HUMAN BODY

Item

Title: HUMAN BODY
extracted text: \l'

RF_COM_H_34_SUDHA

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Fertilisation and implantation.
In humans, fertilisation of the ovum by the sperm

occurs in the mid portion of the fallopian tube.

The

penetration of the ovum by the sperm and the initiation of
cell division, begins at the same time by the lysosomal

enxyme in the sperm.

After the coitus the sperms are

transported through the uterus (in 5 minutes) to the mid

portion of the fallopian tube by the ciliary activity of the
lining epithelium of the tube .a Of l7the f
i billion sperm
deposited in the vagina only 1000 to 3000 travels the

fallopian tube to reach the ovum.
Sperm can remain viable in the female tract for

24

to 7^ hours and remain healthy for 13 to 24 hours.

The

life span of ovum is 24 hours and is maximally fertilised

for only 8 to 12 hours.
~

Only 1 sperm is required for the

because onee the ovum has been fertilised

fertilisation of

a barrier is formed around it and it normally prevents other
sperm from entering.

forms Jlastocyst.

x the uterus.

Immediately it starts dividing and

This blastocyst moves down the tube in

Once it comes in contact with endometrium it

burrows into it.

This process is called as implantation.

T-be—syneytiotrophoblast orod^s^ the endornetr±um -a-nd-X-he
bXa^tocyst burrows-into

T his-1s calied implant a t i on.

A placenta then developes and the trophoblast remains
associated with it.

The growing foetus gets its requirements

of oxygen, respiration and nutrient from the mother through

the placenta and excretes carbon dioxide through it.
addition, placenta secretes number of hormones.
1.

Human chorionic gonadotrophins (HCG)

2.

Oestrogen.

3.

Progestrone.

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In

They are

2-

The corpus luteum in the ovary at the time
of fertilisation fails to reduce in size and instead

enlarges in response to stimulation byxgonadotrophic
hormones secreted by the placenta.

This enlarged

corpus luteum of pregnancy secretes oestrogen and
progesterone.
The human chorionic gonadotrophins reaches the

highest level during the 1st few weeks of pregnancy.

It

acts on ovary in such a way that the corpus luteum

persists in the ovary.

From 3rd month onwards sufficient

amount of oestrogen and progesterone are formed by the
placenta and they take up the functions of the corpus
luteum.

Human chorionic gonadotrophins decreases after

an initial rise but oestrogen and progesterone secretion

increases until just before paturitioh.
Other placental hormones.

I

1.

Relaxin

2.

Human placental lactogen (HPL)

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CARE OF THE NOSE
Nose is an important part of the human body, It needs
constant care. Any neglect can lead to infection, The nose
has the following main functions to perform:

Main functions of the nose
1. Respiration or breathing: Breathing through the nose
helps in keeping one free from infections of the
throat and chest.
2. Acts as the seat of special sence of Smell, It also
helps in appreciation of flavour.
3. Acts as the resonating chamber for voice effecting it
in tone and other qualities. If you have a cold or
your nose is blocked-your voice is so different.
4. Regulates the temperature of the air that we breathe
in, to body temperature.
5. Supplies moisture to the inspired air to enable
gaseous exchange in lungs and to maintain protective
action.
6. Acts like a watchmen at the gate and excludes
substances of harmful nature like dust, soot, etc.
by filteration.

Common Ailments of the Nose
Inflamed Ade no id s

At the back of the nose there are small pads of tissue
which when enlarged in size are called adenoids.
The adenoids act as filters and prevent germs finding
their way into the air passages.
Cold in the Nose
During a severe cold the lining of the nose is swollen
blocking the nasal passage
During a cold the output of mucous is also increased,
giving rise to a ’head cold’ i.e. running of the nose and typical
thickening of the voice, etc.
The conditions are temporary but if they recur often and
are neglected, chronic congestion called NASAL CATARRH may set in.
If the nasal catarrh is allowed to persist and becomes
chronic, it inevitably spreads to the adenoids which become
inflammed, swollen and block the air passages.
The inflammation may spread to the tiny tubes which run
from the back of the nose af to the middle ear. This is a common
cause of deafness and running of the ears in children.

. . .2

2
Chronic catarrh may also spread to the tiny cavities in
the bones of the face on either side of the nose-known as sinuses.
The infection can spread from sinus to distant parts of
the body through the blood stream.
The nose is an important part of the body and should
receive careful attention.
Bleeding from one side of the nose
Every mother should consult the doctor if her child is
having one-sided bleeding from nose or foul smelling discharge.
Foreign bodies in the nose
Children have an extraordinary habit of stuffing articles
up through the nostrils like-stubs or pencils, pieces of paper
etc.
These children have great difficulty in breathing through
the nose.
In many cases they develop alarming symptoms like foul
smelling discharge from the nose, If such a condition develops
a doctor should be consulted.

R E M E M B E R

!• The nose should be kept clean at all times- If any obvious
course of obstruction or infection is present and if any foreign
body is present attention should be paid-consult a doctor.
2. If a child breathes through the mouth-consult the doctor-it
may be due to blocking of nasal passages or enlarged adenoids.
3 . The inner lining of the nose should be kept in a healthy
condition.
4. Avoid using nose drops, ointments and inhalers continuously
unless prescribed by a doctor.
5 . Avoid using strong antiseptic lotions for nasal washing.
6. Safest method ef nasal washing is by using warm saline
solution. It is made by dissolving half a teaspoonful of salt
in a glass of warm boiled water. Sniff into each nostril
from the palm of your hand, draw it into your mouth and split
it out. You can also prepare nasal lotion by dissolving 5 gms
each of borax and soda-bicarb and 5 gms. of salt in 5 ounces of
water.
7. When you blow your nose-blow each nostril separately, If both
nostrils are blown together, infection of the nose is likely
to be pushed into the ears.
8. Repeated head colds for special attention. Consult a doctor.

Source: Swasth hind - July 1978

Co m H

CARE OF THE EAR

A large ear in man, they say, is Jucky. T> a woman, a small
ear sets off her beauty. The ear can help to hear music, to
hear lectures, talks, conversations, and to learn, to play,
etc. If you cannot hear you cannot speak.

Some children are congenitally deaf and they don’t know
what to speak. They cannot pick up sppech, and thus become deaf
and dumb.
Do you know that what you call the •ear’ is only the visible
part of the entire mechanism of hearing.
An earache
Do not neglect an earache,
deafness.

It may result in life-long

How to take care of the ear?
The ear consists of outer ear, internal ear, middle ear and
ear drum.
The outer ear has many folds and curves, It may collect
much dirt and dangerous germs in course of the day. It folds
and curves need careful cleaning every day with a towel after bath.
The outer ear leads into a passage or canal. It is in this
passage that greasy dirt, called wax, cdllects which prevents
dust particles from going on to the drum and injuring it.
So often the wax k scales off and comes out with the tip of
little fingdrs. Sometimes it develop into large hard plug
causing deafness and earache.
Do .not attempt to remove the wax by podding with any
sharp pencil, hairpin and the like. Never get into the habit
of fiddling with your ear as scratching the ear leads to earache,
itching, boils and oti-tis externa and at times proforation of
the drum of the ear.

The ear-drum-a delicate membrane-may be permanently injured
by such methods. Not only that it gets ruptured by very loud
noise and slapping on the ear. One should not hit on thd ear.
Fbt a drop of warm oil kike coconut, seasame, olive oil
or glycerine for a few days to remove wax. This will soften the
hard wax and bring it to the surface and can be removed with
cotton or soft muilin. If the wax is too hard, a doctor can
remove by syringing.
...2

2
Do not let inexperienced people remove wax by
unsterilized instruments or forcibly syringe the ear. They
may injure the outer canal, induce infection or perforate the
drum.

Boils in the passage of canal

Walls of the passage are dometimes inflamed by boils.
The pain may be very intense, the lymph modeJ in back, below
or front of the ear and in the neck may get enlarged and
become tender. The patient may feel ill and at times deaf.
Poking things inside the ear may spread inflammation
along the whole length of the passage and cause abscess in the
lymph nodes involved and also high fever. See a doctor first
for a suitable remedy. Till then use hot water bottle for
fomentation.
Foreigh bodies in the ear canal

Accidents to the ear are very common. Small children
generally thrust things like beads, small peas and beans,
pebbles, bits of rolled papfer, etc., into the ear hole, Even
lead of a pencil or a matchstick breaks into the ear while
scratching. Sometimes, if the ear is dirty, a fly gets into
it and remains there as a foreign body,
Cockroaches also manage to get into the ear and stick
inside with their sharp legs.
Whenever, insect or cockroach enters the ear, put oil
or spirit in the ear. It will kill the insect and the pain
will be over.
It is unsafe to remove the article, in view of the
peculiar position of the drum. 7In your attempt, you may only
push the thing deeper and even pierce the drum. The moment you
suspect any foreign body in the ear, go to the doctor, In the
case of foreign bodies like small peas, and beans, water should
not be used as they will swell.
The doctor will put in glycerine first to absorb the
water and then syringe the ear. He will pick up the insects with
forces and remove them. Often, people put cotton plugs to keep
the cold out. Keep an eye on these bits of cotton wool because
a piece of cotton wool pushed down the ear may give rise to
offensive discharge.
Beware of colds
There are two passages leading out of the middle ear-one
going backward and one in the front leading to the nose and throat
(The Eustachian tube).

Wien you have a cold, geras can pass from thG
nose or
throat up thjis tubp
, .
n
136 a"d inflame its walls
which swell
UP and may cause deafness.
...3

3
When the walls of the middle ear become inflamed,
earache is the result.
If it is not treated and the infection continues, an
abscess may form. This results in severe pain and sleepless
nights until the drum bursts and the ear starts running.
The hole in the drum may take weeks or months to heal
or if may remain as a permanent opening.
If the discharge stops and child becomes healthy,
perforation heals within few weeks. But if the discharge does
not stop or child gets recurrent colds and recurrent onset of
discharge, hole becomes permanent and so is the deafness.
Do not blow the nose with force. If you have a cold.
Otherwise, it will push infection to the middle ear.
The lymphoid tissue at the back of the nose is in closd
proximity of the opening of the Eustachian tube and is called
adenoids.
When it becomes inflamed, enlarged and septic, it may block
the passage causing deafness and sometimes running ears. So
often when a child has running ear it will not clear up until
the infected tissue is removed.
If you have chronic inflammation, avoid entrance of
water while bathing and plug the ear with cotton saturated in
vaseline. Avoid swimming in such conditions.

Dental trouble
Dertal trouble in children and the eruption of new teeth
may cause earache, It is possible to distinguish this cause
from acute inflammation unless the ear is examined.
Always consult a doctor when /our baby has an earache.
Infectious fevers like influenza or measles are often accompanied
by earache due to inflammation in the ear. Symptoms should be
reported to the doctor immediately.
Pus formation in the middle ear, if not checked, may
spread to the bone at the back of the ear and may result in
mastoid abscess.
As a result of negligence or mishandling, the abscess
may even give rise to pus formation in the brain.
Inner ear-internal ear-besides being the receptive organ
for hearing is also concerned with maintenance of balance and
sence of position.
If you feel giddy, or if you get vertigo or both, it
may be cue to your ear, you should then go and see a doctor.
If your child does not start speaking at the right age or if
you are doubtful about his hearing the sounds, you should consult
the doctor.
Quite a few children with i
’ “ hearing (not totally deaf)
marginal
can with early care at good E.N.T. Centres,
» be prevented from
becoming ^eaf and dumb.
SOURCE - Swasth Hind- Aug-igyg

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H 3 U' 10

\

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

1.

Respiration is a process by which gaseous exchange
takes place between an organism and its environment.

2.

The respiration includes both inspiration and expiration.
The pressure in the lungs (intra pulmonary pressure) is
a negative pressure.

3.

Oxygen is taken in during inspiration and carbondioxide
which is the waste product of metabolism is given out
during expiration.

4.

The normal respiratory rate in man varies from 12 - 16.mt.

5.

The organs of respiration consists of the respiratory
passages and the lungs.

6.

Exchange of gases occur in the alveoli of the lung.

7.

In between the visceral pleura (seroUs membrane which
covers the surface of the lungs) and the parietal pleura
(serous membrane covers the inner aspect of the chest
wall and upper aspect of the diaphragm, there is a
potential space called pleural cavity.

8.

The pleural cavity contains very little of serous fluid
called pleural fluid.

9.

The pleural fluid acts as a lubricant and it prevents the
friction between the two surface layers during the east fRz Pof respiration.
f
.

10.

In certain diseases this potential space is^filled with
air, or pus, fluid or blood.

11.

Before birth (in the foetus) the lungs are solid, airless,
and are not expanded and play no part in the respiratory
function. During that? time respiratory function is carried
out by exchange of gases between the maternal and foetal
blood, acsross the placenta.

12.

The 1st respiration occurs after birth by a forceful
respiratory movement.

13.

The rate, depth and rythm of respiration are maintained
by a group of nerve cells situated in the brain stem.

14.

The group of nerve cells which control the respiratory
activity is called as‘ respiratory

15.

Changes in the respiration can be brought about temporarily
by a large number of factors like emotion, fear, voluntary
arts like chewing, speaking, swallowing, excercise etc.

16.

The respiration is regulated by fast acting neural and
slow acting humoral reflex mechanism.

17.

A5normalities of respiration

(a)

Normally an individual is not conscious of his
respiration. Sometimes in certain condition he feels
the difficulty in breathing. This condition is
called 11 Dyspnoea?.

2

(b)

Asphyxia - is lack of oxygen combined
with Carbon dioxide excess.

(c)

Hyper capnia - increased.’in carbon dioxide
GXiatA^t of the btaext.
I

(d)

Hypo Capnia - Decreased in carbon dioxide
Ocantaet of the blood.
WirvH

(e)

Hypoxia - Inadequate supply of oxygen to
the tissues.

I

31^'1

!

BLOOD
1.

Blood is a liquid tissue

2.

'
", 'The cells are red blood
It consists of* plasma
and' cells,
white
blood
corpuscles
and platelets.
corpuscles, ’

3.

Plasma consists of water, proteins, inorganic constituents
secret!ons antibodies
organic constituents, internal secretions,
and various enzymes.

4.

The plasma proteins are albumin, Globulin and fibrinogen.

5.

Red blood corpuscles contain a red pigment called haemoglobin
which in turn carries oxygen needed for metabolic activities.

6.

White blood corpuscles take part in the defense reactions
of the body.

7.

Platelets are important in forming a plug and closing the
YixfJxowivessel wall.

8.

The fibrinogen which is present in the plasma takes part
in the clotting process.

9.

When the blood id shed outside it forms a solid mass
called clotjj. This involves the conversion of the soluble
fibrinogen to insoluble fibrin in the presence of calcium
salts. There are a number of other clotting factors in
the blood which help in the process of clotting.

10.

The clotting retracts and gives out a straw coloured fluid
called the serum.

Plasma - fibrinogen

serum.

11.

The clotting formation can be prevented by addition
anticoagulants.

12.

Heparin is a natural anticoagulant present in the
circulating blood.

13.

Decrease in the number of platelets leads to bleeding
disorder called purpura haemorrhagica.

14.

Absence of clotting factor VIII or a^tihaemophilic factor
leads to clotting disorder called haemophilia.

15.

Haemorrhage leads to loss of blood. If it is within
moderate limits the blood gets regenerated otherwise if
the haemorrhage is severe blood transfusion has to be given.

16.

Before transfussion the blood group of the donar, (who
donated blood) and receipient (who receives blood) has to
be determined and matched.

17.

The red cells contains antigen'or agglutinogen and the
plasma contains antibody or agglutinin.

18.

The classification of blood groups is based on the presence
or absence of antigerfor agglutinogen.

19.

'are 'mainly
./dhdMV ’ The
blood has to be tested for both A30 as well as Rh
grouping.

20.

Cross matching of the blood is done before transfussion.

21.

Direct cross matching is very important where the
cells of the donar are matched with the serum of the
recepient•
’fhx blood

core

WOahIm

ft / 6 /

O

22.

In addition to ABO grouping there is Rh blood grouping.
Rh + and Rh - (negative). It can be either (positive).

23.

If mismatched blood is given there will be severe
reaction.

^<21 l<? <■

I

L

H 3 q- J

'st JOHN'S MEDICAL C0LL3GS, BANGALORE-34.

PEP AR WNT OF - P HYS IO LOGY

COMMRNITY HEALTH WORKERS

Introduction to physiology
1)

The continuation of "life" is possible through mechanisms of
preservation and nropj^gation.

2)

These

The study of these mechanisms constitutes "Physiology",

mechanisms are based on physical and chemical properties of matter.
3)

The chemical and physical conditions necessary for the preservation

of life have to be maintained within narrow limits, against ever
changing environmental conditions.

This maintainance of constancy

of conditions, is called "homeostasis".

4)

The "homeostasis" may be maintained either by a single cell
(ex. unicellular organisms) or by the co-ordinated effort of

multiple organs (ex. multi cellular organisms).
5)

AS "living"

is an au
active
b±v« process
pruucoo, it requires energy.

The energy

is released when the food combines with the oxygen.
6)

Tice food is ingested into and digested by the digestive system.

7)

The oxygen is obtained and the gaseous waste products formed
during oxidation are removed, by the respiratory system.

2/-

- 2

8)

The digested materials as well as oxygen are carried by the

blood to different organs in the body.

The proper distribution

of blood is the function of cardio vascular system.

9)

The unnecessary and harmful solid and liquid materials are

removed by kidney.
10)

After a particular age, the reproduction is initiated for
propqgation of life.

The reproductive mechanisms release

certain chemicals, which make the body ready for reproduction.

11)

Finally the functions of different systems in the body have
to be coordinated so that the organisms gets maximum benefit
from all the systems.

This is achieved by slow acting chemical

mechanisms which constitute the endocrines and fast acting

neural mechanism which constitute nervous system.

24-1-79.

(B.S. RAO)

1

NKiVOUS SYSTEM

i-

The function of the nervous system is to coordinate
X

the working of different systems in the body it receives,
/■

•□ordinates and sends messages.
the neuron.

The dendritic portion of the neuron is the

receiving end.
information.

The unit of the function is

The cell body integrates.

The axon sends the

All the information is passed up or down by

electrical impulses.

However at the synapse (the junction

between the neurons or the effectors) the electrical impulses

are converted into chemical messages.

may be blocked.

The activity of chemicals

If that is done the person becomes ’■•unconscious”

of external or internal environment.

Before surgery certain

chemicals known as ft anaesthetics’1 are given to cause ‘’unconscious’1
state.

The nervous sytem c^an be divided into two div-isionG (1) central
(2) peripherals

The iperipheral nervous system either takes

messages to central nervous system.or brings messages from it.
A.

The central nervous system (CMS) integrates the information.

In addition the CHS ’’stores” the information for future use.

This is called1'memory/ The higher functions like”abstract
thinking” are possible with the CHS.

31-1-79.

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--0-^-1

DIj LJTOEaI.E GF LuBAL. IlALTH SETVICES ALL TIAIHILO
mOGPAIJIES

TRAIiHMG CCUP-SE FQH GCiiTUNITY HEALTH WCniCERS (OHW BO j)

AHL: 01 LT

Heert: l-feart is a <r. nlar (organ
<... situated in the choot
cavity between
the lungs and •■ ehind the breast bone.
It lias a base and an apex.
4th inter costal space•

The apex is pointed towards the left

Heart is divided into 4, chambers
„ . —3 - 2 atria, and 2 ventricles.
The atria and ventricles 1.are. cc.iLiumcated through A«I ■ openings — the
&■ left. The atria ventricular openings are gaurded by valves ■the tricuspid & bicuspid valves.
. Morually there is no comunication between right and left sides
of the heart.

The heart is composed of specialized rusculature called myocardium
outer to myocardiun. there is aa fl
fibrous membrane called pericardium.
This has two layers - outer parietal & inner viceral. Between the two
there is thin fils of fluid calledd petardial fluid, This is meant for
lubricating the heart during its movertents •
■ -n

cardiunThe

“Linin8 of • myocardium is otherwise called as endo-

Hence heart has :

bcd^ .

Outer
- poricadiun
middle
- ICyoaardiun
Inner
- endocardium
a?cc]
tha nutrition for various organs & tissues in the
xhe neart is the main organ of circulation of the blood.

ig of two types; 1 . Systemic ciruclation
2. Tulnonary circulation
1 ■1Phe
of HOf < :;?ron left vc-tricle through arteries, arterioles
systeSSSXSo™®
at™ iS Can°d greater °r

2. The course iron right* ventricle through lungs to the left atrian is
Wown as lesser or puinonary circulation,

Systeoic .circulation: The pure blood iron left ventricles is discharged

through the aorta which breaks up into different sots of arteries,
arterides and finally capillaries arc fornod. Here the walls of earn11aries being very thin, exchange takes place between pdasna*and interstitr
ial_ fluid - venules star ’- by the fusion of capillaries - big veins are
, fornod and finally the blood is poured into the right atriun.
pluoncry circulation: The blocd fron the right ventricle is rwped
through the pulnonar,/ artery into the lungs. This breaks up into fine
arterioles and capillaries exchange of gases talus plo.ee pulnonarv venules
are fornod. Thon pulmonary veins arc fornod which ojxn into left atriun.

Pg.yal c^iyulgypn: Blood fron stonach intestines,
intestines, pancreas
pl-ym/js
pancreas &
& s
spLuBy-is
collected by the portal vein. This breaks down into fine ry-dWhs
octc:-1 ■’ • -

.

r- - < •••• -■

-.^44.-. +/0

: 2 :

Wha/b is blood pres auro?

The pressure of tlx* Mo-d in the arteries is called the blood pressure
and is mints incd by •lie force required to push ut blood through the
capillary section of bio circulation.
what is

rvu-l-'L p-j jc?

Arterial Pulse is a wave of increased pressure whic? i . felt at the
arteries, w- ic": -ood is. pin pod out of the /heart- • corr •niiontly felt at
any pci it whore arvery crosses the bone eg. Pal
li.l io.
Clinical nc 1-0. - □
•
Pericarditis: This is que to the inflcumtion of 'hx ouier covering
of the heart. The nenbroues pay produce fluid wliich ei'barrascs the hearts
action. This my lead to heart failure.
Surgical resection of the poricardiuin nay held in the patients
condition •

b) Endo carJitio: Tils results due to rbomtic fever etc.
the inflai-uation of 7.-d.tral valve.

This my load to

c) Coromry artery disease: Coronary vessels as elsewhere in the body
my becone narrowed: a,s in atherosclerosis and lionco thio blood supply of
the heart is haupored - iziyocardial ischaenia.
4* Cohrostive heart failure: Characterised by Dyspnoea - Oodona in soft
tisauos.

Blood supply to the heart:
Coronary arteries - bra.ncb.es of aorta supply the hcaru tissue. The
return blood frua the lieart is coljectcd,minly by corunar?r sinus.
IMcrve Supply:

Vagus (Phra ■ynpathotic)

Smpathesic

Both to S.A. ITe ’o*
trnpathctic - a,coolor.:,tcs the rate of heart boat.
Para Syipathotic ~ slows down, the I.'.cart boat.

-------- /____ _

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