at

services, and
response strategies
on migrants' health

mechanisms, and
response strategies by
various actors:
migrants, migrants’
groups, NGOs,
governments, IGOs,
private sector.

2). Details of
migrants’ coping
mechanisms for their
health problems.

Researching the
strategic costs,
impacts, and
implications of
migrants’ health
realities, problems,
and general
situation.

1). Info on strategic
costs, impacts,
implications of
migrants’ health
situation.

2). Health and
vulnerability levels of
migrants as compared
to other workers.
3). Possible strategic
action and policy
recommendations.

existing
services, strategies
initiatives?
for migrants? What
Are they gender­
are the emphases,
sensitive?
good practices and
gaps of these
2). Are the
responses? How
responses
effectively do these
effective and
responses address
comprehensive
migrant workers’
in addressing
health issues? At the
migrant workers’
individual, group,
community and social gender-based
levels? What are the
needs and
gaps in these
problems?
responses, and what
recommendations
2). Do migrant
could there be for
men and women
more effective and
have different
comprehensive
coping
responses?
strategies?

2). How do migrants
address their own
health problems and
needs? What are their
coping strategies?
1). What kinds of
costs result from the
migrants’ health
situation shown
through the research?
What other impacts
and implications are
there?
2). How does the
health situation of
migrants compare to
other workers? Are
migrants more or less
vulnerable than
others in terms of
their health?

3). How can these be
addressed? Are there

1). Are there
costs, impacts,
implications that
are gender­
specific?

2). How does the
health situation
and vulnerability
of migrant
workers vary
with gender?

3). Are there
possible policies
or strategic
actions to
address the
gender-specific
health and

any policy initiatives
that could be made,
or strategic action
that could be taken?

vulnerability
issues?
Media
RF_COM_H_80_SUDHA.pdf

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