Close to home: subnational strategies for climate compatible development
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Close to home: subnational
strategies for climate
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WORKING PAPER
Close to home: subnational
strategies for climate
compatible development
By Barbara Anton, Ali Cambray, Mairi Dupar
and Astrid Westerlind-Wigstroem
With Elizabeth Gogoi
April 2014
Close to home: subnational strategies for
development
^atible
By Barbara Anton Ali Cambray, Mairi Dupar and Astrid Westerlind-Wigstroem with Elizabeth Gogoi
Making site models, India
Contents
2
Executive summary
1.
2.
Why is climate compatible development important at the subnational level?
3
What is distinctive about subnational climate compatible development?
Challenges
3
3
2.1
2.2
3.
4.
5
Opportunities
Which strategies and measures can enable climate compatible development at the
subnational level?
3.1 Using flexible decision-making and the ability to innovate at the subnational level to
6
meet and go beyond national mandates
3.2. Raising awareness of local government champions and bolstering their leadership on
6
3.3
3.4
climate compatible development
Cultivating sustained buy-in from civil servants
Building understanding of climate and development challenges through knowledge
6
8
3.5
partnerships
Mobilising support for action through participatory processes
3
10
3.6
3.7
Securing additional resources from outside the jurisdiction
Coordinating policy-making, implementation and delivery across jurisdictions
12
15
What measures can accelerate transformative climate compatible development,
15
at scale?
5.
18
Conclusion
Table 1. Projects involved in the CDKN learning programme
19
Endnotes
20
1
Working Paper. April 2014
Executive summary
The battle for climate compatible development will be won or lost at the subnational level: in
provinces, districts and cities. National governments depend on subnational actors to implement
climate policies. What is more, innovation in climate compatible development can flourish at the
subnational level when the appropriate legal and policy conditions are created.
Climate compatible development at the subnational level is characterised by distinct challenges:
Subnational institutions and leaders face intense local pressure to act on the negative impacts of
climate extremes and disasters.
• People's expectations for subnational authorities to respond may be out of sync with the powers
and resources they have available.
• Higher levels of scientific uncertainty about future climate trends at the local level (than at larger
scale) can make it difficult to know if investments are ‘climate-proof.
• Different subnational governments and agencies may struggle to coordinate with each other,
making it harder to respond effectively to climate change and forge long-term solutions.
• The scale and pace of urbanisation in many developing countries, including unplanned
settlements and the informal economy, magnify these challenges.
•
Subnational actors also have particular opportunities to pursue climate compatible development:
•
•
•
•
Subnational actors often have a sound understanding of climate trends in their area, based on
first-hand experience and local and indigenous knowledge.
Subnational decision-makers have a better sense than national decision-makers of solutions
that are effective in the local context. They also know how to communicate the case for action
effectively to local stakeholders.
Subnational actors have greater ability to mobilise local resources for implementation, including
people's time and knowledge.
Integrating climate and development approaches requires a great deal of coordination among
individuals and institutions, but it is exactly at the subnational level that such examples of
integration across sectors is likely to happen, and can lead the way for integration at higher levels
of governance.
Effective strategies for subnational climate compatible development respond to these challenges
and build on these opportunities. Such strategies:
•
•
•
•
•
use flexible modes of decision-making available at the subnational level to go beyond national
mandates for climate compatible development and innovate solutions.
raise the awareness of climate 'champions' in subnational government and bolster their climate
leadership.
build a strong case for action through effective, locally relevant communications about climate
change impacts and the benefits of low-carbon, climate-resilient development.
mobilise local expertise and support including in-kind resources, and forge alliances among civil
society, businesses, researchers (including climate scientists), government decision-makers and
civil servants.
secure additional resources from outside the locality where necessary.
CDKN's and ICLEI’s experience demonstrates that these strategies yield good results at the
subnational level. However, the scale of the global climate challenge is huge. Alone, individual
subnational initiatives do not achieve enough. It will take a global transformation in the way that
society approaches development if we are to achieve a low-carbon, climate-resilient future.
Successful subnational climate compatible strategies must be rapidly scaled up and scaled out to
meet this challenge.
2
Close to home: subnational strategies for climate compatible development
1.
Why is climate compatible development important at the subnational level?
The battle for climate compatible development - mitigating climate change and managing its impacts, while
achieving human development - will be won or lost in provinces, districts and cities. CDKN’s mission is to
improve the lives of the poorest and most vulnerable to climate change, an increasing number of whom live in
towns and cities. Another 800 million people are set to join them in Africa alone, by 2050?
Many national governments are striving to tackle climate change by passing climate legislation, setting
national targets and developing climate action plans. In its 2013 report, the Global Legislators Organisation
for a Balanced Environment (GLOBE International) recorded 33 countries that had enacted national climate
legislation, of which 21 are not members of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
(OECD), and this trend continues in 2014?
To be effective, national climate policies and plans need local implementation. Often, this happens through
a multi-tiered structure of provincial and city governments, and a combination of public and private actors.
These subnational actors are key players in meeting national goals.
Progressive subnational actors can also, for their part, play an important role in driving country-wide
responses to climate change. Successful pilot initiatives can then be scaled out and adapted for use
elsewhere, becoming the seed for potentially transformational change at a far greater scale? Collectively, this
multitude of initiatives can and should build momentum towards an ambitious global climate deal.
The 19th Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC CoP19) in Warsaw, Poland in 2013 made an effort to harness this momentum for change when
it marked the first UNFCCC Cities Day. This high-profile event recognised the importance of subnational
leadership on climate change. CoP19 President Marcin Korolec said: “[Cities] are crucial in our effort
to tackle climate change. Cities are responsible for 75% of carbon emissions and 60-80% of energy
consumption, while occupying only 2% of the Earth's land. So if we solve the problem of emissions in cities,
we have already tackled climate change.”6
This Working Paper provides tangible examples of opportunities seized, challenges encountered and
successful strategies designed for climate compatible development by subnational actors across Africa,
Asia, and Latin America and the Caribbean. Based on learning from CDKN’s programme, and augmented by
experience from the ICLEI network and others, the paper explores the following questions:
• What are the distinct challenges to, and opportunities for, progressing climate compatible development at
the subnational level?
• How have subnational actors responded to these challenges and risen to these opportunities to achieve
climate compatible development? What strategies and measures have they developed? To what extent
does the design and implementation of local initiatives depend on national and international policies and
actions, including finance?
• To what extent can lessons learned at the subnational level be scaled up to inform national and
international programmes and policies? To what extent can they be scaled out and adopted by
subnational actors in comparable situations, elsewhere? In so doing, what is the potential of subnational
action on climate compatible development to contribute to transformational change?
2.
What is distinctive about subnational climate compatible development?
Climate compatible development at the subnational level has particular characteristics. It is distinct from
climate compatible development at the national level; and it is also distinct from conventional development
processes. Here, we use 'subnational' to describe everything from rural districts to large cities, reflecting the
diverse range of initiatives in the CDKN-ICLEI learning programme, on which our analysis is based.
2.1
Challenges
Many challenges for climate compatible development are particularly acute at the subnational level:
• Subnational institutions and leaders face intense pressure to act in the face of negative climate
impacts. They are typically communities' first port of call for relief and recovery following extreme
weather events such as heat waves, flooding, drought and storm surges. In addition, the impacts of such
Working Paper, April 2014
events may undo the development gains of recent decades, damaging people's health and well-being,
livelihoods, assets and infrastructure.78 Subnational actors, especially local governments with limited
funds, see first-hand the imperative of building climate resilience into their investment decisions.
• People have high expectations for subnational authorities to respond to climate change. These
expectations may be out of sync with the official powers and resources that authorities have at their
disposal. There is often disparity between the need for political and financial authority, resources
and capacity to respond to climate-related challenges at the subnational level, and the actual power,
resources and capacity available. This may result from incomplete or imperfect devolution of power or
lack of ‘vertical integration’ - that is, a lack of effective allocation of responsibilities and coordination
among administrative levels. This can limit local authorities' options for action. For example, at present it
is especially difficult to access climate finance9 at the city and subnational level in many countries
• Information about historic climate trends for a subnational area may be poorly recorded by
scientists. When historic climate data are missing, there are particularly high levels of uncertainty
about future climate trends - because making future projections relies on using good data from the past.
Depending on the area of the country concerned, the term ’subnational' may refer to a vast territory
(e.g. a Chinese province) or a tiny one (e g. a district in a small island state). Climate projections may be
down-scaled to a certain subnational scale, however, scientific certainty is highly variable and depends
on the ability to match climate models against reliable climate records - which are missing in many
developing countries. This lack of scientific data can make it particularly hard to build the business case
locally for climate-related investments. On the other hand, where weather and climate-related impacts are
already keenly felt, such justification for investment may not be required. Scientific expertise may instead
be deployed to project the geophysical and socioeconomic impacts of extreme events such as flooding,
where these are observed to be increasing in frequency and intensity
• Subnational governments and agencies may struggle to coordinate among each other. Lack of
coordination makes it harder to respond effectively to climate change and forge long-term solutions.
Local authorities typically face the challenge of 'horizontal integration' - that is, needing to cooperate
effectively across jurisdictional boundaries to address broader environmental problems. Some natural
resources, such as water, flow across political and administrative boundaries, and actions taken in one
jurisdiction can affect the resources in another. For instance, action (or lack of action) to manage flooding
in one district may affect the neighbouring one. People, goods and services move across boundaries with
knock-on effects for economic and social activity. Further challenges arise when the policies and actions
of different subnational entities are not well integrated. For example, most cities sit within a district and a
province; responsibilities may be confused among agencies in these different administrative layers
• Subnational leaders are overwhelmed by the ‘day job’ of immediate service delivery. Pressing
development needs are the reality for leaders in developing countries, especially in rapidly growing urban
areas. Political pressure from the electorate, too, is likely to focus on short-term concerns. Many of the
greatest climate change impacts will emerge only years from now. The carbon footprint of investment
decisions made now will affect people's lives from the mid-2151 century onward. It is difficult for leaders to
justify spending time and resources on longer-term planning without explicit popular support for such a
vision.
• Huge investment is needed in developing country infrastructure. Many of the relevant investment
decisions will be made at the subnational level. Of the total infrastructure that will be required in African
cities by 2050, for example, 60% remains to be built.10 In terms of both adapting to climate change and
enhancing countries’ future competitiveness, it is vital that such investments do not lock in high carbon
emissions and climate vulnerability.
Some issues are particularly pertinent to cities and urban environments:
• Locations may be particularly climate-vulnerable. The world's mega-cities are often sited at strategic
points on coasts and along major rivers. This increases their vulnerability to climate change and puts
trillions of dollars of physical assets at risk of damage.11 A major study by the OECD found that flood- and
storm-vulnerable assets in just 10 of the world's megacities could account for 9% of the world's GDP by
2070 12
• The scale and pace of change in cities is particularly challenging. Many African cities, such as
Kampala, the capital of Uganda, are doubling in size every 10 years. Much of this growth stems from
unplanned settlements, with associated growth in informal economies.13 This poses a problem for
conventional development - even more so for long-term strategic planning for climate resilience.
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Close to home: subnational strategies for climate compatible development
•
•
•
2.2
Cities are characterised by their density and sheer number of people. More than half the world's
population already live in towns and cities. This number will swell to almost five billion by 2030, with urban
growth concentrated in Africa and Asia. While mega-cities have captured much public attention, most of
the new growth will be in smaller towns and cities, which have few resources to respond to the magnitude
of change.
Inequality is particularly stark in developing country cities. This poses policy challenges. There is
a real need for inclusive growth that offers meaningful opportunities for young people regardless of their
socioeconomic background.
Opportunities
Despite these complex challenges, working at the subnational level presents many distinct advantages for
climate compatible development planning and implementation.
• Subnational actors often have a sound understanding of climate trends in their area based on
first-hand experience. Even in the absence of detailed climate projections for a locality there can be
significant climatic variability within a country, which already informs development planning. For example,
for large countries with great geographic diversity, such as India and Pakistan, there is a difference
between planning for climate-resilient development in a high mountain region characterised by glaciers,
versus a low-lying river delta.
• Subnational decision-makers have a better sense for solutions that are effective in the local
context. Subnational territories have specific socioeconomic and cultural characteristics that may hinder
or facilitate change. Subnational decision-makers are often best placed to find the most appropriate
solutions. For example, on the Indonesian island of Flores, every year tribal elders conduct ceremonies
for the planting and harvesting of crops. They resist changing the timings of these agricultural events,
even though the timing of the monsoon is changing. Local non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and
local authorities are well suited to working with elders to improve their understanding of changing climate
patterns and vulnerability.14
• Subnational actors know how to communicate the case for action effectively to local
stakeholders. Measures to address climate mitigation and adaptation are ultimately about behaviour
change: whether it is about changing people’s transport choices, changing patterns of settlement or
consumption, changing food cultivation methods, or changing how energy is generated and used. It is
often more effective to communicate with producers and consumers at the subnational level than at
the national level. Sometimes it is simply a question of being able to communicate in the relevant local
language or dialect.
• Subnational leaders have greater ability to mobilise local resources for implementation,
including people’s time and knowledge. Partnerships that mobilise collective action and draw
deeply on human and social capital are more readily available at the subnational level, particularly in
circumstances where existing social capital is strong. (Note, however, that since circumstances vary
this may not hold for localities where large demographic transitions are taking place, such as significant
rural-urban migration.) Subnational leaders have more direct access to local and indigenous knowledge,
including ways of adapting to current climate stressors Much has been written recently about how local
and indigenous modes of adaptation will become increasingly inadequate as climate impacts become
more severe. However, locally appropriate methods can still lend resilience in the short term.15
• The institutional environment at the subnational level often enables climate compatible
development to be addressed in a cross-sectoral and integrated way. At the subnational level,
line ministries or departments work in closer physical proximity to each other. They can interact more
frequently at the operational level, which helps to overcome some of the 'silo thinking' and segregated
action that can occur at national level.
• Subnational decision-makers are more accessible to climate-affected people. Subnational
government leaders, as well as business and other community leaders, are more accessible than their
national counterparts. Whereas national decision-makers can seem distant to communities and difficult
to contact, subnational authorities are within reach. They are also often perceived to be more directly
accountable to climate-vulnerable people who could benefit from programme interventions. These may
include elderly, low-income and certain ethnic groups. However, there is also the risk that discrimination
can be even more ingrained at the subnational level than at the national level (e.g. with regard to
women and ethnic minorities). Subnational areas may benefit from an actively engaged civil society
that challenges local leaders to perform better and defends the rights and needs of those who are most
threatened by climate change.
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Working Paper. April 2014
3. Which strategies and measures can enable climate compatible development
at the subnational level?
The most promising achievements in subnational climate compatible development exploit the distinct oppor
tunities offered at this level - in other words, those initiatives that have exploited the advantages of working at
the subnational level, such as decision-makers’ greater access to local knowledge and social capital.
This section presents the authors’ interim conclusions on what makes for effective strategies and measures,
based on recent experience. We do not provide an exhaustive list of strategies and measures, and many
of the project examples given are based on early indications of promise, rather than a long-term record of
tracking performance indicators. Furthermore, we do not assess whether a given approach is a necessary or
sufficient condition for successful implementation. We conclude this paper with several questions for reader,
including: When are certain strategies vital to achieving results? When are they optional?
3.1 Using flexible decision-making and the ability to innovate at the subnational level to meet and go
beyond national mandates
Subnational governments operate in varying legal and policy environments. They are bound by national
policy targets, guidelines and incentives. The amount of fiscal, policy and regulatory autonomy that they
enjoy varies. Sometimes it even varies between provinces within the same country for historical and political
reasons.
National governments may pressure subnational actors to take action on climate compatible development
through the enactment of climate legislation and associated economy-wide and/or sectoral action plans.
This may carry requirements for policy implementation at the subnational level, through a decentralised
administrative framework.16 The extent to which subnational actors want a rigid national framework for
subnational action varies widely, depending on the country context. Some would prefer a hands-off
approach. The Nantes Declaration (see Box 11) highlights mayors' and subnational leaders' appetite for
strong, supportive national policy frameworks that acknowledge the critical role of subnational areas in
responding to climate change. Signatories also call for appropriate targets, standards and flexibility in
deploying resources for policy implementation. Colombia strikes this balance: the national plan of action to
address vulnerability and enhance the adaptation capabilities of the coastal populations has provided highlevel support for local champions' efforts to undertake a vulnerability assessment and develop adaptation
plans in the city of Cartagena.17
Alternatively, national governments may play a more passive role in creating enabling conditions through
legal and policy frameworks that implicitly support climate compatible development or, at least, do not
undermine it. National governments' willingness to scrap laws and policies that are at odds with climate
compatible development is key (see Box 1). In Bolivia, the Law of Mother Earth (Ley de Derechos de la
Madre Tierra) provides an enabling environment, through national legislation, for indigenous people to
protect their natural and cultural resources. This includes defending natural resources from unsustainable
development proposals. Another important point is that national governments should avoid prescriptive policy
that constrains the ability of subnational areas to work with local actors - particularly informal economies
- to develop innovative solutions, for example social enterprises for municipal services such as waste and
energy.18
In all of these examples, the degree to which national governments provide the legal and policy ‘space’ for
subnational innovation on climate compatible development is a fundamental issue. Enterprising subnational
actors could use these frameworks to support climate-friendly schemes.
3.2. Raising awareness of local government champions and bolstering their leadership on climate
compatible development
Political support for the multiple benefits of integrating climate change into development is essential
to achieve and secure progress - and may require sustained awareness-raising efforts. Once the
understanding and commitment of policy-makers is achieved, it is also likely that funds will be allocated from
local budgets for climate compatible development.
Climate compatible development is a relatively new concept. Its applicability is not as well understood as it
should be in 'conventional' development areas, such as water and sanitation, health, education, housing,
6
Close to home: subnational strategies for climate compatible development
Box 1. The Philippines: National policies must be consistent to deliver real climate com
patible development on the ground
The Philippines' national climate legislation is considered advanced compared to other countries. The country's
Climate Change Act (2009) established a coordinating body for implementation, the Climate Change Commission,
which reports directly to the President - thereby raising climate change adaptation and mitigation to the highest political
level A national mechanism disburses funds for climate resilience to local governments, which allows prioritisation of
local needs
Yet, elements of the overall national development policy framework (e g. policies governing mineral extraction or
forest policy) are at odds with climate compatible development. Have these undermined the potential for low-carbon
development and resilience at local level? In the case study 'Mainstreaming climate resilience into government'.
Lofthouse and Kenny argue that the success of the Climate Change Act will depend to a great extent on policy advances
and implementation of legislation within other sectors. They say: "The liberalisation of large-scale mining under the
Philippine Mining Act of 1995, the Minerals Action Plan and Government Executive Orders, may have adversely
impacted ecosystem protection and conservation. These actions have resulted in more large-scale mining projects.
many of which may have taken place with inadequate consultation or without the consent of affected communities.
Negative social and environmental impacts on poor communities increase their vulnerability to climate change. The
Government continues to promote investment in coal, particularly by foreign investors, countering other mitigation
aspects of the Climate Change Act. These conflicts are not addressed by the Climate Change Act. nor the National
Climate Change Action Plan."”
Box 2. Sri Lanka: Local to national policy change will support innovative action in cities
The Western Province is Sn Lanka's most urbanised province. Continued rapid urbanisation poses a series of
socioeconomic and environmental problems. Heavy rainfall events result in recurrent flooding and related damages to
infrastructure and the wider city economy In response, the Western Province became the first provincial government
to include urban and peri-urban agriculture and forestry in its provincial climate change adaptation action plan.
The projects have been implemented in Kesbewa Urban Council, a fast growing city located 21 km south of Colombo.
Currently, agriculture accounts for 32% of Kesbewa's total land use Home gardens and abandoned paddy lands in lowlying flood zones offer the best potential spaces to be preserved for or converted to urban and peri-urban agriculture.
During the past two years, residential areas have sprung up on the paddy land and this trend is expected to increase.
As paddy lands are located in low-lying areas and flood zones, houses built here suffer from regular flood damage
during periods of heavy rainfall.
Well-maintained and drained paddy areas, in contrast to abandoned paddy lands, function as buffer zones, where
water is stored and drainage regulated, thus reducing flood risk in nearby areas. The rehabilitation of paddy fields
involves planting more salt-resistant varieties of paddy, alongside the cultivation of vegetables in raised bunds. The
initiative to maintain and expand food cultivation in the urban and pen-urban district provides major climate resilience
benefits, and contributes to lower greenhouse gas emissions because local food cultivation reduces food miles' (i.e.
transport-related emissions)
Much of this innovation has occurred at the subnational level. The national policy framework is not directly at odds
with what the stakeholders in Kesbewa are trying to accomplish, but delays in national policy implementation are
hampering progress. Sri Lanka's national Paddy Act formalises the option of growing short-cycle vegetable crops next
to paddy fields. However, a study by the Resource Centres on Urban Agriculture and Food Security concluded that the
government lacks a clear implementation plan.20
A policy review revealed three levels of policy where intervention is needed to ensure uptake and scaling up of current
successful models in Kesbewa.
• At local level: promoting the integration of urban agriculture into Urban Development Plans and into municipal
programmes and budgets
• At provincial level: a proposal for development - with contribution of all stakeholders - of a provincial climate change
adaptation action plan
• At national level: revising the Paddy Act in order to promote and support new models and forms of production.
transportation, and industrial and land-use planning. Therefore, it is critical to demonstrate the relevance of
climate change to pressing social, economic and environmental problems that affect local communities.2'
Emphasising the co-benefits of climate action is important in order to make the case to government and
business leaders.
Those who seek to influence subnational decision-makers should consider how can they raise awareness
and present the case for climate compatible development in a way that enables decision-makers to be bold
7
Working Paper. April 2014
in their leadership, and adopt a longer-term vision of climate compatible development in the midst of the
competing, shorter-term challenges of their 'day job'.
In the Gorakhpur District of India, the START-CDKN programme helped build local officials' understanding
of the urgency, relevance and implications of climate change. It also raised awareness among district
decision-makers of the potential benefits of integrating climate change and disaster risk consideration into
district development plans. This resulted in increased political buy-in and ultimately, a better outcome for the
programme (see Box 3).
In another CDKN-supported project, 'Future Proofing Cities', in Madurai, India, a team of experts worked with
local stakeholders and policy-makers to map current and future risks to the city, such as water scarcity and
poor infrastructure, particularly in respect to the growing threat of climate change. By focusing on social and
economic vulnerabilities and building a community of interested stakeholders to support the process, they
have built considerable municipal commitment.22
3.3
Cultivating sustained buy-in from civil servants
For long-term sustainability of climate compatible development initiatives, it is crucial to cultivate buy-in
from civil servants and local technical specialists. Establishing long-term partnerships between research
organisations and individuals within government, for example, can help mainstream climate strategies across
sectors over time.
One of the foremost lessons learned from the initiative to increase climate-resilience in the coastal city of
Cartagena, Colombia, was the importance of improving the technical understanding of climate impacts
and the range of climate-resilient development solutions among civil servants in the municipal government.
Cartagena is particularly vulnerable to sea level rise. It has many economically and culturally valuable tourist
assets that are at risk of permanent flooding in the coming decades. In spite of the city's acute vulnerability
and the imperative for action, initial efforts to undertake a risk assessment and develop adaptation guidelines
would have floundered had they depended entirely on political leadership, which was in great flux for several
years. The key to sustaining buy-in within the city government lay with continuing collaboration among: the
Jose Benito Vives de Andreis Marine and Coastal Research Institute (INVEMAR), which held the relevant
scientific data on climate impacts; the local CDKN team, which played a facilitation role; and civil servants
(see Box 4).
Box 3. Gorakhpur, India: Enhancing flood resilience by integrating climate adaptation and
disaster risk reduction
The Gorakhpur District is recognised as the most flood-prone district in eastern Uttar Pradesh. India. Flooding has
become a regular occurrence, putting the lives and livelihoods of local communities at risk The START-CDKN
programme was initiated to incorporate climate change considerations into disaster management planning The aim of
the project was to respond effectively to more frequent and extreme flooding by planning proactively to minimise the
loss of life and property damage.
The programme, which was spearheaded by the Gorakhpur Environmental Action Group, has improved understanding
of how climate change impacts will be manifested at the subnational level. The programme team presented relevant
scientific analysis of climate change projections in a form that conveyed the urgency, relevance and implications of
climate change to the district's plans and programmes.23
The active capacity building of local authorities to deal with climate-related uncertainties contributed to the
programme’s success. This focused on the reallocation of financing, and also on the co-benefits of climate compatible
development that allow local decision-makers to act, even in the face of uncertainty. For example, better understanding
of vulnerability issues at the district level, both intra- and inter-departmental, was achieved through shared learning
dialogues (SLDs). This is a structured and iterative process of workshops and round table discussions, with each
iteration involving various departments, individually and collectively, and conducted in such a way as to develop an
appreciation of issues surrounding vulnerability and resilience building. SLDs foster this understanding both within
and across departments (horizontally), as well as from departmental to district to state and higher levels (vertically).
The process helped officials to identify gaps and opportunities for integrating development programmes with climate
sensitive disaster management. It also nurtured cross-departmental ownership and cooperation.
As a result of the strong buy-in and effective coordination, the programme has gone beyond simply making
recommendations, to publishing a climate-sensitive District Disaster Management Plan. The project demonstrates that
a suite of effective initiatives led by credible organisations can result in policy change.
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Close to home: subnational strategies for climate compatible development
Box 4. Cartagena: Placing priority on climate compatible development in the Municipal
Development Plan
Cartagena was the first coastal city in South America to produce climate adaptation guidelines, including a city
wide vulnerability assessment and the identification of adaptation options. The 'Guidelines for Adaptation to Climate
Change’ were published in June 2012, followed by the adoption of an adaptation plan in December 2013. The guidelines
themselves were conceived as a planning support tool and clearly reflect local priorities in the city.
A crucial factor in the successful development of the guidelines was the strong partnership among CDKN, the research
institute INVEMAR, civil servants, the municipal Chamber of Commerce and other local stakeholders. This alliance
managed to gain the buy-in of senior civil servants, who sustained support for the vulnerability assessment and
subsequent adaptation plans. In the project's early days, one of the key strategies by INVEMAR and CDKN was to
publish the results of the vulnerability assessments in outlets that targeted different groups, such as civil service.
academic and political audiences.
The early engagement with civil servants in the development of the guidelines facilitated the mainstreaming of
adaptation into municipal planning policy, particularly in land-use and zoning policy. Skilful communication helped to
sell the business case for collective action.
A review of the enabling conditions for the successful implementation of climate policies in Buenos Aires,
Mexico City and Sao Paulo reached a similar conclusion: to overcome administrative and political obstacles
it is necessary to develop a broader institutional capacity. In these three megacities, political champions
have played a key role in the initial adoption of climate change legislation. However, policies have not been
implemented uniformly.24
3.4
Building understanding of climate and development challenges through knowledge partnerships
As we have seen from the above examples, cultivating improved understanding among policy-makers and
programme leaders is vitally important. However, it is equally important to engage affected communities in
discussions with climate specialists about the climate-related hazards and vulnerabilities in a local area. A
common understanding of historic trends and future scenarios can provide the foundation for developing
climate-resilient and low-carbon plans together.
Among the projects we studied, the most progress in planning for 'future climate-proofed' development was
achieved where knowledge partnerships were established among experts both inside and outside affected
communities. It is important that local people, who are familiar with recent climate patterns and existing
adaptive responses, are recognised as experts in their own right.
These might be termed ‘knowledge partnerships'. Most of the cases analysed were distinguished by the
presence of bridging institutions, or 'knowledge intermediaries', that helped to demystify and translate
concepts of climate impacts, vulnerability and longer-term climate trends and solutions. For example, the
Regional Institute for Population Studies at the University of Ghana has played an instrumental role in
translating concepts about climate trends and vulnerability for local communities (literally, from English to
local languages, as well as by framing technical language in more accessible terms).25 In Ahmedabad, India.
international experts and the Indian Institute for Public Health, a well-respected local institution, formed a
coalition with city officials. They presented the officials with state-of-art climate and health-related knowledge
that spurred political action. In Ahmedabad. government officials and the public had not considered that
heat waves require a high amount of preparation, as monsoons and earthquakes do. By sharing information
from Europe, the United States of America and elsewhere on heat wave mortality and preparation plans, the
experts helped to change stakeholders' perceptions.
The role of bridging institutions or knowledge intermediaries can include:
o Making climate science accessible to non-specialists - Scientific knowledge on climate change
hazards and the likely impacts at the subnational level often resides with national authorities and agencies.
Making it easier for subnational actors to access and understand the relevance of such information in the
local context helps them to make more appropriate decisions. How can this be done? The answer lies in
finding engaging communications tools and messages that are appropriate to the audience. In the city
of Cartagena, Colombia, research partners behind the vulnerability assessment produced effective data
visualisations that showed how much of the city's historic and commercial property would be inundated by
sea level rise in a matter of decades. They used these to engage business and local government leaders.-'
9
Working Paper, April 20W
•
In Ghana and the Philippines, climate resilience programme leaders (from research institutes and NGOs)
used theatre and music to get the point across. They also faced inevitable challenges about how much
information to convey, and how to communicate the uncertainty inherent in climate projections, but made
reasonable decisions based on the principle 'we know enough now to act' to prevent climate-related
damages.
Ground-truthing climate science in local people’s experiences - Establishing a sound evidence base
for climate compatible development is a two-way avenue. Not only do subnational stakeholders benefit
from effective communication of current and future climate trends by experts, scientists also benefit from
ground-truthing their hypotheses and data in local experience.
In the Alto Cauca district of Colombia, the country's bread basket, an initiative by CDKN, the International
Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) and the Ministry of Environment assessed climate vulnerability in the
agriculture sector. Local communities, including indigenous farmers, were involved in an ambitious exercise
to measure vulnerability using 100 indicators. This lay the foundation for a comprehensive adaptation plan for
the sector.2'
Recent work by the African Centre for Cities and CDKN to develop guidelines for climate compatible
development in the informal sector of African urban areas has reached a similar conclusion. The guidelines
state: "Combining qualitative information from interviews, focus groups, etc. with quantitative information
from spatial analysis, time-series analysis, etc. provides a robust basis for planning and assessing climate
compatible development interventions. Linking such knowledge sets often requires collaboration between
organisations with different expertise, e.g. university-based research units and NGOs operating locally."28
Recognising that the future climate may be quite different from the historic climate, new strategies for
development will be required that tax the ingenuity of local stakeholders. This will make knowledge
partnerships among local, national and international groups, and climate 'experts' and local 'experts' all
the more important. Such partnerships will be central to identifying no-regret and low-regret investments to
improve climate resilience in an unknown future climate. In Bolivia, Kate DeAngelis has documented how
climate scientists have worked with indigenous communities to understand how they interpret the weather
and adapt their agricultural practices to extreme events29 (see Box 5).
3.5
Mobilising support for action through participatory processes
Above we have described how knowledge partnerships among scientists, policy-makers and local people
at the subnational level have been important to building a shared evidence base with broad credibility. This
forms the basis for subnational action on climate change - whether this is through a vulnerability assessment
or another exercise to establish the key issues or problems.
When it comes to moving forward with policy and programme design and its implementation, participatory
approaches strengthen plans (e.g. by encouraging the development co-benefits) and enhance local support
Box 5. Bolivia: Scientists and indigenous people share knowledge to better understand
climate trends and develop responses
In Bolivia, experience suggests that climate adaptation activities are most effective when indigenous knowledge
holders are brought together with social and natural scientists to pool their knowledge.
A group of Bolivian researchers has created a process that integrates science and indigenous knowledge to improve
the adaptive capacity of Andean farmers. Traditional methods and indicators that used to be able to predict weather - to
a certain extent - have become unreliable in the light of climate change, rendering indigenous populations extremely
vulnerable However, indigenous knowledge and techniques have been merged successfully with scientific methods
to support local adaptation action, such as development of early warning systems and new planting techniques.
Cooperation leads to climate compatible development approaches being more systematically adopted in the short
term, and better sustained in the long run.
However, cooperation and exchange do not come without complications. For example, scientists and indigenous
communities must build mutual trust in order to monitor microclimates over many years, which is necessary to fine
tune and ground-truth the climate models.
In the future, Bolivia’s mountain areas will experience extreme climatic conditions unlike anything in human memory
Coping with these extremes will require innovation by local farmers and scientists working together.
■ ,.-w
Close to home subnational strategies for climate compatible development
Box 6. Leh and Barmer, India: Creative communication approaches to facilitate local
knowledge exchange
The Leh and Barmer districts of India, although almost opposite in their geographic characteristics, have one thing
in common: they both fall within the areas of greatest climate sensitivity, maximum vulnerability and lowest adaptive
capacity in India Leh District, situated in the upper Himalayan region of the country, is one of the largest and most
remote districts in India, while Barmer District is situated in the Thar desert of Rajasthan. Both of these districts
have experienced extreme climatic events in recent years, such as flash floods that have caused severe damage.
Communities living in Leh and Barmer have limited capacity to deal with the additional threats posed by climate change.
Action to address climate change concerns, reduce disaster risk and enhance local adaptive capacities will need to be
rooted in local priorities, needs and existing knowledge. This will provide a foundation for creating innovative solutions.
The START-CDKN-funded research project has built capacity among local stakeholders and identified pilot projects
through a consultative approach
In Barmer, a group of young local women were trained to run a community radio programme with the support of the
local partner NGO Unnati. The launch of the programme enabled the identification of local problems, contextualised by
scientific climate knowledge, and gave voice to previously unheard members of the community.
In Leh, the project team established a climate school with a community weather station. This provided local people
with local meteorological data and fostered a greater understanding of the relationship between climate trends and
local livelihoods.
In addition, the project partner Seed Empowerment and Economic Development Society (SEEDS), studied climaterelated extreme weather crises affecting local communities in the high mountain region of Changthang, Leh. They
documented the study in a short film and launched an emergency appeal. These communications were broadcast
across multiple channels and as a result, Changthang received aid via a national humanitarian network.
The experiences in both Leh and Barmer clearly show the importance of effective communication between climate
experts and local populations to develop a sustainable approach to adaptation and disaster risk reduction that is
embedded in a traditional knowledge base.
for delivery The city of Chiang Mai, Thailand, provides an example from the low-carbon development arena
(see Box 8). A review of enabling conditions for effective climate policies in Latin American cities: “higher
levels of environmental community activism and engagement will support stronger climate policies".30
In Maputo, Mozambique, the project 'Public Private People Partnership for Climate Compatible Development'
(4PCCD) created opportunities for dialogue among government institutions, business and communities.
Local communities were consulted about their experiences and. through this exchange, became fully
engaged in the implementation of agreed priority actions (see Box 9). This demonstrates how participatory
planning can mobilise local in-kind resources to 'stretch' existing government budgets.
In Sri Lanka, a programme supported by Resource Centres on Urban Agriculture and Food Security aims to
reduce food miles and improve the climate resilience of the food system through urban agriculture. It brings
together farmers, NGOs, community organisations, local and international specialists, and government
agencies The programme design is guided by the outcomes of pilot and demonstration activities and impact
monitoring. Local partners were trained to carry out this work. The case study's authors report: “finding a
common language and interest among researchers and policy-makers proves at times difficult, but is crucial
to facilitate uptake of the results of pilot activities".31
The recent initiative jointly led by the African Centre for Cities and CDKN, referred to earlier in this paper,
involved an exchange of experience among cities in Ghana, South Africa, Tanzania and Uganda. Based
on this exchange, the partners drafted principles for climate compatible development in Africa's unplanned
urban settlements. The project demonstrated that harnessing local support is a factor in achieving early,
tangible results. Harnessing this local initiative and strengthening existing social resilience should be an
explicit policy objective, alongside building climate resilience. The report makes specific suggestions on this
subject:
"[Urban resilience programmes should] match the selection of technologies and servicing models
with local skills to deliver, install and maintain projects, strengthening existing livelihood portfolios
rather than creating new competing markets. This might require initial 'up-skilling' and training of
trainers, seeking to avoid on-going reliance on outside expertisejlinked to affordability principle
above) and create local employment opportunities. Fg
istering and improving
CW.- SAHARA
KijMAfiianga
irtiariqalore -
Working Paper, April 2014
the capability of existing informal food vendors to refrigerate and store fresh food under conditions
of increasing heat and humidity, while improving education about nutrition and health, rather than
removing informal stalls and forcing people to travel further to large retail chains to access food "32
3.6
Securing additional resources from outside the jurisdiction
Subnational efforts in climate compatible development depend on the ability to mobilise resources. In terms
of public sector funding, it is not enough to have a line for climate change in local municipality budgets. The
entire budget needs to be 'climate-proofed', with climate measures integrated into investment decisions and
service delivery across sectors. Indeed, such cross-sectoral integration is an indicator of deep local political
buy-in.
Prioritisation of limited budgets can be challenging, especially where short-term costs are incurred for
longer-term benefits, which seem less tangible. Decision-makers should take care to ensure that budget
decisions will improve the lives of the poorest and most climate-vulnerable in the municipality. Citizen-led
budgeting, where local people participate in budget decisions, is widespread in countries such as Brazil and,
increasingly, in Africa, and can lead to pro-poor decision-making
Box 7. Ahmedabad, India: Consultation and partnership for heat action plans
In May 2010 the city of Ahmedabad. India, was hit by an extreme heat wave with peak temperatures of 46.8°C, causing
numerous incidents of heat-related illnesses and deaths This sparked action by the local government to protect its
citizens more proactively from extreme climate events. A coalition was established that brought together the municipal
government, academia, public health and environmental groups to tackle heat-induced health threats by developing an
early-warning system and a heat preparedness plan
The coalition collected local data by conducting vulnerability surveys and facilitating focus groups and round table
discussions with both local and international experts and stakeholders The team interviewed hundreds of members
of slum communities and outdoor workers in order to understand citizens' behaviour with regard to heat stress, and to
ensure that the most vulnerable communities were properly informed about the dangers of extreme heat. Public health
and policy experts contributed to research activities by analysing heat wave response plans from around the world
These in-depth, participatory methods helped to reveal the most at-risk sections of society, including the most
vulnerable work force groups, e g. traffic policemen The methods also helped to identify the most effective means
of communicating with hard-to-reach, vulnerable people in informal settlements during periods of extreme heat For
example, the city now uses loud-speaker announcements and graphic posters to warn residents about heat exposure
during dangerous high temperatures By using available resources, including the community's eagerness to participate.
the project team maximised the adoption of recommendations by local officials and other stakeholders
These recommendations are now part of into a Heat Action Plan and training workshops for target groups, to ensure
that the suggested solutions are adopted
Box 8. Chiang Mai, Thailand: Working with local stakeholders to devise options for lowcarbon transportation
Chiang Mai is one of the fastest growing cities in Thailand and serves as an economic and cultural hub for the northern
part of the country. The city has recently experienced more intense socioeconomic stresses due to the city's rapid
growth and expansion - which is regularly exacerbated by an influx of tourists The 'Sustainable Urban Tourism' project
was initiated to overcome the challenges related to unplanned urban development and lack of integrated transport and
land-use planning. It aimed to work towards improved quality of life, environmental sustainability and personal mobility
Through the project, partnerships were established among researchers, local authorities, private companies, NGOs
and local residents, who worked together to design an efficient solution for sustainable urban development A broad
and inclusive stakeholder approach accelerated the project activities by providing stakeholders with access to vital
data and information For example, including tourism service providers such as hotels, restaurants and travel agencies
made it possible to gain easy access to data for the calculation of greenhouse gas emissions. Stakeholders were
involved at every step, from data collection to prioritisation of mitigation options and identification of policy options. The
process led to proposals for a 'green heart' of Chiang Mai. where tourists could use non-motonsed transport such as
bicycle taxis. These could provide 'green jobs' with environmental and economic benefits for city dwellers.
The participatory process led to increased buy-in and support of the resulting proposal among local residents and a
more explicit focus on green jobs than the original proposal.
12
Close to home subnational strategies for climate compatible development
Box 9. Maputo, Mozambique: Initiating public-private-people partnerships for climate
compatible development
In Mozambique's capital, Maputo, a coalition of academia, national government and local communities from one of
the city's neighbourhoods developed a project on participatory urban planning for climate compatible development.
The main goal was to empower citizens to increase the resilience of their neighbourhoods to climate-related impacts.
The project team realised that while municipalities are key actors in developing and implementing climate policy, the
inclusion of local communities helps accelerate this process by tapping into local knowledge and experience. The
rationale of the project was to test the partnership model of participatory planning approaches for climate change.
The Participatory Action Plan Development tool was used to develop institutions for climate change governance
at the local level and to establish channels of communication among stakeholders from government, business and
civil society One of the intermediary results was the establishment of the Climate Planning Committee (CPC), which
supported and strengthened community representation.
The project aimed to identify and mobilise resources and demonstrate how local proposals could be developed and
implemented The CPC identified key actors who could support these proposals or be responsible for delivering some
of the proposed interventions. The CPC met with each of these actors, creating networks and initiating dialogue that
did not exist prior to the project. As a result, the communities involved became aware of the resources that they had
access to, especially human and social capital (local knowledge, time and social relationships), that could help them
realise their vision for a sustainable neighbourhood.
Box 10. Ghana: Using innovative methods to link vulnerable communities to government
planning
The Regional Institute of Population Studies (RIPS) at the University of Ghana is using the Community-based Risk
Screening Tool (CRiSTAL) to assess the impacts of climate change in coastal, urban and peri-urban communities.
They are working with communities to assess risks posed to livelihoods and assets. The project team is also helping
local people better understand these climate-related risks.
The project team started to communicate climate-related risks at the local, district, province and national levels via
evidence-based climate change policy round table discussions. Here, stakeholders were brought together to discuss
the policy implications of the findings According to the project leaders, this increased knowledge-sharing and allowed
stakeholders to better articulate how they want their environment to look.
The role of community opinion leaders has been critical: the project team from the University of Ghana pinpointed
these individuals' roles in mobilising community support and action. The willingness of local people to be involved in
the project, and the support of traditional institutions has also been vital in implementing follow-up measures such as
simple adaptation steps, and ensuring that these are in line with community priorities.
The project team concluded that it is important to ensure local conditions are taken into account and climate-vulnerable
people are consulted when formulating research questions and project objectives This approach leads to better local
ownership and better uptake and scaling up of the research results for development.33
Local budgets are not enough, in many cases. Many localities have suffered from chronic underinvestment
for many years, and arguably, in some cities and districts, most development investment still lies ahead.
A key factor for success is subnational actors' ability to access other sources of funding from outside the
jurisdiction. This includes national government funding (see Section 3.1), but also a number of other potential
sources and mechanisms.34
In the case of the Africa Climate Change Resilience Alliance (ACCRA), some of the most notable successes
emerged when district governments assessed local climate vulnerabilities and budgeted for different
responses. They then found ways to integrate requests for funding into development plans, which were
submitted to the national government. In Rwanda, the government has created a national fund through which
international and domestic climate finance can be managed (see Box 12).
Another key factor is how subnational and national governments work together to access incremental funding
for climate compatible development from international sources. Only in very few cases are international
sources of public funding directed straight to the subnational level (the Global Environment Facility's small
scale funding is one example). Public funding for the subnational level needs to be managed by appointed
national entities.
13
Working Paper. April 2014
At present, the Green Climate Fund is considering its 'modalities’ - that is. its procedures for channelling
funds. There is a live debate on whether subnational entities should be granted direct access to the Fund.
What is clear is that, in order to qualify for funding, cities and subnational municipalities will need a good
climate compatible strategy and investment plans authorised by national governments, together with a robust
system for measuring performance and benefits Cities and subnational areas will need to keep in close
contact with their national counterparts in order to understand how to access resources from the Green
Climate Fund in their country.
The formulation of Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions (NAMAs) under the UNFCCC also provides
an opportunity for the formulation of investment-ready mitigation plans at the subnational level. A current
example is the NAMA for renewable energy, under development in West Nusa Tenggara province of
Indonesia with CDKN support.
Mobilising private funding without the backing of the national government is still proving to be a major chal
lenge for medium-to-small subnational entities. This is reflected in the 2013-2015 Nantes Declaration of May
ors and Subnational Leaders on Climate Change adopted in September 2013 (see Box 11 for selected high
lights). On the plus side, when national leaders place a priority on climate adaptation and mitigation strategies
and plans, and create long-term policy commitments for businesses, this can drive private sector investment.
When subnational governments have some power to set fiscal policies in their jurisdiction, they can take
measures to attract private investment in climate compatible development. Or, put another way, when
subnational governments have the power to set environmental and social regulations in their jurisdictions,
they may therefore have the authority to ensure that infrastructure investments by the private sector are
climate compatible (including being sensitive to the needs of the poorest and most climate-vulnerable
people). It depends on the degree to which such decisions are devolved from the national level.
Box 11. Climate finance highlights from the Nantes Declaration of Mayors and Subnational
Leaders on Climate Change (adopted September 2013)
“We. the Mayors and Subnational leaders of the World, through our partnership in the Local Government Climate
Roadmap 2013-2015 and in coordination with the Global Taskforce for Local and Regional Governments for Post-2015
and Habitat III,
In response to global processes'
... Urge national governments, supranational organisations and intergovernmental bodies to ensure that local and
subnational governments have the capacity and resources to implement local climate mitigation and adaptation
strategies that contribute to national and global efforts and to create enabling structures as well as effective framework
conditions that enhance climate cooperation and complementarity between local and subnational governments,
including City-to-City, City-Region, City-Rural. City-Business-Citizen. Region-Region and multilevel partnerships
In terms of our vision for financing to scale-up local climate action:
... Commit to actively mobilise and prioritise within our own local budgetary schemes the necessary funding required
to implement local low-carbon actions and adaptation measures
and to generate where we can new and innovative
sources of funding that can support our low-carbon plans, low emission development plans, biodiversity action plans.
our integrated sustainability plans, or other smart city development measures, noting that the development and
implementation of these plans can offer a great opportunity for local governments to create local jobs and to respond
to the economic crisis ...
... Urge national governments and multilateral development banks, public financing institutions, private funds,
philanthropic funds and alternative financing mechanisms to increase the allocation of funding to support local climate
action, to enhance access for local and subnational governments to such funding; to support the replication of innovative
local solutions on climate financing; as well as to direct finance away from individual projects towards a holistic and
integrated sustainable transformation to low-carbon, climate-resilient communities, noting that the principle of common
but differentiated responsibilities should be respected in climate finance as well ...
. .. Call upon national governments, to launch specific windows of funding to directly support local climate action and
sustainable urban development within the global finance mechanisms and funds including the Clean Development
Mechanism, the Green Climate Fund, the Adaptation Fund and the Global Environment Facility
.... Invite national governments and intergovernmental bodies to collaborate with the local and subnational governments
as appropriate, in the development, implementation and advancement of existing and new market-based mechanisms,
taking into account innovative experiences such as in Tokyo. California, Quebec or China."35
14
Close to home, subnational strategies for climate compatible development
Box 12. New Rwandan climate and environment fund merges international and domestic
revenues to finance subnational initiatives
Rwanda’s national climate and environment fund, known by its French acronym FONERWA. is intended to be the
primary vehicle through which Rwanda’s climate and environment finance is channelled, disbursed and monitored.
In June 2013, FONERWA received £22.5 million (US$35 million) from Britain's International Climate Fund. The Fund
is an instrument to access international climate finance and streamline existing but previously fragmented domestic
revenue sources. More than 600 applications were received in the first round, most from district governments and other
subnational entities 36
If subnational governments can, for example, lower business tax rates, this can incentivise private sector
investment. Cities such as Cartagena are turning the conversation about climate compatible development
into one about business competitiveness, so that businesses will want to locate there. Other cities have taken
different approaches, for example, setting up city-level carbon trading schemes. The pro-poor element of
such policies is fundamental to the outcome: it is quite possible for subnational governments to back private
sector investments in favour of the rich. By contrast, well-designed schemes can ensure that the climatevulnerable poor will benefit. The newly-initiated pilot programme for ‘Adaptive Neighbourhoods' in Cartagena
is designed with such pro-poor benefits in mind.
3.7
Coordinating policy-making, implementation and delivery across jurisdictions
Successful climate compatible development initiatives at the subnational level are characterised by one or
more types of horizontal cooperation This is perhaps unsurprising, given the cross-cutting nature of climate
impacts and the fact that climate compatible development solutions must be cross-sectoral and multi-scale 37
• Integration across sectors, within the city boundary - Multiple departments with different
responsibilities need to work together to increase an area's climate resilience. This has been clearly
demonstrated in Gorakhpur, where the local action group worked with the district disaster management
authority to coordinate across drainage, roads, housing, health and power supply departments to improve
flood resilience (see Box 3).
• Bridging the formal and informal economy - Informal, unplanned settlements will be a large part
of cities in developing countries for some time. They are a form of urbanisation in their own right, and
often home to the poorest and most climate-vulnerable people. Municipalities need to engage and work
with community-led organisations of informal settlements in order to develop appropriate and workable
responses. But the opportunity is bigger than this. The informal economy is often home to a city's most
innovative and entrepreneurial ideas - which are key to transformative change. Municipalities need to
create and preserve space for these social entrepreneurs in the ways they manage services and govern
economic growth. In Hout Bay, Cape Town, for example, a waste collection social enterprise operates
in synergy with the city's municipal waste contractor. CDKN is currently considering how to work toward
climate compatible development in the context of informal settlements in African cities.38
• Transboundary coordination - Cities and municipalities are part of broader ecosystems and are
affected by drivers of economic, social and demographic change far beyond their borders. In many cases
the opportunities for leveraging climate compatible development are in other jurisdictions. For example,
flood risk in one municipality is directly affected by drainage, waste management, construction and land
degradation due to settlement, agriculture and industry upstream. It is a leap for a municipality to invest
money in another jurisdiction to address these issues, and this kind of action will require transformations
in markets and political systems. The eThekwini municipality in South Africa is considering how to support
improvements to land management practices in the hinterland, because this is a cheaper option than
managing the effects on water quality and flood risk within the city. Other payments for ecosystem services
(PES) schemes are up and running and illustrate this principle. CDKN contributed funding to the start-up of
PES schemes in Bolivia (see Box 13).
4. What measures can accelerate transformative climate compatible
development at scale?
Many of the single, subnational initiatives described in this paper have significant potential to enhance
livelihoods and economic growth while avoiding emissions and building climate resilience. But their individual
achievements are relatively small in the face of the global climate challenge. The Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change (IPCC)'s Fifth Assessment Report39 asserts that there is now 95% scientific certainty -
15
Working Paper. April 2014
At present, the Green Climate Fund is considering its 'modalities' - that is, its procedures for channelling
funds. There is a live debate on whether subnational entities should be granted direct access to the Fund.
What is clear is that, in order to qualify for funding, cities and subnational municipalities will need a good
climate compatible strategy and investment plans authorised by national governments, together with a robust
system for measuring performance and benefits. Cities and subnational areas will need to keep in close
contact with their national counterparts in order to understand how to access resources from the Green
Climate Fund in their country.
The formulation of Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions (NAMAs) under the UNFCCC also provides
an opportunity for the formulation of investment-ready mitigation plans at the subnational level. A current
example is the NAMA for renewable energy, under development in West Nusa Tenggara province of
Indonesia with CDKN support.
Mobilising private funding without the backing of the national government is still proving to be a major chal
lenge for medium-to-small subnational entities. This is reflected in the 2013-2015 Nantes Declaration of May
ors and Subnational Leaders on Climate Change adopted in September 2013 (see Box 11 for selected high
lights). On the plus side, when national leaders place a priority on climate adaptation and mitigation strategies
and plans, and create long-term policy commitments for businesses, this can drive private sector investment.
When subnational governments have some power to set fiscal policies in their jurisdiction, they can take
measures to attract private investment in climate compatible development. Or, put another way, when
subnational governments have the power to set environmental and social regulations in their jurisdictions,
they may therefore have the authority to ensure that infrastructure investments by the private sector are
climate compatible (including being sensitive to the needs of the poorest and most climate-vulnerable
people). It depends on the degree to which such decisions are devolved from the national level.
Box 11. Climate finance highlights from the Nantes Declaration of Mayors and Subnational
Leaders on Climate Change (adopted September 2013)
"We. the Mayors and Subnational leaders of the World, through our partnership in the Local Government Climate
Roadmap 2013-2015 and in coordination with the Global Taskforce for Local and Regional Governments for Post-2015
and Habitat III.
In response to global processes'
... Urge national governments, supranational organisations and intergovernmental bodies to ensure that local and
subnational governments have the capacity and resources to implement local climate mitigation and adaptation
strategies that contribute to national and global efforts and to create enabling structures as well as effective framework
conditions that enhance climate cooperation and complementarity between local and subnational governments.
including City-to-City. City-Region, City-Rural, City-Business-Citizen, Region-Region and multilevel partnerships .
In terms of our vision for financing to scale-up local climate action
... Commit to actively mobilise and prioritise within our own local budgetary schemes the necessary funding required
to implement local low-carbon actions and adaptation measures . and to generate where we can new and innovative
sources of funding that can support our low-carbon plans, low emission development plans, biodiversity action plans,
our integrated sustainability plans, or other smart city development measures, noting that the development and
implementation of these plans can offer a great opportunity for local governments to create local jobs and to respond
to the economic crisis ...
. . Urge national governments and multilateral development banks, public financing institutions, private funds,
philanthropic funds and alternative financing mechanisms to increase the allocation of funding to support local climate
action, to enhance access for local and subnational governments to such funding: to support the replication of innovative
local solutions on climate financing, as well as to direct finance away from individual projects towards a holistic and
integrated sustainable transformation to low-carbon, climate-resilient communities, noting that the principle of common
but differentiated responsibilities should be respected in climate finance as well .
... Call upon national governments, to launch specific windows of funding to directly support local climate action and
sustainable urban development within the global finance mechanisms and funds including the Clean Development
Mechanism, the Green Climate Fund, the Adaptation Fund and the Global Environment Facility ...
.... Invite national governments and intergovernmental bodies to collaborate with the local and subnational governments
as appropriate, in the development, implementation and advancement of existing and new market-based mechanisms,
taking into account innovative experiences such as in Tokyo. California, Quebec or China."35
14
Close to home: subnational strategies for climate compatible development
Box 12. New Rwandan climate and environment fund merges international and domestic
revenues to finance subnational initiatives
Rwanda's national climate and environment fund, known by its French acronym FONERWA. is intended to be the
primary vehicle through which Rwanda's climate and environment finance is channelled, disbursed and monitored.
In June 2013. FONERWA received £22.5 million (US$35 million) from Britain's International Climate Fund. The Fund
is an instrument to access international climate finance and streamline existing but previously fragmented domestic
revenue sources. More than 600 applications were received in the first round, most from district governments and other
subnational entities.36
If subnational governments can, for example, lower business tax rates, this can incentivise private sector
investment. Cities such as Cartagena are turning the conversation about climate compatible development
into one about business competitiveness, so that businesses will want to locate there. Other cities have taken
different approaches, for example, setting up city-level carbon trading schemes. The pro-poor element of
such policies is fundamental to the outcome: it is quite possible for subnational governments to back private
sector investments in favour of the rich. By contrast, well-designed schemes can ensure that the climatevulnerable poor will benefit. The newly-initiated pilot programme for 'Adaptive Neighbourhoods' in Cartagena
is designed with such pro-poor benefits in mind.
3.7
Coordinating policy-making, implementation and delivery across jurisdictions
Successful climate compatible development initiatives at the subnational level are characterised by one or
more types of horizontal cooperation. This is perhaps unsurprising, given the cross-cutting nature of climate
impacts and the fact that climate compatible development solutions must be cross-sectoral and multi-scale.37
• Integration across sectors, within the city boundary - Multiple departments with different
responsibilities need to work together to increase an area’s climate resilience. This has been clearly
demonstrated in Gorakhpur, where the local action group worked with the district disaster management
authority to coordinate across drainage, roads, housing, health and power supply departments to improve
flood resilience (see Box 3).
• Bridging the formal and informal economy - Informal, unplanned settlements will be a large part
of cities in developing countries for some time. They are a form of urbanisation in their own right, and
often home to the poorest and most climate-vulnerable people. Municipalities need to engage and work
with community-led organisations of informal settlements in order to develop appropriate and workable
responses. But the opportunity is bigger than this. The informal economy is often home to a city's most
innovative and entrepreneurial ideas - which are key to transformative change. Municipalities need to
create and preserve space for these social entrepreneurs in the ways they manage services and govern
economic growth. In Hout Bay, Cape Town, for example, a waste collection social enterprise operates
in synergy with the city’s municipal waste contractor. CDKN is currently considering how to work toward
climate compatible development in the context of informal settlements in African cities.38
• Transboundary coordination - Cities and municipalities are part of broader ecosystems and are
affected by drivers of economic, social and demographic change far beyond their borders. In many cases
the opportunities for leveraging climate compatible development are in other jurisdictions. For example,
flood risk in one municipality is directly affected by drainage, waste management, construction and land
degradation due to settlement, agriculture and industry upstream It is a leap for a municipality to invest
money in another jurisdiction to address these issues, and this kind of action will require transformations
in markets and political systems. The eThekwini municipality in South Africa is considering how to support
improvements to land management practices in the hinterland, because this is a cheaper option than
managing the effects on water quality and flood risk within the city. Other payments for ecosystem services
(PES) schemes are up and running and illustrate this principle. CDKN contributed funding to the start-up of
PES schemes in Bolivia (see Box 13).
4. What measures can accelerate transformative climate compatible
development at scale?
Many of the single, subnational initiatives described in this paper have significant potential to enhance
livelihoods and economic growth while avoiding emissions and building climate resilience. But their individual
achievements are relatively small in the face of the global climate challenge. The Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change (IPCC)'s Fifth Assessment Report39 asserts that there is now 95% scientific certainty -
15
Working Paper. April 2014
Box 13. Bolivia: Payments for ecosystem services help to clear the water
In Bolivia, deforestation in upper river basins has caused a host of environmental problems, from soil erosion to
declining water quality. In addition, greenhouse gases are emitted when the timber is cut faster than it can grow back
A project by Rare Conservation and Fundacidn Natura Bolivia, supported by CDKN. has helped landholders from
upstream areas to receive payments for conserving forest lands. Their work as environmental stewards is having
positive impacts on the global climate. Downstream water users in the river basin directly compensate the landholders,
whose conservation efforts upstream improve downstream water quality. These measures are more cost-effective
than investing in post-facto water treatment and increased flood defences
In the increasingly water-stressed Department of Santa Cruz. Bolivia, reciprocal water arrangements (or ARA', as they
are known in Spanish: Acuerdos Reciprocos por Agua) have taken off. ARA are private contracts between members
of water cooperatives and landholders in priority catchment areas. Landholders sign contracts that bind them to strict
rules of land management: they must conserve the forest, avoid livestock practices that pollute the water, and work
to enhance biodiversity. In exchange, they receive in-kind compensation that boosts their incomes and livelihood
prospects.
A three-way contract is signed between the water provider, the municipality concerned and the local NGO Fundacidn
Natura Bolivia. The downstream water provider opens a separate bank account into which revenues from a new
'environmental services' tariff are channelled. The local government purchases beehives, fruit tree seedlings, irrigation
pipes or other development tools, to be given in compensation for upstream forest conservation, and Natura provides
technical support to get the scheme up and running.
Since the first Bolivian ARA was developed in Los Negros, more than 30 municipal governments and water cooperatives
across the Andes have joined the movement More than 40,000 downstream users are now compensating 2,000
upstream families for protecting 70,000 hectares of forested 'water factories'. In the last two years, more than
USS 350,000 worth of local and donor funds have compensated landowners' conservation efforts with barbed wire,
cement, fruit tree seedlings, beehives, beekeeping equipment, plastic piping, water tanks and roofing materials The
ARA schemes are thus unlocking vital resources for upland farmers, who have been increasingly marginalised by their
lack of capital.
If owned by local institutions, these schemes can help steer development towards sustainability. "The ARA model
does not focus on paying the opportunity cost for conservation, which can be very expensive, but instead focuses on
changing social norms,” said Maria Teresa Vargas of Natura Bolivia. “New perceptions about the value of forests for
society can convince upstream landowners to conserve in return for projects that may not match their full opportunity
cost, but which provide them with a livelihood alternative ”
greater certainty than ever before - that human activity is contributing to climate change. Without aggressive
mitigation action, the world could see an average temperature rise of between 2.6°C and 4.8°C by the end of
this century. Such a profound change to the global climate, with deep and unknown effects on ecosystems
and economies, would jeopardise hundreds of millions of lives and could tax human ingenuity beyond its
limits. The implications of the IPCC's findings on the physical science of climate change are that societies
must act expeditiously to build their climate resilience, while aggressively cutting greenhouse gas emissions
(in the case of the high-emitting countries) and where possible avoiding unnecessary emissions (in the case
of the low-emitting ones).
This context makes it all the more important that national governments should embrace ambitious climate
goals, and provide the enabling environment for innovative and appropriate actions at the subnational level.
Successful subnational initiatives should be rapidly scaled out and scaled up
Scaling out is about changing practice in other localities, just as the City of Ahmedabad's Heat Action Plan
(see Box 7) has attracted interest among other Indian municipalities to adopt and adapt elements of this
approach. Scaling out has been defined as bringing "more quality benefits to more people over a wider
geographical area, more equitably, more quickly, and more lastingly”.40
Scaling out can also happen when a critical mass of demand creates market signals. For example, local
authorities may use their combined purchasing power to jointly procure low-carbon and climate-resilient
goods and services in key sectors such as energy, construction materials, telecommunications equipment
and waste collection services. By combining forces and sending one large signal to the market, this drives
innovation and lowers costs at the same time. South Africa is one country that is seeking to achieve this.
Demand-led elements were also important in the early scaling out of solar water heating in Barbados.4'
16
Close to home subnational strategies for climate compatible development
A growing body of literature is identifying the prerequisites for scaling out community-based adaptation
and climate compatible development more generally. These factors are discussed at length elsewhere,
including in a CDKN companion paper.42 In this paper, Gogoi et al. provide evidence of how the following key
components have been pivotal to successful scaling out of community-based adaptation in CDKN-supported
projects:
• Documenting evidence and learning - having a strong monitoring, evaluation and learning framework in
place in order to present compelling evidence of achievement, which makes the case for action elsewhere
• Ensuring the core objective of building adaptive capacity remains - taking care to retain successful
elements of the initial project that emphasised the development of the community's local capacities for
adaptation
• Networks and partnerships as the cornerstone - linking community practitioners with external
organisations, research institutes and businesses (domestic or international) that have the ability to spread
good ideas beyond the original project area
• Finding cost-effective institutional channels and finance mechanisms for scaling out - looking not
only to government schemes and policies as a potential route for scaling out, but also to the private sector,
which may offer even more effective networks and capability.43
In addition to scaling out of individual subnational initiatives, some partnership networks are supporting
innovations that will allow cities and subnational areas to benchmark progress and attract investment.
These initiatives are generating important early experience that could transform emissions profiles, climate
resilience and long-term livelihood prospects in these localities, and create the momentum for broader
changes in policy and practice. One such initiative is the Global Protocol for Community-Scale Greenhouse
Gas Emissions, an initiative of the World Resources Institute, Cities Climate Leadership Group (C40) and
ICLEI. It offers a standard methodology for greenhouse gas reporting for cities.44
Scaling up means creating the right policy, legal and institutional frameworks for tested solutions that have
worked successfully at the subnational level to be adopted at a broader scale. Achieving transformational
change (as defined earlier) is often about expanding subnational pilot initiatives to national or even
international policies or programmes. In some of the CDKN subnational initiatives studied in this learning
programme, success in climate compatible development is measured in emissions avoided, potential
lives and livelihoods saved through more climate-resilient development, and green jobs created. Success
has in some cases been achieved at a small geographic scale, and the immediate opportunity for scaling
up lies in moving from the neighbourhood or district level to the city or province level. Such is the case
in Maputo, Mozambique, where project leaders now view the achievements of participatory climate
compatible development planning in one neighbourhood as a springboard for generating greater interest and
commitment from municipal leaders.
In Colombo, Sri Lanka, positive results from a pilot scheme in urban agriculture and forestry will inform
a provincial adaptation plan. In coastal Ghana, the experiences of assessing climate risk in Ada Foah
municipality are being shared with provincial and national policy-makers to inform adaptation strategies at
those levels. In Ahmedabad, India, a coalition of organisations that developed South Asia's first Heat Health
Action Plan (Box 7) has been contacted by other Indian city governments, which are eager to develop
their own similar plans.45 The Government of Colombia recognises Cartagena as a 'first mover' on coastal
resilience and adaptation. It is now looking to incorporate Cartagena’s lessons into future iterations of its
national adaptation plans. (There is also a degree of ‘scaling out' as other Colombian cities are looking to see
how they can adopt elements of Cartagena's approach directly.)
One of the most important findings from CDKN's evaluation of its overall programmatic impact is that
individual initiatives, however innovative and effective, are rarely successful at scaling out or up unless
this has been built into project design right from the beginning. This is a key message if we are to achieve
transformational change at scale. The CDKN project on carbon and water footprinting in three Andean
cities (La Paz, Bolivia; Lima, Peru; and Quito, Ecuador) provides an example of how this has been done
successfully. In La Paz, the municipal government has committed to achieving direct results, and also to
demonstrating the impact of the project more widely. As a result, success in one neighbourhood is being
used as model for up to 60 similar neighbourhoods. Other South American cities have already contacted
the project partners to find out about their activities and experiences and what is necessary to adopt and
replicate them.
17
Working Paper, April 2014
Box 14. When scaling up depends on funding
Many of the initiatives assessed as part of the CDKN-ICLEI learning programme managed to mobilise significant local
resources in support of climate compatible development. However, when it comes to scaling up, attracting additional
funding may be a critical factor.
For example, the Public-Private-People Partnership for Climate Compatible Development in Maputo. Mozambique
drew on a range of resources beyond public budgets, including human resources and capacity within local communities
The peri-urban agriculture and forestry project in Colombo. Sri Lanka benefitted from local as well as international
funding. In both instances, project leaders felt that significant additional, external funding would be required to sustain
project efforts into the long term and/or to scale up.
5.
Conclusion
In this paper, we have outlined the specific challenges to - and opportunities for - achieving more climate
compatible development in towns, cities, districts and provinces across Africa, Asia and Latin America and
the Caribbean. We have examined how diverse subnational initiatives have tackled their particular challenges
and exploited their many opportunities to achieve progress. In particular, we have noted how successful
subnational initiatives have taken advantage of the flexibility to create knowledge partnerships among
scientists, policy-makers and communities, and initiate participatory processes to mobilise local knowledge,
time and other in-kind resources for implementation.
Pockets of good practice and innovation are not enough. There is an urgent need to scale out and scale up
such successful initiatives rapidly, while preserving the elements that make them locally appropriate and
therefore effective.
The CDKN-ICLEI partnership provides subnational decision-makers and development practitioners with
a diverse network for exchange of knowledge. In our view, such international professional networks are
crucial to catalysing the scaling out of best practices. In this spirit, we would like to invite your views on the
issues identified in this paper, and to facilitate a better understanding of successful strategies and measures
for climate compatible development. Through such exchange and mutual support, we hope to not only
accelerate progress in localities, but also to catalyse the broader transformational change that the world
needs.
Questions for discussion
•
•
•
•
What opportunities and challenges do you see for climate compatible development at the
subnational level?
What types of climate compatible development have you assessed, or been involved with, at
the subnational level? Which of these strategies and measures do you consider to have been
promising or demonstrably successful?
What further issues are critical to the achievement of climate compatible development at the
subnational level? What is missing from this paper?
What are the conditions under which success in one area can be scaled out more widely to
achieve transformational change at scale?
Please share your experiences by emailing: enquiries@cdkn.org with subject line 'Subnational
Working Paper'
Or join the interactive discussion at: http://www.linkedin.com/company/climate-and-developmentknowledge-network
18
Close to home: subnational strategies for climate compatible development
Table 1. Projects involved in the CDKN learning programme
Project - for more information see www.cdkn.org/projects
Location
Sustainable urban tourism through low-carbon initiatives
Chiang Mai, Thailand and Hue, Vietnam
Understanding flood risk and resilience in eastern India
Gorakhpur, India
Ability of local multi-stakeholder action to catalyse shifts in the programme and
Leh and Barmer, India
policy environment towards mainstreaming DRR and CCA
Indian cities project to improve local responses to heat-related health emergencies
Ahmedabad, India
Building climate resilience in Ghana's coastal cities
Ada Foah, Ghana
A Public-Private-People Partnership for Climate Compatible Development in
Maputo, Mozambique
Maputo
Building delivery at scale with partners for resilience
Manila, Philippines
Integrating adaptation to climate change into local planning and sectoral
Cartagena de las Indas, Colombia
management in Cartagena
Analysing vulnerability a multi-dimensional approach from Colombia's upper
Alto Cauca, Colombia
Cauca river basin
Carbon and water footprinting in three Andean cities
La Paz, Bolivia; Quito, Ecuador; and Lima,
Peru
Monitoring impacts of urban and peri-urban agriculture and forestry on climate
change adaptation and mitigation
19
Colombo, Sri Lanka
Working Paper, April 2014
Endnotes
Ellis, K., Cambray, A. and Lemma, A. (2013)
'Drivers and challenges for climate compatible
development’. CDKN Working Paper. London:
CDKN.
2 Mitchell, T. and Maxwell, S. (2010) 'Defining
climate compatible development’. CDKN policy
brief. London: CDKN. (http://cdkn.org/resource/
defining-climate-compatible-development-3/)
3 ICLEI Africa (2013) Local climate solutions
for Africa. 2013 highlights. Cape Town: ICLEI
Africa, (http://locs4africa.iclei.org/files/2013/11/
LOCS2013_CongressReport_20112013s.pdf)
4 GLOBE International (2013) The GLOBE climate
legislation study. Third edition. London: GLOBE
International and CDKN.
5 Here ’transformational change' may be defined
as: "change which catalyses further changes.
enabling either a shift from one state to another
(e.g. from conventional to lower-carbon or
more climate-resilient patterns of development)
or faster change (e.g. speeding progress on
cutting the rate of deforestation)." Smart, M.
(2013) UK International Climate Fund Key
Performance Indicator methodology - ICF
KPI 15 - transformational change. Personal
communication.
6 United Nations (2013) ‘City mayors and regional
leaders discuss at COP19-CMP9’. (http://www.
cop19.gov.pl/latest-news/items/city-mayors-andregional-leaders-discuss-at-cop19cmp9).
7 Anderson, S. (2010) ‘Climate change and
poverty reduction'. CDKN Policy Brief. London:
CDKN.
8 United Nations Development Programme (2007)
Fighting climate change: Human solidarity in a
divided world. New York: UNDP.
9 Climate finance here refers to the common
usage, which is funding for climate adaptation
measures or for activities that specifically reduce
greenhouse gas emissions or that avoid the
greenhouse gas emissions that would have been
emitted, had a conventional development path
been taken. See www.climatefundsupdate.org
for fuller definitions and analysis.
10 ICLEI Africa (2013) Op. cit.
11 Schutz, B. (2012) ‘Too big to flood? Mega-cities
face future of major storm risk'. Environment 360
blog, 17 December, (http://e360.yale.edu/feature/
megacities_face_increasing_risk_as_sea_
levels_rise/2602)
12 Nicholls, R.J., Hanson, S., Herweijer, C..
Patmore, N., Hallegatte, S., Morlot, J.C.,
Chateau, J. and Muir-Wood, R. (2008)
'Ranking port cities with high exposure and
vulnerability to climate extremes: Exposure
estimates’. OECD Environment Working • •
1
20
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
•
26
Papers. No. 1. OECD Publishing, (http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/011766488208).
UNFPA (2007) State of the World Population
2007. New York: UNFPA.
Anat Prag. Cordaid Indonesia, Personal
communication (Mairi Dupar), Partners for
Resilience Learning Conference, The Hague,
25 September 2013.
For example, see DeAngelis, K. (2013) 'Building
resilience to climate change through indigenous
knowledge: The case of Bolivia'. CDKN Inside
Story on Climate Compatible Development.
London: CDKN.
Larsen, A.M. and Ribot, J.C. (eds.) (2004)
‘Democratic decentralization through a
natural resource lens' European Journal of
Development Research 16:1 (1-25).
Adams, P. ‘Embedding resilience in coastal
city planning: The case of Cartagena de las
Indas, Colombia'. CDKN Inside Story on Climate
Compatible Development. London: CDKN.
African Centre for Cities and CDKN (2014,
forthcoming) ‘A framework for working with
informality to build climate resilience in African
cities.' London: CDKN.
Lofthouse. L. and Kenny, A. (2012)
'Mainstreaming climate resilience into
government: The Philippines' Climate Change
Act'. CDKN Inside Story on Climate Compatible
Development. London: CDKN.
Dubbeling, M. (2014, forthcoming) ‘Integrating
urban agriculture and forestry into climate
change action plans: Lessons from Sri Lanka'.
CDKN Inside Story on Climate Compatible
Development. London: CDKN.
Ryan. Daniel (2014) 'Shaping local climate
policies: A review of experience'. CDKN Working
Paper. London: CDKN.
CDKN (no date) Future proofing Indian cities.’
(http://cdkn.org/project/future-proofing-indiancities).
Wajih, S. (2014, forthcoming) 'Integrating climate
change concerns into disaster management
planning: The case of Gorakhpur, India'
CDKN Inside Story on Climate Compatible
Development. London: CDKN.
Ryan, D. (2014) Op. cit.
Dovie D.B.K., Nyamedor, F. and Anwana, E D.
(2014, forthcoming) 'Building coastal resilience
using an ecosystem-based approach: Lessons
from Ghana'. CDKN Inside Story on Climate
Compatible Development. London: CDKN.
Adams, P., Castro, J., Martinez, C. and SierraCorrea, P.C. (2013) ‘Embedding climate
change resilience in coastal city planning: Early
lessons from Cartagena de Indias, Colombia'.
Close to home, subnational strategies for climate compatible development
CDKN Inside Story on Climate Compatible
Development. London: CDKN.
27 Peterson, C., Nowak, A., Jarvis, A., Navarrete,
C., Figueroa, A.. Riano, N. and Vargas, J. (2012)
Analysing vulnerability: A multi-dimensional
approach from Colombia's Upper Cauca
River Basin'. CDKN Inside Story on Climate
Compatible Development. London: CDKN.
28 African Centre for Cities and CDKN (2014,
forthcoming) Op. cit.
29 DeAngelis. K. (2013) Op. cit.
30 Ryan, D. (2014) Op. cit.
31 Dubbeling, M. (2014, forthcoming) 'Integrating
urban agriculture and forestry into climate
change action plans: Lessons from Sri Lanka'.
CDKN Inside Story on Climate Compatible
Development. London: CDKN.
32 African Centre for Cities and CDKN (2014,
forthcoming) Op cit.
33 Dovie D.B.K., Nyamedor, F. and Anwana, E.D.
(2014, forthcoming) 'Building coastal resilience
using an ecosystem-based approach: Lessons
from Ghana'. CDKN Inside Story on Climate
Compatible Development. London: CDKN.
34 The 2009 World Bank report (http://my.hdle.
it/29033994) sets out a number of useful
instruments available at the subnational level.
Infrastructure investment partnerships such as
FMDV (www.fmdv.net) provide another model
For the latest list of options, see
www.climatefinanceoptions.org.
35 Nantes Declaration of Mayors and Subnational
Leaders on Climate Change (2013) World
Mayors Summit on Climate Change, Nantes,
France, 27-28 September, (http://www.iclei.org/
climate-roadmap/advocacy/global-lg-events/
worldmayorssummit/nantes-declaration.html)
36 CDKN (2013) 'Climate and Development
Outlook: Rwanda- Pioneering steps towards
a climate-resilient green economy'. London:
CDKN. (http //cdkn.org/resource/climate-anddevelopment-outlook-edition-eight-september2013/?loclang=en_gb)
37 African Centre for Cities and CDKN (2014,
forthcoming) Op. cit.
African Centre for Cities and CDKN (2014)
ibid, (http://cdkn.org/project/working-withinformality-to-build-climate-resilience-in-africancities/?loclang=en_gb)
39 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(2013) Working Group I: The Physical Science
Basis (September 2013 - Summary for Policy
makers). (https://www.ipcc-wg1.unibe.ch/AR5/
AR5.html)
40 IIRR (2001) 'Going to scale: can we bring
more benefits to more people more quickly?'.
Workshop highlights presented by the CGIARNGO Committee and the Global Forum for
Agricultural Research, with Bundesministerium
fur wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit und
Entwicklung/MISEREOR/Rockefeller
Foundation/lnternational Rice Research Institute/
International Institute of Rural Reconstruction.
New York: International Institute of Rural
Reconstruction, (www.ngoccgiar.clades.org/
mdexO.html)
41 Bugler, W. (2012) ‘Seizing the sunshine:
Barbados' thriving solar water heater industry'.
CDKN Inside Story on Climate Compatible
Development. London: CDKN.
42 Gogoi, E., Dupar, M., Jones, L., McNamara, L.
and Martinez, C. (2014, forthcoming) 'Creating
the enabling environment for scaling out
community-based adaptation'. London: CDKN
43 Dubbeling, M. (2014, forthcoming) 'Integrating
urban agriculture and forestry into climate
change action plans'. CDKN Inside Story on
Climate Compatible Development. London:
CDKN. Also, Gogoi et al. (2014) Op. cit.
44 Greenhouse Gas Protocol (no date) 'Cities
invited to pilot test the global protocol for
community-scale greenhouse gas emissions'.
(http://www.ghgprotocol.org/Cities-lnvited-toPilot-Test-the-Global-Protocol-for-CommunityScale-Greenhouse-Gas-Emissions)
45 Jaiswal, A. et al. (forthcoming, 2014) ‘Addressing
heat-related health risks in urban India:
Ahmedabad's Heat-Health Action Plan'. London:
CDKN.
38
21
About CDKN
The Climate and Development Knowledge Network (CDKN) supports decision-makers in developing countries in
designing and delivering climate compatible development. It does this by combining research, advisory services
and knowledge-sharing in support of locally owned and managed policy processes. CDKN works in partnership with
decision-makers in the public, private and non-governmental sectors nationally, regionally and globally. CDKN is
managed by an alliance of organisations: PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC), Overseas Development Institute (ODI),
Fundacion Futuro Latinoamericano, SouthSouthNorth, LEAD International and LEAD Pakistan, www.cdkn.org
About ODI
The Overseas Development Institute (ODI) is the UK’s leading independent think tank on international development
and humanitarian issues.
About PwC
PwC is the world’s largest professional services advisory firm, with representation in almost every country in the
world. PwC's network of climate change and development professionals and practitioners is working in more than
100 countries, supporting governments, NGOs and the private sector.
About LEAD
Editing, design and layout: Green Ink (wvAv.greenink.co.uk )
LEAD is the world's largest international non-profit organisation focused on inspiring leadership and change for a sustainable
world. LEAD identifies and recruits outstanding leaders from government, business, NGOs and academia and, through a
world class training programme, equips them with the skills for sustainable decision-making and provides them with a global
network of peers to help them address sustainability challenges.
About ICLEI - Local Governments for Sustainability
ICLEI is the world's leading network of cities dedicated to sustainable development. The organisation's membership
comprises almost 1,000 local and regional governments, as well as some of their associations. ICLEI promotes local
action for global sustainability and supports local governments - via advocacy, capacity building and technical advice
- in making their cities more resource-efficient, biodiverse, low-carbon and resilient. ICLEI further helps cities to build
smart infrastructure and to develop an inclusive, green urban economy with the ultimate aim of achieving healthy and
happy communities, www.iclei.org
Funded by.
Climate & Development
Knowledge Network
www.cdkn.org
05)0 pwc
■ICLEI
lead
e: enquiries@cdkn.org
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Loc.il
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Governments
L for Sustainability
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UKaid
D>-.sn
Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the
Netherlands
t: +44 (0) 207 212 4111
This document is an output from a project funded by the UK Department for International Development (DFID) and the Netherlands Directorate-General for International Cooperation
(DGIS) for the benefit of developing countries. However, the views expressed and information contained in it are not necessarily those of or endorsed by DFID or DGIS, who can
accept no responsibility for such views or information or for any reliance placed on them.This publication has been prepared for general guidance on matters of interest only, and
does not constitute professional advice. You should not act upon the information contained in this publication without obtaining specific professional advice, No representation or
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