Long Term Monitoring Report
Item
- Title
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Long Term Monitoring
Report - extracted text
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Long Term Monitorin a
____
The Impact of Pesticides on
the People and Ecosystem
(LMIPPE)
Part II
Tl
Repor£
Preliminary findings of the survey on
the impact of Aerial spraying on the
People and the Ecosystem
OCTOBER 2001
■i.
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CONSERVATION ACTION INFORMATION NETWORK
Tftimvanant/tapuram., Keralam.,
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LMIPPE Report II
The sequence in the report
Preface - 3
Ackrtoxifedgement - 4
The Issue - 5
Hypothesis -10
Health Impacts -13
Comments - 20
Endosulfan a short summary - 21
Endosiiffan - Regulations and’ Violations - 33
Worid wide reguiatory status of Endostd/an - 35
Thanal Cnnscrvatum Action and Information Nctuvrk.
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LMIPPE Report II
Preface
We bring this report with good hope. There have been mistakes and
failures. We believe that admitting mistakes and an effort to undo
such mistakes are signs of good and responsible governance.
Long back in the late 70's, the Plantation Corporation of Kerala started
aerial spraying of pesticides at cashew plantations in North Keralam.
Endrin was not banned and pesticide application was considered
harmless in those days.
Persistence of these chemicals and harm to the fabric of life, which
support all of us, is the concern today. The years following the
publication of Silent Spring has changed the world, opened new blind
spots and threw light at many ignorant actions. The publication of Our
Stolen Future" by Theo Colborn and others further consolidated the
research that has gone into man-induced problems that are affecting
our destinies and creating irreversible damages to life.
The Governments and organisations from all over the world reiterated
their concern by negotiating and signing the Stockholm Convention
which is a beginning to a new millenium that shows the world is
changing.
But, for the Plantation Corporation of Kerala, the Pesticide
manufacturing Industry and their "associated" scientists, the earth is
flat. They still believe that pesticides are harmless and everything is
fine. They do not hesitate to lie to the people, Government and even
to the Honorable High Court.
But truth prevails- because it tells what reality is as it is. And the
Government of Kerala recognized this. A bureaucratic faux pas had to
be corrected and a political decision brought temporary relief.
Endosulfan use in Kerala has been banned, but the critically affected
lives still pull on unnoticed, unaddressed in remote villages in
Kasaragod. The people now breathe a sigh of relief and is hopefully
waiting for more actions from the Government.
This interim report is compiled as the part II of the first report on Long
Term Monitoring of The impact of Pesticides on the People and
Ecosystem (LMIPPE) at Kasargod. Part I of the report was brought
earlier as a dossier on the issue. The last two years were times of
learning and we are extremely relieved to find that the scientific works
of many are forming the foundation that supports the allegation of the
people. We also found that "Pesticide poisonings may go unrecognised
because of the failure to take a proper exposure history...."
Tfianat - team.
Tfianal Conservation Action and Information Network.
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LMIPPE Report II
Thanal is a public interest research group and the
.
painful. Time consuming as there is poor
documentation of the data and problems. Painful, especially
because the gross injustice has caused tremendous damages
and pain to the local population and it was difficult to interact
with the affected people with detachment. We cried and felt deep
anger when we came back after the days work. There was no
reason and fact to support that endosulfan spraying was
undertaken as an only option. The endosulfan spraying was
based on manufactured assumptions and reasons. The decision
was taken with out any plant protection concerns but at the
instance of advice from Pesticide manufacturers.
The Issue took us close to people who are cheerful and
compassionate. They taught us a lot about human values and
shared their wisdom. We could share our understanding of
toxicology and epidemiology and the scientific methods in
investigating an issue. They had the faith to face the miserable
realities of irresponsibility and injustice. They could laugh at the
private interests of the organised scientists. The people gave us
food, shelter, took us to houses and showed the realities on the
ground. They gave us time and answers and shared their
wisdom with patience. Thev
They also helped us to realise our
limitations.
Thus we cannot acknowledge the names of each, as there are
many. There are farmers, workers, labourers, and people of all
age groups, class and caste.
We are indebted to them.
Panchayth members, cultural organisations, sports clubs,
unorganised activists concerned about their own land and
people, doctors and government officials also gave us lot of
support and guidance. We also acknowledge them.
We also thank The Pesticide Action Network of North America,
Asia Pacific and United Kingdom, for the extensive support they
gave to take our work forward. Participating Organisations of
International Platform for Eliminating POPs (IPEN), Jarmila
Becka of WWF, Scientists working on Endocrine Disruptors and
J.P. Myers one of the authors of “Our Stolen Future” gave us lot
of inputs and scientific papers which helped to understand the
issue better.
We acknowledge ad the above people and the many many others
for their help to Thanal and also to the work on Endosulfan.
Thus here we are putting in the process that took us to this
report. Thanking one and all, once again.
Tfianaf Conservation Action and Information Network.
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LMIPPE Report II
If what is chronicled in the Silent Spring could shock the world
awake off the suicidal path that pesticide use would lead humanity
to, then here in these villages one can see the most horrid reality of
Rachel Carson’s fears come true.
Today villages in Kasaragod District are complaining from peculiar
and complex variety of diseases unprecedented in this part of the
country. All these villages lie in the mid-lands and laterite hill area of
Kasaragod District, the northernmost district of the Kerala State.
None of these diseases were known to the people of the area about
two decades ago. These diseases are uniform in nature in almost all
these villages and there seems to be no section of the people who have
been spared from being affected. The peculiar set of diseases has
affected atleast 15 panchayaths in the District. The aerial spraying of
endosulfan - a highly toxic organochlorine pesticide is being blamed
as the cause for these diseases. The spraying is done by the
Plantation Corporation of Kerala (PCK), a Government of Kerala
undertaking, in the cashew plantations which lies in or borders these
panchayaths. The PCK has been undertaking the aerial spraying
ritually for the last 26 years in their 4600 ha of cashew plantations.
Incidence of increased number of children bom with congenital
anomalies, mental retardation, physical deformities, cerebral palsy
and mental ailments like epilepsy are reported from many families
across panchayaths. Many reports in all the prominent dailies and
magazines were showing children with congenital physical
deformities, stunted growth, mental retardation and cerebral palsy.
Cases with hydrocephalus was also reported. Psychiatric problems
are also on the increase and many young and old are succumbing to
suicidal tendencies with apparently no reasons as such. Doctors have
recorded many cases of cancer, especially of the liver and blood.
Informal survey’s have also revealed increased rate of breast, throat
and intestinal cancer. Cancer among men is almost double that of
women. Men are also suffering from infertility and undescended
testis. Miscarriages and hormonal irregularities are being reported
among women. More and more people are falling ill to rheumatic
complaints. Paralysis is very common. Parkinson’s Disease is also
being reported. Endometriosis, a serious illness affecting the uterus
has been diagnosed and is causing serious concern.
Many complain of Skin disorders like Psoriasis, Eczema, Leucoderma
and other forms of dermatitis. Very pathetic cases were also found
where a chronically affected person was scratching his wound with
stone to stop the itching. Children have become susceptible to
frequent illness, showing a deterioration of the immune systems.
Doctors are forced to give high doses of antibiotics even to contain
minor fevers. People were also complaining of hearing and vision loss.
Asthma and breathing complaints were too common.
Since the middle of the nineteen seventies, nature has been sending
warning signals of impending danger to people in these villages. It
came in the form of mass death of honeybees, fishes, frogs and birds.
Cows and chicken also started dying of sudden and mysterious
reasons. Over some time, fox population started dwindling and there
was many a mind that silently worried at these warning signals.
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In 1979, a farmer in Padre realised that reason for three of his calves bom with
deformed limbs and having stunted growth could not be just attributed to his fate.
Moreover, he had just read that pesticides like Endrin ( Referring to the The
Handigodu Syndrome which was veiy much in the news then) could actually
cause such effects. The evidence towards such an hypothesis was lacking then,
but still he reported it to a local journalist Shree Padre who wrote the first article
“Life cheaper than Cashew’’ in “The Evidence” (dec. 1981) and raised a doubt that
Endosulfan, which was being aerially sprayed in the plantations in his village was
the cause for such environmental problems. The first warnings were already there.
The people started complaining. In 1984, two panchayaths passed resolution not
to spray pesticide by air as there is large-scale drift and problems caused for cattle
and people. When the local MLA Sri. Subba Rao becomes Minister he ordered the
suspension of the aerial spraying. The aerial spraying in some areas was
suspended for nearly two years. In 1988, the PCK wrote to National Research
Centre for Cashew (NRCC) for advise on the crop protection against the Tea
Mosquito Bug which was affecting their plantation. The NRCC recommended
endosulfan use at 0.05% concentration. AU through these years aerial spraying of
endosulfan was continuing. But it is now learnt that this recommendation was
never foUowed as it was found to be ineffective to control the bug. More and more
news of health problems started being reported from aU other places in Kasaragod
as well. Local sports and arts clubs, cultural clubs and community organisations
were taking serious view of these problems. Many of them passed resolutions and
also complained to the District CoUector, who is the authority to permit aerial
spraying. In 1994, the Kerala Sastra Sahithya Parishad (KSSP) alleged that the
problem is caused by insecticide and asked for stricter regulations in the aerial
spraying. By this time, the local print media including the major dailies started
reporting the issue of health problems and spread of strange diseases and health
disorders. The people also started agitating. Surprisingly, in 1997, Dr. EW
Bhaskara Rao, the Director of NRCC recommended aerial spraying at 1%
concentration of Endosulfan 35EC. He added that “ In this connection I am also to
mention that aerial spraying trials were conducted in the PCK orchards and the
spraying method was standardised for the first time in the country”. (Letter No. F.
PA (TECH.ADV)/97 dated 26 December 1997 to the Manager, PCK Ltd ). It is
indeed appalling that aerial spraying of endosulfan was going on for more than 20
years before it was standardised.
At the same time, Dr. Mohankumar, a local medical practitioner of Enmakaje,
concerned with the large number of strange diseases wrote to IMA and other
psychiatric specialists drawing their attention to the mysterious nature of the
problems there. He felt the root of the problem lies in the water in the area. Dr.
Mohankumar reported that there were abnormally high numbers of psychiatric and
epileptic cases in his village. Almost at the same time Leelakuman a mother of two
children and Agriculture Assistant working in the Periya Krishi Bhavan, who had
moved to her new home in Periya village, realized that her son who is a good singer
is loosing his voice and suffers from depression. Her daughter also developed some
hormone problems and she put her up in a hostel outside the area till the spray
drift recovers. She found that she herself was suffering from loss of voice and
hormonal problems. She appealed to the PCK, the District Collector and all the
authorities to stop poisoning their fields and wells. The Kerala State Pollution
Control Board collected water from their well and reported that the well was not
contaminated, but the procedure they followed in testing and their very
lackadaisical attitude in monitoring and controlling pollution was later criticized in
various forums. The KSPCB Chairman also made a statement in a prominent
magazine that they lacked information about endosulfan. Leelakuman along with
Kottan, a farmer and local politician and others appealed to the Munsif Court for
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LMIPPE Report II
stay of spraying in 1998. The HonTile Munsiff, while issuing the stay order
observed that “The Stand taken by the respondents (the PCK ) is that of a heartless
industrialist. They say that use of insecticides would bring more profit and more
foreign exchange. But it cannot be at the cost of human lives.... Certainly we have
power to destroy nature, but the question is whether we have the wisdom to
preserve it...” . Many local environmental groups, led by the Society for
Environmental Education in Kerala (SEEK) also joined in support of the struggle of
the people and filed separate petition in the High Court asking for stopping aerial
spraying in Periya Division. Two separate fact finding teams, one led by SEEK and
later one by Thanal reported incidence of similar diseases in all the panchayaths
that have plantations or are close to them. The survey also found that PCK has
violated the Insecticides Act in precautionary and safety measures and even in
concentrations of the chemical sprayed. In many places the PCK workers
themselves reported health disorders but requested anonymity out of fear of the
management. Soon after, Thanal, supported by SEEK and many community and
local groups decided to conduct a long term monitoring of the area to study the
endosulfan caused problems. This was launched in October 1999. A preliminaiy
report was submitted to the District Collector.
In December 1999, inspite of all the hue and cry over the unmindful spraying of
endosulfan over the plantations and the people’s dwellings and waterbodies, the
PCK was getting ready for the next round of spraying. The environmental groups SEEK, INTACH (Natural Heritage), NAPM, Earth Society, KPSS, and Thanal - named
PCK as the worst polluter of the State and declared the area as a silent Bhopal
caused by PCK while remembering the 15th Anniversary of the Bhopal disaster.
They also released “The chemical free century - Declaring a toxic free future” on
this occasion.
In January 2000, the School Resource Group meeting in the Govt. High School in
Vaninagar in Enmakaje observed that students coming from the backside of the
school was generally found to be mentally and physically backward and their
learning capabilities were also poor. The SRG wondered why this was happening.
L^ter it was realsied that the plantation was in the backside of the school. LP
section of the school has about 152 students, 40 of those who come from the back
side is suffering from some sort of congenital anomaly, mental retardation, physical
deformity. Many other are frequently taken ill.
In October, 2000 the Munsif Court of Hosdurg ordered permanent prohibition of
use of any insecticide by air. The court also restrained PCK from using other
methods which may cause harm to others properties. This order was on a case
filed in Periya Plantation area only and was not operational to other areas. The
PCK, inspite of massive and widespread protests from other areas, especially
Muliyar and Perla plantation area, restored to aerial spraying of endosulfan, after
arresting hundreds of people who were asking for their w'ells and other waterbodies
to be covered, as per the Insecticides Act and the directions of the District
Collector.
It was soon after this that Sports and Arts groups, cultural groups, panchayaths
and environmental groups came together and formed a larger network to protest
against the endosulfan use and aerial spraying and to find an alternate solution to
this issue. All these groups recogmsed that information about toxicity of
endosulfan and the problems it created was lacking. Information from various
national and international sources was collected and their worst fears were
confirmed. The people realised that they were exposed to a chemical which has
been classified as an “extremely hazardous” pesticide affecting the Central Nervous
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LMIPPE Report II
system. Reproductive system, Immune System, Liver, Kidneys and Skin. The
Government machinery and the Insecticides Act could do nothing to protect them
from being poisoned. The Scientists at the KAU were still asking for evidence of
contamination and were terming this pesticide as a “safe” pesticide, pointing ou o
its use in 1PM. Separate surveys by Thanal, Dr Mohankumar and Link-Trada
revealed that there is matching of the diseases in the panchayaths and the possible
diseases that could be caused by endosulfan. Central nervous system disorders psychiatric cases, Parkinson’s disease, epilepsy, cerebral palsy, mental retardation,
congenital anomalies, Reproductive system disorders, infertility, hormonal
disturbances, asthma and respiratory problems, skin diseases, gynecological
problems, cancer of the liver, throat, blood and uterus were just some of them. The
people then approached the NRCC and KAU enquiring whether they had done any
study of long term efficacy of endosulfan on the pests, long term toxicity stu les on
the people and environment. Both had never done any studies and maintained a
silence on these queries. The truth was that PCK had also never in the last 26
years done even the mandatory medical examination of the workers.
The groups then tried to get in touch with other scientific labs in the country to
find out whether it was possible to find out if the area was contaminated.
The Centre for Science and Environment finally responded and sent their
researchers to collect the samples and analyze at CSE lab. The whole process was
done by a team led by Dr. Padma S Vankar Senior scientist in charge of toe Facility
for Ecological and Analytical Testing at the ITT, Kanpur. Retd. PVC and Coordinator
of the Environment Centre of the KSSP, Prof. M.K.Prasad , And Dr. Raghunandan,
Associate Professor and Veterinary Toxicologist from IRTC ( On deputation from
KAU) supervised the sampling. 25 samples were picked from the village. Trie CSE
found alarming level of endosulfan in all the samples. They publicly released the
report in February 2001. Not only was this a shocking revelation, but the CSE also
showed what public-interest science was all about - transparency and
responsibility.
Several cases were now filed at different courts including Munsif Court and High
court. The Munsif Court of Kasargod stayed ah pesticide applications in Kasargod
taluk in February 2001. The CSE report, which was only an exercise to fmd
evidence and alert the public, succeeded in bringing a lot of national and
international attention to the problem.
The Cashew Export Promotion Council immediately responded and wrote to the
Directorate of Cashew and Cocoa and they in consultation with NRCC advised PCK
to refrain from aerial spraying. The NRCC then sent a notification to all the Cashew
growing agencies in the country withdrawing the recommendation for endosulfan
use in Cashew.
Soon after, a KAU team of experts rushed to the field, collected samples and visited
a number of families affected by the diseases. They alleged that the CSE study is
not scientific. The report of the KAU study has also not been published, even after
6 months.
The Kerala Government has meanwhile upheld the precautionary principle and
responded to the issue by banning endosulfan use in the State.
Meanwhile, FIPPAT, a private lab near Chennai was commissioned by the PCK to
study the problem. The report was released in a press conferences by the Pesticide
Manufacturers and Formulators Association of India (PMFAI). This has clearly sent
the signals to the people and have made them all the more clear of the unholy
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liaison between the PCK and the pesticide industry. The Enmakaje Panchayath
has already disowned the FIPPAT study for all the secrecy, which shrouded the
study and the panchayath not being informed of the study.
The demand from the PCK and the industry is that they be allowed to continue the
use of endosulfan and that the Government do a thorough study of the reported
health problems in Kasaragod and identify the cause of them. At the same time the
scientists of the KAU and the NRCC have openly stated their position that it is not
fair to blame endosulfan and punish the culprit without scientific evidence. This
position is contradictory to the precautionary principle which India is bound to
follow as a signatory of the Rio Declaration. The Precautionary principle clearly
states that “in order to protect the environment, the precautionary approach shall be
widely applied by States according to their capabilities. Where there are threats of
serious or irreversible damage, lack offull scientific certainty shall not be used as a
reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation.
. The Agenda 21 document prepared by the Ministry of Agriculture of the
Government of India also outlays a vision to move away from pesticide use.
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- - - L*-
'• The primary aim of a hypothesis is to start at an “educated
guess” or a “tentative assumption” and this should be guided by
most probable/ possible / plausibie option from a set of
answers or in this case causative factors for a problem of this nature.
-Hypotiiesis
Hence on the onset, we ask the question - Why did the people
conclude that endosulfan was the cause for their ailments ?
Most families in many of these villages once believed that the health
disorders that they were suffering from was because the local god was
angry with them for some unknown reason. For example, in
Fnmakaje, the people believed that Jadathan ( the Lord Shiva ) was
angry with them and people conducted special pooja’s and rituals like
theyyam for appeasing him. People like Dr. Mohankumar believed
that there must be something in the water that they use, from the
stream nearby that must be contaminated by radiation or heavy
metal. But slowly, as time passed by and the ailments were
mounting to threatening proportions, the evidence were all pointing
towards one possible chemical whose presence was there in
abundance in their midst atleast three times every year. Endosulfan
was the only chemical, or rather the only pollutant externally
introduced into their lives for the last 26 years. So, why did the
people conclude that endosulfan was the causative factor ? - primarily
because there was no other source of pollution or possible poisoning
other than this chemical.
Added to this are other reasons -The people have been seeing this
kind of strange diseases in their families only since the middle of
nineteen seventies and early nineteen eighties. There was no such
incidence of congenital anomalies among the people bom before the
nineteen eighties.
Many other villages in Kasaragod have also reported such health
problems at various times in the last decade and the only common
factor to which all these villages were exposed, invariably happened to
be endosulfan and nothing else. Members of the same family but
living in various villages find that the diseased are only in the villages
which are close to the PCK plantations. This again shows that the
problem is not of genetic and familial nature.
In this context, it would be interesting to point out a matter that
occurred in 1998. During an earlier study of the Grasim factory and
its pollution which caused Cancer in a number of homes in
Vazhakkad and surrounding villages, a Health Inspector working at
Vazhakkad observed in one of his talks with our researcher that
“cancer incidence was not very high in Vazhakkad, and was only
comparable to those in Panathadi panchayath” where he used to work
before being transferred to Vazhakkad. This anecdote is pointed out
here, because Panathadi panchayath is in Kasaragod and one of the
most affected area, and has been exposed to endosulfan spray and if
one is to give due weightage to a Health Inspectors observation,
though unofficial and passing, the semblance is indeed worth
pursuing. Moreover, Panathadi has no such hazardous / chemical
industries, like in Mavoor.
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In the preliminary survey itself it was found that the people were complaining
about the acute health problems which resulted soon after the spraying. Irritation
to the skin, convulsions, vomiting tendencies, sickness, dizziness etc were common
to many of the exposed people. The school children were the worst affected,
especially because they had to go to school, many a time through the shortcuts via
the plantation area and soon after they reached school had to be taken to a doctor.
But, it was learnt that soon after the aerial spray many of the chronic cases
underwent a resurgence and sometimes these then had to be treated anew. Skin
diseases, descending of the testis, swelling of the testis, disruptions in menstrual
cycles, sudden changes in blood sugar levels, frequent fever among children,
asthma, breathing difficulties increased among the chronically ill people during and
after spraying season. Swelling of lymph glands and scrotum was reported soon
after spraying. One girl in Periya reported that her periods stop soon after the
spraying and she suffers from a lot of hormonal problems and weakness for the
ensuing 3-4 months, after which her periods reoccur. Evidently, it is clear that
endosulfan spraying is linked to the triggering of the chronic problems as well.
The local doctors whom our researchers interviewed also corroborate these
findings. The veterinary doctors in many panchayaths also report of diseases to
cattle and to domestic animals. In Padre, the spraying this year caused serious
diseases among the cattle. Many cows miscarried, soon after the spray and some
had very violent deaths. People reported that this was veiy common especially
among the cows, which graze in the plantation.
Local people and panchayath representatives also revealed that the health effects
were most prominent in villages which have the PCK plantations lying within it or
borders it. Villages close by the plantation had markedly reduced incidence of
diseases and villages which were distant from the plantations were not affected by
these kind of health problems. This again supported the hypothesis that
endosulfan is the primary causative factor. Moreover, the similarity in complaints
as stated by the families in various villages - up north in Enmakaje and Bellur and
down south in Cheemeni area were largely similar in nature.
It was also observed that most of the employees of the PCK and their families were
also affected, though only comparable with the non-employees living in the same
area. This must have been primarily because of aerial spraying, which did not
discriminate between employees and non-employees. Adding to this observation
was the fact that some of the workers were suffering from very serious chronic
illness, like throat cancer and chronic skin diseases. But, these workers revealed
that they were directly involved in the spraying many a time as mixers or
applicators. The researchers also observed endosulfan spraying in new saplings of
cashew using hand-sprayers. The employees also reported that they were not given
any protective clothing or gear during such spraying which is mandatory under the
Insecticides Act.
All these singularly points to the fact that the health disorders were very much
linked to the proximity of the villages with the PCK owned cashew plantations. The
plantations have been consistently sprayed with endosulfan, aerially for the last 26
years, 3 times every year, violating all the precautionary measures ( many a time
because it would be impossible to take precautionary measures in an ar ea like
Kasaragod, as noted by the KAU scientists and the NRCC) and the rules of pest
control. And hence it is concluded that the use of endosulfan in the plantations
must be the primary suspect for all these health disorders caused in the villages in
Kasaragod.
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Nevertheless, it is felt that the study must also consider other possible causative
factors as well. The causative factors must either be due to some human-induced
activity or due to some natural phenomenon.
Health and Environmental problems of this nature can also be caused by humaninduced activity which involves industrial processes especially of hazardous nature
related to radio active substances, heavy metals or chemically hazardous
substances. Fortunately, no such activity can be found anywhere in Kasaragod
District. Hence there is no possibility of any other human-induced activity, other
than endosulfan exposure to be the causative factor. Moreover, there were also no
possible sources of contamination of air or water from across the borders of the
State from Karnataka.
The other possible causative factor raised by many scientists in the KAU and also
suspected by Dr. Mohankumar in 1997 (though he does not endorse it nov ) is
the possibility of a background natural radiation or heavy metal release. But the
problem that has been identified have a maximum history of only 26 years and not
more than that. This is an important matter that needs to be kept in mind while
spelling out the causative factors. It is very difficult to believe that background
radiation or heavy metal contamination can occur suddenly, out of the blue, 26
years ago, from the surrounding hills and water sources. The only activity, which
can possibly trigger such radiation or heavy metal contamination, is a large scale
mining operation as in the UCIL in Jarkhand, where large-scale mining for
Uranium ( a radio-active substance) has triggered an unprecedented health crisis
among the surrounding communities. Moreover, there is always the possibility
that the background natural radiation/ heavy metal exodus, if any, may not have
been noticed or recorded earlier. If so atleast its effects must surely haye been felt
earlier itself. In this case, no such effects has been reported beiore ± y/ 9.. Hence xt
is impossible that any sources of radiation or heavy metal contamination is a
possible causative factor.
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TTd^a;next important logical step is to ask the question- Are
arrant health problems seen in the villages in
Kasaragod related to endosulfan ?
For establishing this crucial link, it is important to find out what
acute health problems were caused when endosulfan was aerially
sprayed and what are the aberrant health problems seen and
reported from the suspected areas.
Acute effects during and immediately after the spraying
The following acute effects were reported from places exposed to
endosulfan aerial spray
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
A Noxious smell fills the air and people find it difficult to breath.
The whole area carries a smoggy look.
Eye irritation, itching , sometimes with tears in the eye
Headaches and dizziness.
Suffocation and choking feeling.
Coarse feeling in the throat.
Skin itches, with swelling when scratched.
Seizures among grazing animals, sometimes leading to death.
Bleeding leading to abortion and sometimes death if the
animal (cow, dogs) were pregnant.
General issues of health.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
People were found to be generally weak, getting tired quickly. Most
of the people were laborers or were involved in work mostly of
physical nature. They complained that they are not able to work
as they used to some years back. Earlier where they used to work
for more than 8 hours, today they are not able to work for more
than 2 or 3 hours.
Many people, including women and children were found to be
anemic and ailing from frequent fevers and diseases, indicating
effects on the immune system.
People, especially women look over aged.
Men, especially young men who were under grown, physically. 25
to 35 year old men looked only in their teens or early twenties.
People disclosed about many cases of infertility, which was high
among men. The local doctors also confirmed that infertility cases
were high.
Many people were being treated with hormones for a variety of
problems. The doctor also mentioned about cases of breast
enlargement in boys (gynaecomastia) which was an alarming
revelation.
Women were suffering from serious gynecological problems. Many
of them have had problems that have resulted in their Uterus
removed. A large number of women disclosed to the women
members of our team that they have menstrual problems.
There were cases of women taking hormonal treatment to correct
their hormonal cycles before their marriages
The ailing people approach the local doctors who find it difficult to
cure many of these chronic ailments and refer them to specialists
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at Kanhangad or Mangalore. If their disease is complicated and need special
treatment or surgery they usually go to Mangalore.
• Many of the ailments have not found a proper cure and now people know that
diverse unknown diseases are inflicting them. They even know that the doctors are
not able to diagnose their problems. So they simply continue taking the high doses
of medicines that are being given.
Problems affecting the Skin
• A number of people have skin problems ranging from small, frequent itches to
chronic cases like Psoriasis and Eczema . Many of them are being locally treated
as allergies and the doctors are generally not inclined in finding the cause.
• Rashes are found in the hands and the inner palms, with itching which turns to
septic boils.
• Discolored patches appear on the skin with itching sensation.
• Swelling of legs and hands, darkening of the skin. The swelling is specifically
reported by many of the plantation workers who are directly in contact with the
pesticide mixing and spraying operations.
• One ex-worker disclosed that most of the plantation workers have some sort of
skin diseases or other. His daughter complained of frequent swelling of the body
and getting tired very quickly. She disclosed of having gynecological problems as
well. She revealed that her periods stop soon after the spraying season and resume
only after 3-4 months, during which time her blood sugar level also goes down and
she suffers from a variety of problems.
• Some women reported frequent swelling of the whole body.
Problems affecting the Lungs, Throat etc.
• A number of people were suffering from Cancer of the throat. Some of them
could not be interviewed as they had been hospitalised. One case had only recently
been diagnosed and their relatives asked us not to meet him as he did not yet know
he had cancer.
• There were multiple cases of people, mostly men, who gradually lost their voice
and finallv when pain set in, the disease was diagnosed as Cancer of the throat or
larynx.
• Many men suffered from pain in the throat.
• A very large percentage of the children were suffering from difficulty in
breathing, asthma etc. Children seem to have been the most affected by this. They
also get very frequent fevers, which sometimes last for a month. We found one
infant ( 6 months) suffering from a mild cold, but administered with Amoxicillin
tablets.
• Many complained that soon after the spraying, they have throat problems and
some complained of loss of voice. Many have difficulty raising their voice when
speaking.
Problems affecting the Eye
• Generally, people complained of itchiness and watery eye during the spraying.
The irritation sometimes continues for atleast three days, during which the whole
area bears a foggy look with visibility much reduced.
• a large number of people had problems related to vision, though it is not known
whether it is directly due to spraying. But it is now known that long-term exposure
to organochlorines can affect the nervous system affecting hearing and vision.
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• Some plantation workers disclosed, on promise of anonymity, that almost all the
workers suffer from eye itching, bums, chronic headache and sometimes loss of
vision also.
Problems affecting the Stomach and Gastro-Intestinal system.
• A good number of people, especially men get frequent stomach ache’s.
Sometimes vomiting accompanies such ache’s especially in children
• The Staff Nurse at Navodaya Vidyalaya school at Periya reported that in 1988
she had conducted a health survey of the locality with participation from her school
children. The report is unfortunately misplaced now, but she remembers having
seen a lot of cases of stomach and intestinal problems.
Even though a number of such disorders were reported, some of the aberrant
diseases which had reached alarming proportions and are of concern were also
identified. It is felt that these have to be discussed separately, due to its fatal and
threatening nature.
Cancer
Survey conducted in Periya-Pullur , Muliyar, Cheemeni and Rajapuram reported
that a number of people were suffering from Oral cancer, cancer of the throat and
stomach, prostrate cancer and intestinal cancer. Local doctors and the doctor at
the Public Health Centre at Periya also said that incidence of cancer especially the
ones mentioned above was high. Women at the same time seem to be affected
more with breast cancer. The comment by the Health Inspector of Vazhakkad who
found that cancer cases in Pananthadi (Kasaragod) were as common as in
Vazhakkad (Calicut, affected by the pollution from Grasim Industry ) corroborates
the findings. Dr. Mohankumar, a doctor practicing in Enmakaje has found from
his observations of his patients that there were 51 cancer deaths in just 126
houses near the Kodenkeri Stream at Enmakaje Panchayath. He enlisted 4 living
cancer cases now in these houses. Many of these cases, the doctor remembered
were cancer of the liver and blood. A survey done by Link-Trada of Mangalore also
identified 11 cancer deaths in just 52 families in the last 5 years.
An analysis of the death records of some of the panchayaths also suggested an
increasing pattern of cancer deaths over the years. For example, cancer deaths
recorded in Enmakaje panchayath alone have increased from 37 (1982-87) to
49(1988-93) and to 71 (1994-99). This means an increase of 33% in just 6 years
and 92% in 12 years. Incidentally, this data does not include the deaths in the
panchayath which could have got recorded at Kasaragod Municipality, Mangalore,
Kanhangad or elsewhere were many of the patients die in hospitals. Considering
this also would only add to the already alarming percentage of increase.
Comparatively, Meenja Panchayath which is an unexposed area away from the PCK
plantations did not show any significant increase in cancer deaths over the same
period. The recorded cancer deaths were 40 (1982-87), 32(1988-93) and 47(1994-
Reproductive System ailments
Almost all the families that had participated in the surveys and the informal
interviews revealed some sort of gynecological problem or other in most women
living near, in and around the plantations. Most of the women at Periya, Cheemeni,
Muliyar, Rajapuram were found suffering from irregular periods, sometimes even
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twice or thrice a month, showing a clear case of hormonal disruption, much
possible with organochlorine induced chronic toxicity effects. Many of them were
suffering from profuse bleeding during the periods and were in acute pain. There
are cases of periods getting stopped much before the menopause age. One girl
complained that soon after the spraying, her periods get stopped and she suffers
from hormonal problems. The periods then reoccur 3-4 months after the spraying
season. Most of the married women with children have gynecological problems,
leading to the uterus being removed. Many young women have irregular periods
and other related problems like pain, headache’s, dizziness, weakening of the body
etc. Women around the age of 30 looked beyond their age. They were also found
tired and weak, unable to do the work that their age should be allowing them to do.
It was understood from them that women take hormonal treatment to correct their
menstrual cycles, so they would not have marital problems. Infertility and
Miscarriages were also high. Some cases of endometriosis have also been reported.
Organochlorine pesticides are known and proven to cause endometriosis and
breast cancer.
Men were found to be more elusive in talking about their reproductive health
problems. But some of them disclosed that they were suffering from undescended
testis. Infertility was also high in the area, especially among men. It was learnt,
with shock that boys had retarded sexual growth and this was also leading to some
sort of desperation. But social ostracism was feared, especially related to
reproductive health and it was understandable that young boys and girls of age
would not wish or be allowed to disclose their sexual growth and reproductive
health related problems.
Central Nervous System related problems
The many surveys by the panchayaths along with local groups, especially at Belur,
Enmakaje and Muliyar and the survey done by SEEK and Thanal in other villages
revealed the presence of diseases which could be connected to some form of Central
Nervous System disorders. There were too many cases of congenital anomalies
with brain disorders like cerebral palsy, retardation of mental growth, epilepsy,
physical deformities like stag horn limbs, deformed or part grown limbs.
Psychiatric problems, which is traditionally considered a mental health problem is
also on the increase. Today modem science do not consider psychiatric problems
as just a mental health problem, but also as a nervous system problem which can
be caused by neurotoxins. There is growing evidence that suicides and suicidal
tendencies may also be caused by prolonged exposure to neurotoxins. Dr.
Mohankumar in his study has revealed that there are 38 cases of mental
retardation, 49 psychiatric cases, 33 epilepsy cases and 11 suicidal cases in just
126 houses he surveyed. Similar cases have been reported from other villages like
Kumbadaje, Muliyar, Bellur also.
The deaths due to Rheumatism, Paralysis and arthritis are also on the increase.
Data from death records of Enmakaje Panchayath reveal a nearly five fold ( 488%)
increase of deaths due to rheumatic complaints, arthritis, paralysis etc in the last
12 years. These are also linked to weakening of the CNS as well.
While discussing congenital anomalies it is important to note that many of the
conventional understanding of toxicity and effects being related to exposure levels
and applied concentrations are being questioned and have been rendered
meaningless with newer findings.
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A study “ A case-control study of pesticides and foetal death due to congenital
anomalies” reported recently in the journal Epidemiology (12:148-156) by Bell EM,
Hertz-Picciotto and JJ Beaumont have revealed that there is “ a strong association
between exposure to commercially applied agricultural pesticides during a crucial
period in foetal development and the likelihood of foetal death due to congenital
defects” The study revealed that foetal death is more likely among mothers who are
living within a 9-square mile area in which commercial pesticide spraying takes
place during pregnancy. It was also discovered that risk of foetal death is greater
for exposures in week 3-8 compared to week 1-20. This 3-8 weeks period is
considered as the most vulnerable period in human development (the period of
“organogenesis”)
The exposure of organochlorine pesticides which are endocrine disruptors can
cause a variety of health ailments which may not be directly linked to the causal
substance. The endocrine disruption during early development stages, even at
insignificant levels can trigger malfunctioning of thyroid gland and leading to
failure in brain development and complex development disorders in the foetus. In
“Our Stolen Future”, Theo Colbom et al concludes a chapter- Altered Destiny
saying “As we wrestle with the question how much chemical contaminants are
contributing to the trends and societal patterns we see - in breast cancer, prostrate
cancer, infertility, and learning disabilities - it is important to keep one thing in mind.
Scientists keep finding significant, often permanent effects at surprisingly low doses.
The danger we face is not simply death and disease. By disrupting hormones and
development, these synthetic chemicals may be changing who we become. They may
be altering our destinies.n
A deeper and better understanding of the issue at Kasaragod is called for and one
needs to explore whether the problems like congenital anomalies found in
Kasaragod are just the direct effects on the CNS and the endocrine systems or
whether they are related to such complex problems as developmental stage
exposures.
A literature survey of health effects that endosulfan can cause
Now the question that has to be answered is whether toxicological, epidemiological
or medical studies have shown that endosulfan can cause these aberrant diseases.
Endosulfan is an organochlorine insecticide of the cyclodiene subgroup. It acts as
a poison to a wide variety of insects and mites on contact and as a stomach
acaricide.
Human Beings may be exposed to endosulfan from
•
breathing air near where it has been sprayed
•
drinking water contaminated with it, from direct application, spray drifts or
runoffs;
•
eating contaminated food;
•
touching contaminated soil;
•
smoking cigarettes made from tobacco with endosulfan residues;
•
working in an industry where it is used or living near its vicinity.
Acute toxicity
Endosulfan is classified as a highly toxic substance. It is acutely toxic to birds,
marine and freshwater fish, and mammals. Like other chlorinated cyclodienes,
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endosulfan is a neurotoxin affecting the central nervous system (CNS) of aquatic
organisms as well as mammals.
People who are occupationally exposed to endosulfan are advised to avoid eye and
skin contact as well as inhalation exposure. Symptoms of acute toxicity in humans
are restlessness, irritability and hyp erexcitab ility, followed by headache, dizziness,
nausea and vomiting, blurred vision, unconsciousness, insomnia, lack of appetite,
loss of memory, albuminuria, haematuria and in some cases, confusion.
Chronic toxicity
Chronic exposure to endosulfan may result in general toxicity symptoms such as
liver and kidney damage as well as effects on the CNS, immune system and the
reproductive system.
Neuro toxicity
Endosulfan may have adverse effects on the CNS of aquatic organisms, birds and
mammals. The main mechanism of action of endosulfan in the CNS is inhibition of
brain acetylcholinesterase, causing uncontrolled discharges of acetylcholine.
Abnormal behaviour has been observed in fish and mammals being chronically
exposed to endosulfan.
Carcinogenicity
Even though, endosulfan was not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity (due to lack
of sufficient data), studies have shown that it can be carcinogenic. Reuber, 1981
showed that endosulfan was carcinogenic in male and female rats at all sites
examined. It also induced liver tumours in female mice. Another study(FranssonSteen, 1992) found that endosulfan promoted the growth of altered hepatic foci in
rats in a similar manner as the structurally related chlorinated insecticides,
chlordane, aldrin and heptachlor did, indicating that endosulfan is a potential liver
tumour promoter.
Immune System
Endosulfan is also known to affect the immune system. Target organs are the
kidneys and liver. A number of studies have shown endosulfan to hepatotoxic.
Endosulfan inhibits leukocyte and macrophage migration causing adverse effects
on the humoral and cell mediated immune system.
Reproductive Effects
A number of studies have shown a potential for adverse effects of endosulfan in the
reproductive system of aquatic organisms and mammals. Histological changes in
reproductive organs were seen in aquatic organisms following exposure to
endosulfan at concentrations as low as 0.00075 mg/L (0.75 |lg/L). Endosulfan
treatment in male rats was reported to cause a dose-dependent reduction in sperm
counts, sperm abnormalities and decreased daily sperm production as well as
decreased testis weight.
Endocrine disruptive action
In vitro studies show endosulfan is estrogenic (in the E-SCREEN assay).
Endosulfan I competes with [3H]17p-estradiol for binding to the estrogen receptor.
Endosulfan sulfate inhibited binding of [3H]R5020 to the progesterone receptor by
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40-50 per cent. Low levels of endosulfan (1 nM, 0.41 ppb) can inhibit the human
sperm acrosome reaction, initiated by progesterone and glycine, but the inhibition
is not complete. Endosulfan II and endosulfan sulfate decreased p-galactosidase
activity of progesterone (Jin et al., 1997).
In vivo studies showed that Endosulfan decreased plasma vitellogenin levels in
catfish (Chakravorty et al., 1992). Endosulfan also decreased the number and size
of oocytes in fresh water teleost fish, and increased the number of deformed
oocytes, damaged yolk vesicles, and dilated gonadosomatic index. It caused a dose
dependent reduction in sperm counts in rats, reduced the number of spermatids,
caused sperm abnormalities and decreased daily sperm production.
Genotoxicity and Mutagenicity
Several independent studies have shown that endosulfan is genotoxic. Data from in
vitro and in vivo mutagenicity studies generally provide evidence that endosulfan is
mutagenic, clastogenic and induces effects on cell cycle kinetics. (Syliangco, 1978;
Adams, 1978; Yadav et al., 1982). Endosulfan was also found to cause
chromosomal aberrations in hamster and mouse, sex-linked recessive mutations in
Drosophilia, and dominant lethal mutations in mice(Velasquez et al., 1984; Naqvi
and Vaishnair, 1993). Studies in human cells both in vitro and in vivo also showed
that endosulfan caused the occurrence of sister chromatid exchanges indicating
chromosomal damage(Sobti et al., 1983; Dulout et al., 1985). Very recently, a team
of researchers in Japan found further evidence of endosulfan genotoxicity using
sister chromatid exchanges, micronuclei, and DNA strand breaks as detected by
single cell gel electrophoresis as biomarkers (Yuquan Lu et al., 2000).
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Comments
From literature and the studies available from all over the world one
recognises that endosulfan is a highly toxic chemical, used widely as
a pesticide but with toxicological properties comparable with the likes
of DDT and Dieldrin, which have been banned in the country and is
slated for a global phaseout.
Endosulfan has been recognised as a chemical which can cause
endocrine disruptions, reproductive system disorders, central nervous
system disorders, liver and kidney dysfunctions in many studies on
animals and human beings - in vitro and in vivo. It has been shown
to display genotoxic, mutagenic and carcinogenic effects.
The health problems seen in the villages adjoining the PCK
plantations in Kasaragod have much in similarity to the kind of effects
that can be perpetuated by the prolonged exposure to endosulfan.
The presence of endosulfan in the environment is confirmed not only
because CSE studies established the same but primarily because
endosulfan was sprayed for more than 20 years, three times every
year and its cumulative presence in the environment is a nonnegotiable reality. The presence of these aberrant health issues and
the various studies confirming the toxicological and health effects of
endosulfan are equally non-negotiable realities.
The hypothesis of the people in the villages, suspecting endosulfan as
the causative factor for their various health problems is indeed true
and is supported by scientific studies on health effects of endosulfan
exposure.
In these circumstances, there is a primary responsibility to
acknowledge that there is a problem existing suspected to be caused
by endosulfan exposure. It is now a proven fact that endosulfan is
capable of causing the health problems as seen in the villages in
Kasaragod. It is extremely sad to note the attempts from industry and
associated scientists to label endosulfan as a “safe” and “soft”
chemical by alienating themselves from new scientific findings and
the realities.
What one needs to explore is
what were the overall and specific conditions that led to such a
homicidal exposure to endosulfan
what were the specific and overall mechanism that failed in
preventing such an exposure and consequent health issues
who were responsible, to what extent and how such exposures and
poisoning can be avoided in future
how such a chemical banned/restricted in many countries and also
recommended for restriction in India continued to be so recklessly
used
what are the health problems that need to be remediated and
compensated and what is the mechanism for the same
what are the environmental problems that endosulfan use has
triggered and the mechanism for remediation
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Attachment -1
ENDOSULFAN - A SHORT SUMMARY
Endosulfan is an organochlorine insecticide of the cyclodiene subgroup. It acts as
a poison to a wide variety of insects and mites on contact and as a stomach
acaricide.
Uses
It is used as an insecticide for vegetable crops; control of aphids; thrips, beetles,
cutworms, bollworms, foliar feeding larvae, mites, bugs, borers, whiteflies, slugs
and leaf hoppers in citrus deciduous and small fruit fibre crops, forage crops, oil
crops, grains, coffee, tea, forestry, tobacco and ornamentals. It is used to control
tse-tse flies and termites and is also used in rice and legumes in India.
Formulations of endosulfan include emulsifiable concentrate, wettable powder,
ultra-low volume (ULV) liquid, granules and dust.
Production Use and Status
Endosulfan is produced by the reaction of hexachlorocyclopentadiene and cis
butene-1,4-diol in xylene, followed by hydrolysis of the adduct to the cis-diol or
dialcohol. Endosulfan is then produced by treating this bicyclic dialcohol with
thionyl chloride. Technical endosulfan is made up of a mixture (7:3) of two
molecular forms (isomers) of endosulfan, the alpha- and beta-isomers. Technical
grade endosulfan contains at least 94 per cent of the alpha- and beta- isomers. It
may also contain up to two per cent endosulfan alcohol and one per cent
endosulfan ether as well as endosulfan sulfate. Of these the alpha-isomer is more
toxic than the beta-isomer, while the beta-isomer is the more stable and persistent
isomer.
Endosulfan is sold in India in various trade names, some of them are Agrosulfan,
Aginarosulfan, Banagesulfan, Seosulfan, Endocel, Endoson, Endonit, Endomil,
Endosol, Endostar, Endodaf, Endosulfer, E-sulfan, Endorifan, Hildan,
Chemusulfan, Kilex-endosulfan.
Characteristics and Toxicity
Endosulfan is chemically very close to Dieldrin, substituting a heterocyclic sulfur in
place of the saturated bicyclic ring system. The other well known chemicals in
cyclodiene sub-group are Aldrin, Endrin, Dieldrin, Heptachlor, Chlordane and
Mirex. All these cyclodienes, except endosulfan are already banned in India and is
going to be globally phased out by the Stockholm Convention signed by World
Countries in May 2001 under the auspices of the UNEP. Of the 12 chemicals (
Dirty Dozen ) to be initially phased out, nine are pesticides of which six of them
belong to the Cyclodiene sub-group.
Endosulfan is considered to be highly toxic. It can adversely affect human and
wildlife exposed to it. It has been shown to cause damage to the nervous system, as
well as other parts of the body, with the liver and kidney being target organs for
chronic exposure in mammals. Endosulfan is proven to show carcinogenicity and is
a liver tumor promoter. Endosulfan is genotoxic, mutagenic and cytotoxic. It is
suspected to be teratogenic, it is shown to affect the reproductive system and
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LMIPPE Report II
disrupts the endocrine system. Its teratogenicity could not be reliably proven due
to the maternal toxicity it showed on the experimented animals. Its effects
particularly, estrogenic properties can have wide and disturbing effects on the
human and wildlife health. Endosulfan is extremely toxic to Fish and many other
aquatic organisms. It is toxic to insects and also to mammals. It is toxic to honey
bees.
Physical and Chemical Properties
Chemical name: 6,7,8,9,10,10-Hexachloro-l,5,5a,6,9,9a-hexahydro-6,9-methano2,4,3-benzodioxathiopin-3-oxide
Chemical formula: CgHeCUOaS
Chemical Structure:
Cl
Cl-^l
Cl
Cl
0
_
Cl
-S=0
/
^0
Cl
Melting point:
Pure (100%): 106°C
Technical (90%-95% pure): 70°- 100°C
Odour: Slight odour of sulfur dioxide
Solubility in water at 22°C: 0.16-0.15 mg/L
Partition coefficients:
Log Kow: 3.55 and 3.62
Log Koc> 3.5
Vapour pressure at 25°C: l*10-5 mmHg
Vapour pressure at 80°C: 9*IO 3 mmHg
Heniy’s law constant at 25°C: 1 * 10-5 atm m3/mol
Bioaccumulation factor (BCF): <3000
Classification
Endosulfan is classified in India as an “Extremely Hazardous” pesticide
(ITRC,1989). Endosulfan is classified as a “Moderately Hazardous” chemical by
WHO (Class-II). The European Union and the U.S Environmental Protection Agency
( USEPA) have classified Endosulfan as Class lb (Highly Hazardous) . The USEPA
has listed the compound in the Extremely Hazardous Substances List under the
Environmental Standards. Endosulfan is classified as a “highly toxic” substance as
per many other agencies(EXTOXNET, 1998). The classification of WHO was found
to be inappropriate considering the classification followed in countries all over the
world. It is alleged that the WHO has classified endosulfan as a Class II or
“Moderately hazardous’ pesticide based mainly on LD50 value taken from company
generated acute toxicity data (Quijano R.F, 2000).
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Fate and Degradation in the Environment
The two isomers of endosulfan have different fates in the environment, beta
endosulfan is more persistent than alpha-endosulfan (NRCC, 1975). Endosulfan
sulfate is the main degradation product of both isomers, and is itself persistent in
the environment (NRCC, 1975). Whereas, endosulfan diol is their hydrolysis
product which tends to form in alkaline aquatic environments (NRCC, 1975).
Drift from aerial applications and volatilization from water and plant surfaces are
the primary ways of endosulfan entry into the atmosphere. It has been found that
some of the endosulfan sprayed on crops and water will volatilize to the air
(Simonich and Hites, 1995;Terranova and Ware, 1963). The volatilization half-life
from surface water varies from 1 Idays to one year and from plant surfaces from
two to three days (Callahan et al., 1979). In air, endosulfan is carried over long
distances. Traces of endosulfan have been found in Arctic air as well as snow
samples (Gregor and Gummer, 1989).
In water, endosulfan undergoes hydrolysis and microbial degradation. The rate of
hydrolysis is influenced by pH. The hydrolytic half-life can range from five weeks at
pH 7 to five month at pH 5.5 (Greve and Wit, 1971; Schoetteger, 1970). Microbial
degradation products of endosulfan in water include endosulfan sulfate and
endosulfan diol (NRCC, 1975). The half-life of endosulfan in water varies from
three to seven days to about five months, depending on the dissolved oxygen
content and pH of the water as well as the degree to which the water is polluted
(NRCC, 1975).
In soil, endosulfan binds strongly to soil particles and is not readily leached out to
ground water. The bulk of endosulfan residues is bound to the top 15 cm of soil
surface layers. In experimental conditions, 90 per cent of the endosulfan residues
were found in the top 15 cm horizon of the soil surface, nine per cent at a depth of
15-30 cm, and only one per cent was found at the depth of 30-45 cm after 503-828
days (Stewart and Cairns, 1974).
In soil, endosulfan is subject to photolysis, hydrolysis or biodegradation. Major
products of degradation processes in soil are endosulfan diol and endosulfan
sulfate (Martens, 1976; El Beit et al., 1981). Endosulfan isomers show different
rates of dissipation from soil. Endosulfan sulfate is more persistent than the parent
compound (Stewart and Cairns, 1974). In experimental applications of endosulfan
50 per cent of a-endosulfan disappeared within 60 days, versus 800 days for
p-endosulfan. In another report, the half-lives of a- and p-endosulfan were
estimated as 35 and 150 days, respectively (EXTOXNET, 1996).
Endosulfan is less persistent on plant surfaces and rapidly degrades to endosulfan
sulfate and endosulfan diol. The estimated half-life of endosulfan on plants ranges
from 1.95 to 2.74 days.
Residues
Endosulfan is released to the environment mainly as a result of its use as an
insecticide. High concentrations of endosulfan, as alpha—endosulfan, beta
endosulfan and endosulfan sulfate, have been detected in tree bark samples
throughout the world, particularly in India and the Pacific Rim (Simonich and
Hites, 1995). It was speculated that the high concentrations of endosulfan in these
areas were due to its use on rice.
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In aquatic ecosystems, endosulfan partitions to plants and animals and also
accumulates in sediment. Both endosulfan and endosulfan sulfate have a longer
half-life in sediment. Concentrations of endosulfan in sediment have been reported
to be 32,000 times higher than in the water column (NRCC, 1975).
Although generally low concentrations of endosulfan have been found in surface
water, lethal concentrations may be found in ponds and streams in the vicinities of
spraying areas. A study using water containers indicated that drift from aerial
agricultural spraying could produce concentrations lethal to fish in shallow
exposed water bodies 200 m away from the target spray area. Levels of 1.7 mg/L
and 0.04 mg/L were found in water containers in the vicinities of the spraying
areas and 200 m away. These levels are found to be lethal to fish (Ernst et al.,
1991). This experiment confirms that the agricultural practice of applying
endosulfan aerially may lead to increased pesticide concentrations in waters off
site, which could result in fish kills in unexpected areas.
Globally, endosulfan is one of the most commonly identified chemical in any
residue analysis in fruits and vegetables, for which it is mostly used. In a study
sponsored by Indian Council of Agriculture Research (ICAR) - the All India
Coordinated Research Project (AICRP) on Pesticides Residues in 1999 -out of 422
farm-gate vegetables tested for residue of endosulfan 322 (79%) were found to be
contaminated. The residue levels ranged upto 18.63 mg/kg (the second most
contaminating after residues of copper, upto 75 mg/kg, which is a metal and does
not undergo degradation). The allowable Maximum Residue levels of endosulfan in
food is 0.5 to 2 mg/kg. Moreover, the contamination percentage of endosulfan
(79%) was second only to Lindane (96%).(Toxics Link, 2000)
Exposure
Human Beings may be exposed to endosulfan from
•
breathing air near where it has been sprayed
•
drinking water contaminated with it, from direct application, spray drifts or
runoffs;
•
eating contaminated food;
•
touching contaminated soil;
•
smoking cigarettes made from tobacco with endosulfan residues;
•
working in an industry where it is used or living near its vicinity.
Wildlife may be exposed to endosulfan in the environment by consuming plants
that have been sprayed with endosulfan, ingestion of soil or dermal contact with
soil. Additional exposure can occur through inhalation of air in the area of
agricultural application. Exposures in aquatic environments may occur due to
surface runoff following agricultural application, or upon deposition of endosulfan
following long-range transport in the atmosphere. Fish have been exposed to
sufficient quantities of endosulfan in agricultural run-off to cause mortality (Frank
etaZ., 1990).
In the mammalian system, the alpha-isomer of endosulfan persists in the body
longer than beta-endosulfan, particularly, in brain tissue and plasma. Male rats fed
with technical-grade endosulfan had detectable levels of alp ha-endosulfan in brain
tissue and plasma, with less beta-endosulfan, and almost no endosulfan sulfate
detected (Gupta, 1978). Similarly, in rabbits, which died following acute exposure,
Tftanaf Cimservaticrn Action and Information Hctuvrk.
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LMIPPE Report II
alpha-endosulfan residues were also detected in liver and brain tissue (Ceron et al.,
1995), but no residual beta-endosulfan or endosulfan sulfate was found.
Acute toxicity
Endosulfan is classified as a highly toxic substance. It is acutely toxic to birds,
marine and freshwater fish, and mammals. Like other chlorinated cyclodienes,
endosulfan is a neurotoxin affecting the central nervous system (CNS) of aquatic
organisms as well as mammals.
People who are occupationally exposed to endosulfan are advised to avoid eye and
skin contact as well as inhalation exposure. Symptoms of acute toxicity in humans
are restlessness, irritability and hyp erexcitab ility, followed by headache, dizziness,
nausea and vomiting, blurred vision, unconsciousness, insomnia, lack of appetite,
loss of memory, albuminuria, haematuria and in some cases, confusion.
Chronic toxicity
Chronic exposure to endosulfan may result in general toxicity symptoms such as
liver and kidney damage as well as effects on the CNS, immune system and the
reproductive system.
Neurotoxicity
Endosulfan may have adverse effects on the CNS of aquatic organisms, birds and
mammals. The main mechanism of action of endosulfan in the CNS is inhibition of
brain acetylcholinesterase, causing uncontrolled discharges of acetylcholine.
Abnormal behaviour has been observed in fish and mammals being chronically
exposed to endosulfan.
Carcinogenicity
Even though, endosulfan was not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity (due to lack
of sufficient data), studies have shown that it can be carcinogenic. Reuber, 1981
showed that endosulfan was carcinogenic in male and female rats at all sites
examined. It also induced liver tumours in female mice. Another studyfFranssonSteen, 1992) found that endosulfan promoted the growth of altered hepatic foci in
rats in a similar manner as the structurally related chlorinated insecticides,
chlordane, aldrin and heptachlor did, indicating that endosulfan is a potential liver
tumour promoter.
Immune System
Endosulfan is also known to affect the immune system. Target organs are the
kidneys and liver. A number of studies have shown endosulfan to hepatotoxic.
Endosulfan inhibits leukocyte and macrophage migration causing adverse effects
on the humoral and cell mediated immune system.
Reproductive Effects
A number of studies have shown a potential for adverse effects of endosulfan in the
reproductive system of aquatic organisms and mammals. Histological changes in
reproductive organs were seen in aquatic organisms following exposure to
endosulfan at concentrations as low as 0.00075 mg/L (0.75 |Jg/L). Endosulfan
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LM1PPE Report II
treatment in male rats was reported to cause a dose-dependent reduction in sperm
counts, sperm abnormalities and decreased daily sperm production as well as
decreased testis weight.
Endocrine disruptive action
In vitro studies show endosulfan is estrogenic (in the E-SCREEN assay).
Endosulfan I competes with [3H]17p-estradiol for binding to the estrogen receptor.
Endosulfan sulfate inhibited binding of [3H]R5020 to the progesterone receptor by
40-50 per cent. Low levels of endosulfan (1 nM, 0.41 ppb) can inhibit the human
sperm acrosome reaction, initiated by progesterone and glycine, but the inhibition
is not complete. Endosulfan II and endosulfan sulfate decreased p-galactosidase
activity of progesterone (Jin et al., 1997).
In vivo studies showed that Endosulfan decreased plasma vitellogenin levels in
catfish (Chakravorty et al., 1992). Endosulfan also decreased the number and size
of oocytes in fresh water teleost fish, and increased the number of deformed
oocytes, damaged yolk vesicles, and dilated gonadosomatic index. It caused a dosedependent reduction in sperm counts in rats, reduced the number of spermatids,
caused sperm abnormalities and decreased daily sperm production.
Genotoxicity and Mutagenicity
Several independent studies have shown that endosulfan is genotoxic. Data from in
vitro and in vivo mutagenicity studies generally provide evidence that endosulfan is
mutagenic, clastogenic and induces effects on cell cycle kinetics. (Syliangco, 1978;
Adams, 1978; Yadav et al., 1982). Endosulfan was also found to cause
chromosomal aberrations in hamster and mouse, sex-linked recessive mutations in
Drosophilia, and dominant lethal mutations in mice(Velasquez et al., 1984; Naqvi
and Vaishnair, 1993). Studies in human cells both in vitro and in vivo also showed
that endosulfan caused the occurrence of sister chromatid exchanges indicating
chromosomal damage(Sobti et al., 1983; Dulout et al., 1985). Very recently, a team
of researchers in Japan found further evidence of endosulfan genotoxicity using
sister chromatid exchanges, micronuclei, and DNA strand breaks as detected by
single cell gel electrophoresis as biomarkers (Yuquan Lu et al., 2000).
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Attachment 2
Endosulfan - Regulations and Violations
(A note on the regulation in India and how it was violated in the
PCK owned plantations of Kasaragod)
The Central Insecticides Bureau
The Central Insecticides Bureau (CIB) is the Central Govt. Agency, which regulates
pesticide use in India. They have periodical reviews of use of pesticides and is the
agency for registering its manufacture, sale and use.
The Designated Licensing officer in the States issue licenses for manufacture, sale,
stocking and use of pesticides.
Aerial spraying of Endosulfan
Among other conditions like giving prior information to the people in the area
advising them to keep away from the area of application for a period of 20 days,
covering all the water sources during spraying etc as stipulated by the Insecticides
Act 1968, the CIB prescribed that the spraying of endosulfan should be undertaken
at a height of not more than 2 to 3 metres above the foliage. This was always
violated in the PCK plantations.
It has also come to light now that aerial spraying of endosulfan was never
allowed by the CIB from 1993. The CIB had given approval for aerial spraying
of endosulfan only till December 1992. But the PCK, the Department of
Agriculture in Kerala and the District Collector has been issuing aerial
spraying orders even after 1993 up to the last season, without the approval of
the CIB.
General Use of Endosulfan
Dr. Banerjee committee -1991
In 1991 the CIB appointed a committee under the chairmanship of Dr. Banerjee to
review whether some pesticides, including endosulfan should be continued to be
used in India. Among other recommendations this expert committee concluded
1. That the use of endosulfan be continued
2. That the registration committee should not allotv the use of endosulfan near
rivers, lakes, sea and ponds, which are expected to be polluted. The committee
also recommended putting this in the certificate of registration as a condition and
a warning on the labels and leaflets in the containers.
Dr. R B Singh committee - 1999
In 1999, the CIB appointed an expert committee under the chairmanship of Dr. R B
Singh to review the continued use of some pesticides including endosulfan.
This Committee also recommended the continued use of endosulfan and among
others it recommended that
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LMIPPE Report II
Labeling should be made mandatory in bold letters to avoid use of endosulfan
near water sources.
The Registration Committee meeting
The 195th Registration Committee (of the CIB) meeting held on 14th December 1999
agreed for the continued use of endosulfan and suggested to incorporate a warning
statement on the labels and leaflets indicating that endosulfan should not be used
near water sources.
Inter-ministerial Committee
The 10th meeting of the Inter-Ministerial Committee to review the use of insecticides
and hazardous chemicals held on 29-12-1999 also recommended among others
that
1. the continued use of endosulfan in the country
2. incorporating the warning in the labels and leaflets that endosulfan should not
be used near the water resources
The Central Insecticides Bureau and the Ministry of Agriculture has not yet
implemented the restrictions suggested by the various committees, while
always approving the continued use of endosulfan.
Endosulfan has been aerially sprayed in 4600 ha of cashew plantations owned
by the Plantation Corporation of Kerala for nearly 25 years now. It is quite
evident as per the recommendations that
4
it has been officially recognized that endosulfan is highly toxic to aquatic
beings especially fish and contaminates water
and that it cannot be used anywhere in Kerala where water bodies are
plenty in the form of sea, rivers, lakes, backwaters, rivulets, streams,
surangams, ponds, wells etc.
In this context had the recommendations been implemented in 1991 the
miseries and the toxic burden of the villagers of Kasaragod could have been
avoided. Even today, the recommendations are kept aside for reasons
unknown and the use of this highly toxic chemical continues to steal the
future of many many innocent children of Kasaragod and elsewhere.
In this context the State Government had taken the precautionary measure of
suspending all use of endosulfan in Kerala. But the chemical should be
suspended from use permanently.
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Attachment-3
World wide regulatory status of Endosulfan
The last decade (1990-2000) has been a period when countries all over the world has taken
a very progressive and precautionary look at pesticide use. In our knowledge there are so
many countries that have banned/severely-restricted endosulfan for farm and agriculture
use.
Columbia is the latest to ban endosulfan in all its crops in March 2001. The State
Council (Consejo de Estado) the supreme administrative court of Columbia in a landmark
judgement banned all use of endosulfan. The court originally considered a ban on use in
coffee but after considering its toxicity and risk to human health, it ordered a ban of
endosulfan use in all crops.
r
Endosulfan
Severely Restricted
Banned
i
Africa
(1 country)
Asia Pacific
(16 countries)
Europe
(12 countries)
Belize
Singapore
Bangladesh (Ban in Rice)
Tonga
Syria____
Indonesia
Cambodia________________
Japan____________________
Korea ( Ban in Rice )______
Khasakisthan_____________
Kuwait
Philippines (allowed only
for Pineapple)_____________
Lithuania_________________
Sri Lanka_________________
Taiwan___________________
Thailand (Ban in Rice)
Denmark
Germany
Sweden
Norway
t
South and Central
America
( 4 countries)
Brazilian State of
Rondonia
Colombia
North America
(2 countries)
Australia______
Total
Priority for
re-evaluation
10
Yugoslavia_____
Netherlands
Finland________
United Kingdom
Russia
Venezuela
Dominica
United States
Canada
Australia
22
Pakistan
Luxembourg
Portugal
Spain
4
Most of the countries have banned/severely-restricted endosulfan due to its toxicity to aquatic organisms and
mammals. A developing country like Syria follow very practical and scientific criteria based on the
precautionary^ principle for canceling the registration of a pesticide. A pesticide is banned in Syria
if the pesticide was unhealthy
if it is banned in the source country or in two other developed countries
If it is banned by a resolution issued by any international organisation
If there arc available excuses for any pesticide registering committee to cancel it depending on scientific
researches and reports carried out by any Arabian or international side.
Tfuinal Cmscrvaticm Action and Information NetnvrfL
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